(ErnmnrMa (Egrlopriita
A Handbook of Religious Information,
with Special Reference to the History,
Doctrine, Work, and Usages
of the Lutheran Church
L. FUERBRINGER, D.D.,
Professor of Biblical Introduction, Interpretation
TH. ENGELDER, D. D.,
Professor of Systematic Theology
P. E. KRETZMANN, Ph.D., D.D.,
Professor of New Testament History and Interpretation
and of Religious Education
Editors - in - Chief
St. Louis, Mo.
CONCORDIA PUBLISHING HOUSE
1927
PRINTED IN THE D. 6. A.
Copyrighted 1927
by
CONCORDIA PUBLISHING HOUSE
St. Louis, Mo.
PREFACE.
The Concordia Cyclopedia , which is herewith presented to the Church, is
a brief, but, at the same time, comprehensive work of general religious infor-
mation, with special reference to the history, doctrine, work, and usages of the
Lutheran Church. In planning and preparing the work, the editors constantly
had in mind the pastors, teachers, and educated laymen of our Church, who
frequently must consult works of reference and who desire brief, but accurate
information according to the standards of the Bible and the Lutheran Con-
fessions. For this reason all articles on matters of doctrine and Christian life
are founded on, and proved from, Scripture and our Confessions, and all other
articles are written from the confessional Lutheran standpoint.
The work was planned in three great divisions: History, Doctrine, and
Church-work , and each of these parts was again subdivided into a number of
sections. The historical division comprises the following sections'. The first
age of the Church (including Archeology), A. D. 100 — 325. The Middle Age,
A. D. 325 — 1500. Luther and the Reformation, A. D. 1500 — 1600. Lutheranism
in Europe, A. D. 1600 — 1925. Lutheranism in America (by far the largest
historical section). Lutheranism in Other Countries (Australia, Africa,
Asia). Reformed Christianity. Romanism Since the Reformation (Council
of Trent; Counter-reformation; Jesuitism; Vatican Council; Oxford Move-
ment, etc.). The doctrinal division contains the following sections: The
Teachings of the Bible and the Lutheran Church (including Apologetics).
Distinctive Doctrines and Development of the Reformed Churches. Distinc-
tive Doctrines and Usages of the Roman Catholic Church. Doctrines of Non-
Christian Religious Societies (Mormonism, Christian Science, Lodges, etc.).
To the secret societies considerable space was given. Christian Ethics (in-
cluding such topics as Dance, Theater, Race Suicide, Prohibition, etc.).
Church-work is divided into the following sections: Christian Education.
Missions and Missionary History. Liturgies and Ecclesiastical Art. Hym-
nology and Church Music. Organized Church-work (Bible Societies,
Orphanages, Hospitals, Home-finding Societies, the various Leagues, Brother-
hoods, etc.). Church Finances. Publicity. A distinctive feature is the
amount of space given to the missionary endeavors of the Church and the
inclusion of the names of the poets whose hymns are contained in the English
and German hymn-books of the Missouri Synod. Each section was assigned
to one of our associate editors, the following professors and pastors serving
as such: F. Brand, W. Dallmann, J. H. C. Fritz, Th. Graebner, Ad. Haentz-
schel, Ed. Koehler, Karl Kretzmann, Paul E. Kretzmann, G. W. Mueller, J. T.
Mueller, H. C. F. Otte, Th. H. Schroedel, F. C. Verwiebe.
A few extra articles were written by Pastors J. S. Bradac, Carl J. A. Hoff-
mann, J. A. Moldstad, H. K. Moussa, and Professors W. H. Behrens and
F. Wenger. At the beginning of the undertaking, in March, 1920, the Edito-
rial Board consisted of Th. Engelder, L. Fuerbringer, and Th. Graebner. When
Professor Graebner, the first one to suggest and outline the work, felt com-
pelled to resign in December, 1923, Professor Kretzmann took his place. He,
as well as Professor Engelder, also contributed a number of articles which,
IV
PREFACE.
for various reasons, had not been furnished by others. The Editors-in-Chief
pianned the whole work, selected the topics and articles which were to be
included in every section, and fixed the number of words for every article.
Each editor exercised the general oversight over that one of the three chief
divisions which was assigned to him: Engelder: History; Fuerbringer:
Church- work; (Graebner) Kretzmann: Doctrine. They furthermore kept in
touch with the Associate Editors and read, revised, and, whenever necessary,
condensed their articles. The final wording was fixed in' joint meetings of the
editors, who also conjointly read the final proof. Professor Kretzmann saw
the work through the press.
Opinions will always differ which men, which events, which facts and
topics should be mentioned and which might be omitted in such a work of
reference. The editors spent considerable time on this matter and tried to
make the work as comprehensive as was possible under the circumstances.
The space had to be limited in order not to produce too large a book, which
would sell at too high a price. Undoubtedly some omissions will be found,
and some mistakes may have crept in, although the editors tried to have every
detail correct. Any suggestions and corrections will be gratefully received
by them.
In ■ closing, they may be permitted to say that as far as they know, no
other work covers the specific field of our Concordia Cyclopedia : to give brief,
but accurate religious information on such a wide range of subjects to the
pastor and layman of the American Lutheran Church. Even a cursory exam-
ination will bear out this statement. Our Associate Editors deserve our
thanks for their faithful and conscientious work, and our Publishers deserve
our thanks for their unflagging interest in an undertaking in the production
of which great difficulties had to be overcome and quite a number of dis-
appointments were experienced. In order to save space and avoid repetitions,
many cross-references have been given, which undoubtedly will prove helpful
to those who use the work. An explanation of abbreviations will be found
on the following page.
Originally the Editors-in-Chief had intended to add an appendix, giving
in brief form the biographical data of all pastors and teachers of the Missouri
Synod. Such a list was compiled at our request by Pastor E. Eckhardt. We
finally decided to omit this appendix, one of the chief reasons being its in-
completeness, for which, however, Pastor Eckhardt is in no wise responsible.
We hope that our efforts to have it completed will be successful and that it
may be printed later in some other form. For this reason some names of
living theologians for which one might look are referred to as given in the
roster at the end of the book, while the names of our prominent laymen are
to be found in the body of the Cyclopedia, The roster at the end includes
the names of the officials of the Missouri Synod and the presiding officers of
its Districts and of all professors in its institutions as of December 31, 1926.
May the Lord of the Church, in whose honor the work was undertaken
and completed, bless it as it is going out into the world to find an entrance
into many a Christian home ! L. Fuerbringer.
Concordia Theological Seminary, St. Louis, Mo.,
March 1, 1927.
International System of Initials for Missionary Societies.
(Principal Societies.)
ABCFM
U. S. A.
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.
ABF
U. S. A.
American Baptist Foreign Mission Society.
ABS
U. S. A.
American Bible Society.
ATS
U. S. A.
American Tract Society.
BFBS
England
British and Foreign Bible Society.
CMS
England
Church Missionary Society for Africa and the East.
CIM
International
China Inland Mission.
ELMO
U. S. A.
Board of Foreign Missions of the Ev. Luth. Synod of Mis-
souri, Ohio, and Other States.
FCCA
U. S. A.
Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America.
FMCNA
U. S. A.
Foreign Missions Conference of North America.
LMM
U.S. A.
Layman’s Missionary Movement of the United States and
Canada.
SPCK
England
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
SPG
England
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign
Parts.
SVM
U. S. A.
Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions.
WCEU
U. S. A.
World’s Christian Endeavor Union.
WCTU
International
World’s Woman’s Christian Temperance Union.
Abbreviations Used in the Concordia Cyclopedia
A. 1). = Anno Domini, year of the Lord;
after Christ.
b. = born.
B. C. = before Christ,
ca. = circa,, about,
can. = canon.
cf. = confer, compare.
Cone. Trigl. — Concordia Triglotta.
Cp. = compare.
d. = died.
ed. = edited (by) .
e. g. — exempli gratia, for example.
f . and ff. ( plural ) = and the following.
ibid. — ibidem, at the same place.
i. e.—id est, that is.
L. c. = Loco citato, at the place quoted.
M. E. = Mechanical Engineer,
n. = near.
N. B. — Nota bene, note well.
nee = born ( French ) ; maiden name.
q. v. and qq. v. = quern or quod (sing.)
vide and quos or quae (pi.) vide, whom
or which see.
R. C. = Roman Catholic.
R. V. = Revised Version of English Bible.
Sess. = Session.
v. and vv. (plural) = verse, verses.
viz. = videlicet, that is.
Abbess. In many monastic commu-
nities of women, the superior, whose po-
sition corresponds to that of an abbot,
except that she has no spiritual juris-
diction whatever.
Abbey. A monastic house governed
by an abbot or an abbess. In the Middle
Ages the living-quarters of the monastics
were usually built in connection with the
abbey church.
Abbot (from Syrian abba, father).
The superior in certain communities of
monks, especially Benedictines. Abbots
must be priests and are usually elected
for life by the members of the commu-
nity. They are exempt from the juris-
diction of the bishop, administer the
property of their abbey, maintain disci-
pline, absolve, and, in certain cases, dis-
pense. Some abbots, in the Middle Ages,
held high rank and wielded great power.
Abbot, Ezra, American Biblical
scholar; Unitarian; b. 1819, Jackson,
Me.; d. 1884, Cambridge, Mass. Since
1872 professor, New Testament Criticism
and Interpretation, Harvard. Noted tex-
tual critic. Member, American New Tes-
tament Revision Committee.
Abbott, Lyman. Congregationalist
clergyman and writer, b. Roxbury, Mass.,
1835, d. New York, 1922; held pastor-
ate, among others, at Plymouth Church,
Brooklyn, editor of the Outlook, wrote
various exegetieal and practical treatises
and books, all with marked liberal ten-
dency.
Abdul Baha. See Bahais.
Abelard. Monastic or historical name
of Pierre de Palais, notable scholastic,
b. 1079, d. near Chalon-sur-SaOne, 1142.
Studied philosophy under various teach-
ers and began to lecture, first at Melun
and Corbeil, then at Paris; studied the-
ology with Anselm of Laon, then returned
to Paris; was secretly married to He-
loise, who subsequently entered a nun-
nery. Abelard entered the Benedictine
Abbey of St. Denis at Paris; views ex-
pressed in his writings (Sic et Non) at-
tacked as heretical, was condemned to
silence, wrote an apology, died soon after,
broken by sufferings and misfortunes.
See also Education.
Abgar. See Edessa.
Concordia Cyclopedia
Ablution. Water and wine with
which Roman priests wash their fingers
after Communion to preserve particles
that may adhere to them. The priests
drink the ablution.
Abraham a Sancta Clara. Monastic
name of German preacher Ulrich Me-
gerle; b. Kreenheinstetten, Baden, 1644;
d. Vienna, 1709; educated by Jesuits and
Benedictines; held high positions in
order of barefooted Augustinians; a for-
cible preacher, appealing to popular
fancy; among his writings Auf, a uf, ihr
Christen (against Turks) , Judas der Erz-
schelm (an imaginary autobiography),
Grammatica Religiosa ( compend of moral
theology) .
Abrahamson, Dr. L. G. For many
years editor of Augustana, b. 1856 in
Sweden, pastor in Altona and Chicago,
1880 — 1909, author of three volumes of
sermons and (with C. A. Swensson) of
Jubel-Album.
Abrenunciation. The formal repu-
diation or utter renunciation of the devil
and all his works and all his pomp, as
practised in the Church since ancient
times in connection with the vow of bap-
tism.
Absolution, Doctrine of. Literally,
absolution signifies the act of loosening
or setting free, the remission of sin and
of the penalty of sin. It is distinctly
stated in Scriptures: “Verily I say unto
you, Whatsoever ye shall bind on earth
shall be hound in heaven; and whatso-
ever ye shall loose on earth shall be
loosed in heaven.” Matt. 18, 18. And
again: “Whosesoever sins ye remit, they
are remitted unto them, and whosesoever
sins ye retain, they are retained.” John
20, 23. Another passage which comes
into consideration here is Matt. 9, 8 :
“But when the multitudes saw it, they
marveled and glorified God, which had
given such power unto men.” It is clear
from these passages that absolution is
not merely a declaration of the grace of
God in Christ Jesus, but an actual im-
parting of the remission of sins to all
those who repent of their sins and be-
lieve the Gospel. It is not only the
promise of the forgiveness of sins, but it
is the voice of the reconciled God actu-
ally giving assurance of the state of jus-
1
Absolution
2
Absolution
tification through the merits of Jesus
Christ; for He has been set forth by
God to be a propitiation through faith
in His blood, to declare His righteous-
ness for the remission of sins that are
past, through the forbearance of God,
that He might be just and the Justifier
of him which believeth in Jesus, ltom. 3,
25. 26. Absolution is rightly described
and defined in the Small Catechism as
the peculiar church power which Christ
has given to His Church on earth, to for-
give the sins of the penitent sinners unto
them. It is the application to the indi-
vidual of the divine promise in Christ,
with the full assurance of the forgive-
ness of his sins. Its distinguishing char-
acteristic is this individual application
of the promise, for in this respect the
pronouncing of the absolution differs
from the general announcement of the
grace of God to the congregation as a
whole. Not, indeed, as though it may
be regarded as a Sacrament, — for the
sealing of the forgiveness of sins by an
external, earthly element is lacking, —
but that it is the very heart and soul of
both Sacraments. It is this feature that
makes absolution an act of the highest
comfort, that the individual soul receives
the assurance of the Gospel applied to it
directly, so that the formula, “Thy sins
be forgiven thee,” works a certainty of
faith, which relies for its own person
upon the Gospel promise and thus is
sure of salvation through the merits of
Christ.
These points are clearly brought out
in the Lutheran Confessions. We read
in the Smalcald Articles, Art. VI, “Of
the Keys” : “The keys are an office and
power given by Christ to the Church for
binding and loosing sin, not only the
gross and well-known sins, but also the
subtle, hidden, which are known only to
God.” ( Gone. Trigl., 493. ) In the Apol-
ogy of the Augsburg Confession, Art.
XII : “The power of the keys adminis-
ters and presents the Gospel through ab-
solution, which proclaims ptaee to men
and is the true voice of the Gospel. . . .
For when the Gospel is heard, and the
absolution, i. e., the promise of divine
grace, is heard, the donscience is encour-
aged and receives consolation. And be-
cause God truly quickens through the
Word, the keys truly remit sins before
God; here on earth sins are truly can-
celed in such manner that they are can-
celed also before God in heaven, accord-
ing to Luke 10, 16: ‘He that heareth you
heareth Me.’” (L.c., 261.) In the Apol-
ogy of the Augsburg Confession, Art. XI :
“It is well known that we have so eluci-
dated and extolled that we have preached,
written, and taught, in a manner so
Christian, correct, and pure, the benefit
of absolution and the power of the keys
that many distressed consciences have
derived consolation from our doctrine;
after they heard that it is the command
of God, nay, rather the very voice of the
Gospel, that we should believe the abso-
lution and regard it as certain that the
remission of sins is freely granted us for
Christ’s sake; and that we should be-
lieve that by this faith we are truly
reconciled to God, as though we heard
a voice from heaven.” (L. c., 249.)
Again, in the Apology, Art. VI : “For we
also retain confession, especially on ac-
count of the absolution, as being the
Word of God which, by divine authority,
the power of the keys pronounces upon
individuals.” (L.c., 281.) In short, the
words of the Small Catechism summarize
the doctrine : “Confession embraces two
parts : the one is, that we confess our
sins; the other, that we receive absolu-
tion, or forgiveness, from the confessor,
as from God Himself, and in no wise
doubt, but firmly believe, that our sins
are thereby forgiven before God in
heaven.”
The power of absolution is given to all
Christians and may be exercised by any
one of them, but within the organization
of the Christian congregation, and in the
name of all, it is exercised by the called
servant of the congregation.
Absolution (Liturgical). The term
is used in the Lutheran Church in a two-
fold sense. In the wider sense it refers
to the so-called General Absolution which
many church orders of the 16th century
included in the regular service on Sun-
day morning, the pastor being required
to read a general confession of sins after
the sermon, followed by an absolution to
the entire congregation. The inappro-
priateness of this custom was urged for
several reasons, and therefore the more
logical orders placed the General Abso-
lution at the beginning of worship, where
it was also placed by the Common Ser-
vice. It is a declaration of the grace of
God to repentant sinners. In a more re-
stricted sense the term absolution refers
to the public declaration of God’s grace
and mercy following the general confes-
sion in the special preparatory service
before the celebration of the Holy Com-
munion. The communicants, having had
the Word of God applied to themselves
in admonition and promise, make public
confession of their sins, state their wil-
lingness henceforth to amend their sin-
ful lives, and are thereupon given the
assurance of the grace of God in the
simple and stately words of the formula
Absolution
3
Ai'ailemtc Degrees
of absolution. It is immaterial whether
this proclamation be termed “Declara-
tion of Grace” or “Absolution.” In
either case the forgiveness of sins de-
clared in the Gospel is actually trans-
mitted to all believers.
Absolution, Roman Catholic Doctrine.
1. Absolution from sin. The Roman
Church teaches that only a priest can
absolve. “No one is admitted into
heaven if the gates are not opened by
the priests, into whose charge the Lord
has given the keys.” ( Catechismus Ro-
manus, II, 5. 43.) A distinction is made
between the power to absolve, which is
conferred on the priest by ordination,
and jurisdiction, which authorizes the
priest to exercise this absolving power
toward certain persons, though not for
all sins ( see Reserved Cases ) . Jurisdic-
tion is ordinarily conferred by the bishop,
and absolution given to a person over
whom the priest has no jurisdiction is
invalid, except that in danger of death
any priest has jurisdiction. The neces-
sity for jurisdiction follows from the
teaching that the priest, in confession,
acts as a judge of the self-accused crimi-
nal who comes to him. In this judicial
capacity he acts also when, after hearing
the case, he pronounces absolution and
assesses works of satisfaction on the
penitent. The Roman Ritual prescribes
the following form of absolution: “I ab-
solve thee from thy sins in the name of
the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Ghost.” The precatory form of ab-
solution, such as, “May Jesus Christ ab-
solve thee,” etc., which was used in the
Church during the first thousand years
after Christ, is no longer permitted. Ab-
solution, to be valid, must be uttered by
the priest in the presence of the person
absolved and cannot be given by letter
or messenger. It is to be noted that, ac-
cording to Roman doctrine, absolution is
intended to be only partial and to ab-
solve only from eternal punishment.
Even after absolution the penitent is sup-
posed to remain subject to temporal pun-
ishments for his sin at the hands of God.
To escape these punishments, he must do
the works of satisfaction enjoined by the
priest, earn indulgences, etc. — 2. Abso-
lution from church penalties (excommu-
nication, suspension, interdict) may be
given either in the confessional or, apart
from the so-called Sacrament of Penance,
by any cleric having jurisdiction. The
person absolved need not be present, or
contrite, or even living.
Abyssinia. Early religious history
(see Abyssinia, missions) shrouded in
mystery of tradition, but fairly certain
since Frumentius, at end of fourth cen- •
tury. A Christian island in a sea of Mo-
hammedanism, its archbishop being con-
secrated by the Patriarch of Alexandria
and bearing the title Abuna, father.
Abyssinian Christianity is strongly de-
cadent, partly due to the prevalence of
Jewish customs ( circumcision, abstaining
from certain foods as unclean, the obser-
vance of Saturday as well as Sunday ) ,
partly on account of Monophysitism
(q.v.). The language of the Abyssinian
Church is Geez, in which church services
are conducted, but the language of the
people is Amharic, and in this tongue a
translation of the Bible has been pre-
pared. The people have consistently op-
posed all attempts at converting them,
whether made by Roman Catholics or by
Protestants. In 1896 Italy tried to con-
quer the country of Abyssinia, but failed,
King Menelik’s victory over the invaders
giving him great prestige. Up till now,
also under the present ruler, Ras Taf-
fari, Abyssinia has successfully with-
stood the attempts of Islam to gain the
country, and the growing acquaintance
with the Bible seems to indicate further
safety for Christianity.
Abyssinia — Ethiopia (missions in).
A kingdom in East Africa. Population
about 8,000,000, chiefly of Semitic Abys-
sinians, Somali Negroes, and Felashas of
Jewish faith. Has Coptic form of Chris-
tianity. Unsuccessful attempts by Jesuits
to attach the Abyssinian Church to Rome
in 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. Peter
Heiling, of Luebeck, essayed missionary
work in 1834. Translated New Testa-
ment into the Amharic. In 1830 the
Church Mission Society sent Samuel Go-
bat and others, who were expelled after
ten years of missionary effort. Later
missionary attempts were made by Spitt-
ler (Chrischona) 1856; Dr. Stern (1860),
sent by the London Jews’ Society; the
American United Presbyterians ( 1861 ) ;
the Swedish Evangeliska Fosterlands
Stiftelsen (1861) in Eritrea.
Academic Degrees are the official
recognition by a university that a cer-
tain grade has been attained in a branch
of learning. The practise dates back to
the early history of the university.
Great changes have taken place since,
and there is at present no uniformity as
to requirements, studies, and titles. The
tendency has been, especially in America,
to increase the number of titles. Since
1861 more than fifty different degrees
are conferred. The usual requirement
for the bachelor’s degree (A. B.) is a
four-year course, accompanied with nec-
essary examinations. The master’s de-
gree (A. M.) is conferred after one year
of specializing in a definite field, exami-
Academies
4
Act of Toleration
nations, and, in most cases, a thesis.
For the higher degree of doctor (D.) two
or three years’ study and the presenta-
tion of an original piece of research work
is required. Most faculties have the de-
gree of bachelor, master, and doctor. De-
grees are often bestowed honoris causa.
The title “dean” is not an academic de-
gree, but denotes an office; as, of an as-
sistant to a Roman Catholic bishop, of
a college officer, member of the faculty,
who has charge of the local and inter-
nal executive affairs; also of the head
of a department, theological, medical, or
law, connected with a college; of a min-
ister who is the chief officer of a cathe-
dral or of a collegiate church.
Academies. The designation “acad-
emy” was first applied to a pleasure-
ground near Athens, since its shady
walks were a favorite resort for Plato,
who lectured here to his pupils. Cicero
gave the name to his gymnasium at his
villa near Tusculum. From this fact
the usage of the word to apply to insti-
tutions of learning was derived, not so
much during the Middle Ages as after
the revival of classical studies. The
word now has a double significance. It
was restricted to special schools, such as
academies of mining, of commerce, of
forestry, of fine arts, and especially of
music, likewise to institutions for mili-
tary training. Thus the special use of
the word “academy” came to designate
associations of learned men for the ad-
vancement of specific sciences and arts.
Such academies have been established
particularly in European countries, e. g.,
in France, although America also has a
number of such societies. — In a more
restricted sense the word “academy” is
now applied to higher institutions of
learning of about the rank of high
schools, but with entrance requirements
and courses offering a greater latitude
and the organization less definitely form-
ing a link between the grade school and
the university or college. In the Lu-
theran Church there are about one hun-
dred academies, some of which are organ-
ically connected with colleges or Bible
training-schools, while others are inde-
pendent in their organization. To the
former class belong such schools as the
Gettysburg Academy, the Allentown Pre-
paratory School of Muhlenberg College,
the Wittenberg College Academy, Upsala
College Academy, and the high school de-
partment of the institutions which offer
pretheological courses. To the latter
class belong such institutions as the Col-
legiate Institute of Mount Pleasant,
N. C., Summerland College of Leesville,
S. C., Hebron Academy of Hebron, Nebr.,
St. John’s Academy of Petersburg, W.Va.,
Martin Luther Academy of Sterling,
Nebr., North Star College of Warren,
Minn., Luther College of Walioo, Nebr.,
Luther Academy of Albert Lea, Minn.,
Luther Institute of Chicago, 111., Lu-
theran High School of Deshler, Nebr.,
Luther Institute of Fort Wayne, Ind.,
and others.
Accentus. The individual chanting of
the service by the officiating priest, found
chiefly in the Roman Church, seven ac-
cents being distinguished in liturgiology,
namely, medius, gravis, moderatus, acu-
tus, interrogativus, immutabilis, and
fmalis.
Acceptilation. A theological term
first applied in the Middle Ages to de-
note the acceptance by God of an atone-
ment, not because it is in itself an equiv-
alent, but because God determines to
accept it as such.
Accommodation, Jesuit Doctrine of.
A long and bitter dispute, the Accommo-
dation Controversy, was waged between
Dominicans and Jesuits during the 17th
and 18th centuries regarding the so-
called Chinese Rites. The Jesuits had
permitted Chinese converts to continue
ancestor-worship, to bring offerings to
Confucius, and to call God Tien (Sky,
Heaven), claiming that these were harm-
less accommodations to native customs.
The Dominicans protested. Similar ques-
tions arose concerning the Malabar Rites
in India. Rome decided against the Jes-
uits, though the decision entailed heavy
losses in the mission-fields. A similar
doctrine of accommodation was found in
the Protestant Church in the period of
Rationalism.
Achenbach, Wilhelm, b. in Darm-
stadt, Hessen, October 6, 1831, graduate
of Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, or-
dained and installed as pastor in Grand
Rapids, Mich., 1859; professor at Fort
Wayne 1 803 ( Konrektor) ; pastor at
Venedy, III. (1871), and St. Louis (Ca-
rondelet), Mo. (1883); d. February 24,
1899.
Acolyte. A member of the highest of
the four minor orders of the Roman
Church, who supplies water and wine
and carries lights at the Mass.
Acosmism. See Pantheism.
Acoustics. That branch of physics
which concerns the phenomena and laws
of sound, especially as applied to an
auditorium with respect to the clear con-
veyance of the voice in singing and
speaking.
Act of Toleration. An act passed by
the English Parliament under the reign
Acta M iirl y rci in
5
Adultery
of William and Mary, May 24, 1689, to
relieve the legal disabilities of Protes-
tant dissenters. Primarily it restricted
the application of laws against non-con-
formity passed in the reigns of Elizabeth,
James 1, Charles I, and Charles II. Prot-
estant dissenters, upon taking the oaths
of allegiance and supremacy, were not to
be subject to legal action for attending
•‘conventicles.” Dissenting ministers who
took the oath were exempt from jury
duties and from holding parochial offices.
Quakers might make affirmation of loy-
alty, but papists, and those who denied
the doctrine of the Trinity, were excepted
from the benefits of the Act. The wor-
ship of dissenters was protected under
the Act, which imposed penalties upon
those who should “disturb or disquiet”
such worship.
Acta Martyrum and Acta Sanctorum.
Collections of bibliographies of holy per-
sons, especially of such as suffered mar-
tyrdom, those of saints referring to such
persons as were canonized on account of
their alleged pious and pure lives. There
is a number of genuine stories, such as
those of Perpetua, Felicitas, and Cyprian,
but many are not authentic and have an
essentially legendary character. Many
of the names of both groups are found in
the Calendar of the Roman Church.
Acta Sanctorum. See Acta Martyrum.
Addams, Jane. American social set-
tlement worker; b. 1860, Cedarville, 111.
Together with Ellen Gates Starr estab-
lished Hull House in Chicago, 1889, lead-
ing social settlement in America. Known
also as lecturer and writer on subjects of
social and political reform. Wrote The
Spirit of Youth and the City Streets,
1909; Twenty Years at Hull House,
1910.
Addison, Joseph, 1672 — 1719. Edu-
cated at Oxford, gave himself to the
study of law and politics, and held some
very important posts, such as Chief Sec-
retary for Ireland; the authorship of
hymns ascribed to him has been disputed,
but ably vindicated in recent years;
among his hymns : “When All Thy Mer-
cies, 0 My God”; “The Lord My Pasture
Shall Prepare.”
Adelberg, R., b. 1835, d. 1911, educa-
ted at Hartwick Seminary; pastor at
Albany and vice-president of New York
Ministerium, 1859 ; joined Wisconsin
Synod, 1869; pastor at Watertown and
Milwaukee; synodical treasurer, editor
Cfemeindeblatt, assistant professor at
seminary.
Adeste, Pideles. Christmas - hymn
whose authorship has been ascribed to
Bonaventura, also to Bishop Borderies,
since it is apparently of seventeenth or
eighteenth century origin; translation:
“Come Hither, Ye Faithful,” credited to
Charles Porterfield Krauth.
Adiaphoristic Controversy, caused
by the Augsburg Interim, forced on the
prostrate Lutherans in 1548 by the vic-
torious Kaiser, which conceded the cup
and clerical marriage, but demanded
the restoration of the Mass, the seven
sacraments, the authority of the Pope
and bishops, etc., till matters might be
finally adjusted. Melanchthon and
others in the Leipzig Interim submitted
and said these Romish ceremonies might
be observed as matters indifferent in
themselves. Professor Flacius, of Wit-
tenberg, only twenty-eight, at the risk
of losing his position, attacked the In-
terim, seconded by Wigand, Gallus,
Brenz, and others. They held it wrong
to observe even indifferent ceremonies
when a false impression is thereby cre-
ated. “Nothing is an adiaphoron when
confession and offense are involved.”
The Passau Treaty of 1552 and the
Augsburg Religious Peace of 1555 re-
moved the cause; yet the controversy
went on because the Adiaphorists con-
tinued to defend their position. Art. X
of the Formula of Concord settled the
controversy in the sense of Flacius.
Adler, Felix. See Ethical Culture.
Adonai Shomo Community. See
Communistic Societies.
Adoptionist Controversy. A heret-
ical, Nestorian view according to which
Jesus Christ is the Son of God by adop-
tion only, according to the human na-
ture. Traces found in early history of
Church, but especially strong in seventh
and eighth centuries, the most promi-
nent exponent being Bishop Felix of
Urgel in the Pyrenees. On the ortho-
dox side Alcuin wrote a controversial
treatise; two separate encyclicals of
bishops, Frankish and German, con-
demned Adoptionism. The controversy
once more became strong in the twelfth
century, with Eberhard of Bamberg, who
accused the orthodox teachers of Euty-
chianism (q.v.), for in the heat of the
controversy some statements approached
that view. The doctrine that the man
Jesus Christ is the Son of God, not
through adoption, but through the per-
sonal union, afterward fully established
against error.
Adultery. The illicit sexual inter-
course between a man and a woman,
either of whom is married to another.
Under the ancient ecclesiastical law it
was immaterial which party was mar-
ried, the man or the woman, or whether
Advent Christian Church
6
Advent Christian Church
both were married and both were guilty.
An essential factor of the sin is the
meeting of wills on both sides, even
though this be due to persuasion, Deut.
22, 22; for where this element is absent,
it is a case of- humbling or forcing, Ezek.
22, 11 ; Deut. 22, 24; 2 Sam. 13, 12. The
sin of adultery is condemned in the
strongest terms throughout the Bible;
it was punished with death in the Old
Testament, Deut. 22, 22; Lev. 20, 10, and
in the New Testament we And it listed
with the open sins of the flesh, Gal. 6, 19.
It is clear that adultery dissolves and
destroys the marital union, for it is the
extreme form of desertion and a delib-
erate setting aside of the faithfulness
which is an essential feature of holy
wedlock according to God’s institution,
Gen. 2, 24, whence it is but natural that
the Lord Jesus names this sin as the one
which will at once excuse a person for
putting away his spouse. Matt. 19, 9. If
both parties to a marriage become guilty
of adultery, the guilt on either side
equalizes the transgression, and neither
party is entitled to a divorce. The same
thing holds true in the case of conniv-
ance or collusion, also in instances of
condonation, if the parties live together
subsequently with full knowledge of the
adultery on the part of the one who is
innocent. Such condonation may be the
result of Christian forgiveness; for the
Lord does not command a divorce on ac-
count of adultery, but merely grants it.
Advent Christian Church.* The or-
ganization under this name dates from
1961. Disappointed at the passing of the
date (1844) fixed for the second advent
of Christ, Jonathan Cummings began
* Editor's Note. — Since the various or-
ganizations which are directly or indirectly
connected with the Church, or which have
any bearing on the Church and its work, in
the course of time undergo continual
changes, and since such organizations from
time to time cease to exist or new ones are
organized, we have not attempted to give a
complete list of such organizations nor a de-
tailed account of such as we have included
in this work. In reference to such organiza-
tions a book of this kind cannot be up to
date, but the annual publication of a special
year-book, such as the Year-book of the
Churches (edited by E. O. Watson and pub-
lished by J. E. Stohlmann, 129 Park Row,
New York City), is a necessity and ought to
be in the hands of such as have occasion to
inquire into the many and varied activities
of the Church at large or of any organiza-
tions whose work has a direct or indirect
bearing upon that of the Church. For the
Lutheran Church at large much valuable de-
tailed information is given in the Lutheran
World Almanac , published by the National
Lutheran Council. For the various Lu-
theran church-bodies their own official pub-
lications ought to be consulted, as the Lu-
theran Annual and the Statistical Year-book
published by the Missouri Synod,
to teach that the 1,335 days of Daniel
(Dan. 12, 12) would end in 1854, when
the resurrection would occur. When
1854 also passed, they frankly admitted
their mistake as to the date of the ad-
vent, and it was hoped that they would
rejoin the original body. However, by
this time a well-marked difference of
opinion had developed among Adventists
with reference to tlie immortality of the
soul. The followers of Mr. Cummings
had for the most part accepted the doc-
trine that man is by nature wholly mor-
tal and therefore unconscious in death,
immortality not being inherent in man-
kind, but the gift of God to be bestowed
in the resurrection on those who have
been true followers of Christ. The main
body of Adventists, on the other hand,
accepted, in general, the doctrine of the
conscious state of the dead and the eter-
nal suffering of the wicked. Owing
largely to the difference which they re-
garded as vital, the followers of Mr. Cum-
mings did not unite, with the general con-
ference held at Boston, June 5, 1855, but
held a conference of their own on the
same day. From that time on the sepa-
ration between the two bodies was defi-
nitely recognized. Those who had sepa-
rated from the main body organized the
Advent Christian Association at Wor-
cester, Mass., November 6, 1861, and
have since borne the name Advent Chris-
tian Church. This branch of the Ad-
ventists now holds simply to the general
imminence of Christ’s return and takes
the position that “no man knoweth the
day nor the hour wherein the Son of
Man cometh.” The Declaration of Prin-
ciples, as unanimously approved by the
Advent Church Association and General
Conference of America in 1900, empha-
sizes the following points of doctrine:
that through sin man has forfeited im-
mortality, and only through faith in
Christ can any live forever; that death
is a condition of unconsciousness for all
persons until the resurrection at Christ’s
second coming, when the righteous will
enter an endless life upon this earth and
the rest suffer complete extinction; that
the coming of Christ is near; that church
government should be congregational;
that immersion is the only true baptism;
that open communion should be prac-
tised; and that the first day of the
week, set apart by the early Church in
commemoration of the resurrection, is
held to he the proper Christian Sabbath,
to be observed as a day of rest and re-
ligious worship. Their denominational
activities are carried on mainly through
the American Advent Mission Society,
the Woman’s Home and Foreign Mis-
Adventism
7
Adventism
siouary Societies, and four publication
societies. Their main organ is The
World’s Crisis and Second Advent Mes-
senger, published in Boston. The young
people of the denomination are organized
in a Young People’s Loyal Workers’ So-
ciety. In 1921 they numbered 770 min-
isters, 535 churches, and 30,597 commu-
nicants. See also Adventism.
Adventism. The term “Adventism,”
in its general application, broadly ex-
presses the peculiar tenet of the Advent-
ists, a church-body embracing several
branches, whose members look for the
proximate personal coming of Christ.
The “Advent Movement” originated with
William Miller, who was born at Pitts-
field, Mass., February 15, 1782, and died
in Low Hampton, N. Y., December 20,
1849. For many years Mr. Miller was
an avowed deist, but “found no spiritual
rest” until 1816, when he was converted
and joined the Baptists. He now became
a close student of the Bible, especially
of the prophecies, and soon satisfied him-
self that the advent of Christ was to be
personal and premillennial, and that it
was near at hand. Through the study of
the prophetic portions of the Bible, upon
which he entered in 1818, he became con-
vinced that the doctrine of the world’s
conversion is unscriptural ; that not only
the parable of the wheat and the tares,
as explained by Christ in Matt. 13,
24 — 30, but many other passages, teach
the coexistence of Christianity and anti-
christianity while the Gospel age lasts;
and that, as the period of a thousand
years, during which Satan is bound
(Eev. 20) and from which the conception
of the millennium is derived, lies between
the first resurrection (Rev. 20, 4 — C> ) ,
which he understood to include all the
redeemed, and that of “the rest of the
dead” (Rev. 20, 5), the coming of Christ
in person, power, and glory must be pre-
millennial. Taking the more or less
generally accepted view that the “days”
of prophecy symbolize years, be was led
to the conclusion that the 2,300 days re-
ferred to in Dan. 8, 13. 14, the beginning
of which he dated from the command-
ment to restore Jerusalem, given in 457
B. C. (Dan. 9, 25), and the 1,335 days of
the same prophet (Dan. 12, 12), which
he took to constitute the latter part of
the 2,300 days, would end coincidently
in or about the year 1843. The cleansing
of the Sanctuary, which was to take
place at the close of the 2,300 days (Dan.
8, 14), he understood to mean the cleans-
ing of the earth at the second coming of
Christ, which, as a result of his compu-
tations, he confidently expected would
occur some time between March 21, 1843,
and March 21, 1844, the period corre-
sponding to the Jewish year. In 1831
Mr. Miller began his public labors by ac-
cepting an invitation to go to Dresden,
N. Y., to speak on the subject of the
Lord’s return. Other invitations quickly
followed, and thus began a work which
in a few years, though not without op-
position, spread far and wide, ministers
and members of various evangelical de-
nominations uniting in expecting the
speedy, personal, and premillennial com-
ing of Christ. The “Advent Movement”
was assisted by the appearance of a
number of papers, such as The Midnight
Cry, The Signs of the Times, and The
Trumpet of Alarm, which emphasized
these views. As the time approached
when the coming of Christ was expected,
there was a wide-spread interest and
elaborate preparation. Naturally, when
the period originally indicated by Mr.
Miller passed without bringing the event,
there was much disappointment. Later,
however, some of the Adventists put
forth a theory fixing October 22, 1844,
as the date of Christ’s advent. This
'prediction also proved a sad failure.
In the beginning the “Advent Move-
ment” was wholly within the existing
churches, and there was no attempt
to establish a separate denomination.
Mr. Miller himself, during the greater
part of his work, was a Baptist licen-
tiate. In June, 1843, however, the
Maine Conference of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church passed resolutions con-
demning the movement, and from that
time on considerable opposition was
manifested. In some cases Adventists
were forced to leave the churches of
which they were members ; in others
they withdrew voluntarily, basing their
action, in part, on the command to “come
out of Babylon” (Rev. 18, 4), including
under the term “Babylon,” not only the
Roman Catholic Church, but also the
Protestant churches. Mr. Miller and
other leaders earnestly deprecated this
interpretation, yet it influenced some to
leave the old communions. No definite
move was made, however, toward the
general organization of the adherents of
the Adventist doctrines until 1845. In
that year, according to an estimate made
by Mr. Miller, there were Advent congre-
gations in “nearly a thousand places,”
“numbering . . . some fifty thousand be-
lievers.” A conference was called at Al-
bany, N. Y., in April, 1845, for the pur-
pose of defining their position, and it
was largely attended, also by Mr. Miller.
A declaration of principles was adopted
embodying the views of Mr. Miller re-
specting the personal and premillennial
Adventism
8
Adventism
character of the second coming of Christ,
the resurrection of the dead, and the re-
newal of the earth as the abode of the
redeemed, together with cognate points
of doctrine, which have been summarized
as follows': 1. The present heavens and
earth are to be dissolved by fire, and new
heavens and a new earth are to be cre-
ated, whose dominion is to be given to
“the people of the saints of the Most
High.” 2. There are but two advents of
the Savior, both of which are personal
and visible. The first includes the period
of His life from His birth to His ascen-
sion; the second begins with His descent
from heaven at the sounding of the last
trump. 3. The second coming is indi-
cated to be near at hand, even at the
doors ; and this truth should be preached
to the saints that they may rejoice,
knowing that their redemption draws
nigh; and to sinners that they may be
warned to flee from the wrath to come.
4. The condition of salvation is repent-
ance toward God and faith in the Lord
Jesus Christ. Those who have repent-
ance and faith will live soberly and
righteously and godly in this world,
looking for the Lord’s appearing.
5. There will be a resurrection of the
bodies of all the dead, both of the just
and the unjust. Those who are Christ’s
will be raised at His coming; the rest
of the dead not until a thousand years
later. 6. The only millennium taught in
the Word of God is the thousand years
intervening between the first resurrec-
tion and that of the rest of the dead.
7. There is no difference under the Gos-
pel dispensation between Jew and Gen-
tile, but God will render to every man
according to his deeds. The only resto-
ration of Israel is in the restoration of
the saints to the regenerated earth.
8. There is no promise of this world’s
conversion. The children of the King-
dom and of the Wicked One will con-
tinue together until the end of the world.
9. Departed saints do not enter their in-
heritance at death, that inheritance being
reserved in heaven ready to be revealed
at the second coming, when they will be
equal to the angels, being the children
of God and of the resurrection; but in
soul and spirit they enter the paradise
of God to await in rest and comfort the
final blessedness of the everlasting king-
dom.
The somewhat loosely organized body,
which was formed at the general confer-
ence of Adventists held at Albany, N. Y.,
in April, 1845, continued for a decade to
include practically all the Adventists ex-
cept those who held to the observance of
the seventh day of the week, rather than
the first, as the Sabbath. In the year of
Mr. Miller’s death (1849) they were
estimated at 50,000. In 1855 the discus-
sions, in which Jonathan Cummings had
so prominent a part, resulted in the with-
drawal of some members, and the subse-
quent organization of the Advent Chris-
tian Church (q. v . ) . The Adventists who
continued their adherence to the original
body were for the most part those who
believed in the doctrine of the conscious
state of the dead and the eternal suffer-
ings of the wicked, claiming on these
points to be in accord with the personal
views of Mr. Miller. They, however, felt
the need of closet association and in 1858
organized at Boston, Mass., the Ameri-
can Millennial Association, partly for
the purpose of publishing material in
support of their belief, partly as a basis
of fellowship. Some years later the
members of this society adopted the
name Evangelical Adventists as a de-
nominational term, with a view to dis-
tinguishing themselves from other bodies
with which they differed on doctrinal
points. For some years the association
published a periodical, called, at different
times, Signs of the Times, Advent Her-
ald, Messiah’s Herald, and Herald of the
Coming One. It contributed to the sup-
port of the China Inland Mission and of
laborers and missions in other fields, but
as the older members died, many of the
younger families joined other evangel-
ical denominations, and the number of
churches and members diminished rap-
idly. In 1916 all the churches, except
a few in Pennsylvania, had disbanded or
discontinued all services, and from those
in Pennsylvania no information could be
obtained. Discussions with respect to
the nature of the advent of Christ, and
particularly in regard to the future life,
resulted in the formation of other bodies,
independent as to organization, but
agreeing in the belief that the advent
of Christ would be personal and premil-
lennial and was near at hand; they also
recognized the influence of Mr. Miller and
those immediately associated with him.
There are at present five distinct
branches of Adventists, all of whom
agree in the personal, premillennial com-
ing of Christ. The Seventh-day Advent-
ists and the Church of God are presby-
terial, the others congregational, in their
polity. All practise immersion as the
mode of baptism. On the doctrines of
fixing the date of Christ’s second coming
and of the immortality of the soul there
have been divisions. (Special tenets of
the various branches of Adventistic de-
nominations will be mentioned under the
respective headings.) The total number
of communicant members in all Adventist
bodies is somewhat more than 136,000.
Adventists
9
Advent of Christ, Second
Adventists. See Seventh-day Advent-
ists and The Church of Cod.
Advent of Christ, Second. In the
Second Article of our holy Christian
faith we confess : “From thence He
[Christ] shall come to judge the quick
and the dead.” It is clear that the Creed
here speaks of a second coming of Christ.
This is in agreement with Scripture, for
we are told, Heb. 9, 28 : “So Christ was
once offered to bear the sins of many;
and unto them that look for Him shall
He appear the second time without sin
unto salvation.” This coming will be a
visible coming. “This same Jesus which
is taken up from you into heaven shall
so come in like manner as ye have seen
Him go into heaven.” Acts 1, 11. It will
be 'a coming visible to all men at the
same time. “For as the lightning com-
eth out of the east and shineth even unto
the west, so shall also the coming of the
Son of Man be.” Matt. 24, 27. “And
then shall appear the sign of the Son of
Man in heaven; and then shall all the
tribes of the earth mourn, and they shall
see the Son of Man coming in the clouds
of heaven with power and great glory.”
Matt. 24, 30. Cp. also Luke 17, 24;
1 Thess. 5, 2. Christ will come in the
fulness of His divine glory and majesty
and in the company of all His holy
angels. “When the Son of Man shall
come in His glory and all the holy angels
with Him, then shall He sit upon the
throne of His glory.” Matt. 25, 31. This
coming of Christ must be regarded as a
fact clearly revealed in Scripture. We
hold it over against the scoffers of these
last days. “Knowing this first, that
there shall come in the last days scoffers,
walking after their own lusts and saying.
Where is the promise of His coming?”
2 Pet. 3, 3. 4. We also hold it over
against the forgetfulness of the believers,
who on account of the weakness of their
flesh are inclined to disregard the warn-
ings of the Bible. The words of Jesus
regarding the end of the world and His
coming to judgment are especially im-
portant in this connection, as Matt. 24
and 25 and Luke 21 show, as well as His
emphatic word of admonition, Mark
13, 37 : “What I say unto you I say unto
all, Watch!” — We distinguish, accord-
ing to the Bible, between this .second
coming of Christ in person for the pur-
pose of judging the world and His com-
ing in and through the Word of the Gos-
pel as it is preached since His ascension.
It is of this spiritual coming that Jesus
speaks in John 14, 18: “I will not leave
you comfortless, I will come to you.” In
this sense Christ is coming to the hearts
of men until the end of time.
The Bible speaks of certain signs
which would precede the second coming
of Christ. Among these signs, according
to Matt. 24 and the parallel passages,
are abnormal conditions in the life of
nations, such as wars and rumors of
wars, pestilences, famines, enmity against
the Christian Church, then also certain
irregularities in the realm of nature,
such as earthquakes, floods, deviations
in the course of the heavenly bodies, and
finally, in the Church, false teachers, de-
nial of the Gospel, the growing power of
Antichrist. As the maladies and dis-
turbances in the life of the individual
are messengers of the coming dissolution
of the body, so these diseases of the body
politic herald the great Judgment and
the end of the world. Luther writes:
“Heaven and earth creak like an old
house which is about to collapse and to
break asunder and indicate altogether
that they have a premonition of the com-
ing end of the world, and that the day
is near at hand,” (St. Louis Ed., VII,
1840 ff.) Of the signs as thus prophe-
sied it is true that their description is
purposely held in a vein which makes
the exact determination of the day of
Christ’s second coming impossible. The
object of this arrangement is to bring
.about untiring vigilance and watchful-
ness on the part of the Christians, as the
Lord says: “Watch therefore; for ye
know not what hour your Lord doth
come.” Matt. 24, 42. All attempts of
men at determining the exact day and
hour of the Lord’s second coming are
foolish from the outset; for He Himself
says : “Of that day and hour knoweth
no man, no, not the angels of heaven, but
My Father only.” Matt. 24, 36. The
Lord urges the believers and all men to
note the signs of His coming and to pre-
pare for the events which will imme-
diately follow His second advent. Cp.
Matt. 24; Luke 21; 2 Thess. 2. Of par-
ticular importance is the necessity of
guarding against false prophets and
false Christs. Matt. 24, 5.
In this connection we may refer to
signs of the Last Day and of the second
coming of Christ which have been in-
vented by men. Among these is the so-
called millennium, or a thousand glor-
ious years of peace and happiness of the
Christian Church, this period being
placed by some before the second coming
of Christ, by others after. Both views
are based upon a wrong understanding of
Bev. 20 and of certain Messianic prophe-
cies in the Old Testament. We confess,
in the Apology of the Augsburg Confes-
sion, Art. XVII, “Of Christ’s Return to
Judgment”: “The Seventeenth Article
Advocatus Diaboli
10
Age, Canonical
the adversaries receive without excep-
tion, in which we confess that at the
consummation of the world Christ shall
appear and shall raise up all the dead
and shall give to the godly eternal life
and eternal joys, but shall condemn the
ungodly to be punished with the devil
without end.” ( Gone. Trigl., 335. ) — See
Chiliasm.
Advocatus Diaboli (devil’s advocate).
The name popularly given an official of
the Congregation of Rites (see Roman
Congregations) , whose duty it is to urge
every possible argument against the
canonization (q.v.) of a new saint. He
has a right to insist on the consideration
of every objection, and any action taken
in his absence is invalid. His proper
title is promotor fidei.
Aemilie Juliane, Countess of Schwarz-
burg-Rudolstadt, 1637 — 1706; educated
in music and poetry, very productive
hymn-writer, deep feeling, almost mys-
tical; wrote: “Wer weiss, wie nahe mir
mein Ende.”
Aepinus. See Descent to Hell.
Aera. See Era.
Aerius. Presbyter and director of an
asylum or hospital at Sebaste in Pontus
in the fourth century; an opponent of
strong hierarchical tendencies and of
prayers for the dead; the “Aerians”
named after him.
Aethiopian Movement. See Ethio-
pianism.
Aetius, deacon of Antioch, extreme
Arian as opposed to the Eusebians, or
Semi-Arians.
Affinity, Spiritual. See Impediments
of Marriage,
Afghanistan, country in Central
Asia, northeast of India. Area, 250,000
square miles. Population, approximately
6,000,000. Languages, Persian and Pusli-
tov. Inhabitants claim descent from
Jews, but are divided into many racially
distinct clans. Religion, Animistic and
Mohammedan. There are some traces of
early Christianity (424). Carey trans-
lated the Bible into the Pushtov lan-
guage in 1825; revised in 1886. Fanati-
cism of inhabitants permits no missions.
Africa. Africa Proconsularis, Nu-
midia, Mauretania. Proconsular Africa,
with the adjacent provinces of Numidia
and Mauretania, came under the influ-
ence of Christianity at an early date,
perhaps at the end of the first century.
Christianity here developed a vigor and
a growth unrivaled elsewhere in the
Roman Empire except in Asia Minor.
According to Harnack there were in 220
from 70 to 90 bishoprics; at the middle
of the third century, 150; in the fourth
century, 250; at the beginning of the
fifth century, about 600. This beautiful
field — not without some tare.s — was
converted into a wilderness by Arian
Vandalism and Moslem fanaticism.
Africa produced probably the first Latin
Bible version, the I tala, the basis of
Jerome’s Vulgate. The Punic element of
the population was served in its own
language, though there is no evidence of
a Punic translation of the Scriptures.
Africa, Missions in. The continent
lying south of the Mediterranean, having
an area of 11,262,000 sq. mi., with an
additional island area of 239,000 sq. mi.
Total number of inhabitants, estimated,
140,000,000. Africa embraces Egypt, Al-
geria, Morocco, the Sudan, Anglo-Egyp-
tian Sudan, Abyssinia, British Somali-
land, Italian Somaliland, Kenya Colony
( formerly British East Africa ) , Belgian
Congo, Kamerun (French Mandate), Da-
homey, French West Africa, Sierra Leone,
Liberia, Gold Coast, Nigeria (Guinea), • — •
the last four are now called British West
Africa, — Angola, Rhodesia, Portuguese
Africa, Bechuanaland Protectorate, the
Union of South Africa, and German
Southwest Africa, which is a protecto-
rate of the Union; German East Africa
(British and Belgian mandatories) is to
be known as Tanganyika Territory. —
Mohammedanism prevails in Northern
Africa and is rapidly pushing farther
south beyond the equator. Christian
missions have done much work in Cen-
tral and Southern Africa, but there is
still much unoccupied territory.
Agapae, or love-feasts, in the early
Church (cf. Acts 2, 42) were simple
meals partaken of in common by the as-
sembled congregation as an expression of
brotherly love. Connected at first with
the celebration of the Eucharist, they
were separated from the latter already in
the second century. In course of time
the abuses attending these feasts (al-
ready censured by Paul; cf. 1 Cor. 11, 20)
led to their total abolition.
Age, Canonical. The age at which
the Roman Church admits its subjects
to various obligations and privileges.
A child, upon attaining the “age of rea-
son,” about the seventh year, is held
capable of mortal sin and of receiving
the sacraments of penance and extreme
unction, becomes subject to the law of
the Church, and can contract an engage-
ment of marriage. Shortly after, con-
firmation and Communion are adminis-
tered. Girls may contract marriage at
twelve, boys at fourteen. The obligation
Agenda
11
Akron Hule
of fasting begins at twenty -one and ends
at sixty. A deacon must be twenty-
two years old; a priest, twenty-four;
a bisliop, thirty.
Agenda. A book containing direc-
tions for, and exact forms of, all the
sacred acts performed in the liturgical
worship of the Church, both public and
private. The derivation of the word is
most prohahly to be found in the missas
agere of the Western Church, the word
•'agenda” (neutr. plur. ) thus designating
that which was to be performed by the
officiating clergyman (priest or pastor)
in administering 'the means of grace.
The use of written forms has been
traced back to the fifth century, the texts
before that time having been preserved
chiefly by oral tradition. The Roman
Church eventually had a great number
of service books, all coming under the
general name Rituale, while the Lu-
theran Church early adopted the name
Agenda. At the present time a distinc-
tion is being observed, the acts of public
worship, including all prayers, collects,
and lessons being spoken of as the
Liturgy, and all special acts of the pas-
tor, particularly baptisms, marriages,
the communion of the sick, and funerals
being included in the Agenda proper. —
The history of the Lutheran books of
worship may be said to have begun with
the publication of Luther’s Formula Mis-
sae et Communionis pro Ecclesia Witten-
bergensi, in November, 1523, followed, a
little more than two years later, by Iris
German Mass and Order of Services,
which, as Luther expressly stated, was
not intended to supersede or change the
Formula Missae. As far as occasional
sacred acts are concerned, the influence
of Luther’s Taufbueclilein of 1523 and of
his Traubueclilein of 1534 may be traced
to the present day. Many of the Lu-
theran church orders of the sixteenth
century, indeed, gave only the order of
the parts of service, without the texts,
referring, at the same time, to the ver-
sions of Luther; but others offered a
complete liturgical apparatus. The
liturgical books of the latter part of the
sixteenth century may roughly be divided
into three classes. The first of these
groups includes the forms that were
most conservative, following, in general,
the traditional uses, among these being
the Brandenburg of 1540, the Pfalz-Neu-
burg of 1543, and the Austrian of 1571.
To the second group belong all the church
orders of the Saxon- Lutheran type, based
upon Luther’s work, such as the Prus-
sian of 1525 and the Pomeranian of
1535. The third group includes the so-
called mediating type, mediating between
the Lutheran and the Reformed service.
The beginning of this type was made by
Bucer, Capito, and Hedio, in 1525, and it
persisted chiefly in Southern Germany.
The tendency in the Lutheran Church of
America is to return to the best develop-
ment of the Lutheran spirit in the six-
teenth century, both in the liturgy used
in public worship and in the forms em-
ployed for the special sacred acts.
Agnosticism, a philosophic doctrine,
developed by Huxley and Spencer ( qq . v.),
which limits human knowledge to that
which is known through the senses.
In religion it denies the possibility of
attaining certain knowledge of the exist-
ence and nature of God and of the super-
natural world in general. Though theo-
retically distinct from atheism (q.v.),
it practically has the same vitiating
character.
Agobard of Lyons. Prominent theo-
logian of Gallican Church; b. in Spain,
77b; d. in Saintonge, Western France,
in 840. Trained by Leidrad, archbishop
of Lyons, whose successor he became;
one of the bishops who forced Louis le
Debonnaire to his humiliating penance
at Soissons; wrote theological treatises
against Adoptionism, etc.
Agricola (Schneider), John, b. 1492
at Eisleben, studied at Wittenberg, kept
minutes of the Leipzig Debate in 1519,
sent by Luther to reform Frankfurt, pas-
tor at Eisleben, at University of Witten-
berg since 1537, court preacher at Bran-
denburg since 1540, one of the authors of
the Augsburg Interim in 1548, d. 1500.
See Antinomian Controversy.
Ahlbrand, Albert H., buggy manu-
facturer; b. Seymour, Ind., April 27, 1872.
Concordia College, Fort Wayne, Ind.,
1886. Financial Secretary, Central Dis-
trict, Missouri Synod. Originator of
“Ahlbrand Plan.” Member of Board of
Directors 1923.
Ahlfeld, Johann Friedrich; b. 1810,
d. 1884, Leipzig; one of the most popu-
lar and influential Lutheran pastors;
pastor at Halle, since 1851 at St. Nicolai
in Leipzig.
Ahriman. See Zoroastrianism.
Ahura Mazdah. See Zoroastrianism.
Ailly, Pierre d’. See D’Ailly, Pierre.
Ainos. See Japan,
Ainsworth, Henry, 1571 — 1623.
Learned champion of English Separa-
tists; b. near Norwich; fled to Amster-
dam, 1593; teacher there of Separatists
till his death. Hebraist; controver-
sialist.
Akron Rule. See Galesburg Rule.
A Lasco, Johannes
12
Albrecht, C. J.
A Lasco, Johannes, 1499 — 1500. Pol-
ish nobleman, Calvinistic theologian;
b. Warsaw; d. Pirchow. Became Prot-
estant and left Poland with recommen-
dations of Polish king; superintendent
of East Frisia, of Church of Foreign
Protestants, London, and of Reformed
churches, Poland; failed to reconcile Re-
formed and Lutherans; prepared, with
seventeen others, the Polish version of
the Bible.
Alaska, the great northwestern terri-
tory of the United States. Area, 590,884
square miles. Population, approximately
100,000, mostly Indians, with some 15,000
Eskimos. Territory bought from Russia
in 1867. Since discovery of the placer
gold fields there has been a rapid in-
crease of the white population. The Rus-
sian (Orthodox Greek Catholic Church)
had some mission-stations in the Aleu-
tian Islands since 1793. Other mission-
work was done by John Veniaminoff, who
was later made Archbishop Innocent
(1850). A Greek Catholic diocese has
been established for the Aleutian Islands
and Alaska, the seat of which is in San
Francisco, Cal., with a membership of
possibly 50,000, of which over 10,000 are
Indians. — Protestant missions are con-
ducted by the American Presbyterians,
the Moravians, the Protestant Episcopal
Church (Dr. Jackson since 1877), the
Baptists, the Congregationalists, the Lu-
therans (United Norwegian Church of
America), the Methodist Episcopal
Church, the Church Mission Society,
and the Swedish Evangelical Mission
Covenant of America.
Alb. See Vestments, R. C.
Albania. A small country in the
mountains of the Balkan Peninsula,
bounded by the Adriatic Sea, by Jugo-
slavia, and Greece; half-civilized moun-
taineers call themselves Skipetar; many
have turned Mohammedan, but the Al-
banian Orthodox Church is still fairly
strong. See also Greek Catholic Church.
Alberta. See Canada.
Albert, Heinrich, 1604 — 1651, studied
music at Dresden, law at Leipzig; organ-
ist at Dresden and Koenigsberg; ranked
high as poet, but especially as com-
poser; many of his liymn-tunes in use
to this day; father of the German Lied;
wrote : “Gott des Himmels und der
Erden.”
Albertus Magnus. Founder of the
most flourishing period of scholasticism;
b. at Lauingen, Bavaria, 1193; d. at Co-
logne, 1280. Studied at Padua, where he
entered the Dominican order, served as
lector of convent schools of his order in
Germany; became general of his order
for Germany after studying theology at
Paris; later bishop of Regensburg for
two years; many-sided author, which
gave him the title of “Doctor Universa-
lis”; wrote a commentary on the Sen-
tential of Peter Lombard and a Sum-
mum Theologiae; prepared way for
modern conflict between theology and
false science.
Alberus, Erasmus, 1500 — 1553, one
of the Prussian reformers, at first school-
master in Frankfurt-on-the-Main and in
Heldenbergen, then pastor at Berlin, at
Magdeburg, and elsewhere, finally Gen-
eral Superintendent in Mecklenburg;
prominent hymn-writer, the ruggedness
of whose poetry has been compared with
that of Luther ; wrote : “Gott hat das
Evangelium”; “Gott der Vater wohn’
tins bei”; “Nun freut euch, Gottes Kin-
der all’.”
Albigenses, Crusade. The Albigen-
ses, together with the Bogomiles and the
Cathari or Catharists ( qq. v. ) , were a
New Manichean sect found principally in
Northern Italy and in Southern France.
They believed in a peculiar dualism, with
a god of light and a prince of this world,
the angels being the “lost sheep of the
house of Israel,” and Jesus only appar-
ently dying for the redemption' of men
(see Docetism). When arguments against
these heretics failed, the inquisition or-
ganized a crusade against them. The first
attack, in 1181-82, had no result, but
between 1208 and 1229 a relentless war
was waged under the leadership of Ar-
nold of Citeaux and Count Simon of
Montfort. After the death of Simon, in
1218, the heretics rallied, and several of
them, notably the counts of Toulouse, re-
gained their lands ; but a new crusade
was directed against them with disas-
trous consequences for their leaders.
Some of them held out in spite of all re-
verses and cruel treatment, and they do
not finally disappear until the middle of
the fourteenth century.
Albinus, Johann Georg, 1624 — 1679,
pastor in Naumburg; poems forceful,
lively, Scriptural, religious; wrote: “Alle
Menschen muessen sterben”; “Straf’
micli niclrt in deinem Zorn”; “Welt,
ade!”
Albrecht, Christian Johann, b. July
13, 1847, Eschenau, Wuerttemberg; edu-
cated at St. Crischona; came to Minne-
sota, 1872; pastor Greenwood; NewUIm,
since 1882. President of Minnesota
Synod, 1883- — 94; father of the college
and practical seminary at New Ulm
(1884); acted as first director and
taught some branches under Director
Albrecht, M.
13
Alexandria
Iloyer as long as New Ulm remained a
theological seminary (1893). Active in
forming Joint Synod of Wisconsin and
Other States; president of China Mis-
sion Society, which sent first missionary
(E. L. Arndt) .
Albrecht, M. See Roster at end of
book.
Albrecht, Margrave of Brandenburg-
Culmbach, 1522 — 1557, the Younger,
Evangelical prince, daring in his youth,
one of the Prussian reformers; wrote
“Was mein Gott will, das g’scheh’ atl-
zeit.”
Albrecht of Prussia, Margrave of
Brandenburg- Ansbach ; b. 1490; Grand
Master of the German Order when only
twenty-one. His “father-in-God” was
Osiander of Nuernberg. In 1523 Luther
encouraged him to marry and secularize
his order, which he did. Introduced the
Reformation; founded the University of
Koenigsberg in 1544. The Osiandrian
controversy embittered his last years.
The labors of Chemnitz and Moerlin in
1567 brought peace, and Albrecht died
in 1568, praying, “Lord, into Thy hands
I commend my spirit.”
Albrechtsbrueder. ( See Evangelical
Association.) A religious sect in the
United States, very similar to the Metho-
dists in doctrine. It was founded by
Jacob Albrecht (Albright), who was born
in Pennsylvania in 1759, traveled as an
evangelist, and organized his adherents
in “classes” in 1800. He was appointed
bishop in 1807. In 1816 the denomina-
tion assumed the title of Evangelical As-
sociation of North America.
Alcuin. Prominent theologian and edu-
cator under Charlemagne; b. in North-
umbria, England, about 730 or 735; d. at
Tours, France, 804. Educated in cathe-
dral school of York, made visits to France
and Rome; became head of school and
also of cathedral library of York; after
781 on Continent, where he was head of
the court school of Charlemagne, which
became a nursery of ecclesiastical and
liberal education for the whole kingdom;
wrote several theological treatises, also
against Adoptionism (q.v.).
Alderson, Eliza Sibbald, nee Dykes,
1818 — 1889, married a chaplain of the
Established Church; lived last in York-
shire; wrote: “Lord of Glory, Who hast
Bought Us”; “And Now, Beloved Lord,
Thy Soul Resigning.”
Alesius (Alane), Alexander, b. 1500,
converted by Patrick Hamilton, fled from
prison to Wittenberg, took Melanchthon’s
Loci to King Henry VIII of England,
professor at Frankfurt, took part in
many religious conferences, in England
under Edward VI, twice rector of the
Leipzig University, d. 1565.
Aleutian Islands, belonging to the
territory of Alaska (U. S.), extend about
1,600 miles from east to west. Area,
6,391 sq. mi. Population, about 3,000.
The natives belong to Kamchatkan stock.
The Greek Catholic (Russian Orthodox)
Church has some mission-stations there.
Alexander VI (Pope). See Popes.
Alexander of Hales. Scholastic the-
ologian, known as Doctor irrefragabilis
(firm, incontroversible) and Theologorum
monarcha; b. Hales, Gloucestershire,
England; d. Paris, 1245. Educated in
monastery at Hales, studied and lectured
at Paris, acquired great fame as teacher
of theology, entered order of St. Francis
in 1222; his great work, Summa Uni-
versae Theologiae , in which the character
indelebilis (not to be erased or removed)
of baptism, confirmation, ordination, and
other sacraments of the Catholic Church
is taught.
Alexander, James Waddell, 1804 to
1859, studied at Princeton; professor of
rhetoric, after an interval professor of
church history, Princeton; wrote trans-
lations of hymns, among them : “I Leave
Thee Not.”
Alexander, William. Anglican Pri-
mate of All Ireland; b. Londonderry,
1824; archbishop of Armagh, 1896;
d. Torquay, 1911. Witness of the Psalms
to Christ; contributor to The Speaker’s
Commentary ; etc.
Alexandria, School of Interpretation
and Doctrine. The Alexandrian school of
theology, represented chiefly by such men
as Clement and Origen, aimed at a recon-
ciliation of philosophy with Christianity,
just as Philonism had attempted a simi-
lar alliance between philosophy and Ju-
daism. Some of the early apologists,
notably Justin the Philosopher, represent
a similar mode of thought, but it re-
mained for the Alexandrians to elaborate
a complete system of philosophico-Chris-
tian theology. According to Clement,
Greek philosophy served, under divine
providence, a propaedeutic purpose in the
education of the race, was, in fact, an in-
tellectual schoolmaster to Christ, just as
the Law of Moses was a moral and a re-
ligious one. Origen compares the wisdom
of the Greeks to “the jewels which the
Israelites took out of Egypt and turned
into ornaments for the Sanctuary, though
they also wrought them into the golden
calf.” The synthesis attempted by the
Alexandrians, though avowedly resting
on a Scriptural basis and purporting to
Alford, Henry
14
Altar
offer the true gnosis in opposition to the
false gnosis of the Gnostics, shows espe-
cially the influence of Plato and embodies
much unscriptural and antiscriptural
speculation. And again, it betrayed its
exponents into an allegorical method of
exegesis, which lost itself in the most
extravagant and arbitrary fancies.
Alford, Henry, 1810 — 1871, educated
at Cambridge; held several positions as
clergyman, also important appointments,
such as that of Fellow of Trinity; most
important undertaking: edition of Greek
Testament, the result of twenty years’
labor; numerous hymnological and poet-
ical works, noted for musical quality;
wrote, among others: “Come, Ye Thank-
ful People, Come”; “Ten Thousand Times
Ten Thousand.”
A1 Fresco. A species of painting
which is done chiefly on fresh plaster,
the colors usually being water-colors
which are not affected by the setting of
the plaster (catacombs and early mural
paintings ) .
Algeria, French colony in Northern
Africa, part of the former Barbary
States. Area, 343,500 sq. mi. Popula-
tion, 5,500,000, native Berbers predomi-
nating, with possibly 65,000 Jews. Islam
is the dominant religion. Missions by
Algiers Mission Band.
Alleghany Synod. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Allegri, Gregorio, 1585 — 1652 (or
1584 — 1662), belonged to the family of
the Correggios; noted composer, studied
music under Nanini, later member of the
Sistine choir; one of the first musicians
to compose for stringed instruments; his
most celebrated work a Miserere for two
choirs, five- and four-part score, sung in
Rome during Holy Week; renditions
elsewhere have proved disappointing.
Allen, Oswald, 1816 — 1878, born at
Kirkby Lonsdale, where he resided the
greater part of his life, on staff of local
bank; published Hymns of the Christian
Life, among others: “To-day Thy Mercy
Calls Us.”
Allgemeine Evangelisch - Lutheri-
sche Konferenz. An organization con-
sisting of representatives of the various
Lutheran bodies of Germany, which has
met since 1868 as need required. The
first president was Harless, who was fol-
lowed by ICliefoth. The official organ of
the Konferenz is the Allgemeine Evange-
lisch- Lutherische Kirchenzeitung , edited
for many years by Luthardt, at present
by W. Laible. With it is connected the
Theologische IAteraturblatt . Some of
the leaders of the organization were con-
nected also with the Eisenach Conference
and with the Lutherische Gotteskasten
(qq. v.).
Alloiosis. A figure of speech by which
Zwingli construed all those passages of
Scripture in which anything is ascribed
to the divine nature of Christ or to the
entire Christ which properly is the prop-
erty of the human nature only, and vice
versa. Thus, when it is said: “Ought
not Christ to have suffered these things
and to enter into His glory?” (Luke
24, 28) Zwingli declared that the term
“Christ” in this passage referred only to
His human nature, since it is a mere
figure of speech if the suffering and death
of our Lord is ascribed to His divine
nature. The purpose of the Alloiosis, as
used by Zwingli, was the denial of the
communicatio idiomatum.
Allocution. A solemn address deliv-
ered by the Pope to the cardinals gath-
ered in secret consistory, usually pub-
lished later, to present the Pope’s position
on some matter.
Allwardt, Dr. H. A., 1840 — 1910, b. in
Mecklenburg, educated at Fort Wayne
and St. Louis, one of the opponents of
Walther in the Predestination Contro-
versy, especially at the conference of Mis-
souri Synod pastors at Chicago, 1880.
Left Missouri Synod and joined Ohio,
with a number of others, in 1881. Con-
tinued to oppose the doctrine of predes-
tination as taught by Missouri till his
death.
Alpha Synod of the Ev. Luth. Church
of Freedmen in America, organized May 8,
1889, by four pastors who had been or-
dained by the North Carolina Synod, Da-
vid Koonts, president, W. Philo Phifer,
secretary, Sam Holt, Nathan Clapp.
When Koonts died, the synod died with
him. Phifer, in the name of the other
two pastors, wrote to President Schwan
of the Missouri Synod. The result was
that the Synodical Conference took up
the work among the colored people in
North Carolina.
Alt, Heinrich. Preacher and litur-
giologist, b. Breslau, 1811; d. Berlin,
1893; educated in Berlin under Neander,
teacher and preacher at the Charite
Hospital; wrote: Der christliche Kul-
tus, in two parts: “Der kirchliclie Got-
tesdienst” and “Das Kirclienjahr.”
Altar. In the Lutheran Church, a
table for the celebration of the Lord’s
Supper and the place where the litur-
gical part of the service centers. The
altar is often richly ornamented, also
with a retabulum or reredos, but it is in
no sense representative of a sepulcher or
sarcophagus.
Altar
15
Amana Society
Altar (Paintings). Oil-paintings
placed in the central panel of the reredos
triptych of an altar, the choice of pic-
tures being guided by the consideration
that the scene from the life of Christ
should be of general significance.
Altar-Cards. Three cards, containing
parts of the ritual of the Mass, which are
placed on the altar, under the crucifix,
at the celebration of Mass. The priest
is expected to have the ritual committed
to memory; but if his memory should
lapse, he can refer to the cards.
Altenburg, Johann Michael, 1584 to
1640, at first teacher and precentor, later
pastor near and in Erfurt; good musi-
cian and composer ; wrote : “Verzage
nicht, du Haeuflein klein.”
Altenburger Religionsgespraech.
A colloquy held at Altenburg, Saxony,
October 20, 1568, to March 9, 1569, be-
tween the theologians of Wittenberg and
of Jena, on questions pertaining to justi-
fication, free will, and adiaphora. The
colloquy did not succeed in effecting an
understanding.
Altenburg Theses, The. 1. The true
Church, in the most perfect sense, is the
totality \Gesamtheit) of all true be-
lievers, who from the beginning to the
end of the world, from among all peoples
and tongues, have been called and sanc-
tified by the Holy Ghost through the
Word. And since God alone knows these
true believers (2 Tim. 2, 19), the Church
is also called invisible. No one belongs
to this true Church who is not spiritually
united with Christ, for it is the spiritual
body of Jesus Christ. 2. The name of
the true Church also belongs to all those
visible societies in whose midst the Word
of God is purely taught and the holy
Sacraments are administered according
to the institution of Christ. True, in
this Church there are also godless men,
hypocrites, and heretics, but they are not
true members of the Church, nor do they
constitute the Church. 3. The name
Church, and in a certain sense the name
true Church, also belongs to such visible
societies as are united in the confession
of a falsified faith and therefore are
guilty of a partial falling away from the
truth, provided they retain in its purity
so much of the Word of God and the
holy Sacraments as is necessary that
children of God may thereby be born.
When such societies are called true
Churches, the intention is not to state
that they are faithful, but merely that
they are real Churches, as opposed to
secular organizations [Ocmemschaff.cn].
4. It is not improper to apply the name
Church to heterodox societies, but that is
in accord with the manner of speech of
the Word of God itself. And it is not
immaterial that this high name is
granted to such societies, for from this
follows : ( 1 ) That members also of such
societies may be saved; for without the
Church there is no salvation. 5. (2) That
the outward separation of a heterodox
society from the orthodox Church is not
necessarily a separation from the univer-
sal Christian Church or a relapse into
heathenism and does not yet deprive that
society of the name Church. 6. (3) Even
heterodox societies have church power;
even among them the treasures of the
Church may be validly dispensed, the
ministry established, the Sacraments val-
idly administered, and the keys of the
kingdom of heaven exercised. 7. Even
heterodox societies are not to be dis-
solved, but reformed. 8. The orthodox
Church is to be judged principally by
the common, orthodox, and public con-
fession to which the members acknowl-
edge themselves to have been pledged and
which they profess. These theses were
defended by Pastor C. F. W. Walther at
the historic disputation held at Alten-
burg, Mo., in April, 1841. His chief op-
ponent was a lawyer, Adolf Marbacli.
The theses saved the Saxon Lutherans
from disorganization. See also Missouri
Synod.
Altenburger Bibelwerk. Not a com-
mentary, but the Bible reprinted with
Luther’s prefaces and marginal notes,
summaries by Vitus Dietrich, prefaces
and prayers by Franciscus Vierling, for
devotional purposes. (3 vols.)
Altruism. Term invented by Comte
(French philosopher, 1798 — 1857) to de-
note unselfish regard for the welfare of
others, opposed to egoism, and considered
by him to be the only moral principle
of life.
Altruist Community. See Commu-
nistic Societies.
Amana Society, or Community of
True Inspiration, or Inspirationists.
A German communistic religious society
in Iowa. It traces its origin back to
1714, when separatists in Northern and
Western Germany, stimulated by the
preaching of the French Camisard proph-
ets, under the leadership of Eberhard
Gruber and Johann Rock, organized In-
spiration sgemeinden. The movement
flourished for a generation, then declined
almost completely, but was revived, 1817
and the following years, in Hesse, the
Palatinate, and Alsace, through the in-
fluence of the new Werkzeuge Michael
Krausert, Barbara Heinemann, an illiter-
ate Alsatian peasant girl, and Christian
Ambrose
16
American Bible Society
Metz. When they refused to send their
children to the state schools, swear alle-
giance, and bear arms, the government
used repressive measures, as a result of
which they began to immigrate to Amer-
ica, 1842. They first settled near Buffalo
and organized under the name of Eben-
ezer Society, 1843. In 1855 they removed
to Iowa Co., Iowa, where they bought
26,000 acres of land, laid out seven vil-
lages, of which the principal one is
Amana, and incorporated as Amana So-
ciety 1859. The community is primarily
religious, and their communism, which at
first was incidental, has been made to
serve this primary purpose. They hold
all property in common and carry on
agriculture, manufacture, and trade. The
entire government is vested in thirteen
trustees. Religiously the society is di-
vided into three Abteilungen, or classes,
graded according to their piety. Their
main religious tenets, as contained in
Glaubensbekenntnis der wahren Inspira-
tionsgemeinde and Katechetiseher Unter-
richt von der Lehre des Heils, include,
besides the fundamental doctrine of pres-
ent-day inspiration, belief in the Trinity,
in the resurrection of the dead, and in
the Judgment, but also in justification
through forgiveness of sins and holy life,
perfectionism, and millenarianism. The
Sacraments are not means of grace.
Baptism is rejected, and the Lord’s Sup-
per, or Liebesmahl, is celebrated when-
ever the Spirit prompts them, that is,
about every two years, when the highest
Abteilung also practises the rite of foot-
washing. There is a possibility of salva-
tion after death, and the wicked are not
punished eternally. Oaths are forbidden.
Prominent in their religious life is an
annual Under sucliung , or examination, of
the spiritual condition of each member.
At the services, which are conducted in
German and held twice every Sunday,
the Bible and the “inspired word” of the
Werkzeuge is read. Marriages are fre-
quent, but celibate life is looked upon
with favor. The society reported a mem-
bership of 1,756 in 1906 and 1,534 in
1916.
Ambrose. Noted leader and teacher
of the Western Church; b. Treves, 340;
d. Milan, 397. Educated in Rome for a
legal career; appointed consular prefect
for Upper Italy; took up his residence
in Milan about 370. After death of
Bishop Auxentius a dispute between the
orthodox and Arian parties caused a se-
vere quarrel which threatened the peace
of the city. Ambrose, as magistrate, was
present to maintain order, when the
people, suddenly turning to him as a new
candidate, transferred him from his offi-
cial position to the episcopate. Since he
was still a catechumen, his baptism took
place at once, and eight days later, in
374, he was consecrated bishop. Ambrose
was distinguished for his defense of the
orthodox faith and for his firm stand in
all matters revealed in Scripture, oppos-
ing both paganism and heresy with equal
zeal. He did not hesitate to rebuke even
the emperor when he permitted himself
to become guilty of a massacre. As a
teacher of the Church, Ambrose was con-
cerned more with the practical and ethi-
cal side of Christianity than with the
scientifically theological; among his
works are De Officiis Ministrorum (Of
the Offices of Christian Ministers), De
Virginibus (Of Virgins), and others.
Toward the end of his life he exhibited
a stronger tendency toward asceticism
(q. v.), for he emphasized the supposed
value of celibacy, of voluntary poverty,
and of the martyr’s death. He did much
for the reform and development of church
music, not only in hymns, but also in
the liturgy which is associated with his
name. See Ambrosian Chant.
Ambrosian Chant. The mode of sing-
ing or chanting in the form of a lively,
rhythmical, congregational singing, based
upon the ancient Greek musical system
in four keys (Dorian, in d; Phrygian,
in e; Eolian, in f; Mixolydian, in g),
introduced by St. Ambrose in the Cathe-
dral in Milan, whence it rapidly spread
throughout the Occident.
Ambrosiaster. Designation of the
unknown author of a Commentary on the
Thirteen Epistles of Paul, a work which
was commonly ascribed to Ambrose of
Milan. Opinions differ as to whether the
real author is Hilary of Poitiers, or
Hilarius, prefect of Rome, or Isaac the
Jew, a professed convert.
American and Foreign Bible So-
ciety (Baptist). Founded April, 1837,
as a result of the Baptist difficulty with
the American Bible Society. (See Amer-
ican Bible Society.) It was agreed that
in English the commonly received version
should be used. This led to a further
split in 1850 and the founding of the
American Bible Union.
American Bible Society. Headquar-
ters at New York. “A voluntary asso-
ciation, which has for its object the cir-
culation of the Holy Scriptures in the
commonly received version without note
or comment.” Its formation was sug-
gested by the success of the British and
Foreign Bible Society. During the Revo-
lutionary War, Congress, because of the
scarcity of Bibles, voted in 1777 to print
30,000 copies, and when, on account of
American Bible Union
17
A. Li. P. B.
want of type and paper, this could not he
done, a committee was directed to import
20,000 copies from Europe. When the
embargo, however, prevented this, Con-
gress in 1782 passed a resolution in favor
of an edition of the Bible published by
Robert Aitkin, of Philadelphia, which it
pronounced “a pious and laudable under-
taking, subservient to the interests of re-
ligion.” The number of copies issued did
not meet the demand, and the price was
beyond the reach of the poor. Local, in-
dependent Bible societies were formed,
and at the suggestion of the Rev. Samuel
,T. Mills a circular was issued in 1815 by
the Bible Society of New Jersey to the
several Bible societies in the country, in-
viting them to meet in New York the
ensuing year. On May 8, 1816, a con-
vention was held at New York, sixty
delegates representing thirty-five Bible
societies in ten States and the District
of Columbia. Elias Boudinot was chosen
president. All the original officers gave
their labors gratuitously. The first paid
officer was John Nitchie, agent and ac-
countant since 1810. The constitution
provided that only the text of the King
James Version be used. The principles
of this English version were to be fol-
lowed in the translations, that is, they
should adhere strictly to the original
text and not feature the doctrines of any
particular church. In 1822 the Bible
House on Nassau Street was erected and
in 1852 the Bible House in Astor Place.
In 1835 Baptist missionaries in Burma
published, with funds of the Society,
translations into Burmese, in which the
Greek words baptismos and baptizo were
rendered by words signifying immersion
and to immerse. The managers, in ac-
cordance with the constitution, refused
to publish such versions, because they
had the force of a comment. Many of
the Baptist churches took offense at this
action, and after a heated and protracted
controversy many Baptists withdrew from
the Society.
American Bible Union. Organized
in 1850 by seceders from the American
and Foreign Bible Society. A special
aim of the society was to revise the com-
mon English version. llaptismos was in
their version rendered by “immersion,”
and baptizein by “immerse.” Even among
Baptists the Society met with opposition.
American Board of Commissioners
for Foreign Missions. Founded Sep-
tember 5, 1810, by the General Associa-
tion of Congregational Churches of Mas-
sachusetts, at Bradford, Mass. First
missionaries sent out were Adoniram
Judson, Samuel Newell, Samuel Nott,
Concordia Cyclopedia
and others, 1812, to India. In 1812 the
Presbyterian churches resolved to work
through the American Board; in 1814
the Associate Reformed Church joined;
in 1816 the Dutch Reformed Church;
later again the German Reformed
Church. In 1825 the Presbyterian
United Foreign Missions Society, formed
for work among the Indians, by resolu-
tion turned over its work to the Ameri-
can Board. A separation of the Old-
school people took place in 1837. The
New-school Presbyterians continued the
relation until 1870 and then withdrew to
join the reunited Presbyterian Board,
In 1857 the Reformed Dutch withdrew
to organize their own Foreign Missions
Board. They were followed in quick suc-
cession by the Associate Reformed Pres-
byterians and the German Reformed
Church. Since 1870 the American Board
represents practically only Congrega-
tional Churches.
There is no purely American society
that has engaged more extensively in
foreign mission work than the American
Board. Associated with it are several
women’s societies. Fields: Asia: Japan,
Korea (Chosen), China, Philippine
Islands, India, Ceylon, Transcaucasia,
Asiatic Turkey, Syria; Africa: Angola,
Union of South Africa, Southern Rho-
desia, Portuguese East Africa; Oceania:
Micronesia; North America: Mexico;
Europe: Turkey, Bulgaria, Czechoslo-
vakia, Spain.
American Catholic Church. An in-
dependent organization of Roman Catho-
lics, who have outwardly severed their
relation with the Church of Rome, but
still adhere to its doctrines. See Old
Catholics.
American Lutheran Publicity Bu-
reau. Owing to the fact that the Lu-
theran Church was little known by the
American people and also much mis-
understood, and being therefore convinced
that the Lutheran Church, its doctrines,
and its work, ought to be given more
publicity, the American Lutheran Pub-
licity Bureau was organized in New York
City in 1913 (1914). The constitution
adopted October 26, 1920, being essen-
tially the same as that adopted at tlie
organization, says that the object of the
A. L. P. B. shall be “to make known the
teachings, principles, practise, and his-
tory of the Lutheran Church by spread-
ing proper literature, by lecture courses,
through the public press, and by means
of other publicity methods.” “Any com-
municant member of a congregation con-
nected with the Synodical Conference or
of a congregation in doctrinal affiliation
2
“American Lutheranism”
18
American Rescue Workers
with the Synodical Conference, or a so-
ciety connected with such a congregation,
or such a congregation may become a
member of the American Lutheran Pub-
licity Bureau on payment of at least one
dollar annual dues.” The Bureau has a
Free Tract Fund and a Free Bible Fund.
Its official magazine is the American Lu-
theran. The work is supported by the
annual dues and by voluntary contribu-
tions. A board of directors, consisting
of the officers and an even number of
pastors and laymen, the total member-
ship not exceeding twenty-four, conducts
the Bureau’s business in the intervals be-
tween the meetings of the general body.
“American Lutheranism,” falsely so
called, was a movement fathered by S. S.
Sclimucker, B. Kurtz, S. Sprecher, and
other leaders of the General Synod about
the middle of the nineteenth century. It
was “essentially Calvinistic, Methodistic,
Puritanic, indifferentistic, and unionistic,
hence nothing less than truly Lutheran;
denied and assailed every doctrine dis-
tinctive of Lutheranism . . .; attacked
what was most sacred to Luther and
most prominent in the Lutheran Con-
fessions.” It was sponsored by B. Kurtz
in the Observer, by Weyl in Luth. Hirten-
stimme, and later by the American Lu-
theran (18(15). The promoters of this
movement called the champions of the
Lutheran Confessions “Symbolists” and
pictured them as “extremists of the most
dangerous sort.” American Lutheranism
was the result of fraternizing with the
sects, of the influence of the Prussian
Union, and of the Methodistic revivals,
and the reaction against the confes-
sionalism of the Tennessee Synod and the
Missouri Synod, as well as against the
awakening Lutheran consciousness in
other circles. Though decrying the Lu-
theran Confessions, the leaders of the
movement proposed a “Definite Plat-
form” ( q. v. ) as a confession of faith on
which -they hoped to unite the Lutheran
Church of America. The movement
finally led to the disruption of the Gen-
eral Synod in 1866, but its spirit still
survives in some quarters in the twen-
tieth century.
American Protective Association.
( A. P. A. ) History : A secret, proscrip-
tive society, an offshoot of the political
secret society known as the Know-noth-
ing Party. The A. P. A. was founded by
Hy. F. Bowers, a lawyer, at Clinton,
Iowa, in 1887, to combat the political
machinations of the Roman Catholic
Church, especially its attacks upon the
public school. After 1892 it spread
rapidly, absorbing many of the older
patriotic orders, until in 1896 it counted
from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 members. Its
woman auxiliary is known as the Wom-
en’s Historical Society. A split in the
association, in 1895, resulted in the for-
mation of the National Assembly Patri-
otic League, which, however, did not
survive long. In recent years the Amer-
ican Protective Association has been in-
active. In 1923, however, the Fellowship
Forum (Masonic) noted “evidences of
awakened activity.” (Cp. Vol. Ill, No. 2,
p. 4, June 30, 1923.) — Objects: 1) “Per-
petual separation of Church and State.
2 ) Undivided fealty to the Republic.
3) Acknowledgment of the right of the
State to determine the scope of its own
jurisdiction. 4) Maintenance of a free,
non-sectarian system of education. 5 ) Pro-
hibition of any Government grant or spe-
cial privilege to any sectarian body what-
ever. 6) Purification of the ballot.
7) Temporary suspension of immigra-
tion. 8) Equal taxation of all except
public property. 9) Prohibition of con-
vict labor and the subjection to public
inspection of all private institutions
where persons of either sex are secluded
with or against their consent.” — Meth-
ods of Work: The A. P. A. endeavored to
further its cause by lectures, pamphlets,
periodicals, and the public press, which
it influenced against the parochial school.
In 1894 there were about 70 A. P. A.
weeklies in existence. — Religious As-
pects: The A. P. A. maintained a secret
ritual and obligated its members by an
oath of secrecy. A complete discussion
is found in the Congressional Record of
October 31, 1893.
American Rescue Workers. This
branch of the Salvation Army originated
in 1882, when Thomas E. Moore, who had
come to America to superintend the work
here, withdrew from the organization be-
cause of differences between himself and
General Booth in regard to the financial
administration and began independent
work. This movement was incorporated
in 1884, and in 1885 an amended charter
was granted to it under the name of
“Salvation Army of America.” Subse-
quent changes in the Salvation Army in
the United States resulted in the return
of a considerable number of officers to
that organization, but about 25 posts re-
fused to return, and these reorganized
Tinder the name of “American Salvation
Army.” In 1913 the name was changed
to “American Rescue Workers.” In its
general doctrine and polity this body is
very similar to the older one, except that
it is a Christian Church, with the usual
Sacraments of Baptism and the Lord’s
Supper, rather than an evangelistic or
American S. S. Union
19
Anabaptists
philanthropic organization. However,
the organization does general philan-
thropic work. Statistics of 1910 : 29 or-
ganizations, (ill members, 2 church edi-
fices, 13 Sunday-schools, and 438 pupils.
American Sunday-School Union.
“The First-day or Sunday-school So-
ciety,” organized in Philadelphia, Janu-
ary 11, 1791, composed of members of
different denominations, including the
Society of Friends, was the first general
Sunday-school organization. The teach-
ers were paid for their services. The
Hew York Sunday-school Union was or-
ganized in 1810; the Philadelphia Sun-
day- and Adult School Union in 1817.
The last-named organization was in 1824
merged in the American Sunday-school
Union. It is composed of members be-
longing to different denominations, pub-
lishes Sunday-school literature, founds
Sunday-schools, and distributes Bibles
and tracts.
Ammon, Christoph Friedrich von;
b. 1700, d. 1850 at Dresden as court-
preaclier and vice-president of the con-
sistory; considered the most skilful de-
fender of popular rationalism.
Amsdorf, Nicholas von; b. 1483,
d. 1505. One of first students at Wit-
tenberg in 1502; professor; intimate
with Luther; went with him to Worms
without a safe-conduct. In 1542 Luther
consecrated him Bishop of Naumburgj
ousted after Battle of Muehlberg. Op-
posed Interim. Faithful to the captive
John Frederick. After 1552 at Eisenach,
without office, but actually at head of
church affairs. “Good works are harm-
ful to salvation,” he said against Ma-
jor’s: “Good works are necessary to sal-
vation.”
Amice. See Vestments, R. O'.
Amulets. The wearing of amulets, or
charms, objects supposed to have magical
power of warding off danger and pro-
tecting against evil spirits, has been al-
most universal among pagans in all ages.
The semipagan influx of the fourth cen-
tury brought them into the Christian
Church, where they were denounced as
a species of idolatry. The increasing
degeneracy of the Church, however, per-
mitted them to survive under a Chris-
tian coloring. Relics enclosed in costly
cases, called phylacteries, were worn as
potent protectors; holy water, blessed
salt, and consecrated wafers were car-
ried on the person. Contact with the
East during the Crusades multiplied the
talismans and charms of the supersti-
tious Middle Ages. Roman writers
strongly denounce the use of amulets,
but it is not easy to see wherein these
differ from the objects worn by devout
Romanists — tlie endless variety of scap-
ulars (q.v.), crosses, medals, and medal-
lions, all blessed or consecrated by con-
tact with relies, and supposed, for that
reason, to have definite power of protect-
ing the wearers. Rome seems, by suel;
objects, to foster among her adherents
reliance in a kind of ecclesiastical magic,
as she does by certain peculiar practises,
e. g., the sprinkling of fields with holy
water as a sacred insecticide and a
“magic manure.”
Anabaptists. (Ana [Greek], again,
and baptizo [Greek], I baptize.) A name
given to those who reject infant baptism
and rebaptize sucli as join their com-
munion, maintaining that this Sacra-
ment is not valid unless administered by
immersion and to persons who are able
to give an account of their faith. The
Anabaptist sect originated at Zwickau,
Saxony, in 1520. Its leaders, by their
lawless fanaticism, completely separated
themselves from the cause of the Refor-
mation and with the subject of adult
baptism connected principles destructive
of all religious and civil order. The
most eminent of its early leaders were
Thomas Muenzer, Mark Stuebner, and
Nicholas Storck, who had been disciples
of Luther, but, becoming dissatisfied
with the moderate character of his Ref-
ormation, cast off liis authority and at-
tempted to bring about more sweeping
changes in the reformation of the
Church. During Luther’s absence from
Wittenberg, in 1521, they began to
preach their doctrines there. They laid
claim to supernatural powers, declared
they saw visions, uttered “prophecies,”
and gained a large number of proselytes;
for the ferment which the great religi-
ous events in Central Europe had pro-
duced in tlie minds of men rendered them
impatient of the existing order of things,
socially and politically as well as spir-
itually. In 1525, incited by the revolu-
tionary harangues of Muenzer and his
revolutionists, the peasants of Suabia,
Thuringia, and Franconia, who had been
much oppressed by their feudal superi-
ors, rose in arms and began a sanguinary
struggle chiefly for political emancipa-
tion. The Anabaptist leaders, having
cast their lot with the insurgent peas-
antry, became their leaders in battle.
After some time of watchful waiting,
during which Luther requested the peas-
ants to submit to law and order and,
after his requests had been refused, he
called upon the magistrates to enforce
order, the allied princes of the emperor,
led by Philip, Landgrave of Hesse, put
down the revolution. Muenzer was de-
Anatolia
ao
Ancestor Worship
feated, captured, the torture applied to
liim, and ultimately beheaded. In 153.3
some extreme Anabaptists from Holland,
led by a baker called John Matthias, or
Matthiesen, and a tailor, John Boekliold,
or Bockelson, both extremists, seized
on the City of Muenster, Westphalia,
which had adopted the doctrines of the
Reformation, with a view to setting up
in it a spiritual kingdom, in which, at
least nominally, Christ should reign.
The name of Muenster was changed to
Mount Zion, and Matthias became its
actual king. In a sally against the
Bishop of Muenster, who had laid siege
to the city, Matthias lost his life, and
the sovereignty and prophetic office de-
volved on John Boekliold. Muenster now
became a theater of all the excesses of
fanaticism, lust, and cruelty. The intro-
duction of polygamy and the neglect of
civil order concealed from the infatuated
people the avarice and madness of their
young tyrant. Bockhold, under the name
of John of Leyden, lived in princely lux-
ury and magnificence, sent out specious
proclamations against neighboring rul-
ers, — against the Pope and Luther, —
threatened to destroy with his mob all
who differed from him, and finally made
himself an object of terror to his own
subjects by frequent executions, while
famine and pestilence raged in the city.
On June 24, 1535, the Bishop of Muen-
ster reattacked the city by force of arms,
and Bockhold and two of his most active
companions, Knipperdolling and Krech-
ting, were tortured to death with red-
hot pincers and then hung up in iron
cages on St. Lambert’s steeple at Muen-
ster for the purpose of terrifying all
rebels. In the mean time some of the
26 “apostles” who had been sent out by
Bockhold to extend the limits of his
kingdom had been successful in various
near-by cities. Among these Anabaptist
prophets the most celebrated were Mel-
chior Hoffmann and David Joris.
Anatolia. See Asia Minor.
Ancestor Worship. Worship of the
spirits of deceased parents or forefathers,
a widely spread cult, found among the
savage and barbaric peoples of Poly-
nesia, Melanesia, India, Southern and
Western Africa, North and South
America. It plays a prominent role in
the religious life of China and Japan
and among the ancients was practised by
the Babylonians and especially by the
Romans. The cult is based on the uni-
versal belief in the existence of an im-
material part of man which leaves the
body at death ( see A nimism ) . The de-
ceased, furthermore, is believed to have
the same kindly interest in the affairs
of the living as when alive and to inter-
fere in the course of events for the wel-
fare of the family or clan. He is able
to protect his relatives, help them in
war, give them success in their under-
takings, and therefore demands their
continued service, reverence, and sacri-
fices; or he may bring diseases, storms,
or other misfortunes upon them, if his
worship is neglected. The motive, there-
fore, which induces survivors to worship
their ancestors is not only filial respect
and love, but frequently also fear, often
a mixture of both. With the ancient
Romans ancestor worship was a sort of
family religion. Masks or images, em-
bodying the manes, i. e., the spirits of
the deceased, who had become gods of
the lower world, were set up in the-
homes, altars were erected, sacrifices
made, and prayers offered to them in the
same manner as to the pendtes, the pro-
tecting spirits of the household. The
Hindus bring sacrifices to the pitris
(patres), the divine spirits of deceased
ancestors, and implore them for assist-
ance. In China ancestor worship is
universal. Tablets of wood bearing the
name and date of birth and death of the
deceased are found in every home, and
incense and paper are daily burned be-
fore them. Frequently an entire room
is set aside for this purpose, and a rich
family will erect a separate building.
The oldest son especially is obligated to
perform this worship, from which fact
comes the great desire for male offspring
and the little regard paid to girl babies.
In the first part of April a general wor-
ship of ancestors is observed with sacri-
fices, libations, burning of candles, in-
cense, and paper. From China ancestor
worship passed to Japan, where, too, it
became firmly established.
Besides actual worship of the spirits
of the deceased there has been prevalent
among many races the custom of supply-
ing the dead with things which they en-
joyed while alive, under the assumption
that they needed them as much in the
other world as in the present. Food,
clothing, utensils, and weapons were
placed in the tomb, as was done by the
ancient Egyptians. Among some savage
races the dead man’s wife, servants, and
favorite animals were killed or buried
alive with their former master. How-
ever, as this was done to minister to his
needs, not to implore him for help, such
practises alone are not ancestor worship
in the strict sense.
Associated with ancestor worship is
the belief in the possibility of communi-
cating with the spirits of the dead and
Anchoritex
21
Ancient IinnguaKes
obtaining their counsel and assistance in
times of danger and misfortune through
the agency of medicine-men, wizards, or
seers (see Spiritism). There is also a
widely prevalent belief that ancestors are
reincarnated in new-born children, for
which see Transmigration. Ancestor
worship has in some cases developed into
idol worship, and the Roman worship of
the manes was the substructure upon
which developed the worship of saints in
the Roman Catholic Church.
Anchorites. See Hermits.
Ancient Languages. The term em-
braces principally classical Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew and, as a result of modern
researches and excavations, the languages
of ancient Egypt, Syria, Babylonia, As-
syria, etc. - — Latin was the language of
the founders of Rome. In the wake of
Roman conquests it spread until it be-
came the almost universal language of
the Western civilized world. Writers of
the Golden Age, as Cicero, Caesar, Vir-
gil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, etc., exhibit the
literary language, Lingua Latina, in its
fullest maturity. The language of the
people, into which foreign forms and
idioms were subsequently introduced by
Goths, Vandals, and Longobards, was
called Lingua Itonuma Bustioa, from
which developed the Romance languages :
Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese,
and Rumanian. As a result of the Nor-
man-French Conquest also the English
language contains many Latin elements.
The Latin language was perpetuated,
though in a state of deterioration, in the
Western Church (Church Latin) and for
centuries remained the ecclesiastical and
official language of Europe. As a lan-
guage, Latin, in general, resembles the
English in simplicity and directness of
expression, though, unlike the Greek and
German languages, it lacks the flexibility
and the power of forming compounds. — -
Greek, like Latin an Indo-Germanie lan-
guage, originally comprised a number of
dialects, often grouped as Ionic, Doric,
and Aeolic. The Attic, or the Ionic
group, gradually became the chief liter-
ary dialect; used by classical writers
and taken as norm by grammarians.
Classical writers : Homer, Sappho, Pin-
dar, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Xenophon,
Demosthenes, Plato, Aristotle, etc. Fol-
lowing the conquests of Alexander, 330
B. C., Greek spread over great parts of
Asia, and thus arose the common dialect,
Koine, Hellenistic Greek, tinged with
local peculiarities (Septuagint and New
Testament). The difference between the
literary language and the Koine in-
creased, until the latter gradually sup-
planted the former. With 800 A. D. the
period of modern Greek may be said to
have begun. Since the establishment of
the Greek kingdom, 1830, there has been
a strong movement toward purification
of modern Greek and a closer conformity
to the ancient idiom. Greek is the oldest
classical language of Europe. Its variety
of forms and its great power to form
new word compounds make it one of the
most flexible and most beautiful lan-
guages; its literature exerted a domi-
nating influence upon the literary types
employed by other European nations. —
Hebrew, a Semitic language, was spoken
by the Ibrim, as the Israelites were
called. The books of the Old Testa-
ment, except parts in Daniel and Ezra,
were written in this tongue. The Hebrew
characters at first very much resembled
those of the Phenicians. The present
square writing came into vogue after the
return of the Jews from exile. The al-
phabet contains 22 characters. The an-
cient text ( k’thibh , the written) con-
tained only consonants; the vowels were
supplied later by the Masorites, ca. 600
A. D., and were called k’ri (to be read).
The chief part of the grammar is the
verb, whose seven formations, conjuga-
tions, are expressive of various relations.
Since the exile, Hebrew ceased to be the
current speech of the Jews. In Pales-
tine they adopted the Aramaic and out-
side of Palestine the language of the
people among whom they had settled.
But Hebrew maintained its sway as the
language of Holy Writ and as the official
language of the synagog and was there-
fore cultivated both by the learned and
the masses. The Hebrew of the Middle
Ages and the New Hebrew are modeled
entirely after the Biblical type, but are
now nowhere used as exclusive means of
communication. — Aramaic, a Semitic
language spoken by the Arameans north-
east of Palestine, was used as a medium
of international communication already
in the time of the later Assyrian
(2 Kings 18, 26) and Chaldean empires
and gradually became the vernacular of
many nations. During the Babylonian
Captivity the Jews also adopted the Ara-
maic dialect spoken in Babylon, and por-
tions of Ezra (6, 8 — 18; 7, 12 — 26) and
of Daniel (2, 4 — 7, 28) were written in
Aramaic. At the time of Christ, Aramaic
was spoken throughout Palestine and
was probably the language which our
Lord spoke.
The study of any language is of great
cultural value. This is especially true
of the study of Latin, Greek, and He-
brew because of their determining in-
fluence upon modern languages and liter-
Anderson, Lars
22
Angelola.tr y
atures. These ancient languages are im-
portant to us for the reason that during
the Middle Ages and the Reformation
Period theological and scientific works
were written in Latin, the New Testa-
ment was originally written in Greek,
and the Old Testament in Hebrew.
Knowledge of these languages, therefore,
will facilitate not only the study of many
a modern language and help us to under-
stand modern culture, but will also en-
able us to read the Word of God in the
language in which it was revealed.
Anderson, Lars, b. about 1480; bishop
of Strengnaes; chancellor of Sweden
since 1523; had confidence of Gustavus
Vasa; aided Olavus and Laurentius Pe-
tri, or Peterson, in the work of the Ref-
ormation; translated the New Testament
into Swedish; conspired against the
king, who ruthlessly interfered with the
rights of the Church, and barely escaped
death in 1540; died, poor and neglected,
in 1552.
Anderson, Maria Frances, nee Hill
(1819 — 1900), wife of professor at Uni-
versity of Lewisburg, Pa.; Baptist, pub-
lished works in prose; among her
hymns; “Our Country’s Voice is Plead-
ing.”
Andreae, Jakob, b. 1528. Studied at
Tuebingen; at eighteen preacher at
Stuttgart; chancellor of Tuebingen; ac-
tive reformer in all Southern Germany;
confessed his faith before King Antony
of Navarre at Paris and discussed it with
the Patriarch Jeremiah of Constanti-
nople; failed to unite the Flaeians and
Philippists at Zerbst in 1570; preached
six sermons on the disputed points; re-
vised again and again the basis of the
Formula of Concord; the Church owes
the Formula,, next to Chemnitz, to him.
“Unparted from God,” he died 1590. - —
His grandson, Johann Valentin Andreae ,
b. 1586, studied at Tuebingen; insisted
on pure morals as well as pure doctrine;
called to Calev in 1020; pioneer in In-
ner Mission work; called to Stuttgart in
1639; labored to educate ministers and
to introduce church discipline; d. 1654.
Andreen, Dr. Gustav Albert, educa-
tor, college president; b. 1864 in Porter,
Ind. ; educated chiefly at Augustana Col-
lege, Rock Island, 111., and Yale; in-
structor at Augustana College, 1882 — 84;
professor of languages at Bethany Col-
lege, Kans. ; professor at Yale; presi-
dent of Augustana College since 1901 ;
author of Det Svenska Sprocket i Arne-
rika, Studies in the German Idyl, His-
tory of the Educational Work of the
Augustana Synod.
Angelicals, Order of. An order of
Augustinian nuns, founded at Milan
about 1530, now extinct for nearly a cen-
tury. Every member adopted the name
“Angelica.”
Angelieus, Doctor. See Thomas
Aquinas.
Angel of the Lord. The special, un-
created Angel of the Old Testament, the
Son of God as He appeared to the be-
lievers of the Old Testament upon vari-
ous occasions. The Angel of the Lord,
we are told, appeared to Hagar in the
wilderness, Gen. 16, 7 ff. ; later again,
Gen. 21, 17; in company with two cre-
ated angels He visits Abraham in Mamre
and also rescues Lot from Sodom, Gen.
18 and 19; He appears to Abraham as he
is about to sacrifice Isaac, Gen. 22, 11; to
Jacob at Bethel, Gen. 31, 11 — 13; cf. 28,
10 ff.; Jacob wrestles with Him at Pe-
niel, Gen. 32, 24 (cf. Hos. 12, 3 — 5) ; Ja-
cob asks Him to bless the sons of Joseph,
Gen. 48, 16; He appears to Moses in the
burning bush, Ex. 3; goes before the
camp of Israel, Ex. 14, 19; God warns
Israel not to provoke Him, Ex. 23, 20 f . ;
is again promised to Israel after they
had committed idolatry with the golden
calf, Ex. 32, 34; 33, 1 — 12; leads them
to Kadesh, Num. 20, 16; appears to Ba-
laam, Num. 22, 22 ff.; appears to Joshua
as the Captain of the Lord's host, Josh.
5, 13 — 6, 2; comes to Bochim, Judg. 2,
1 — 4; tells Israel to curse Meroz, Judg.
5, 23; appears to Gideon, Judg. 6, 11 ;
to Manoali and his wife, Judg. 13, 2 ff. ;
His name is used in a proverbial expres-
sion, 1 Sam. 29, 9; 2 Sam. 14, 17. 20;
19, 27; when David had numbered Is-
rael, the Angel of the Lord stretched
His hand over Jerusalem to destroy it,
2 Sam. 24, 10 ff.; 1 Chron. 22, 15—30;
He appears to Elijah under the juniper-
tree, 1 Kings 19, 5 — 7 ; sends Elijah to
Aliaziah, 2 Kings 1, 1 — 3; smites 185,000
Assyrians, 2 Kings 19,35; 2 Chron. 32,21 ;
Is. 37, 36; David mentions Him, Ps. 34, 7;
35, 5. 6; Isaiah calls Him the Angel of
God’s presence, Is. 63, 9; He appears to
Zechariah, who mentions His name,
1, 8 ff. ; 3, 1 ff. ; 12, 8; and Malaclii calls
Him the Messenger, or Angel, of the
Covenant, Mai. 3, 1.
Angelolatry. That angelolatry, the
worshiping of angels, was practised very
early is evident from the condemnation
voiced in Col. 2, 18. This passage, to-
gether with Rev. 22, 8. 9, long kept this
unscriptural cult in check. Eusebius,
Augustine, and even Pope Gregory the
Great reproved it, and the Council of
Laodicea called it disguised idolatry.
With the increasing veneration of im-
Angels, the Good
23
Angels, the Good
ages and saints (gg.v.), the invocation
of angels also gained vogue, was sanc-
tioned by the Second Council of Nicea
(787), and has since been practised in
the Roman and Greek Churches. The
Gatechismus Romanus (III, 2, 8) says:
“That also must carefully be taught in
the explanation of this Commandment
[the First], that the veneration and in-
vocation of the holy angels ... is not
contrary to this law. For though the
Christians are said to adore the angels,
according to the example of the saints of
the Old Testament [ ! ] , they nevertheless
do not show them that veneration which
they give God.” Evidently any cult that
lacks Scriptural warrant is man-made
and infringes on the worship due to God.
Angels, the Good. The word angel
literally means a messenger and is so
translated Luke 7, 24, etc. It generally
stands for the messengers of God, the
unseen citizens of heaven, who are con-
tinually doing the bidding of the Most
High. Ps. 104, 4; Matt. 4, G; Heb. 2, 7.
The “angels of the seven churches” in
Revelation are evidently the pastors of
these churches. “Angel of the Lord” is
an Old Testament term for the Second
Person of the Holy Trinity. See article
on Angel of the Lord.
According to their nature the angels
are creatures, Col. 1, 10, and are mem-
bers of the great family of God under the
Head, Jesus Christ, Eph. 1, 10; 3, 15.
Their characteristic is spirituality. Heb.
1, 14. They are personal, conscious, in-
telligent beings, who differ from men in
the completeness of their spiritual na-
ture, which does not require a body in
order to constitute a personality. The
angels are endowed with knowledge,
power, and the ability of free locomotion.
They recognize the depth and glory of
the divine counsels, but grow in their
knowledge of God’s plan of salvation as
they see it in process of completion.
Matt. 24, 36; 1 Pet. 1, 12; Eph. 3, 10.
By reason of their great power — evi-
denced in mighty acts of judgment,
Gen. 19; 2Kingsl9, 35; Matt. 13, 49. 50;
they “excel in strength” Ps. 103, 20. 21
— they are given tremendous titles :
Thrones, Principalities, Powers, etc.,
Rom. 8,38; Eph. 1,21; 3,10; Col. 2, 10;
1, 16; 1 Pet. 3, 22; 2 Pet. 2, 10. Their
power is employed in the preservation of
the faithful. Dan. 3, 25; Acts 5, 19; 12, 7.
In numbers the angels are so great
that the word “hosts” is characteristic
of them. They are “many thousands,”
myriads, millions of them. Deut. 33, 2;
Dan. 7, 10. As such they were created,
since their multiplication by natural in-
crease is excluded. Matt. 22, 30.
While some of the angels fell (sec
article Devil), the rest have been con-
firmed in their state of innocency.
Theirs is not only an ability not to sin,
but an inability to sin, Matt. 18, 10; and
they are for this reason called the Holy
Ones of God, Ps. 89, 7; Luke 9, 26, and
elsewhere. The passage Job 4, 18 marks
the difference between the absolute holi-
ness of God and the sinlessness of the
angels. The knowledge of their pres-
ence should fill us with holy dread.
1 Cor. 11, 10.
Whenever angels have been made mani-
fest to man, it lias always been in human
form. Gen. 18 and 19; Luke 24, 4; Acts
I, 10, etc. Of what these bodies in which
they were . clothed for intercourse with
man consisted is a question unanswered
in Scripture. Whenever they appeared
in human form, it was in order to bring
a message or perform some service
among men as agents of God’s provi-
dence. The operation of natural forces
is sometimes described as fulfilling the
will of God under angelic guidance as in
the case of pestilence. Ex. 12, 23; Heb.
II, 28; 1 Cor. 10, 10; 2 Sam. 24, 16.
The plagues which cut off the army of
Sennacherib, 2 Kings 19, 35, and which
ended the career of Herod, Acts 12, 23,
are plainly attributed to the work of an
angel. — But by far the most numerous
appearances of angels are those con-
nected with the scheme of redemption
and the sanctification of man. The
angels mingled with, and watched over,
the family of Abraham. Angelic guid-
ance was withheld when the prophetic
office began with Samuel, except when
needed by the prophets themselves.
1 Kings 19, 5; 2 Kings 6, 17. But dur-
ing and after the Babylonian Captivity,
angels are again announced to Daniel
and Zecliariah as watching over the
national life of Israel.
In the New Testament age the angels
are revealed as ministering spirits to
each individual member of Christ. While
their visible appearances are unfrequent
after the Incarnation, their presence and
their aid are referred to familiarly al-
most as a thing of course. They watch
over Christ’s little ones, Matt. 18, 10;
they rejoice over penitent sinners, Luke
15, 10; they attend the worship of Chris-
tians, 1 Cor. 11, 10; they bear the souls
of the redeemed into paradise, Luke
16, 22. In all these employments the
angels do not act independently, but as
the instruments of God and by His com-
mand.
Of the angels, several are mentioned
by name. Gabriel was the messenger
sent to Daniel, to the father of John the
Angelas
24
Annlhllntlonlsm
Baptist, and to the mother of our Lord.
The name means “champion of God.”
Michael (“Who is like God?”), another
of the archangels or angels of higher
rank, is described in Daniel as having
special charge of the Israelites and in
Jude as disputing with Satan about the
body of Moses. The nature and method
of his war against Satan are not re-
vealed to us. See also under Cherubim
and Seraphim.
Angel us. A devotion repeated by
Roman Catholics three times a day, at
morning, noon, and night, when the bells
sound three times three strokes, with in-
tervals between. It ordinarily consists
of three “Hail Marys!” with versicles
and a prayer; in paschal time a hymn
to the Virgin ( Regina Coeli) is substi-
tuted. An indulgence of a hundred days
is gained for each recitation, with a
plenary indulgence once a month.
Anglo-Saxons, Conversion of. When
the Angles and their confederates, under
Hengist and Horsa, conquered England,
beginning with 449, they almost eradi-
cated Christianity, which had been estab-
lished several centuries before. But at
the end of the next century King Ethel-
bert of Kent (560-—616) married a Chris-
tian princess, Bertha of Paris, who
brought with her a Christian chaplain,
Liudhard. The first obstacles having
thus been removed, the emissary of Greg-
ory the Great, Augustine of Canterbury,
was able, in 596, to establish Christianity
in Kent, whence, in spite of various re-
verses, it spread to Northumbria, Wes-
sex, and the other parts of England,
Animism. Belief in, and worship of,
spirits; a form of religious belief cur-
rent among all non-civilized races and
also surviving in many superstitions and
folk-lore of modern civilized peoples.
Primitive man not only believes that he
has a soul and that this soul is separ-
able from the body, he also attributes
souls to all other living beings, animals
and plants, as well as to inanimate ob-
jects, such as the heavenly bodies,
springs, rocks, tools, weapons, etc. There
is also found a wide-spread belief in spir-
itual beings that are independent of
bodies and most of whom are malevolent,
causing illness and misfortune. The
whole life of such peoples is filled with
dread at these superhuman forces, and
their cult generally does not consist in
worship, but in sorcery and magic, in-
tended to subdue the spirits. Belief
that an independent spirit may enter a
material object and exert its influence
through it leads to fetishism (q.v.). Be-
lief in separable human souls and their
complete departure from the body at
death and subsequent intervention in the
affairs of the living leads to ancestor
worship (q. v.) and spiritism ( q . «.).
While Scripture, Rom. 1, 18 — 25, declares
that the heathen animistic and poly-
theistic conceptions are due to a per-
verted view of God’s manifestations in
nature, evolutionistic science of religion
assumes that animism is the lowest, or
one of the lowest, stages in the upward
development of religion. The phenomena
of sleep, dreams, trance, and death con-
vinced primitive man that he possessed
a soul, separable from the body. He
then attributed similar souls to animals,
plants, and inanimate objects and finally
believed in spirits which are entirely dis-
embodied. Among the more civilized
peoples 1 some of these spirits eventually
developed into gods (polytheism, q. v.) .
Annihilationism. According to this
teaching the unrighteous pass out of ex-
istence utterly immediately after death,
or when they have suffered for a time in
hell, either in expiation of their guilt
or during a period of final probation.
The origin of such teachings is to be
found in the natural horror which men
feel when confronted with the idea of
eternal punishment. That the Church in
every age has believed and taught the
doctrine of eternal punishment is due to
the fact that we must either believe it or
else renounce the authority of the Bible.
If words can teach the doctrine, it is
taught in the Bible. Proof-texts are al-
most innumerable. Jesus sets forth this
doctrine in unmistakable terms. He con-
cludes His discourse on the Last Judg-
ment: “And these shall go away into
eternal punishment, but the righteous
into life eternal.” Matt. 25, 46. It is ab-
surd to argue that the adjective aionios
(eternal) has one sense in the first clause
and a different sense in the second clause.
“Their worm dieth not, and the fire is
not quenched,” Mark 9, 44. 46. 48. Cer-
tainly no temporary punishment could
justify such language. Jesus used fig-
ures denoting fixedness, permanency.
There are perverse men who welcome
any scrap of evidence that there is no
after-destiny. It would be something
like a bold challenge and an invitation
to continue in sin if men could believe
that they were to end their career in
a state of eternal forgetfulness of all
their trespasses and blasphemies. But
what a defeat of justice it would be
should a lifelong despiser of grace be
able in the end to seek his bed and sleep
forever ! Assuredly it would not be
judicial punishment for a desperately
wicked man just to be no more. Eternal
Anselm of Canterbury
25
Anthropomorphism
justice cannot allow such an easy get-off
for a hardened lawbreaker and criminal.
Among the arguments against annihi-
lationism the following are firmly
grounded in Scripture: 1) The different
degrees of punishment which the wicked
will suffer according to .tlieir works
proves that it does not consist in annihi-
lation, which admits of no degrees.
2) When God threatens the wicked with
recompensing tribulation and taking ven-
geance in flaming fire, 2 Thess. 1, does
this mean that God threatens to put an
end to their misery? 3) Moreover, this
destruction is not described as the con-
clusion of a succession of torments, hut
as taking place immediately after the
Last Judgment. 4) Everlasting destruc-
tion from the presence of the Lord can-
not mean annihilation. According to
Matt. 25, 41 the punishment of the wicked
will be the same as that of Satan. But
the punishment of wicked angels consists,
not in annihilation, but torment. Com-
pare also Rev. 20, 14; 21, 8. See also
Punishment, Eternal.
Anselm of Canterbury. Eminent
English prelate, called the father of me-
dieval Scholasticism ; b. at Aosta, Pied-
mont, 1033, d. at Canterbury, England,
1109. Son of wealthy parents, well edu-
cated, became* monk in 1000, succeeding
Lanfranc of Bee in Normandy as prior
in 1003 and advancing to the post of
abbot in 1078; became archbishop of
Canterbury, England, after the death of
Lanfranc, although he was prevented
from taking over the office till 1093.
Had many difficulties with the king of
England over rights and privileges, a
compromise being effected in 1107. In
character he was humble, kind of heart,
and charitable in judgment; had marked
success as teacher, and the common
people loved him; his most celebrated
writing Cur Deus Homo (Why God Be-
came Man).
Ansgar (Anskar). Apostle of Scan-
dinavia and first archbishop of Ham-
burg; b. near Corbie, France, ca. 801;
d. at Bremen, Germany, 865. Educated
at a monastery, he made rapid progress
and in 822 was sent as teacher and
preacher to Westphalia. Four years
later, when King Harold of Denmark
asked for men to evangelize his country,
Ansgar was among those chosen for the
task. When he was obliged to abandon
his work at the death of Autbert and the
downfall of Harold, he was sent to Swe-
den at the solicitation of an embassy
asking for missionaries and established
Christianity in that country, returning
in 831 to report to the emperor. Ansgar
was now given the bishopric of Hamburg
with the right to send missionaries into
all the northern lands and to consecrate
bishops for them. He tried to get a
firmer foothold in Denmark, especially
after 848, when he succeeded in getting
King Haarik to recognize Christianity
as a tolerated religion. His success in
his own diocese was most marked, and
he was deeply venerated by all who came
in contact with him. He is commonly
known as the Apostle of Denmark and
Sweden, or of Scandinavia.
Anstice, Joseph, 1808 — 1838, edu-
cated at Oxford; professor at King’s
College, London; author of several prize
poems; wrote: “Lord, in Thy Kingdom
There Shall Be No Aliens from Each
Other,” and others.
Anthem. A song, whose words are
usually taken from the Bible and set to
music, especially for the use of choirs,
the anthem differing in this feature from
the hymn, which is more properly used
by the congregation as such.
Anthony, St. The father of Chris-
tian monasticism; b. ca. 251 in Egypt;
d. 356. Said to have lived as a hermit
for eighty years. He organized hermit
colonies in which monks lived separately,
but met for religious services. Anthony
left no written rule.
Anthropology. That part of dog-
matics, or doctrinal theology, which re-
lates to man according to his creation,
his essential parts, his fall, and his sub-
sequent sinfulness.
Anthropomorphism. The Scriptural
mode of speech by which the possession
of human senses, limbs, and organs is at-
tributed to God. God is spoken of as
having a face, eyes, ears, a nose, a heart.
References are made to God’s arm, hand,
finger, etc. Gen. 3, 8; 4, 16; 6, 11; Ex.
33,12; Ps. 11, 4; 139,16; 10,17; 34,10;
Is. 22, 14; Ps. 18, 8; Ex. 6, 6; Is. 52, 10;
02, 8; Jer. 27, 5; Ex. 7, 4; 13, 3; Ps.
63, 9; 95, 4; Luke 11, 20; Jer. 31, 20.
According to the consonant teaching of
Scripture, God is not composed of a ma-
terial and an immaterial element, as we
are, consisting of body and soul; but is
simply spirit, complete in His spiritual
nature. When the Bible speaks of God
as possessing human parts or affections,
the purpose is to convey to the human
mind some notion of the ways of God in
His universe, especially with mankind.
The term anthropomorphism (anthro-
popathism, q. v . ) is also applied to the
heretical teaching which attributes to
God an actual body and human emotions.
The chief offenders in this respect are
to-day the Latter-day Saints (Mormons).
Orson Pratt, one of the early Mormon
Anthropomorphites
Antichrist
26
writers, declared: “The Father is a ma-
terial being. The substance of which He
is composed is wholly material.” Like
descriptions were applied by him to the
Son and the Holy Spirit. Brigham
Young declared of God: “He created
man as we create our children; for
there is no other process of creation.”
That God is a man, with human parts
and passions, is official Mormon doctrine.
B. H. Roberts goes so far as to say “that
man is the offspring of Deity, not in any
mystical sense, but actually; that man
has not only a Father in heaven, but a
mother also.”
Anthropomorphites. Men who be-
lieve and teach that the descriptions of
God found in Scriptures ascribing to
Him the possession of a human body and
members, together with all the other
human organs, human attributes, and
human passions, are to be taken liter-
ally. This view is not tenable in the
light of God’s clear revelation of Him-
self as a spirit; descriptions of this kind
are clearly intended to facilitate man’s
conception of God, but do not reveal His
true essence, except by analogy. See also
Audians.
Anthropopathism. The attributing
of human emotions, passions, suffering,
and attitudes to God, by which the Bible
accommodates itself to human thinking.
This idea must not be applied to the
essence of God. See also Anthropomor-
phism and Anthropomorphites.
Antichrist. In a general sense, all
false teachers, 1 John 2, 18; 4, 3; for
aTT suclrwTTTS eh a different gospel than
that which is revealed and taught in
Scripture are rebels, who place them-
selves in opposition to Christ and try to
usurp His place. But in addition to
these many antichrists there is one Anti-
christ in a special and specific sense,
namely, the one who is described at
length in Dan. 7 ; 11, 31 — 45; Rev. 10;
13; 17; 18; but particularly in 2 Thess.
2, 3 — 12. That there is an Antichrist in
this special sense is clearly shown in
1 Joh n 2, 18, where the one great adver-
sary of Christ and the true Church is
distinguished from the many antichrists :
“Ye have heard that Antichrist shall
come, and even now are there many anti-
christs.” In addition to the many false
teachers about whom John was con-
strained to complain, and who denied the
divinity of Christ, there was one great
deceiver to be expected, in whom the en-
mity against Christ would reach its
highest development. The special dis-
tinguishing characteristics of Antichrist
are given as follows: 1) His habitation,
or tabernacle, between two seas, Dan.
11,45, and on seven hills, Rev. 17,9 — 18.
2) The time of his appearance, soon
after the period of the apostles, 1 John
2, 18; 2 Thess. 2, 6. 7, and his contin-
uance till the second coming of the Lord,
2 Thess. 2, 8, The pride and wickedness
of the mystery of iniquity was already
at work before the end of the first cen-
tury, but its development was hindered
by the power of the empire and by the
person of its ruler (“.what withholdeth,”
“he who now letteth” = hindereth), so
that Antichrist could not presume upon
his full power until the might of the
Roman Empire was on the wane. 3 ) The
person of Antichrist, not indeed- Satan
himself, but by the working of Satan
with all power and signs and lying won-
ders. 2 Thess. 2, 9. It is not an indi-
vidual person who is here referred to,
but a collective person, one who repre-
sents or personifies a power. Cp. 1 John
2, 18. 22; 4, 3; 2 John 7. 4) The es-
sence of Antichrist’s person and position
described with the words “falling away”
(apostasy), “that man of sin,” “the son
of perdition.” The reference is to the
falling away from the true Christian re-
ligion, for the entire connection indi-
cates that the apostle is speaking of reli-
gious matters, not of social or political.
The expression of Antichrist is found in
signs and lying wonders and with all
deceivableness of unrighteousness, and
they who follow him have not received
the love of the truth, hut they are caught
in the meshes of a strong delusion, that
they believe a lie. 5) Th<^pl&ceAdLAnti;
christ is found. ja_tlie very temple of
God, in the Christian Church in its ex-
ternal or visible form) If a heathen
temple were meant, the Antichrist would
hardly be associated with the mystery of
iniquity, since his wickedness would be
evident to all from the outset. 6.) The
manner in which he conducts himself,
namely, in this, that lie opposes and
exalts himself above all that "is called
God, so that he as God sitteth in the
temple of God, showing himself that he
is God, holding his position in the midst
of the Christian Church and assuming
an authority to which he has no right.
He exalts himself above all those to
whom God has given certain functions
as His representatives on earth, that is,
the government and the estate of parents.
— Who is this Antichrist? If we take'
all these individual attributes and char-
acteristics together, the picture in its
entirety affords a full and adequate de-
scription of Romanism, with the Pope of
Rome as its head and representative, the
apotheosis of wickedness in high places.
Antichrist
27
Aiitilefgonieiiii
Popery represents the most complete fall-
ing away from the essence of the Chris-
tian religion. The chief and fundamen-
tal doctrine of the Bible, namely, that
a man is justified entirely and alone by
faith in Christ Jesus, has been officially
condemned and anathematized by the Ro-
man Church ( Resolutions of the Council
of Trent, Sess. VI, can. 11. 12. 20), and
the entire machinery of the Roman
Church is directed against this doctrine.
This is truly the most extreme form of
apostasy from the Christian religion, and
the personal representative of the Roman
Church, the Pope at Rome, is truly the
greatest adversary of Christ and of His
Church. As certainly as the Christian
Church consists of people who, by the
grace of God, believe that they are jus-
tified and saved without their own works,
by the mercy of God in Jesus Christ
alone, so certainly the Pope and his
Church pronounce the curse upon all
who so believe and teach. The very chil-
dren within the Roman Church, who
have become members of the Christian
Church by baptism, the Pope leads
astray from Christ by the subversion of
this fundamental doctrine of the Bible.
Moreover, popery is not outside the
Church, but in its very midst, because
it has Christians in its organization,
particularly the children who have been
baptized, and then also such adults as
rely upon the merits of Christ alone, in
spite of the many and continued at-
tempts to mislead them. And so far as
the position of popery in the world is
concerned, the Pope demands absolute
obedience to himself and his decrees. He
changes the words and commands of God
arbitrarily; he presumes to judge all,
but to be judged of none; he has even
claimed infallibility for himself. In
short, the entire picture of Antichrist,
as drawn in the Bible, agrees in every
particular with the Roman Church with
its official head, the Pope at Rome. —
The Lutheran Confessions, therefore, do
not hesitate to declare frequently, and
consistently, that the Pope is the true
Antichrist. This is shown on the basis
of his prohibition of marriage, of the
invocation of saints taught in the Roman
Church, of the abuse of the mass, and
other false and pernicious doctrines and
practises. “This teaching shows force-
fully that the Pope is the very Antichrist
(esse ip sum verum antichristum) , who
has exalted himself against Christ, be-
cause he will not permit Christians to
be saved without his power, which, never-
theless, is nothing, and is neither or-
dained nor commanded by God. This is
properly speaking, to exalt himself above
all that is called God, as Paul says,
2 These. 2, 4. Even the Turks and the
Tartars, great enemies of Christians as
they are, do not do this, but they allow
whoever wishes to believe in Christ, and
take bodily tribute and obedience from
Christians. !h§_ Pope, however, pro-
hibits this faith, saying that'to tursaved
a person must obey_him. This we are
unwilling to do, even though on this
account we must die in God’s name.
This all proceeds from the fact that the
Pope has wished to be called the supreme
head of the Christian Church by divine
right. Accordingly he had to make him-
self equal and superior to Christ, and
had to cause himself to be proclaimed
the head and then the lord of the Church,
and finally of the whole world, and
simply God on earth, until he had dared
to issue commands even to the angels in
heaven.” (Cone. Trigl., 475.) “Now it is
manifest that the Roman pontiffs, with
their adherents, defend (and practise)
godless doctrines and godless services.
And the marks (all the vices) of Anti-
christ plainly agree with the kingdom of
the Pope and his adherents. For Paul,
2 Ep. 2, 3, in describing to the Thessa-
lonians Antichrist, calls him an adver-
sary of Christ, who opposeth and ex-
alteth himself above all that is called
God. . . . He speaks therefore of one
ruling in the Church, and not of heathen
kings, and he calls this one the adver-
sary of Christ, because he will devise
doctrine conflicting with the Gospel, and
will assume to himself divine authority.”
( L . c., 515.) “This being the case, all
Christians ought to beware of becoming
partakers of the godless doctrine, blas-
phemies, and unjust cruelty of the Pope.
On this account they ought to desert and
execrate the Pope with his adherents as
the kingdom of Antichrist; just as
Christ has commanded Matt. 7, 15.”
( L . c., 517.) In this connection one
ought to study the entire tract Of the
Power and Primacy of the Pope, which
is appended to the Smaleald Articles of
the Lutheran Confessions, Cone. Trigl.,
503—527.
Antilegomena. Literally, “spoken
against, questioned by some,” certain
books of the New Testament concerning
which there was no unanimity, or at
least some degree of uncertainty in the
early Church with regard to their canon-
ieity (q. v.). They are distinguished
from homologoumena, or universally ac-
cepted books. Due to the fact that cer-
tain false teachers and other unauthor-
ized persons tried to have their writings
introduced into the Christian congrega-
tions (cp. 2 Thess, 2, 2; Luke 1, 1 — 3),
Antilles
28
Antlocli
it was necessary that the Christians
watched with the greatest care, lest false
gospels or letters he acknowledged, espe-
cially by being ascribed to true apostles
or disciples of these apostles. It was
due chiefly to this special vigilance that
the following hooks were not accepted
by the Church everywhere before the
latter part of the fourth century :
James, Jude, 2 and 3 John, 2 Peter,
Hebrews, and the Apocalypse. This was
due partly to conditions under which the
writings went out, partly to a degree of
uncertainty concerning their authorship.
Thus the author of Hebrews is not defi-
nitely known; the identity of the James
who is the author of the letter was not
altogether certain, and the content of the
letter was misunderstood; 2 and 3 John
are addressed to private persons and
were not made accessible to larger
circles; 2 Peter was most likely written
shortly before the death of the author
and had no definite addressees; Jude is
very short and has a very circumscribed
message; and the Apocalypse was under
suspicion on account of its nature. Over
against these objections it is to be noted
that all of these books are mentioned at
a very early date, some of them are re-
ferred to as early as the beginning of
the second century as apostolic writings,
and all of them were finally accepted by
the Church in the course of the fourth
century. See also Carthage, Canon of;
Canon of Hippo Regius. While doubts
have been expressed regarding the one
or the other of these books even by
orthodox Lutheran teachers, it may be
said that, in almost every case, the clear
apostolic doctrine, the depth of the ad-
monitions and of the entire presentation,
and the high prophetic insight into
events of the future almost compel one
to acknowledge them. Most of the ob-
jections voiced in recent centuries have
been satisfactorily met by earnest search-
ers after the truth.
Antilles. A name given to two groups
of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Vir-
tually all the West India Islands ex-
cept the Bahamas are included. The
Greater Antilles (see Cuba, Jamaica,
Haiti, Porto Rico) have a population of
about 6,700,000. The Lesser Antilles
(the Virgin Islands, the Caribbee Islands,
Barbados, the South America Islands)
have a population of 1,307,000. Great
Britain, France, Holland, and the United
States are represented in this group.
The colored race predominates in the
Antilles. In the Lesser Antilles, mis-
sion-work is carried on by the Apostolic
Holiness Union, the Presbyterian Church
in Canada, the National Baptist Conven-
tion, the African M. E. Church, the
Christian Missions in Many Lands, the
United Free Church of Scotland, the So-
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel,
the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary So-
ciety, the Moravian Church, the Baptist
Church in Trinidad. Total communi-
cants, 36,000.
Antinomian Controversy. Begun. in
1527 by Melanchthon’s urging the Law
to prevent the abuse of free grace, Agri-
cola of Eisleben holding the Law had no
place at all in the Church; the knowl-
edge of sin and contrition to be wrought,
not by the Law, but hy the Gospel. Lu-
ther made peace between the two. Pro-
fessor at Wittenberg in 1536 through
Luther’s influence, Agricola spread his
error in sermons and these to Branden-
burg, Frankfurt, and especially in Frei-
berg, through Jacob Schenk. Luther
stopped him from lecturing and printing.
Agricola recanted and was reconciled in
1538. But he kept on in his evil course,
and Luther repeatedly wrote Against the
Antinomians, “these disputations rank-
ing among the very best of his writings.”
Agricola attacked Luther and escaped
trial by breaking his parole and fleeing
to Berlin, where he again recanted, in
1641, and again kept on spreading his
error.
In the Second Antinomistic Contro-
versy the main issue was the Third Use
of the Law. Poach, Otto, and others de-
nied that, with respect to good works,
the Law was of any service whatever to
Christians. Theses such as these were
defended : “The Law does not teach good
works. Evangelical preachers are to
preach the Gospel only and no Law.”
( Concordia Triglotta, Introd.) — Finally,
following Melanchthon, the Philippists
taught : “The Gospel alone is expressly
and particularly, truly and properly, a
preaching and a voice of repentance, or
conversion,” revealing the baseness of sin
( Paul Crell ) , which is exactly what the
Arch-Antinomian Agricola had said.
The Formula of Concord settled the
matter by recognizing the triple use of
the Law — 1 ) for outward decency, 2 ) for
revealing sin, 3) for the rule of life to
the regenerate, who need it on account of
their Old Adam. These controversies
served to bring out with yet greater
clearness the distinction between the Law
and the Gospel, justification and sancti-
fication.
Antioch, School of Interpretation and
Doctrine. The Antiochian school of the-
ology represents a type of exegesis in
marked contrast to the school of Alex-
andria. "While the Alexandrians ex-
hibited a speculative-intuitive tendency,
Antiphon
29
Apocrypha
inclining to mysticism, a calm intellec-
tual tendency, determined by logical
reasoning, predominated with the An-
tiochians. While the former adhered
closely to the Platonic philosophy, . . .
the Antiochians were devoted to the
Aristotelian school, whose keen dialectic
was thoroughly congenial to their spirit.”
(Hergenroether. ) Accordingly, in dis-
tinction from the allegorizing method of
the Origenists, the school of Antioch
insisted on the grammatico-historical
method of exegesis and accepted the lit-
eral sense of the Scriptures. The Alex-
andrians stressed the mysterious and
ultrarational elements in Christianity,
while the Antiochians endeavored to
show that the teachings of Christianity
were consonant with human reason, with-
out, however, denying their supernatural
character. That this attempt might
easily lead to rationalism is apparent;
hut details must he sought elsewhere.
The Antiochian school, though originat-
ing in the third century, reached its
height under Diodorus, bishop of Tarsus
(379 — 394), and 'Theodore, bishop of
Mopsvestia (393 — 428).
Antiphon. A response, or versicle,
sung before a psalm, a lesson, or a col-
lect, the pastor intoning the versicle by
chanting the first line and the congre-
gation answering by chanting its second
half.
Antiphonary. A hook of antiphons.
Anti-Saloon League of America.
Organized at Washington, D. C., Decem-
ber 18, 1895. It opposes the general use
of intoxicating liquors. Headquarters,
Westerville, 0.
Antitrinitarianism. See Unitarian-
ism,.
Apocrypha. Literally, “hidden, se-
cret,” but very early associated with the
notion of “spurious”; a number of books
which by name and contents pretend to
be canonical, but which have been denied
a place in the canon on account of their
dubious origin and contents. The Koman
Church, indeed, accepts fourteen Old Tes-
tament apocrypha, namely, Judith, Tobit,
3 and 4 Esdras, certain parts of the
Greek Book of Esther, the Wisdom of
Solomon, Ecclesiasticus (Jesus Sirach),
Baruch, Song of the Three Children, His-
tory of Susanna, Bel and the Dragon,
Prayer of Manasseh, Prayer of Azariah,
and 1 and 2 Maccabees, but this in the
face of all sound critical and historical
evidence. The Protestant Church has
consistently opposed these books, also on
doctrinal grounds. — The apocrypha of
the New Testament may, in general, be
said to be on a much lower level than
those of the Old Testament. Many of
them have introduced and supported her-
esies in the Church; others are so ob-
viously composed of fables and legends
as to be almost fantastical, if not blas-
phemous, in many sections. This is par-
ticularly true of the writings which deal
with the birth, girlhood, and death of
Mary, and with the birth and childhood
and with the suffering and death of our
Savior. Many of these stories and leg-
ends have found their way into the lit-
erature of the Roman Church and arc
included in some of their service books.
The New Testament apocrypha may be
divided into four groups: Gospels, Acts,
Epistles, and Apocalypses. Among the
most noteworthy false gospels are the
Protevangelium of James, dealing chiefly
with the history of Mary and the birth
of Jesus, the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew,
the Gospel of the Nativity of Mary, with
a similar content, the History of Joseph
the Carpenter, the Gospel of Thomas,
also concerned with the infancy of our
Lord, the Arabic Gospel of the Infancy,
and the Gospel of Nicodemus, which tries
to supplement the passion story. Among
the false Acts we have: those of Peter
and Paul, of Paul and Thecla, of Bar-
nabas, of Philip, of Andrew and Mat-
thew, of Thomas, and the Passion of
John, all of them trying to supplement
the sacred account, but of value only in
their portrayal of their own times.
Among the Apocryphal Epistles we might
mention : Letters attributed to our Lord,
especially that addressed to Abgarus of
Edessa, letters from Peter to James, the
Apocryphal Letters to the Laodiceans
and to the Corinthians; and the alleged
correspondence between Seneca and Paul.
Of the Apocryphal Apocalypses that of
Peter is the most important, but there
are others ascribed to Paul, John, Bar-
tholomew, Thomas, Stephen, the Virgin
Mary, and others of minor interest. The
texts or fragments of texts of only a few
are extant. The whole class of apocry-
phal writings is evidently not genuine in
their alleged authorship, much less ca-
nonical in nature.
Apocrypha, Roman Doctrine. The
Council of Trent (Sess. IV) gives a list
of the books which are to be received “as
sacred and canonical” by the Roman
Church. This list, for the New Testa-
ment, contains the same books as are ac-
cepted by Protestants. Under its doc-
trine of the value of tradition ( q. v .) the
Roman Church, indeed, reserves to itself
the right of claiming for any of the Apoc-
rypha of the New Testament an author-
ity' equal to that of the Scriptures, but it
gives none of them a place in the canon.
A iiolliuarlttnis m
30
Apologetics
A different course is pursued with refer-
ence to the Old Testament. Neither Je-
sus nor the apostles gave a list of the
Old Testament books that are to be con-
sidered canonical, but they tacitly indi-
cated them; for when “the Law and the
prophets” or “the Law of Moses, the
pi-ophets, and the psalms” (Luke 24, 44)
were spoken of, the hearers would refer
such expressions to the canon then ac-
cepted in Palestine, which contained the
books now received by Protestants. Be-
sides these, the Council of Trent lists
the books of Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of
Solomon, Ecelesiasticus, Baruch, 1. and
2. Maccabees, - — Esther and Daniel also
containing apocryphal additions. Rome
calls these books deuterocanonieal and
treats them as of equal authority with
the others. The Palestinian Jews of
Christ’s time rejected them as apocry-
phal, and none of them are anywhere
quoted in the New Testament.
Apollinarianism, the doctrine of
Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea in Syria.
He impaired the humanity of Christ by
denying him a rational soul (nous,
pneuma ) , this being supplied by the
Logos.
Apocatastasis (“restoration”). The
term is used in Acts 3, 21 in the combi-
nation “restoration of all things,” mean-
ing the fulfilment of all prophecies. Ori-
gen and, after him, many sectarians of
ancient and modern times have inter-
preted this passage to mean that at one
time literally all things would be re-
stored to their state of primeval inno-
cence; that evil itself, sin, hell, and
Satan, would be reconciled with God
through Christ. The doctrine has been
peculiar to Unitarians and Universalists.
A distinct sect, the Restorationists, ex-
isted in Massachusetts about 1830, but
appears to have become extinct. The
Restorationist teaching is that man’s
probation is not confined to this life;
that, as Christ died for all, all will even-
tually be saved. This interpretation of
the Apocatastasis plainly contradicts the
Scripture doctrine regarding the future
life. A comparison with Rom. 8, 21 and
Rev. 21 seems to show that the new
heaven and earth will witness a restora-
tion of certain things lost by the Fall.
That this restoration includes the anni-
hilation of evil and the restoration of
fallen angels and of men under judgment
in no wise follows from these and other
Scriptural references to a restoration at
the end of time.
Apollonius Tyaneus (3 B. C. to 96
A. D.), Neo-Pythagorean soothsayer and
magician. Hjs biography, written by
Philostratus about 20 A. D., is an ideal-
izing romance with the polemical aim. it
would seem, of denying the exclusive
claims of Christianity. Apollonius is
pictured as a great worker of miracles,
who cast out demons, possessed the
knowledge of all languages, raised the
dead; in fine, as a pagan Messiah.
Apologetics. That branch of theology
which has for its object the defense of
Christianity against its enemies; some-
times distinguished from apology (the
actual defense of Christianity) as the
science teaching the right method of
apology. The terms are used inter-
changeably to-day.
There has been much discussion into
which major department of theology
apologetics belongs. It has been vari-
ously classified with Biblical criticism,
dogmatics, and practical theology. Apol-
ogetics is treated by English writers
under the name Evidences of Chris-
tianity.
The historical method of apologetics en-
deavors to vindicate Christianity 1 ) by
showing the genuineness of the sacred
books; 2) by proving the historicity of
Biblical events. The evidences brought
in support of these points are either ex-
ternal (demonstrating the authenticity
and credibility of the Scriptures, and the
argument from miracles and prophecy) ;
the internal evidences (derived from the
blessed effects of Christian teaching, from
the character of Christ, and from the
inherent power of the Holy Scripture) ;
and the collateral evidences drawn from
the more general effects of Christianity
on human society and civilization. The
philosophical method views Christianity
as an undeniable fact, which needs for
its explanation nothing else than the
divine agencies which it claims: an in-
spired Bible, miracles, and prophecy.
The antiquity of the Old and New Tes-
tament Scriptures cannot be denied, and
by testimony more accurate and detailed
than we possess with regard to any other
ancient records these books can be shown
to be substantially the same now as when
originally written. Their credibility is
fairly proved by the character of the
writers themselves and by the entire ab-
sence of motive for fiction. Their facts
are related with the greatest simplicity
and are left to speak for themselves.
They include incidents which would nec-
essarily expose them to contempt among
the prejudiced and unconverted. The
main thesis of the New Testament — the
resurrection of a dead man and his as-
cension into the abode of the upper
world — was open to a thousand objec-
tions. Yet the testimony of these men,
Apologists
31
Apostles* Creed
involving so many and stupendous mir-
acles, conquered the Roman world.
Nowhere except in the Scriptures have
we a perfect system of morals. Nor are
its injunctions feeble; they are strictly
law. And when man’s inability to fulfil
this Law has been proved, a way of es-
cape is pointed out through the doctrine
of the Atonement which has no parallel
in all the world’s religions. And this
religion, which accepted no compromise
and admitted of no comprehension, had
to overcome every existing heathen
mythology and object of worship. Thus
the evidence of a superhuman origin of
Christianity is in its cumulative effect
overwhelming.
For the historical line of proof modern
discoveries have supplied an important
chapter. From the decipherment of
Egyptian and Babylonian records and
the discoveries of archeology much evi-
dence has been adduced corroborating
the Scriptural narratives. The detailed
discussion of these discoveries does not
fall within the scope of this cyclopedia.
Apologists (defenders) are writers
who vindicated the truths of Christianity
against the charges and calumnies of
pagans and Jews. Beginning in the days
of Hadrian, apologetic literature in-
creased in volume until the formal recog-
nition of Christianity by Constantine.
Noted apologists are Quadratus, bishop
of Athens, Aristides, Melito of Sardes,
Claudius Apollinaris, Justin Martyr,
Tertullian, and others.
Apology. See Augsburg Confession.
Apostles’ Creed. The Apostles’ Creed,
often simply called “the Creed” because
of its general use for catechetical and
liturgical purposes, is the first of the
three ecumenical symbols and the fun-
damental confession of the Christian
Church. As its name indicates, its
authorship has been ascribed to the
apostles themselves. In fact, from the
days of Rulinus, bishop of Aquileia
(d. 410), down to the period of the Ref-
ormation this tradition was generally ac-
cepted. The apostles, it was believed,
compiled it as a summary of Christian
doctrine either on the day of Pentecost
or before their departure from Jerusa-
lem. It was even held that each of the
Twelve severally contributed a distinct
portion, so that the Creed would be
a mosaiclike production, mechanically
pieced together. Peter was supposed to
have made the beginning with: “I be-
lieve in God the Father . . . heaven and
earth,” Andrew (or John) continuing
with: “And in Jesus Christ . . . our
Lord,” and similarly the other apostles.
The joint apostolic authorship, though
without tbe arbitrary distribution of
parts just referred to, was defended by
ltufinus, who pointed to the word ovu-
fioXov, which lie mistranslates collatio
( quod plures in unum conferunt, because
a number of writers contribute to the
same subject), as if equivalent to a v/j.-
fjoXr/, contribution, in confirmation of his
view. The Catechismus Romanus still
maintains the validity of this tradition.
The apostolic origin of the Creed was
first impugned by the humanist Lauren-
tius Valla, then by Erasmus. Calvin
cautiously left the question sub iudice
(undecided), maintaining that the Creed
was either received ab ore apostolorum
or faithfully gathered ex eorum scrip tis.
Luther, too, took a neutral position. And
though in more recent times the older
view has found some vigorous advocates,
while Lessing and especially the Danish
bishop Grundtvig' (d. 1872) went so far
as to trace the Creed directly to Christ
Himself, no Protestant historian of the
present day would venture to defend the
apostolic authorship. Indeed, the argu-
ments against the latter are unanswer-
able: 1) If the apostles had drawn up
such a concise and comprehensive for-
mula, one would reasonably expect to
find it incorporated in the New Testa-
ment canon; at least the important fact
of the composition would be clearly
stated. 2) The silence of all ante-Nicene
literature constitutes eloquent negative
testimony against the old tradition.
3) The various rules of faith ( regulae
fidei) in the ante-Nicene churches would
become inexplicable if there had been
from the first an authoritative apostolic
formula; for this none would have dared
to alter. On the other hand, though the
present text of the Creed, taken as a
whole, is of late origin, as we shall see,
its most important parts and phrases,
taken separately, are found very early
in the literature of the Church. Igna-
tius, at the beginning of the second cen-
tury, says of Christ that “He was horn
of the Virgin Mary,” “suffered under
Pontius Pilate,” “was crucified and
died,” and “was raised from the dead.”
“The rule of faith,” referred to above,
also called “the rule of truth,” “the
apostolic preaching,” etc., though vary-
ing in outward form, sometimes longer
or shorter, declarative or interrogative,
was simply the Apostles’ Creed in the
making. Such regulae fidei are men-
tioned by Irenaeus, Tertullian, Cyprian,
and others. Thus Tertullian mentions
as the regula fidei . . . immobilis and
irreformabilis of the Church, credendi
scilicet in unieum Deum omnipotentem .,
Apostles* Creed
32
Apostolic Succession
mundi Greatorem, et Filium eius Jesum
Christum, natum ex virgine Mwria, eruci-
fiosum sub Pontio Pilato, tertia die re-
suscitatum a mortuis, receptum in coelis,
sedentem nuno ad dextram Patris, ven-
turum iudicare vivos et mortuos, which,
turned into English, is as follows: “The
rule of faith, fixed and unchangeable, is
belief in one God Almighty, the Creator
of the world, and in His Son Jesus
Christ, who was born of the Virgin Mary,
crucified under Pontius Pilate, raised on
the third day from the dead, received
into heaven, is now sitting at the right
hand of the Father, and shall come to
judge the quick and the dead.” In an-
other place he adds that faith in Spiri-
tual Sanctum, Paracletum, etc., i. e., the
Holy Spirit, the Comforter, etc., consti-
tutes a part of the regula fidei of the
Church.
How did this “rule of faith” arise?
It was not, of course, like the Nicene and
later symbols, drawn up in a statutory
way on a particular occasion to meet a
particular emergency in the Church. It
can be traced neither to an individual
author, nor to a synodical assembly. It
was rather a spontaneous growth, spring-
ing from the palpitating life and the
practical needs of the early Church. It
grew out of the necessity of a short sum-
mary of faith for purposes of catechetical
instruction and as a public confession of
candidates for Holy Baptism. Its nu-
cleus is doubtless found in the confession
of Peter (Matt. 16, 16) and in the bap-
tismal formula, which suggested the
trinitarian arrangement. The Oriental
forms were generally longer and more
philosophical than the Western. Among
these that of the church of Rome even-
tually gained general acceptance and be-
came known as the Apostles’ Creed. It
appears in two forms, an earlier and a
later. The former is known to us from
the Latin text of Rufinus (390), who in-
dicates the additions to the Creed of
Aquileia as compared with the Roman
symbol (so that the words of the latter
can be easily inferred) and from the
Greek text of Marcellus of Ancyra (ca.
340). This is generally supposed to be the
original, since Greek was the prevailing
language of the Roman Church down to
the third century. It possibly goes back
to the second century. On account of the
/ aovoyevr/s ( only-begotten ) it is plausibly
inferred that the Creed arose among the
Johannean circles of Asia Minor. The
longer Roman symbol, or our present re-
ceived text, contains various clauses
which are absent from the older form,
e. g., “descended into hell” (Hades),
“catholic” in the article on the Church,
“the communion of saints,” and “the life
everlasting.” These additions, however,
were not newly formulated, but had been
parts of various local creeds, from which
they were incorporated into the author-
ized Roman symbol. In this its final
form the Apostles’ Creed does not ap-
pear before the sixth or seventh century.
As to the value and importance of the
Apostles’ Creed, little need be said. It
remains the most admirable summary of
Christian doctrine ever made in so brief
a compass. “Christian truth,” says Lu-
ther, “could not possibly be put into a
shorter and clearer statement.” It is
not the reasoned product of a theological
school, but the spontaneous expression
of a living faith. It is edifying to the
child and to the professional theologian.
Postapostolic in origin, it is thoroughly
apostolic in matter and substance. All
modern attacks upon this venerable
Creed resolve themselves into attacks
upon the New Testament itself.
Apostolic Constitutions (and Can-
ons ) . An ancient collection of ecclesias-
tical precepts, ostensibly regulations for
the organization and government of the
Church put out by the apostles them-
selves. Some of the older sections may
go back to the fourth century and even
beyond, but the present form goes back
to about the eighth century. There are
eight books of the Constitutions and
eighty-five Canons, the latter going back
to a greater antiquity than the Consti-
tutions and being possibly based upon
traditions handed down from the early
second century. The collection is inter-
esting not only on account of the regula-
tions it contains, but especially for the
list of canonical books which it offers.
Apostolic Delegate. A papal repre-
sentative, sent to countries which do not
maintain diplomatic relations with the
Roman See. The most important apos-
tolic delegation is that at Washington,
established in 1893. See Legates ; Nuncio.
Apostolic Fathers ( Apostolici , ac-
cording to Tertullian) are the post-
apostolic teachers of the Church, some
of whom had enjoyed personal inter-
course with the apostles. To them be-
long Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Her-
mas, Papias, Polycarp, and the unknown
authors of the Epistle to Diognetus and
of the Didache.
Apostolic Succession. By this term
is understood the claim made by most
episcopally ordained clergymen and
bishops (Anglican, Syrian, and Catholic
churches) that they constitute links in
an uninterrupted chain of similarly or-
dained persons, the first of whom were
Apostolic Succession
33
Arabia
ordained by the apostles themselves.
With this opinion is combined the view
that only clergymen who are in the line
of this spiritual succession are entitled
to a pastoral office in the Christian
Church, and that all others usurp the
functions of the ministry. In other
words the apostolic succession, it is held,
is the continuation of the ministerial
commission and authority conferred by
Christ upon the apostles by means of
a regular chain of successive ordinations.
This view presupposes the founding by
the Savior of the visible Church on
earth, the purpose of which was to carry
on His work through the testimony of
the Gospel. Out of the general company
of the disciples, the adherents of apos-
tolic succession maintain, Christ chose
the Twelve to be with Him and after-
wards to go forth in His name. Having
prepared these Twelve by a trial mission
during His own earthly ministry, He,
when leaving the earth, gave them the
commission to represent Him in His vis-
ible kingdom, which they were to found
in the world. Matt. 28, 18. 19; John 20,
21 — 23. Thus the twelve apostles con-
stituted a distinct company within the
general society of the Church, with
divine functions not to be changed at
will, and with commissions subject to no
limitations. Their authority, it is held,
was from above and not merely deputed
from below. This authoritative pastor-
ate, or episcopacy, was intended by
Christ to be perpetuated in every gener-
ation; and hence the authoritatively
commissioned ministry is the proper
divine instrumentality through which
Christ, the exalted invisible Head of the
Church, who works by the Holy Spirit,
communicates to His people His promised
gifts of grace. Accordingly, the apos-
tolic succession is the guarantee of
Christ’s presence and His divine work in
the visible Church; and the episcopate,
with its chain of successions, is the link
of historical continuity which is needed
in a universal spiritual society.
Opponents of the apostolic succession
maintain that this view is based upon
a misunderstanding of Christ’s commis-
sion, of the adherent power and efficacy
of the Word, of the nature and char-
acter of the Church, of the Office of the
Keys, and the spiritual priesthood of all
Christians. They further maintain that
Christ, by commissioning His apostles,
did not create a distinct body within the
Church, vested with inalienable author-
ity, but merely charged them with the
preaching of the Gospel and the adminis-
tration of the Sacraments, which Christ
has laid upon the whole Church of be-
Pnnrnrflia Cvrinneriln.
lievers as their duty and function.
Hence ministers of the Church perform
their public and official functions not by
right of apostolic succession, but by
reason of their call, through which the
rights, privileges, and duties which
Christ has given to all Christians are
delegated to them for official execution
in the name of the Church.
Apotelesmata. See Soteriology, Work
of Christ.
Apportionment. After a budget
( q. v . ) has been established by a syn-
odical organization, an apportionment is
made, that is, each congregation is in-
formed what its share of contributions
ought to be. Such apportionment is
made on the basis of the communicant
membership or on the basis of the giving
ability of a congregation ( as this may be
determined in accordance with previous
efforts or other circumstances ) . The ap-
portionment is not made for the pur-
pose of taxing a congregation, but simply
to show what the financial needs are.
Wealthier congregations ought to give
more than the apportionment, while
poorer ones should not be compelled, if
they are not able, to pay it. The Bible
asks that the Christians bring their free-
will offerings to the Lord’s altar in ac-
cordance with their means. No financial
system should interfere with this divine
rule. On the other hand, however, no
Christian congregation or individual
Christians should so construe this rule
as to make it an excuse for shirking the
Christian duty of giving financial sup-
port to the Church and its work in ac-
cordance with their means.
Approbation. The formal judgment
of a Roman prelate declaring a priest fit
to hear confession. Without it the abso-
lution of a secular priest is held invalid.
Aquila (Adler), Caspar, b. 1488,
d. 1500. Professor of Hebrew; helped
Luther translate the Old Testament;
wrote against the Interim and faithful
to exiled John Frederick, the Elector.
Charles V put a price on his head,
whereupon he fled. When freed, he was
called to Saalfeld.
Aquinas, Thomas. See Thomas Aqui-
nas.
Arabia. Large peninsula of South-
western Asia, between the Persian Gulf,
the Indian Ocean, and the Red Sea. Gen-
erally divided by the ancients into
Arabia Deserta, Arabia Petraea, includ-
ing the district of Sinai with the capital
Petra, and Arabia Felix (Araby the
Blest), or Yemen, i.e., the land to the
right (of Mecca) as contrasted with El
3
Arabia, Missions in
34
Architecture, Ecclesiastical
Sham, or Syria, the land to the left.
Christianity never made much progress
in these vast regions, though it was not
unrepresented in the early centuries of
our era. The destruction of Jerusalem
and the Roman persecutions probably
drove many Christians into the penin-
sula. Petra, in the fourth century, was
the seat of a metropolitan bishop whose
diocese included several Christian bishop-
rics. The Hinyarite king of Yemen,
Abd-Kelal (A. D. 275), was a Christian.
During the reign of his son Marthad'
(330 — 350) the Emperor Constantius
sent an embassy to the Hinyarite court
and secured certain privileges for the
professors of the Christian faith in
Yemen. The cruel persecution of Dzu-
Nowas (490 — 525), who had embraced
the Jewish faith, resulted in the inva-
sion and subjection of Yemen by the
Nestorian prince of Abyssinia. Two
successive Abyssinian viceroys made vig-
orous efforts to establish Christianity in
the land. With a view to diverting the
Arab tribes from Mecca a magnificent
cathedral was built at Sana. But this
hope was doomed to disappointment.
Abraha, the second of the above-men-
tioned princes, then conceived the plan to
destroy the Kaaba itself. The expedition
failed, and its leader perished (A. D.570,
the year of Mohammed’s birth ) . Also
the tribes of the Arabia Deserta had in
part embraced Christianity during the
third and fourth centuries. It remains
to add that the Christianity of Arabia
was mostly corrupt and heretical.
Arabia, Missions in. Area, ca. 1,250,000
sq. mi., embracing the Sinai Peninsula.
Population, approximately 8,000,000.
Language : Arabic. Religion : Moham-
medan. Because of determined Islamic
opposition, Christian missions have
found no footing. Attempts were made
by Ion Keith-Falconer in 1885 at Aden,
in 1891 by Bishop French of the Church
Missionary Society, since 1894 by the
Dutch Reformed Church in America, of
which Dr. S. M. Zwemer is a missionary,
the Danish Church Mission in Arabia.
The Roman Catholic Church is attempt-
ing mission-work in Arabia from the
Persian Gulf.
Aramaic. See Ancient Languages.
Arc, Joan of. See Joan of Arc.
Arcani Disciplina. Literally, “in-
struction in the secret,” or initiation
into the mystery, a term applied to the
peculiar withholding of information con-
cerning the Christian mysteries, espe-
cially the Sacraments and the fundamen-
tal confessions, the baptismal formula,
the Lord’s Prayer, and the Creed, from
non-members, ’[’lie practise was prob-
ably based upon a good intention (cp.
Matt. 7, 0), but it led to much misunder-
standing on the part of outsiders and
served no real purpose.
Archbishop ( or M etropolitan ) . A Ro-
man Catholic bishop who not only has
charge of his own diocese (called the
archdiocese), but also has a certain over-
sight and precedence over a number of
other bishops (the suffragan bishops)
whose dioceses, together with his own,
form the archepiscopal province. The
powers of archbishops have declined
since the Middle Ages. They now have
the right of compelling the suffragans to
assemble in provincial council every three
years, of admonishing them to discharge
their duties faithfully, of judging them
in civil causes, and of receiving appeals
from the courts of the suffragans (sec
Courts, Spiritual). They have no direct
jurisdiction over the subjects of the suf-
fragans and can visit suffragan dioceses
only with the approval of the provincial
council. If a suffragan disobeys or dis-
regards his archbishop, the latter has no
recourse but to report to Rome. Even
these rights, however, are rarely used
nowadays, and archbishops are chiefly
distinguished by being accorded certain
honors and a superior dignity. In the
United States there are now (1924)
14 archdioceses.
Archdeacon. An official who was
formerly chief confidant, assistant, and,
frequently, representative of a bishop.
A similar position is now usually held
by the vicar-general ( q. v . ) .
Archdiocese. See. Archbishop.
Archeology, Biblical and Christian.
See Biblical and Christian Archeology.
Archer, Frederick, 1838 — ; born in
England, studied at London and in Leip-
zig; organist in London and in New
York (since 1881); conductor of Boston
Oratorio Society and of the Pittsburgh
Orchestra ; showed great interest in
liturgies anti hymnology.
Architecture, Ecclesiastical. That
branch of Christian art which deals with
the history of the church-buildings of
the Christians and lays down the prin-
ciples for their construction. The de-
velopment of Christian architecture
probably took place in this way, that the
form of the ancient Oriental dwelling
was used for the ground-plan, its peri-
style or atrium, together with the tabli-
num (in Roman houses, the alae) being
changed by a colonnade surrounding
the impluvium, an open court with a
water-basin, which permitted the intro-
Architect are, Ecdesia»tk*Hl
35
A rchitecture, Kcclcsinstical
duction of clerestory windows. The re-
sult was an ideal hall for the Christian
assembly, the tablinum serving as the
apse, the alae as the transepts. Some-
what later, in the fourth and fifth cen-
turies, the size of the congregation made
the basilica form of church possible, a
rectangular structure with a semicircu-
lar apse, this modification, together with
certain other changes, distinguishing the
Christian church-building from the pub-
lic or forensic basilica. In the Orient
a central type of church-building was a
little more prevalent, in the form of
a round or polygonal structure, whose
heavy dome construction required a very
solid supporting wall, which, however,
was often broken or relieved by a series
of niches, partly for artistic considera-
tions, but also for economy in the use of
building material. These churches, as
a rule, had semicircular apses. From
this central type of church-building the
so-called Byzantine style of church archi-
tecture was developed. In this form or
style we distinguish the narthex, or en-
trance-hall, the nave, or church proper,
sometimes broken into aisles in order to
bring out the principle of length, and the
sanctuary, or apse, with its side chapels.
The structure proper is crowned with
the cupola, or dome, which in various
forms became characteristic of the By-
zantine style as it has persisted, with
slight modifications, to the present day.
The most noted monument of the early
Byzantine is the Church of Hagia Sofia
at Constantinople and of the second per-
iod the Church of St. Mark at Venice.
The more modern examples of the Byzan-
tine style, particularly in Russia, are
striking illustrations of a congealed,
dead formalism of a decadent church
with a ritualism whose flame has died
down into cold embers. — - Meanwhile in
the entire West, and wherever its in-
fluence was potent enough, the basilica
in its Christian form became the model
for all church-buildings. It consisted of
three main parts. In front of the en-
trance was the atrium, or forecourt, an
open space surrounded by a covered
arcade, portico, or cloister, with a foun-
tain or basin of pure water, the can-
tliarus, in its center. The church proper
usually had the form of a rectangle,
known as the body, or nave, the prin-
ciple of length being always observed.
The width of the church hall was com-
monly broken by either three or five
aisles. The roof of the central aisle, or
nave proper, was generally raised above
the outer aisles, thus forming clerestory
walls with windows. In the east end of
the nave was the place for the choir.
sometimes on a level with the nave, then
again elevated to the level of the apse,
and usually enclosed by a balustrade.
There was an ambo, or reading-pulpit,
on either side of the choir, the one on
the south side for the Epistles, that on
the north side for the Gospels. Even in
the early days, but oftener after the
coalition of the Galliean Church with
that of Rome, the transept was added in
the eastern end of the nave, thus giving
to the church the shape of a cross. The
apse, altar space, or chancel was a round
or polygonal extenfion on the eastern
end of the church-building, in line with
the nave. There are some few buildings
of this type extant, and some art critics
favor its introduction at the present
time, but in a modified form, on account
of tiie difficulties of the flat roof con-
struction. From the basilica there was
developed the Romanesque, or round-
arched, style of Western Europe, espe-
cially among the Germanic peoples, the
Lombard, Rhenish, Romance, Norman,
Tuscan, and Sicilian subdivisions being
distinguished. In the churches of this
type the ground-plan of the basilica was
retained, in smaller churches without
aisle divisions, in larger structures with
three or five aisles. The cruciform plan
was common; additional apses at either
end of the transept, also at the western
end of the church, frequently found, as
well as a second transept, narrower and
shorter than the first, which signified the
superscription on the cross. Extensions
of the cross-nave formed an ambulatory
around the sanctuary with the high
altar. In the earlier part of this period
the walls and columns were very heavy.
Objections to the fiat roof resulted in the
adoption of round vaulting, which be-
came the distinguishing characteristic
of the Romanesque style. Another fea-
ture was the barrel-vaulting of the ceil-
ing, which afterwards was modified to
cross-vaulting, in order to distribute the
thrust of the arches upon pillars and
pilasters, the latter being reinforced by
buttresses strengthening the walls where
they were placed on the inside. The
severely plain appearance of the exterior
of tiie church was relieved by breaking
up and diversifying the facades or west-
ern walls of the churches, where the
main entrance was, by the application
of appropriate ornamentation, both in
the frieze and in the arches. It also be-
came the custom to place a large cir-
cular window over the main portal. The
tower, originally an independent struc-
ture, especially where it served as cam-
panile or baptistery, became an integral
part of the church structure.
Architecture, Ecclesiastical
36
A rill II i Nlll
The Gothic style is a sequel and out-
growth of the Romanesque, but the
pointed arch, its most characteristic
feature, changed both structure and
symbolism of the church-building en-
tirely. The pointed arch resulted in con-
centrating the strains of the roof upon
isolated points of support by groined in-
stead of barrel- or simple cross-vaults,
the ribbed vaulting of many churches
being carried to the very limit of grace-
ful endeavor and its thrust being re-
ceived by the flagrantly flaunted device
of the flying buttress reinforcing both
the pilaster in the outside wall and the
pillar bearing the clerestory. The Gothic
style lifted up highly pitched roofs and
gables to heights never dreamed of in
earlier times and crowned the entire edi-
fice with slender spires and pinnacles,
growing ever more decorative and ever
pointing upward in joyful ecstasy until
the whole building seems a splendid
symphony in stone. The Cathedral of
Amiens in France, that of Cologne in
Germany, and that of York in England
represent this type in the acme of its
perfection. — But when ostentation and
playfulness became the prime object in
building, a decline set in from which ec-
clesiastical art has not yet fully recov-
ered. This period is commonly called
the Baroque. Although critics have now
become charitable enough to find some
admirable traits in certain works of art
which have been preserved from this
period, it remains true, nevertheless, that
arbitrariness and license characterize all
its achievements, all the principles of
construction being sacrificed for the sake
of pictorial effect. The final decline set
in with the period of the Rococo, when
all pretense of definite architectural laws
was given up, when the basic forms in
construction were so completely covered
that only a disharmonious conglomera-
tion of strange combinations remained
in view, the result often being a veri-
table nightmare of fantastic and bizarre
construction. The present revival of in-
terest in architecture may pave the way
for the adoption of sound principles in
church-building.
The following definitions of the chief
parts of a church-building may assist in
understanding the principles of architec-
ture. The facade is the front of the
church. It is, usually ornamented with
decorative frieze, with sculpture work,
and with the rose window over the main
entrance. The atrium, or narthex, has
become the entrance-hall, or vestibule,
of the modern church, which, however,
should not have the features of .a thea-
ter lobby. The clerestory is the upper
part of the Church, its walls being
set back the width of the outer aisle,
usually with many window openings.
The nave is the auditorium, or body
of the church, in which the principle
of length must not be missing, the axis
of the church running down the main
aisle from the main entrance to the
apse, on whose elevated platform the
altar is situated. The transepts, or cross-
arms, ’ of the church should not be too
deep, nor the chancel, for the pastor, in
the performance of his official acts,
should always be in full view of the con-
gregation. Galleries are permissible only
at the western end of the church-build-
ing and in the transepts, if used at all.
The best plan is to have the balcony
above the vestibule reserved for the choir
alone, with the organ (organ-loft), in
order to have the congregation present
a compact body. The tower, with its
surmounting steeple or spire, should be
an integral part of the church-building.
The triumphal arch forming the entrance
to the apse, as well as all pillars and
pilasters, with their capitals, should con-
form to the style of the church. See also
Cathedrals.
Arends, Wilhelm Erasmus, 1677 to
1721, pastor near and in Halberstadt;
hymns show depth and vigor as well as
beauty; wrote: “Ruestet euch, ihr Chri-
stenleute,” a mighty call to arms for the
spiritual conflict and victory.
Argentina. See South America.
Arianism, the heresy of Arius, pres-
byter of Alexandria (d. 336), which de-
nied the coessentiality and the coeternity
of the Second Person of the Trinity with
God the Father, more correctly, which
substituted for the Second Person a phi-
losophical fiction. Arianism is really an
attempt to accommodate to an a priori
conception of the Deity, strongly sug-
gesting Neo-Platonism, the essentials of
Christian belief. It is concerned with
cosmology rather than soteriology. God
is the abstract “monad,” alone unbegot-
ten, wholly without an equal, eternal,
unchangeable, even inconceivable and in-
effable, transcendental, and removed
from the world by an impassable gulf.
He cannot impart His essence to any
creature, nor can He create the world
directly, because the creature cannot sus-
tain the immediate divine agency. Be-
sides, immediate creation would preju-
dice His majesty. To bridge the chasm,
therefore, in other words, to provide a
mediating cosmic agent, Arius has re-
course to the assumption that God cre-
ated “out of nothing” (not of His own
essence, be it noted), “before all times
Arianism
37
Arianism
and aeons,” an intermediate being, ex-
alted indeed above other creatures, but
a creature withal, “through whom He
made the worlds and all things.” This
being is called metaphorically the Son
of God, Wisdom, Logos (Word), etc., but
he is not “true God,” “true power”
(diva/Ms), “not eternal”; “there was a
time when he was not,” “dissimilar
( avo/xotos ) in all respects from the essence
of the Father.” He is a “perfect crea-
ture,” yet not inherently sinless, but cap-
able of moral progress, choosing the good
and persevering therein by the grace of
God. He is Logos, Wisdom, and Son, yet
“he knows not fully his Father or his
own nature.” He has “life and being
from God” even “as a locust or a cater-
pillar,” yet he is supposed to be the cre-
ator of worlds and worthy of adoration.
This imaginary being assumed in time
a human body, but not also a human
soul, since in that case two finite spirits
would constitute a single personality.
He is the redeemer, inasmuch as he has
shown by his own example how all men,
as free moral agents, may choose the
good and become the sons of God. —
Arianism stands self-condemned as a re-
version to paganism. Seeking to pre-
serve the unity of God, it lapses into
polytheism by assuming a secondary cre-
ated deity. Seeking to relieve the mys-
teries of faith, it loses itself in contra-
dictions. Its semidivine intermediary is
both philosophically and theologically a
futile and monstrous fiction.
Semi-Arianism holds a middle ground
between the Arian heresy and Nicene
orthodoxy. It upholds the coeternity of
Christ with the Father, but denies the
identity of essence. The Son is not a
creature, yet He is not of the same, but
only of like essence with God (homoi-
ousios in opposition to homo-ousios, on
the one hand, and hetero-ousios, on the
other.) Naturally, this wholly unten-
able position, a mere temporizing com-
promise, satisfied neither the orthodox
Athanasian nor the strictly Arian party.
Most of the Semi-Arians eventually
adopted the Nicene Creed. But it was
only after a fierce struggle that this con-
summation was reached.
We add a brief historical sketch of the
Arian controversy. It seems fairly well
established that Arius was under the
spell of his former teacher Lucian of
Antioch, who anticipated his main
thought and, indeed, has been called
“Arius before Arius.” Arius first came
into conflict with Alexander, the bishop
of Alexandria, who summoned a council,
which deposed and excommunicated him
for his denial of the deity of Christ
(321). This was the beginning of a the-
ological war that agitated the Church
for over half a century. The deposed
presbyter continued to advocate his views
and found many partisans who rallied to
his support, among them the powerful
Eusebius of Nicomedia and Eusebius of
Caesarea, the church historian. Mean-
while Alexander issued circular letters
against Arius and his followers. Pres-
ently the entire eastern portion of the
Church was divided into two contending
factions. Constantine, not appreciating
the issues involved, endeavored at first
to bring about an adjustment of differ-
ences by addressing a diplomatic letter
to Alexander, in which he advised the
disputants, as being agreed on funda-
mentals, not to quarrel over trivialities.
The letter failed of its object. There-
upon the emperor, probably at the advice
of Hosius, the court bishop, who had
been his ambassador to Alexander, re-
solved to submit the question to the de-
cision of a general council of the Church.
This was the celebrated Council of Ni-
cea ( 325 ) . The three hundred and
eighteen ( ? ) bishops here assembled rep-
resented three types of doctrine: Arian-
ism, Semi-Arianism, and orthodoxy. The
formula of faith proposed by the Ariaris,
under the leadership of Eusebius of Nico-
media (hence Eusebians) , was summarily
rejected. A second form submitted by
Eusebius of Caesarea, the leader of the
mediating party, while approaching the
orthodox position, avoided the homo-
ousios and admitted of an Arian or Semi-
Arian interpretation. The orthodox right
demanded a creed which no Arian could
honestly sign. The impassioned zeal and
eloquence of the young Athanasius won
the day for Homo-ousianism. The sec-
ond (Eusebian) formula was subjected
to a revision ; all expressions that might
in any way lend color to Arianism were
replaced by strictly orthodox terms, spe-
cial care being taken to insert the homo-
ousios. Thus a rule of faith was pre-
pared which asserted the consubstan-
tiality and coeternity of Christ with the
Father in language “without horns or
teeth.” This is the Nicene Creed. With
the exception of Arius and two Egyp-
tian bishops all subscribed the creed.
Arius was banished to Illyria, and his
books were burned.
But the unity thus established was
more apparent than real. Many had sub-
scribed the homo-ousian form reluctantly
and without inward conviction. Thus
the controversy soon broke out afresh
and was continued with much passion
and bitterness for three decades or more.
This was the period of the Arian and
Aristoteles
38
Armenia
Semi-Arian reaction (325 — 361), when
“the highways were covered with gallop-
ing bishops,” hurrying to councils and
anticouncils, creeds and counter-creeds
set up, and mutual anathemas hurled.
Details must be sought in larger
works. Suffice it to say that under the
egis of the imperial power Semi-Arian-
ism, or Homoi-ousianism (similarity of
essence), finally gained the ascendency
in the whole Roman Empire (356). But
internal dissensions among the Arians
themselves (Eunomius rejected the ho-
moi-ousios, insisting that the son was
anomoios, unlike the Father ) called forth
more conciliar action, and ultimately
the compromising formula, which Con-
stantius tried to force upon the entire
Church, namely, that the Son . was ho-
moios ( avoiding ousia, essence, alto-
gether) to the Father. The death of Con-
stantius, 361, marks the beginning of the
final stage in the Arian controversy.
During the next twenty years Arianism
declined, while Nieene orthodoxy, cham-
pioned by such men as the three great
Cappadocians (Basil and the two Greg-
orys) and Ambrose of Milan, not to for-
get Athanasius, reasserted itself mightily.
Theodosius gave Arianism its death-blow.
He summoned the Council of Constanti-
nople (381), which reaffirmed the Nieene
doctrine, while the public worship of her-
etics was forbidden. It remains to add,
however, that among the Teutonic in-
vaders, who had embraced Christianity
during the Arian ascendency, the teach-
ings of Arius were perpetuated many
years longer. The Goths and Suevi in
Spain, the Burgundians in Gaul, and the
Lombards in Italy did not accept Cath-
olicism until the sixth century. In
North Africa the Vandals fiercely perse-
cuted the Catholics till their destruction
by Belisarius (531 ) .
Aristoteles. Perhaps the profound-
est, certainly the most versatile and uni-
versal thinker of antiquity; b. at Sta-
gira (hence “the Stagirite”), 384 B. C.,
d. at Chalcis, 322. For twenty years a
pupil of Plato, he established (335 B.C.)
a philosophical school in the Lyceum at
Athens, where he lectured while walking ;
hence the name Peripatetics applied to
his disciples (iceguratsai, to walk). Aris-
totle rejects the dualistic idealism of
Plato. There are not two worlds, but
one. Ideas have no separate existence
apart from the objects in which they in-
here. The essential features in Aris-
totle’s world-view are as follows : From
nothing, nothing can come. Matter,
which is potential being, is eternal. The
potential becomes actual by the addition
of form or idea. All things are a combi-
nation of matter and form. The process
by which the potential becomes the ac-
tual is movement. The Prime Mover is
God, pure Form, pure Spirit, absolute
and immaterial. God is both immanent
and transcendent, both in the world and
above it. A purely cosmic God, there
can be no intercourse between Him and
man. “It would be preposterous if any
one said that he loved Zeus.” Into the
numerous other fields of knowledge which
Aristotle explored as a pioneer we can-
not enter. His dominant position in the
scholastic theology of the Middle Ages
is due chiefly to his furnishing the dia-
lectical method employed by the School-
men.
Armada. A designation applied par-
ticularly to the great naval armament
known as the Invincible Armada, fitted
out in 1588 by Philip II against the En-
glish Queen Elizabeth, in line with the
scheme to subdue Protestantism. It con-
sisted of 129 ships, carrying about 20,000
soldiers and 8,000 sailors. The loss of
the Marquis of Santa Cruz, their ad-
miral, and a violent tempest a few days
after they had set sail, caused the opera-
tions of the Spaniards to be retarded.
The fleet arrived on the coast of the
Netherlands in July, but the battle order
was thrown into confusion by a strata-
gem of Lord Howard, the English ad-
miral, so that an attack against the in-
vaders could be launched with great
force. The Spanish admiral, the Duke
of Medina Sidonia, attempted to return,
but contrary winds hindered him, and
he was obliged to make the circuit of the
British Islands with the remnant of his
magnificent fleet. The English fleet con-
tinued to harass the enemy upon occa-
sion, so that he had practically no op-
portunity to recover and to repair the
damage done. In passing the Orkneys,
the Spanish Armada was again attacked
by a violent storm, and only a feeble
remnant of the proud fleet returned to
Spain. The wreckers of the Orkneys and
the Faroes, as Green writes, the clans-
men of the Scottish Isles, the kerns of
Donegal and Galway, all had their part
in the work of destroying the invaders.
On a strand near Sligo an English cap-
tain numbered eleven hundred corpses
which had been cast up by the sea. In
commemoration of this deliverance a
medal was struck, bearing the legend :
Afflavit Deus, et dissipati sunt (The Lord
blew on them, and they were scattered).
Armenia. A country in the extreme
western part of Asia, bordering on Asia
Minor, between the Black and the Cas-
pian Seas and the Taurus and Caucasus
Mountains, mainly high table-land. It
Armenia, Missions in
39
Arminianism
became a Human province under Trajan
(114 — 417), and Christianity entered at
the end of the third and in the fourth
century. So well was it established, also
by a translation of the Bible into Arme-
nian and by an Armenian liturgy, that
the Mohammedans have never succeeded
in forcing the religion of Islam upon the
country, in spite of the fact that they,
since the end of the fourteenth century,
when they obtained full control of the
land, made use of the most unspeakable
atrocities in attempting to have the in-
habitants accept the teachings of the
Koran. The Armenian Church was, prac-
tically from the first, national in char-
acter, with the language of the people
in use throughout the churches, and it
had a pronounced Jewish type. More-
over, the Armenian Church accepts only
the strict Monophysitic doctrine (q. v.)
as correct, thus placing themselves in
opposition to the Bible and orthodoxy.
The Roman Catholic Church has repeat-
edly endeavored to bring the Armenian
Church into closer contact with Rome,
but has succeeded only in gaining a
small portion, the so-called Uniates, or
United Armenians. The national Arme-
nian Church considers as its head the
catliolicos, or supreme patriarch, resid-
ing at Echmiadzin, who is elected by a
national council, consisting of members
of all Armenian eparchies. Besides the
supreme patriarchate there are two lower
ones, those of Jerusalem and Constan-
tinople. There is an institution for the
training of theologians under the juris-
diction of the supreme catliolicos, a sort
of theologico - philosophical academy.
Some mission-work has been done in
Armenia, and the total number of evan-
gelical Armenians has been estimated as
(dose to 100,000. See Armenia, Mis-
sions in.
Armenia, Missions in. Armenia com-
prises about 140,000 sq. mi. Since the
World War partly divided between Tur-
key, Persia, and Russia. Estimated pop-
ulation before the war, 2,500,000. Chris-
tianity found early lodgment in Armenia.
Under Islamic rule heavy persecutions
resulted. The present population con-
sists of Armenians, Turks, Russians, Per-
sians, Kurds, Circassians, Jews, Greeks.
Mission-work was begun in 1820 by the
American Board of Commissioners for
foreign Missions. The Presbyterian
Church followed in 1870.
Armenia, Republic of, consists of the
southeastern frontier districts of Trans-
caucasia, formerly belonging to the Rus-
sian Empire. Area, 80,000 sq. mi. Mis-
sions as above.
Armenian Church in America. Al-
though there were Armenians in America
before 1895, the immigration, due to
Turkish massacres, has been strongest
since that year. They are found chiefly
in the San Joaquin Valley in California
and in some of the large cities of the
East. There are quite a few Protestants
among them.
Arminianism. The term “Arminian-
ism” embraces, in general, the teachings
of Arminius, or James Harmensen (Ja-
kob Hermanss), first a Dutch minister
in Amsterdam and afterwards professor
of theology at the university of Leyden,
1). Oudewater, October 10, 1560; d. Ley-
den, October 19, 1009. The theological
views of Arminius and liis followers
were summed up in five points, which
may be briefly stated thus : 1 ) God from
all eternity predestinated to eternal life
those of whom He foresaw that they
would remain steadfast in faith unto
their end. 2) Christ died' for all man-
kind, not simply for the elect. 3) Man
must be regenerated by the Holy Spirit.
4) Man may resist divine grace. 5) Man
may fall from divine grace. This last
tenet was at first held but doubtfully;
ultimately, however, it was firmly ac-
cepted. The Synod of Dort (1618 — 19)
condemned the Arininian doctrines, and
the civil powers, as was the general prac-
tise of the age, enforced the decrees of
the council by pains and penalties.
Nevertheless the new view spread rapidly.
In 1621 Episcopius (b. at Amsterdam,
January 8, 1583; d. tliere April 4, 1043),
at the request of the leading Remon-
strants (Arminians), drew up a formula
of faith in twenty-five chapters, which
was widely circulated and subscribed by
the most eminent men in ftolland and
France, such as Grotius (Hugo de Groot,
a Dutch statesman, also a theologian;
b. Delft, April 10, 1583; d. Rostock,
August 28, 1645); Limborch (Plullip-
pus van Limborch, Dutch Remonstrant
theologian; b. Amsterdam, June 19,
1033; d. there April 30, 1712) ; Le Clere
( Clericus, a learned theologian ; b. Ge-
neva, March 19, 1657 ; d. January 8,
1736) ; and Wetstein (Johann Jakob
Wetstein, New Testament scholar; b. Ba-
sel, March 5, 1693; d. Amsterdam, March
9, 1754). In France the effect of the
controversy appeared in the modified Cal-
vinism of Amyraldus. In England the
so-called Arminian doctrines were held,
in substance, long before the time of
Arminius. Archbishop Laud introduced
them officially into the Church of Eng-
land, where they were adopted by such
men as Cudworth, Pierce, Jeremy Tay-
lor, Tillotson, Chillingworth, Pearson,
Arnanld, Antoine
40 Art, Ecclesiastical and Religions
Wliitby, etc. Arminianism in the Church
of England at last became a negative
term, implying the negation of Calvinism
rather than any exact system of theology
whatever. Much of what passed for Ar-
minianism was in fact Pelagianism, Syn-
ergism (q.v.) in some form. The doc-
trine of Arminianism arose again in
England in the great Western Reforma-
tion of the seventeenth century, and its
ablest expositions may be found in the
writings of John Wesley, John Fletcher,
and Richard Watson, while the remain-
der of English Conformists and the Pres-
byterians in Scotland and elsewhere con-
tinued to be mainly Calvinists.
Arnauld, Antoine. Most illustrious
of a famous French family; b. Paris,
1012; d. Brussels,' 1694; noted for his
defense of Jansenism and for his attacks
on the Jesuits.
Arndt, E. See Roster at end of book.
Arndt, Ernst Moritz. Historian and
hymnologist; b. on island of Ruegen,
1769; d. Bonn, 1860; professor of his-
tory at Bonn 1818 — 1820 and after 1840;
wrote a treatise Von dem Worte und dent
Kirchenlied (Of the Word and the Church
Hymn) and a number of hymns.
Arndt (Arnd), Johann. Devotional
writer; b. 1655; d. 1621; 1583 pastor
in Badeborn, Anhalt, 1519 in Quedlin-
burg, 1599 in Brunswick, 1011 court
preacher and general superintendent in
Celle. His fame rests chiefly on his
True Christianity, translated into almost
all European languages, which in some
parts, however, is drawn from medieval
writers like Tauler and not always
sound.
Arnobius, b. in Sicca, Numidia, teacher
of rhetoric,' converted tg Christianity in
adult age, author of an apology ( Dis -
putationes adversus Nationes, 303), in
which he exposes the folly and immorali-
ties of pagan mythology, incidentally re-
vealing great familiarity with classical
literature. His knowledge of the Bible
and Christianity is very deficient.
Arnold, Gottfried, b. 1666, d. 1714;
an erratic pietistic and mystic writer;
did not enter practical ministerial life
because of his opposition to orthodox
faith and conditions in the Church; in
1697 professor at Giessen; wrote the
Unparteiisohe Kirchen- und Ketzerhisto-
rie, utterly partial to heretics, sectarians,
and separatists.
Arnold, Thomas, 1795 — 1842; Broad-
Churchman; b. West Cowes; priest,
1828; head master (famous for his stim-
ulative influence) Rugby, 1828; Profes-
sor of Modern History, Oxford, 1841;
d. Rugby. History of Rome, etc.
Arnschwanger, Johann Christoph,
1625 — 1696; preacher in Nuernberg;
lover of music and poesy and prolific
writer; wrote: “Herr Jesu, aller Men-
schen Hort”; “Auf, ihr Christen, lasst
uns singen.”
Arouet, Francois Marie. See Vol-
taire.
Art, Ecclesiastical and Religious.
That branch of art in general which,
while employing the principles of art as
basic for all productions coming under
this division of esthetics, makes the spe-
cial applications of these fundamental
rules to the Christian church-building
and its decoration, as well as to those
productions which tend to the edification
of the individual Christian or of the
Christian family in the home. The ear-
liest examples of Christian art, whether
in the form of church-buildings or in the
expression of the artistic mind in paint-
ing or sculpture, are placed by critics in
the third century. The catacombs fur-
nish examples not only of fresco paint-
ings, some of which show a high degree
of excellence, but also of designs and
figures carved in the stone slabs of the
sarcophagi. Wood- and ivory-carving in
pieces of furniture, in diptyclis, in ivory
coverings for gospels, church-books, and
the like, in pyxes, patens, ampullas,
vases of gold and silver, eucharistic
doves, altar fronts, and ciboria, all indi-
cate that the Church did not reject ar-
tistic work as incompatible with the
Christian doctrine. Between the fourth
and the eleventh century, sculpture work
in the Church hardly rose above the level
of industrial carving, although there are
individual examples of unusual work.
With the great era of cliurch-building,
which began in the eleventh century, the
plastic arts were given due attention,
the result being found in the many beau-
tiful portals, columns, buttresses, pillars,
and tympanums of the late medieval
period. The fagades of many cathedrals
erected during this time show individual
as well as ensemble work which ranks
with the finest productions of the sculp-
tor’s art of all times. Beginning with
the thirteenth century, the Italian
schools flourished, at Pisa, at Florence,
at Siena, at Naples. At this time sculp-
tured altar-pieces, pulpits, choirs, gal-
leries, fonts, ciboria, tabernacles, cande-
labra, single statues of saints and angels,
crucifixes, madonnas, large groups of
statues, begin to appear in endless
variety. Names like that of Ghiberti,
Donatello, and Michelangelo stand out
most prominently at this time. There
was a golden period of the plastic arts
in Germany in the fifteenth century, the
Art, Ecclesiastical and Religions 41
Ascension
names of Peter Vischer, of Michael Wohl-
gemuth, of Veit Stoss, and of Adam
Kraft standing out above the rest. Since
the Renaissance little work has been done
in Christian sculpture except by Stone
in England and by Thorwaldsen in Den-
mark. Among the German sculptors of
the last century Rauch and Rietschel de-
serve mention.
The history of Christian painting offers
a few more pages of interest. Even the
pictures of tlie catacombs are well worth
the study which they have received in
the last decades. The mosaic work of
the early Christian centuries stands in
a class by itself, some of its productions,
both in geometrical designs and in fig-
ures, being unsurpassed to this day, such
as those of the baptistery of San Gio-
vanni in Fonte and of San Apollinare
Nuovo, both of Ravenna. The use of
mosaic work for floors has continued to
this day, but wall mosaics are now rarely
used except in the apse, where also the
finest examples of the early Middle Ages
are found. The art of Christian paint-
ing was naturally influenced by the icon-
oclastic disturbances, but the revival
came with Charlemagne, both in mosaics
and in frescoes. But the full awakening
did not occur till the middle of the thir-
teenth century. There was a school of
Cologne, noted for mural paintings, but
the impetus was caught up in Italy, and
the development was rapid. Here we
find the names of Brunelleschi, Lippi, the
Bellinis. Later came Leonardo da Vinci
and after him Michelangelo, Raffael, and
Corregio. The later Venetian school pro-
duced two great artists, Titian, the color
genius, and Tintoretto, on the threshold
of the Baroque. In Spain there was
Velasquez, master technician, and also
Murillo, expressive of religious charm
and fervor. In the Flemish school of
the Netherlands Rubens stands supreme,
in spite of his sensual art, while in
Holland Rembrandt easily surpasses all
other painters. In England very few
artists of the first rank outside of the
Preraffaelites produced religious pictures
of note, and in France the situation is
the same, though one might mention
Poussin and Dore. In Germany there
was the Nuremberg school, with Duerer
as the greatest master, the Swabian
school, with Hans Burgkmaier, and the
modern school with its various tenden-
cies, as represented by Overbeck, Schnorr
von Carolsfeld, Richter, Hofmann, Plock-
horst, Thoma, Gebhardt, Steinhausen,
and Uhde, though others might be named.
So far as art windows arc concerned,
their “golden age” began with the wide
introduction of the Gothic style in
France, England, and Germany; for
every device was employed to make the
large expanses of windows works of the
highest art in themselves and to have
them serve for enhancing the total effect
of the interior by proper gradations in
color. During the earlier period the mo-
saic effect was used extensively; later
came colored figure work, combined with
grisaille, and finally followed the decline
with the introduction of the flamboyant
and the abandonment of the natural
form in ornament.
Book art had two great periods, the
earlier being that associated with the
practise of illuminating the manuscripts,
which was carried to the greatest heights
of artistic endeavor. Since the invention
of the printing-press much attention has
been given to fine illustrations as well as
elaborate ornamentation of covers, par-
ticularly in gift-boolcs and in altar
Bibles, the art of the silversmith having
been engaged in producing bindings
whose artistic value is evident at first
glance. Of important art centers Con-
stantinople, Ravenna, and Florence may
be named for the earlier period, and
Munich, Duesseldorf, Paris, London, and
New York for the present time. See also
Hymns, Church Music, Cathedral.
Articles of Visitation. In order to
crush Crypto-Calvinism, which under
Chancellor Nicholas Crell was again
rearing its head in Electoral Saxony, a
general visitation of churches and schools
was ordered at Torgau in 1592, to be con-
ducted according to the Articles of Visi-
tation, drawn up under the lead of Aegi-
dius Hunnius in 1593. Four articles
treat the Lord’s Supper, the Person of
Christ, Holy Baptism, and the Election
of Grace, each in from four to six terse,
canonlike sentences in substantial agree-
ment with the Formula of Concord. To
these are added just as terse statements
on the errors of the Calvinists on these
points. These Articles had to be con-
fessed by all preachers and teachers and
for a long time had a confessional char-
acter, especially in Saxony.
Articles, Thirty-nine. See Thirty-
nine Articles.
Articles, Twenty-five. See Twenty-
five Articles.
Arya Samaj. See Hinduism.
Asbury, Francis, pioneer Methodist
bishop; b. near Birmingham, 1745; sent
by Wesley as a missionary to America,
1771; ordained bishop (first), 1784;
d. Spottsylvania, Va., 181G. Asbury’s
Journal.
Ascension. The name applied to that
event in which the risen Christ removed
Asceticism
42
Asia
His visible presence from the society of
men and passed into the heavens. The
doctrine of the Ascension is based on
Acts 1, 1 — 12; Mark 10, 19; and Lnke
24, 49 — SI (which narrate the event) ;
John 0, 02; 20, 17 (which look forward
to it) ; Eph. 4, 8—10; 1 Tim. 3, 10;
1 Pet. 3, 22; Heb. 4, 14 (which imply it).
The Ascension is also implied in the ref-
erences of Acts, the epistles, and Revela-
tion to Christ’s being “seated at the right
hand of God.” Acts 2, 33; 3, 21; 5, 31;
7, 50; 13, 35—37; Phil. 2, 9; Heb. 1, 3;
2, 9; 12, 2; Rev. 1, 13; 5, 0, etc. Through-
out the Apostolic Age the Ascension is
assumed as a fact among the other facts
of Christ’s life, as consistent with them
and as real.
The Ascension marks, for the Savior,
the highest degree of Exaltation, as it
implies His sessiop at the right hand of
God, His entering upon the full use, ac-
cording to His human nature, of the
divine attributes, of which He relin-
quished the use and enjoyment during
His State of Humiliation.
To the Christian the doctrine of the
Ascension has manifold comforts. In
the knowledge that our Brother, Christ,
is ascended on high and now is ever and
everywhere present with, and governs,
His Church on earth, our faith and hope
for the future of God’s kingdom rest se-
cure. There is to be “a redemption
of our body,” Rom. 8, 23; there is “an
image of the heavenly,” 1 Cor. 15, 49, we
must bear; a “spiritual body,” v. 44, the
“body of glory,” Phil. 3, 21, that will be
raised; “our mortal bodies” are to be
“quickened,” Rom. 8, 11. The future life
is not to be one of pure spirit; it is to
be “clothed upon.” 2 Cor. 5, 2. And, best
of all, we shall “see Him as He is.”
Asceticism. The practise of pious ex-
ercises, both in keeping the body in sub-
jection and in training the spirit in god-
liness and Christian virtues, as it has
been found in the Christian Church since
about the end of the first century. The
idea may have been suggested by the life
of John the Baptist, although some
heathen organizations had practised as-
ceticism before the age of Christianity.
Certain heretics of early times insisted
upon separating the individual from the
material world and lifting him to a plane
of light. In some systems celibacy and
rigid restrictions in diet are found.
Somewhat later certain people, known as
anchorets, withdrew from the world,
many of them living in remote moun-
tain fastnesses, in caves, in the wilder-
ness, and in deserts. The movement was
obviously foolish from the beginning; for
it is evident that one cannot escape from
sin and its consequences by forsaking the
company of his fellow-men. Moreover,
it is impossible to gain a special degree
of favor before God by works of penance,
not to speak of the fact that these people
are withholding their services from
others by leaving the society of men.
Asceticism became particularly strong in
monasticism, for both the monks and the
nuns who withdrew from the world to
spend their lives behind convent walls
took over the vigorous ascetic discipline
of the former anchorets, refused to take
part in public affairs, often lacerated
their bodies, or at least abused them
most shamefully, lived on a sparse diet,
made vows of continence, went on pil-
grimages, and observed appointed hours
of devotion. The idea connected with the
monastic life was to subdue and elimi-
nate tbe passions of the body, to merit
the grace of God, to obtain forgiveness
of sins, and to reach a higher, state of
perfection than that ordinarily found
among human beings. — Monasticism has
been repudiated most sharply since the
Reformation, Luther himself leading the
way in renouncing its tenets. The only
asceticism which the Lutheran Church
acknowledges is that which, in a life of
true sanctification based upon faith, sub-
dues sinful appetites and passions and
presents the members of the body as in-
struments of righteousness in carrying
out the will of the Lord.
Asia. Of the largest continent of the
world, with a total area of over 17,000,000
square miles, approximately 10,000,000
square miles are under the control of
Russia, Great Britain, Holland, France,
and the United States. A large part of
this immense territory is still without
the Gospel of Christ or has this Gospel
in only a mutilated form. A large part
of Siberia is nominally held by the Greek
Catholic Church, the entire central pla-
teau, including Tibet and Sinkiang, is
still in the darkness of heathenism, Tur-
key, Persia, and Afghanistan, together
with Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Syria,
are almost entirely under the influence
of Islam. A large part of Japan and
China has as yet not heard of the Chris-
tian faith, and the same holds true of
Siam, French Indo-China, the Malay
States, the Dutch East Indies, and the
Philippines. India has adherents of most
of the great religions of the world, but !
the number of professed Christians is j
still pitifully small in comparison with j
the immense population of the peninsula, i
See the special articles on India, China, :
Japan, the Philippines, and other coun-
tries. .
Asia Minor
43
Alhnnaslau Creed
Asia Minor, the extreme western sec-
tion of Asia proper, part of the Turkish
Empire, recently called Anatolia. Esti-
mated area, 199,272 square miles. Popu-
lation, ca. 10,000,000, chiefly Turks of
Mohammedan faith. The Aegean Islands
were transferred to Greece by the Peace
Council. Modern missions: American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions and Church Mission Society.
Asoka. See liuddhism.
Assassins (Ar., hashashin, “hashish
eaters”), secret politico-religious Shiite
sect (Mohammedan of the baser kind),
founded in 1090 and flourishing in Syria
and Persia until suppressed in 13th cen-
tury. Became terror of their neighbors
by practising “assassination.” Their
head, known as “Old Man of the Moun-
tain,” had the “assassins” drugged with
hashish (an extract of hemp; intoxicat-
ing) before sending them on their mur-
derous missions.
Assig', Hans von, 1050 — 1094, Sile-
sian nobleman, high official at Schwie-
bus in the Electorate of Brandenburg;
wrote, for the dedication of a church,
“Dreifaltig-heilig, grosser Gott.”
Assumption of the Virgin. Roman-
ists believe that the Virgin Mary died,
but that later her body, untouched by
corruption, was received into heaven.
This assumption they celebrate August 15.
Assurance. The firm persuasion of
being in a state of grace. Whereas the
Council of Trent laid its anathema upon
the doctrine that a Christian may be
sure of his salvation, the Church of the
Reformation upheld it. It is not denied
that the Christian during his entire life
will be cast about with many a conflict,
many a doubt. He is to work out his
salvation with fear and trembling. Yet
he knows, being made divinely sure by
the Holy Spirit that “He which hath be-
gun a good work in him will perform it,”
tlie gift of the Spirit through the means
cuTgrace being an earnest of the inherit-
ance laid up in heaven. By this assur-
ance the Christian is upheld in tribula-
tion and often rescued from utter despair.
As Christians we have “full assurance
of understanding,” that is, a perfect
knowledge and entire persuasion of the
truth of the doctrine of Christ. The “as-
surance of faith,” Heb. 9, 22, is trust in
the sacrifice and priestly office of Christ.
The “assurance of hope,” mentioned Heb.
6, 11, relates to the heavenly inheritance
and must necessarily imply a full per-
suasion that we are the children of God
and therefore heirs of His glory; and
from this passage it must certainly be
concluded that such an assurance is what
every Christian ought to aim at, and that
it is attainable.
In a sense, assurance is the very es-
sence of Christian faith. It expresses it-
self in such Scriptural terms as: “There
is now no condemnation to them which
are in Christ Jesus”; “Being justified by
faith, we have peace with God”; “Ye
have received . . . the Spirit of adoption,
whereby we cry, Abba Father.” Compare
the many passages expressive of the con-
fidence and the joy of Christians, their
union with God, and their assurance that
sins are forgiven and the ground of fear
of future punishment taken away.
The Lutheran Confessions -throughout
agree with the Formula of Concord , Art.
4, 12: “[Justifying] faith is a living,
bold |firfn] trust in God’s grace, so cer-
tain that a man would die a thousand
times for it [rather than suffer this truth
to be wrested from him].”
Astrology, the pseudoscience of fore-
telling future events, especially the des-
tinies of men, from the position of the
stars. It was practised in ancient Baby-
lonia and spread from there to Egypt,
Greece, and Rome. Arabs and Jewish
Kabbalists cultivated it extensively in
the 7th to 13th centuries, and it found
favor even with great scientists in the
14th and 15th centuries (e. g., Kepler,
Paracelsus, Tycho Brahe ) , until the Co-
pernican system gave it the death-blow.
Astrup, Hans Joergen Synnestvedt,
Norwegian missionary among Zulus, Na-
tal, South Africa; b. August 3, 1852,
Norway; ordained 1878 ; pastor at South
Aurdal, 1878 — 80; Somaliland, 1881 to
1884; missionary in Schreuder Mission,
Kntumeni, 1884 — 1923. Resides at Oslo,
Norway.
Astrup, Johannes, nephew of Hans.
Missionary among Zulus, South Africa;
b. Kristiania, Norway, December 3, 1872.
Athanasian Creed, also called, from
its initial words, the Symbolum Quicum-
que, the third and last of the ecumenical
creeds, owes only its name, but not its
authorship, to Athanasius, the “Father
of Orthodoxy.” Against the old tradi-
tion that the creed is the work of Atha-
nasius, it is sufficient to say that the
original form of the confession is un-
questionably Latin, while Athanasius
wrote in Greek, and that its Christolog-
ical portion clearly presupposes the con-
troversies of post-Athanasian times
(Nestorianism, Eutychianism). Who the
compiler was will probably never he
known. The creed seems to have arisen
in Gaul during the sixth or seventh cen-
Athanasius
44
Atheism
tury, though some historians declare in
favor of North Africa and place the date
somewhat higher up. As to its contents,
the creed sums up in terse theses and
antitheses the doctrine of the Trinity,
rigorously excluding both Unitarianism
and tritheism, and the doctrine of the
person of Christ as uniting perfect deity
and perfect humanity in one theanthropic
being. Luther calls this confession the
grandest production of the Church since
the times of the apostles.
Athanasius, “the Father of Ortho-
doxy” and one of the most imposing
figures in the history of the Church.
A man of strong faith, unbending will,
penetrating insight, logical acumen, and
persuasive eloquence, he stands as an im-
movable rock in the troubled waters of
the Church of his age. It was the great
mission of his life to vindicate against
Arianism and Semi-Arianism the true
deity of Christ and thus to safeguard the
Christian faith against pagan dissolu-
tion. “Athanasius contra mundum et
mundus contra Athanasium” (A. against
the world, and the world against A. ) well
illustrates the commanding position which
he held in the controversies of his time.
Says the skeptic Gibbon : “The immortal
name of Athanasius will never be sepa-
rated from the doctrine of the Trinity,
to whose defense he consecrated every
faculty of his being.” Born about 296 in
Alexandria, his eminent gifts soon at-
tracted the notice of Bishop Alexander,
who appointed him deacon of the Alex-
andrian church (319). In 325 he ac-
companied his bishop to the Council of
Nicea, where it was chiefly due to his
dialectic skill and fearless testimony that
the Arian heresy was condemned. To
enter into the details of his long and
eventful life would carry us beyond the
limits of this article. Suffice it to say
that in 328 he became bishop of Alexan-
dria, and that his whole life was in-
separably interwoven with the history
of the Arian controversy. Five times he
was banished; twenty years he spent in
exile, loved by his friends, hated by his
enemies, respected by all. He died 373,
before the conclusion of the Arian con-
troversy, but with the final victory of
orthodoxy in sight. W orks : Against the
Gentiles, an apologetic treatise against
heathenism and on the necessity of the
incarnation; An Encyclical Letter to All
Bishops ( 341 ) ; On the Decrees of the
Council of Nicea (352) ; On the Opinion
of Dionysius of Alexandria (352) ; An
Epistle to the Bishops of Egypt and
Libya (356) ; Four Orations against the
Arians (358), and other writings con-
nected with the Arian controversy.
A commentary on the Psalter is marred
by the extravagant allegorizing charac-
teristic of the Alexandrian School.
Atheism. Denial of the existence of
God, 'a term which has been used in a
variety of senses, depending upon the
definition of God. The pagans ap-
plied the term to the early Christians
because they rejected heathen idolatry.
In the theological controversies of the
early Christian Church the contending
parties not uncommonly called each other
atheists, and the Roman Church justified
the burning of heretics by applying this
epithet to them. — Aside from this im-
proper usage the term has been variously
used in scientific literature. In its widest
sense it denotes the antithesis of theism
and includes pantheism and deism. In
a more restricted sense it denotes the
denial of the Deity above and outside of
the physical universe. In the most com-
monly accepted sense it is a positive dog-
matic denial of anything that may be
called God. The term is also used to ex-
press a merely negative attitude on the
question of the existence of God, such
as agnoticism (q. v.) and the so-called
“practical atheism,” which is not based
on scientific reasoning, but is merely a
refusal to worship any deity.
The materialism of the 18th and 19th
centuries and biological evolution have
given a strong impetus to atheistic trend
of thought. In France the 18th cen-
tury produced many antitheistic writers,
among them the Encyclopedists (q. v.)
Diderot, Holbach, and Lamettrie. Vol-
taire called Holbach’s SysUme de la
Nature the Bible of atheism. German
materialists of the 19th century: Feuer-
bach, D. Fr. Strauss, Vogt, Buechner,
Haeckel ( qq. v. ) , were equally outspoken.
Comte’s Positivism (q.v.), English Secu-
lar: sm, whose two main exponents are
Holyoake and Bradlaugh, and continental
Socialism are essentially atheistic. Of
the great religions of the world, Bud-
dhism, Jainism (qq. v.), and the Sankhya
system of Brahmanic philosophy (see
Bra-hmanism) deny either positively or
practically the existence of God.
The question as to whether it is really
possible for a man to be an atheist in the
commonly accepted sense, in his inner-
most conviction, must be answered in the
negative. No amount of reasoning will
eradicate from the human heart the God-
given conviction that there is a Superior
Being, and those who theoretically deny
God’s existence set up something else to
take His place. Likewise, no people has
ever been found entirely devoid of reli-
gious belief. The difficulties which athe-
ism involves are expressed by Bacon:
Atonement, The
45
Atonement, The
"I had rather believe all the fabulous
tales in the Talmud and the Koran than
that the universal frame is without
mind.” The hopelessness of antitheism
is apparent in the confession of Romanes,
who speaks of “the appalling contrast be-
tween the hallowed glory of that creed
which once was mine and the lonely ex-
istence as now I find it.”
Atonement, The. According to the
doctrine of both Old and New Testament
Scriptures the salvation of the world was
to be accomplished through the Messiah’s
substitutionary, sacrificial death. By
making His soul and life an offering for
sin, the Savior was to fulfil not only
wliat was foreshadowed in the redemp-
tion of Israel from Egypt, but also in
the redemptions of the Ceremonial Law.
Mark 10, 45; Matt. 20, 28; 1 Tim. 2, 6;
Titus 2, 14; 1 Pet. 1, 18; Is. 53, 10. Cf.
2 Sam. 7, 23; Ex. 13, 13; Num. 18, 15.
The Atonement, then, is the reconciling
work of Jesus Christ, by which He,
through the voluntary sacrifice of Him-
self on the cross once and for all on be-
half and instead of sinful man, made
satisfaction for the sins of the world and
restored communion between God and
man.
Errorists of all ages, recognizing the
difficulty which our reason experiences in
accepting the validity of vicarious suf-
fering of the innocent for the guilty,
have inclined to represent the Cross as
intended to produce merely a change in
the moral life of the sinner. (Moral In-
fluence theory; the contemplation of
such great love wins us, rouses us to love
God.) Not only, however, is this incon-
sistent with the idea of reconciliation,
but St. Paul, together with the New Tes-
tament generally, always represents the
work of Christ as arising in the gracious
will of the Father (2 Cor. 5, 18. 19;
Rom. 5, 8; 8, 32; Col. 1, 19. 20; Eph.
I, 9. 10; 1 Thess. 5, 9; Titus 3, 4; cf.
I Pet. 1, 3; John 3, 16, and passim,
1 John 3, 1), yet invariably regards it
as the loving act (2 Cor. 5, 14; 8, 9;
Gal. 1, 4; 2, 20; Rom. 8, 37; Eph. 5, 2;
cf. John 10, 11; Rev. 1, 5) of a Mediator
(1 Tim. 2, 5. 6; cf. Heb. 9, 15), produc-
ing in the first instance a change in God’s
attitude towards the sinner (2 Thess. 1,
8. 9 ; Rom. 8, 1 ; cf. vv. 7.8), turning
away wrath (1 Thess. 1, 10; Rom. 5, 9),
removing trespasses (2 Cor. 5, 19), and
“providing a channel through which God
might forgive sins as an act not only of
mercy, but of justice (Rom. 3, 26).”
(J. G. Simpson.)
No doubt is left in Scripture as to the
objective character of the Atonement. It
is not an act which depends for its com-
pleteness on some work of man. It
stands complete before the preaching en-
ters whereby comes hearing and faith.
“When we were enemies, we were recon-
ciled to God by the death of His Son.”
Rom. 5, 10; cf. vv. 6. 8. 9; Col. 1, 21. 22.
The doctrine is, then, securely founded
in the Scripture; indeed, it is the very
heart of the Christian message, being the
essential element in the ideas of recon-
ciliation, propitiation, redemption, and
salvation. Reconciliation and Atonement
are everywhere, except Heb. 2, 17, trans-
lations of the same Greek word, meaning
the state of friendship and acceptance
into which the Gospel introduces us.
“Reconciliation” in the sense of Heb.
2, 17 and atonement in the uniform sense
of the Old Testament, as well as propi-
tiation and expiation, are all different
renderings of the same Hebrew and
Greek words meaning “to appease” and
also “to clear from guilt.” The central
thought in the divine work described by
these terms is “substitution.” Apart
from the particular prepositions in the
texts quoted (“on behalf of,” “for,” and
“instead”) three sets of phrases clearly
teach this doctrine. 1 ) Christ was made
a curse for us. Gal. 3, 13; a similar
phrase 2 Cor. 5, 21. 2) He gave Himself
as a sacrifice for our sins. 1 Cor. 15, 3;
1 Tim. 2, 6. 14; Heb. 7, 27; 5, 1. 3;
10, 12; Rom. 5, 6. 7; 1 Cor. 1, 13; 5, 7;
11, 24; 1 Pet. 3, 18; 4, 1. 3) Christ
gave His life for our life, or, we live by
His death. Gal. 2, 20; Rom. 14, 15; 2 Cor.
5, 15. The idea of substitution is in all
these passages, and the phrase (“substi-
tution,” “vicarious atonement”) though
not found in Scripture, is a convenient
summary of them all.
Through the vicarious suffering of
Christ, God and the entire human race
are reconciled. In the resurrection of
Christ we find the last answer to our
doubts regarding salvation. By raising
His Son from the dead, God has pro-
nounced absolution upon the entire race.
Cp. Rom. 5, 6: justifying the ungodly;
Rom. 3, 23. The universality of the
atonement is emphasized 2 Cor. 5, 14;
1 John 2, 2; John 1, 29. Through the
means of grace the benefits of the atone-
ment are conferred upon the individual,
believers. 2 Cor. 5, 18. 19.
The relation of faith to the atonement
is stated by the Augsburg Confession as
follows (Apology, 3, 40) : “Trusting in
our own fulfilment of the Law is sheer
idolatry and blaspheming Christ, and in
the end it collapses and causes our con-
sciences to despair. Therefore, this foun-
dation shall stand forever, namely, that
for Christ’s sake we are accepted with
Atterlmry, Francis
46 Angrsburg Confession and Apology
God and justified by faith, not on ac-
count of our love and works. This we
shall make so plain and certain that
anybody may grasp it. As long as the
heart is not at peace with God, it can-
not be righteous; for it flees from the
wrath of God, despairs, and would have
God not to judge it. Therefore the heart
cannot be righteous and accepted with
God while it is not at peace with God.
Now, faith alone makes the heart to be
content and obtains peace and life, Rom.
5, 1, because it confidently and frankly
relies on the promise of God for Christ’s
sake. But our works do not make the
heart content, for we always find that
they are not pure. Therefore it must
follow that we are accepted with God
and justified by faith alone when in our
hearts we conclude that God desires to
be gracious unto us, not on account of
our good works and fulfilment of the
Law, but from pure grace, for Christ’s
sake.”
Atterbury, Francis (1662- — 1732),
Anglican -prelate ; b. Bedford ; ordained
1687; Bishop of Rochester 1713; ban-
ished as Jacobite 1723; d. Paris.
Preacher ; controversialist ; politician.
Attrition. A term used by Roman
Catholic theologians. They call a hatred
of sin arising from love of the offended
God, perfect contrition ; arising from
other motives (fear of hell and of punish-
ment, realization of the heinousness of
sin), attrition. They teach that attri-
tion alone does not justify, but that “by
it the penitent, being assisted, prepares
a way for himself unto justice” (Council
of Trent, Sess. XIV, chap. 4), and that
if, with attrition, he properly receives
the Sacrament of Penance, lie is justified.
This teaching, taken in connection with
the doctrine of opus opcratum and the
fact that true faith in Christ is de-
manded neither in attrition nor in the
Sacrament of Penance (Catechismus Ro-
manus, II, 5. 5), opens the way to a
mechanical justification without Christ,
partly through the acts of the penitent,
partly through those of the priest. (See
Opus Operatum.)
Auber, Harriet, 1773 — 1862, lived a
quiet and secluded life at Broxbourne
• and Hoddesdon; devotional and other
poetry ; among her hymns ; “Bright Was
the Guiding Star that Led.”
Aubigne', d’. See Merle d’ Aubignc.
Audians. A sect of anthropomorphites
(q. v.) , the followers of a certain Audius,
a Mesopotamian of the time of Arius,
who founded this sect in protest against
the worldly conduct of the clergy. It
labored principally among the Goths.
Aufklaerung. See Rationalism.
Augsburg Confession and its Apol-
ogy. The first two specific confessions
of the Lutheran Church. The following
is a brief history of their origin. Vic-
torious over Pope and France and the
Turk, Karl (Charles V) would at last
be victorious over Luther and settle
him and his when, on January 21, 1530,
lie called for the Diet to meet at
Augsburg on April 8 to adjust the reli-
gious matters of Germany cleft in twain
by tiie Protest at Spires in 1529. Clem-
ent VII, whose Rome had been sacked by
Karl, married one of Karl’s daughters to
a nephew of his own and crowned Karl
at Bologna in February, the last time
a Pope crowned a German Kaiser. Karl
had fair words for the Lutherans, but
behind the fair words you could still see
the fires of the martyrdom of Clarenbach
and Fliesteden, two of the first martyrs
of the cause, at “holy Koeln.” And ar-
riving on June 15, Karl at once requested
tile princes to take part in the Corpus
Christi procession the next day, which
the Lutherans flatly refused. And all
preaching was stopped, though the Mass
was continued. The Diet was opened on
the 20th, and on the 24th the Lutherans
were to be heard. They had intended to
treat only of the abuses, basing tlieir
strictures on the Torgau, Scliwabacli,
and Marburg Articles (chiefly by Lu-
ther) ; but when lick's (q. v.) work, con-
demning 404 articles of the Lutherans,
appeared, Melanchtlion had to take it
into consideration and enlarge his work.
It was to be read to the Reichstag in the
court house on the twenty -fourth. When
it grew late, the Lutherans pressed the
reading. The Kaiser replied it was now
too late and really not needed; they
might hand their writing to him, and he
would give it due attention. They ob-
jected, and the Kaiser yielded. On Satur-
day, the twenty-fifth, the Reichstag met
in a room of the bishop’s palace, where
Karl and Ferdinand lodged. There were
present all the electors, princes, bishops,
representatives of the cities, and foreign
ambassadors. The Kaiser had to yield to
the reading of the German copy. For
two hours Dr. Beyer read so distinctly as
to be understood even in the courtyard.
As Dr. Brueck was about to hand both
copies to Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz,
the Chancellor of the Realm, Karl reached
out for them, kept the Latin copy, and
gave the German to Albrecht; they have
not been discovered. The Confession was
signed by the Elector John of Saxony,
George of Brandenburg, Duke Ernest of
Lueneburg, Landgrave Philip of Hessen,
Prince Wolfgang of Anhalt, the cities of
\ n*isl» ii ru Confession and Apology 47
Anffslmrg; Religions Peace
Nuernberg and Reutlingen, probably by
Duke Francis of Lueneburg and John
Frederick of Saxony; before the close of
the Reichstag Weissenburg, Heilbronn,
Ivempten, and Windsheim also signed.
The Confession has I. Articles of Faith,
1 — 21, and II. Articles on Abuses, 22 — 28.
Only the high points are treated, and
that briefly, and in the utmost concilia-
tory manner. Many important points
are omitted, as, the sole authority of
Holy Scripture, the rejection of trans-
substantiation, and the five Romish sac-
raments, which were not in controversy
at that time. Nevertheless, Melanchthon
stressed justification by faith alone and
grouped the other articles around this
one and thus produced a harmonious and
unique document and voiced the faith of
(he young Church.
The papists did not make a confession
of their faith, as had been expected, but
it was resolved that they were to pre-
pare a confutation of the Confession.
Cardinal Campeggi picked out about
twenty theologians, some of them the
bitterest personal enemies of Luther, • —
tick, Cochlaeus, Wimpina, Dietenberger,
Faber, — who had no arguments, but
only vilification. The Romish Estates
declined to accept the result of the
first meetings, as presented to them in
written form. A shorter revision, still
abounding in abuse and perversions, was
accepted on August 3. The Kaiser de-
clared this his faith and demanded that
the Lutherans accept it, though refusing
them a copy! Molanclithon and others
wrote an Apology of the Confession, de-
fending it against the false accusations
of the Confutation. When the papists
asserted the Confession had been refuted
by their Confutation, Chancellor Brueck,
in the name of the Lutherans denied it
and at the same time delivered the Apol-
ogy, which, however, the Kaiser would
not receive. On September 22 he gave
the Lutherans time till April 15 to sub-
mit, or lose life, goods, and honor. In
these dark days the timid Melanchthon,
as well as others almost wrecked the
Lutheran cause by their concessions, and
Luther, from the Coburg, and the laymen
had to bolster them up. After some time
Melanchthon secured a copy of the Con-
futation and revised his Apology accord-
ingly. Though the Kaiser had forbidden
the printing of the Lutheran confession
without his consent, seven editions ap-
peared, some even during the Reichstag.
Their imperfect character forced Me-
lanehthon to print the Confession and
Apology in the spring of 1531, called the
First Edition, though really a revision of
the original; the second edition appeared
in September, again altered. At Schwein-
furt, in 1532, the Lutheran Estates
adopted the Apology as “a defense and
explanation of the Confession.” Though
the many changes in the Confession did
not alter the sense, the Elector John
Frederick criticized them as a bit of
arrogance on the part of Melanchthon.
Real changes, however, were made in the
new edition of 1540, hence called the
Varidta. (Art. 10 in 1530 read: “De
coena Domini docent, quod corpus et
sanguis Christ) vere adsint et distri-
Imantur vescentibus in coena Domini, et
improbant secus docentes.” In 1540:
‘‘De coena Domini docent, quod cum pane
et vino vere exhibeantur corpus et san-
guis Christi vescentibus in coena Do-
mini.” ) At first nothing was said against
the alteration, but after .Luther’s death
the Melanchthonians and even the Crypto-
calvinists made the Vwriata their party
symbol, and the strict Lutherans were
compelled to reject it and put the un-
altered version into the Book of Conoord
of 1580. King Henry VIII of. England
refused to accept the Augsburg Confes-
sion without changes and justified him-
self by pointing to the changes con-
tinually being made by Melanchthon, and
in 1541 at Worms Eck criticized the
changing of the original text. The am-
bassadors sent the Confession to all parts
of Europe; in 1532 it was signed in
Venezuela, where the Augsburg Welsers
had a concession from Karl for money
loaned.
Augsburg Religious Peace, Diet,
1555, a peace between the emperor and
the Protestant princes of Germany. Karl
(Charles V) threatened war at Augsburg
in 1530 and made the Smalcald War in
1546, held captive the Elector John
Frederick of Saxony and the Landgrave
Philip of Hessen, and would force the
intolerable Augsburg Interim on the
helpless Lutherans. The Elector Maurice
of Saxony gathered an army to punish
the Lutheran city of Magdeburg and
then suddenly treacherously turned on
the Kaiser at Innsbruck and in 1552
wrung from him the Treaty of Passau,
ratified in 1555 by the Augsburg Reli-
gious Peace. The princes of the church
were to tolerate their Lutheran subjects;
the temporal princes were to uphold their
own religion in their own territories;
if the subjects did not agree, they could
emigrate; if a spiritual prince should
turn Lutheran, the reservation ecclesias-
ticurn forced him to give up his office.
The last provision was the seed of the
Thirty Years’ War. In 1558 a Venetian
traveler reported that only one-tenth of
the population of Germany had remained
Angsburg Diet
48
Augnstanu Synod
Catholic; seven tenths had embraced the
Lutheran faith and one-tenth other be-
liefs. And this Peace established the
break in the unity of the faith in Ger-
many and accordingly granted religious
liberty ta the governments. Karl would
have none of this and turned the affairs
over to Ferdinand, who was forced to
yield. Had the Lutherans had stronger
leaders, they could have secured more.
As it was, their power of expansion was
lamed.
Augsburg Diet, 1530. See Augsburg
Confession.
Augsburg Interim. See Interim.
Augsburg Synod. A Lutheran Synod
of the Mississippi Valley. The German
Augsburg Synod of the Ev. Luth. Church
was organized May 5, 1876. It consisted
largely of people who did not feel at
home among the liberal men of the Gen-
eral Synod. It had congregations in
Ohio, Illinois, Pennsylvania, Missouri,
Indiana, Iowa, Wisconsin, Michigan,
Maryland, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Its
organ was Der Sendbote von Augsburg.
In 1897 the Augsburg Synod united with
the Michigan Synod after the latter’s
withdrawal from the Synodical Confer-
ence. But in 1900 the two synods sepa-
rated again on account of doctrinal dif-
ferences, and in 1900 the Augsburg Synod
joined the General Synod. In 1902 the
Augsburg Synod was dissolved ; many of
its members entered the Ohio Synod.
August, Elector of Saxony. B. 1526;
succeeded his brother Maurice in 1553;
staunch Lutheran, but, hoodwinked by
the Crypto-Calvinists, he deposed the true
Lutherans who opposed the Calvinizing
Wittenberg Catechism and the Dresden
Consensus. When, however, the Exegesis
Perspicua appeared in 1574, which ac-
tually attacked the Lutheran doctrine of
the Lord’s Supper, he imprisoned the de-
ceivers and spent 80,000 Taler to bring
about the Book of Concord of 1580. For
the success of this work “Father August”
and his godly wife, “Mother Anna,”
prayed on bended knees. D. 1586.
Augustana Synod. A Lutheran synod,
chiefly of Swedish constituency and an-
cestry, with its strongest membership in
the Central Mississippi Valley. It was
just before the middle of the last cen-
tury that immigrants from Sweden be-
gan to arrive in America in increasing
numbers. In August of the year 1845
a little group of Lutheran Swedes ar-
rived in Burlington, Iowa, after a jour-
ney of 3% months. They settled near
Lockridge, Iowa, where cheap land was
then still very plentiful. This was the
simple beginning of the New Sweden
Settlement. In 1847 a young shoemaker
arrived from Stockholm, who began to
expound the Bible to his countrymen.
On New Year’s Day, 1848, the people of
the settlement organized a Lutheran con-
gregation and called this man, Mr. Ha-
kanson, to be the pastor of their little
flock. He served them till 1856, being
ordained in 1853. Meanwhile, in 1849,
Pastor Lars P. Esbjoern had arrived from
Sweden. Even before he visited the col-
ony of New Sweden, he organized Swed-
ish Lutheran congregations in Andover,
Moline, and Geneseo, in 1850, and in
Galesburg in 1851. The first congrega-
tions united with the Synod of Northern
Illinois in 1851, and in the same year
the first theological student out of their
midst was enrolled at Capital University,
Columbus, O. It is to the credit of Pas-
tor Esbjoern that he caused the newly
formed synod to change a misleading
statement in its confession to a correct
expression of doctrinal standpoint, so
that the Augsburg Confession was de-
clared to be a correct presentation of the
chief doctrines of Christianity. The pa-
triarch of the Augustana Synod, Dr. T.
N. Hasselquist, came to Galesburg in
1852. He organized the Lutheran Im-
manuel Church in Chicago in 1855 and
in the same year also the congregations
in Knoxville and Geneva. The flow of
immigrants from Sweden continued in
a steady stream, and the first conference
of Swedish Lutheran congregations was
organized in Moline, 111., on January 6,
1853. The next year the first support
was given to the Illinois State Univer-
sity, a Lutheran institution, at Spring-
field, 111., and Pastor Esbjoern was elected
professor at this institution in 1857, en-
tering upon his work in 1858. Certain
unionistic and rationalistic tendencies
having appeared in the Northern Illinois
Synod, a conference of delegates of the
Swedish Lutheran congregations was held
at Chicago, in April, 1860. At a meet-
ing called for that purpose in June, 1860,
in the Norwegian Lutheran Church at
Jefferson Prairie, near Clinton, Wis.,
a Scandinavian Evangelical Lutheran
Synod was organized, the name adopted
being the Augustana Synod. The union
between the Norwegians and the Swedes
continued till 1870, when it was dissolved
at the meeting of the synod in Andover,
111., the Swedish body retaining the name
“Augustana.” The Augustana College
and Theological Seminary was opened
in Chicago, III., September 1, 1860. For
three years the institution remained at
Chicago; but after the resignation of
Professor Esbjoern it was moved to Pax-
Augustine
49
Augustine
ton, 111., where Prof. T. N. Hasselquist
became its head. In 1875 the removal
to Rock Island took place.
The Augustana Synod has enjoyed a
steady growth. The one conference of
the early days has grown to more than
a dozen, some of them with a strong
membership, namely, the Illinois, the
Minnesota, the Iowa, the Kansas, the
New York, the Nebraska, the Columbia,
the California, the Superior, the New
England, the Red River Valley, the
Canada, and the Texas, together with the
mission districts, namely, the Inter-
inountain (Utah and a few missions in
Idaho), Montana, and Southeastern
(Florida and Alabama). There is also
an association of English churches, whose
members, however, belong to the respec-
tive conferences in which these congre-
gations are located. The synod was as-
sociated with the General Council till
1917. There are now about 1,250 con-
gregations, with some 215,000 communi-
cant members and about 300,000 bap-
tized members. There are nine hospitals
under the auspices of the Augustana
Synod, and the number of charitable in-
stitutions of every kind (old people’s
homes, orphans’ homes, deaconess homes,
immigrants’ homes, etc. ) is 28, the inner
mission work of the synod thus being
carried forward with circumspection and
energy. — The foreign mission work of
the Augustana Synod is carried on in
the Madras Presidency, in Southern In-
dia (conjointly with the United Lutheran
Church in America), in Porto Rico (with
the same arrangement ) , in Japan, in
China, in Africa, in South America, and
in the Virgin Islands. — Higher educa-
tion in the Augustana Synod has received
due attention from the first, not only by
means of the chief institution, mentioned
above, but also by such schools as have
been established and maintained partly
by the general body, partly by individual
conferences. There are 4 full colleges,
8 academies, 8 commercial schools, 8 mu-
sic schools, 5 art schools, and 2 domestic
science schools, located as follows: Gus-
tavus Adolphus College, St. Peter, Minn. ;
Bethany College, Lindsborg, Kans. ; Lu-
ther College, Wahoo, Nebr. ; Upsala Col-
lege, East Orange, N. J. ; Northwestern
College, Fergus Falls, Minn.; Minnesota
College, Minneapolis, Minn. ; Trinity Col-
lege, Round Rock, Tex.; North Star Col-
lege, Warren, Minn. The total number
of students in these institutions is ap-
proaching the 4,000 mark.
Augustine. One of the greatest of the
Latin Church Fathers and one of the out-
standing figures of all ages ; b. Tagaste,
Concordia Cyclopedia
354; d. at Hippo Regius, 430, both in
Africa. His father Patricius, although
a member of the council of his home
town, was not particularly distinguished
for either learning or wealth and re-
mained hostile to the Christian Church
all his life. His mother Monica, on the
other hand, was a consecrated, self-sac-
rificing, honorable woman, whose Chris-
tian virtues her illustrious son rightly
extolled in his writings. Augustine re-
ceived the rudiments of his education at
Tagaste and was there also enrolled as
catechumen, even being near baptism.
On account of the find progress which he
made in his studies, his father sent him
first to Madaura and then to Carthage.
At the latter city he was drawn into the
moral rottenness of the day, with some
degree of sexual excesses, also living in
common-law relation with a woman by
whom he had a son, Adeodatus, in 372.
He studied rhetoric and philosophy and
once more showed a strong inclination
toward Christianity, but came under
Manichean ( q . v.) influence, holding to
their doctrines for nine years, although
he did not become a formal convert to
the sect. After he had finished his
studies, he became a teacher of grammar
at Tagaste, returning to Carthage a year
later as a teacher of rhetoric. It was
in 385 that he was sent to Milan, Italy,
as teacher of rhetoric, and this proved
to be the turning-point in his career, for
here he came under the influence of Am-
brose (q.v.). At first he was attracted
only by the great bishop’s eloquence, and
for a while Neo-Platonism (q.v.) exerted
a counter-influence upon him, but finally
he was induced to take up the epistles
of St. Paul, and the study of Romans
wrought his conversion, in the summer
of 386. He returned to Africa about two
years after his baptism, which took place
at Milan in 387. About the year 391 he
sold his inheritance at Hippo and was
ordained presbyter. He founded a mon-
astery with a clerical school and entered
into a controversy with the Manicheans.
In 395 he was consecrated as coadjutor
to Bishop Valerius of Hippo and very
soon succeeded to the office.
For more than thirty years Augustine
was the leading theologian and leader of
the Church in Africa, his influence at the
various synods and councils being de-
cisive. As a defender of the orthodox
faith he stands head and shoulders above
his contemporaries, although in some
points he did not reach the clearness in
the doctrine of sin and grace which is
found in the later writings of Luther.
But he fought the Pelagian heresy ( q . v.j
4
A ugrustiniau Monks
50
AiiNtralia, Missions in
consistently, chiefly in the interest of let-
ting the grace of God stand forth in the
fulness of its beauty over against man.
Among his chief writings are: De Gratia
et Libero Arbitrio (Of Grace and of Free
Will), De Catechizandis Rudibus (a trea-
tise on the art of catechizing), De Doc-
trina Christiana (Of the Christian Doc-
trine), De Civitate Dei (Of the City of
God), and his Confessions.
Augustinian Monks (Hermits of St.
Augustine, Augustinian Friars; to be
distinguished from Augustinian Canons,
for which see Canon, Regular). This
order was formed in 1265 by Pope Alex-
ander IV by means of a merger of several
small hermit bodies. It was intended as
a counterpoise to the growing power of
the older mendicant orders (Franciscans
and Dominicans) and was linked more
closely to the papacy than they. The
so-called Augustinian Rule furnished the
basis of its rather strict regulations.
Soon the hermit character was exchanged
for that of mendicancy, and the Augus-
tinians became known as the fourth of
the great mendicant orders (see Mendi-
cant Monks). The order spread rapidly
and in its prime had no less than 2,000
monasteries and 30,000 members. In the
fourteenth century a decline in disci-
pline led to reforms, as a result of which
part of the order became barefooted
monks (q.v.). The German “congrega-
tion” of the order was divided into four
provinces. Into the monastery at Erfurt,
in the Saxon province, Martin Luther
entered in 1505, tortured himself with
rigorous privations of every kind, and
went about with a sack as a mendicant,
or beggar. The provincial, John von
Staupitz, referred him to Christ and en-
couraged him to study the Scriptures,
caused him to be called to the University
of Wittenberg, and remained his friend
though he himself continued in the Ro-
man Church. So many other Augustin-
ians, however, including Staupitz’s suc-
cessor, accepted Luther’s doctrine that
the German congregation of the order
ceased to exist as early as 1526 and was
reestablished, as a province, only in 1895.
The Augustinians have been active chiefly
as teachers and writers, but also as mis-
sionaries. They were the missionary pio-
neers in the Philippines. In the United
States they had 200 members in 1921,
their mother house being at Villanova, Pa,
Augustinianism. Augustine was
bishop of Hippo, North Africa, and died
430 A. D. Augustinianism is the theo-
logical system of Augustine. It involves
the following points of doctrine: 1) In-
fant baptism. Children are by original
sin under the power of the devil, from
which they are freed by Baptism.
2) Original sin, by which the entire
human nature has become physically and
morally corrupt. 3 ) Free will. In man’s
present depraved state the freedom of the
will has been entirely lost ; man can will
and do only evil. 4) Grace. If man is
converted, it is the result of the opera-
tion of divine grace. Man can do noth-
ing without grace nor anything against
it; it is irresistible. 5) Predestination.
Of the corrupt mass of humanity God
decreed from eternity to save a few. To
those destined for salvation He gives ef-
fective means of grace. On the rest
merited destruction falls. Christ came
into the world and died only for the
elect. The Predestinarian teaching of
Augustine is in a narrower sense called
Augustinianism. Calvin went beyond
Augustine by maintaining that the fall
of man was itself predestinated by God
( siipralapsarianism ) .
Auricular Confession. See Confes-
sion, Auricular.
Aurifaber (Goldschmid), Johann;
b. 1519 (?); studied at Wittenberg;- Lu-
ther’s companion; closed his eyes at Eis-
leben; edited Jena edition of Luther’s
works, two volumes of Letters, and the
Table Talk; d. 1575.
Aurogallus (Goldliahn), Matthaeus;
b. 1490 in Bohemia ; professor of Hebrew
in Wittenberg, 1521; his Hebrew Gram-
mar came out in 1525 and 1539; aided
Luther in the translation of the Old Tes-
tament, especially in the revision of 1540;
d. 1543.
Aurora Community. See Communis-
tic Societies.
Austin, John. Facts of early life un-
known; educated at Cambridge; joined
the Roman Church; studied law, became
tutor, then devoted himself to literature;
d. 1669; wrote: “Blest Be Thy Love,
Dear Lord.”
Australia, Missions in. In 1823 the
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel
expressed its willingness to assist in es-
tablishing a mission in New South Wales,
but met with no success. In 1825 the
London Missionary Society made an at-
tempt near Lake Macquarie, in the vicin-
ity of Sydney, to win the aborigines for
Christ, but also without success. In
1830 the Church Mission Society opened
a station at Wellington Bay, some 200
miles from Sydney. The Mission was
discontinued in 1842. In 1840 the Goss-
ner Mission began operations at Moreton
Bay and at Keppel Bay, but without
lasting success. In 1851 the Society for
Australia, Ev. Lulli. Synod In
51 Australia, Ev. Luth. Synod In
tlie Propagation of the Gospel opened
stations in South Australia at Povindie,
on the Spencer Gulf, with some degree
of success. The Moravians began a mis-
sion in 1859 in the Wimmera District of
Victoria. In the course of the following
years, work was taken up by the Angli-
can Church, the Presbyterians, the Oe-
sellsohaft fuer Innere und Aeussere Mis-
sion im tiinne der Lutherischen Kirehe
(Neuendettelsau in Germany), the Im-
manuel Synod of Australia; the Inter-
denominational Mission Society; the
New .South Wales Aborigines’ Mission;
the Ev. Luth. Synod in Australia. Of
other non-European peoples there are in
Australia; Chinese, Hindus, Japanese,
Malays, South Sea Islanders, and others.
Mission-work has been carried on among
these to some extent by the various re-
ligious denominations of Australia, and
not without result. Of the excluded
Kanakas not a few had become Chris-
tians and returned to their native islands
as witnesses for Christ. Statistics : Com-
municant aboriginal membership, scarcelv
1 , 000 .
Australia, Ev. Luth. Synod in. The
history of Lutheranism in Australia dates
back to 1836, when Pastor August Lud-
wig Kavel, of Klemzig, near Frankfort
on the Oder, Prussia, went to London for
the purpose of making arrangements for
an entire congregation to emigrate to
America or Australia. The reason for
the contemplated emigration was the
manner in which the Prussian Union was
being forced on confessional Lutherans.
Emigration agents in London persuaded
Kavel to take his flock to Australia.
The emigrants arrived at Port Adelaide
in November, 1838, and settled in South
Australia, some twelve miles from Ade-
laide, and called their settlement Klemzig.
Pastors Schuermann and Teichelmann
were also early arrivals. In 1839 an-
other colony of from 400 to 500 souls was
planted at Hahndorf, and in 1841 Pastor
G. D. Fritsche, of Hamburg, founded
Bethany and Lobethal. Other congrega-
tions were founded in the course of time.
As they were filled with great zeal for
the true worship of God, it is not sur-
prising to hear that a synod was estab-
lished soon after the arrival of the first
Lutheran emigrants. However, this synod
was soon disrupted by doctrinal contro-
versies. Pastor Kavel organized a new
synod with ehiliastic tendencies (Im-
manuel Synod), while Pastor Fritsche
became the leader of those contending
for the truth. Other factions arose, and
for many years the Lutheran Church of
Australia was torn by the spirit of fac-
tion. As early as 1875 members of the
Australian Synod came into contact with
the Lutheran Church in America. Pas-
tor Ernst Homann, having become ac-
quainted with “Missouri” through Lehre
und Wehre, sought advice and counsel
from Dr. Walther. He soon became an
enthusiastic “Missourian” and succeeded
in convincing others of the correctness of
“Missouri’s” position. Soon sifter his ar-
rival Pastor Fritsche established a theo-
logical seminary; but the doctrinal con-
troversies raging in the Church soon
caused the closing of the seminary (1855)
after it had furnished three ministers to
the Church, and again the Australian
Church was obliged to look to Germany
( Hermannsburg ) for its supply of pas-
tors. An academy which had been opened
in 1876 as a private school for the train-
ing of parish school teachers was later
taken over by the synod, but had to be
sold in 1881. In this year Pastor Caspar
K. Dorsch came over from .America as the
first emissary from the St. Louis Semi-
nary and took charge of the congregation
in Adelaide. Other men followed; and
Australian students received their theo-
logical training in the seminaries of the
Missouri Synod, among them E. Appelt,
John Darsow, E. Fischer, John Georg,
John Homann, Oscar Mueller, Jr., F.
Noack, B. Schwarz, and W. Zschech. An-
other attempt was made to establish a
theological seminary, this time by the
churches in Victoria. In 1891 a tract of
land was purchased, and suitable build-
ings for a seminary were erected in
Murtoa. This seminary became a bone
of contention in the synod. But the dif-
ficulties were ironed out by Dr. A. L.
Graebner of the Missouri Synod, who, at
the request of President Homann, visited
the Australian brethren in 1902. This
visit proved to be a blessing. Dr. Graeb-
ner’s brother, Rev. C. F. Graebner, was
called to Australia to become the head of
the seminary, which was soon afterwards
removed to Adelaide. He is assisted by
Profs. Wo. Zschech, George Koch, and
Martin T. Winkler, all of them graduates
of the St. Louis Seminary. The parish-
school syatqm, which was maintained
from the organization of the synod, suf-
fered greatly during the World War.
In 1916 all the schools were closed by
order of the government. The ban was
not lifted until January, 1925. The Ger-
man organ of the synod, Der Lutherische
Kirokenbote fuer Australien, was also
suppressed during the World War. The
English organ, The Australian Lutheran ,
has been published since 1913. The Rev.
Theodore Nickel, D. D., a graduate of
St. Louis, was president of the Synod
1903 to 1923, when he removed to Ger-
Australia, Lutherans in
52
Austria
many (becoming the president of the
Saxon Free Church). The synod con-
ducts a mission among the natives in
South Australia, for which the Missouri
Synod furnished the first missionary,
Pastor C. A. Wiebuseh, who labored at
Koonibba, Denial Bay, from 1901 to
1916. He was succeeded by Rev. E. Ap-
pelt in 19J7 and by Rev. C. Hoff in 1921.
The Australian Synod also supports the
work of the Missouri Synod in India and
China. The Ev. Luth. Synod in Australia
in 1924 consisted of five Districts: New
South Wales (12 congregations), East-
ern (30), South Australia (28), Queens-
land (16), and New Zealand (4).. It
numbered 58 pastors, 144 congregations,
11,228 communicants, 18,005 souls.
Australia, Lutherans in. Besides the
Ev. Luth. Synod in Australia (q. v.)
there are a number of other Lutheran
bodies, some of them dating back to the
early days of German immigration. J. N.
Lenker, in 1893, mentioned: 1. The Ev.
Luth. General Synod, with its three dis-
trict synods : a. The Victoria Synod
(10 pastors), founded by Pastor Mat-
thias Goethe, who served the congrega-
tion at Melbourne 1853 to 1867 ; b. the
Immanuel Synod of South Australia
(7 pastors) ; c. the Queensland Synod
(10 pastors) ; its organ was Der Austra-
lische Christenbote fuer die Ev.-Luth.
Kirnhe in Austrulien. The General Synod
received its pastors from the Basle Mis-
sionary Institute. 2. The Ev. Luth. Im-
manuel Synod (10 pastors), founded by
Pastor Aug. Ludwig Kavel. It received
its pastors from Neuendettelsau, con-
ducted a mission among the natives in
South Australia and Queensland, and
took a great interest in Jewish missions.
Its organ was the Deutsche Kirchen- und
Missionszeitung fuer die Ev.-Luth. Kirche
Australiens. 3. The United German and
Scandinavian Lutheran Synod in Queens-
land (10 pastors, 4 of them Scandina-
vians). This synod maintained a mis-
sion among the natives in Queensland.
In 1920 we find that the Ev. Luth. Im-
manuel Synod had united with the Ger-
man-Scandinavian Synod of Queensland
to form a Church Union, which drew its
supply of pastors from Neuendettelsau
and Iiermannsburg. Again this com-
bined body merged with the General
Synod on March 8, 1921, at Ebenezer,
South Australia, forming the United Ev.
Luth. Church in Australia. For its doc-
trinal basis the new body accepted the
“Concordia Book” of 1580. At the time
of the merger it numbered 64 pastors and
about 12,000 confirmed members. The
two church-papers, the Pilgrim and the
Church and Mission News, are to be con-
solidated. The new synod at once estab-
lished a seminary at Tanaunia, South
Australia, with six students. A college
has been temporarily located at Point
Pass, South Australia. One of the rea-
sons for the Australian merger was the
situation in the field of their foreign
missions, which had been supported by
the Immanuel Synod together with the
Iowa Synod in the United States through
the Neuendettelsau Mission Society in
German New Guinea. After the World
War this territory had come under the
mandate of the Australian government,
which was to dispose of the German mis-
sion there. Since it would not hand the
mission over to a church outside of Aus-
tralia, the above-mentioned synods formed
a merger strong enough to handle the
matter in question. In this they had the
support of the Iowa Synod, which sent
its president, Dr. Fr. Richter, to advise
with the Australian Lutherans. As a re-
sult the New Guinea mission is now con-
ducted by the United Ev. Luth. Church in
Australia in conjunction with the Iowa
Synod. The United Danish Lutheran
Church in the United States had two
pastors in Australia. In 1908 the Ev.
Luth. Synod in South Australia, consist-
ing of 3 pastors and 11 congregations,
made application to be received into the
Joint Synod of Ohio. President Heiden-
reich of the Australian District attended
the convention of the Joint Synod of Ohio
in 1914. The District in 1922 numbered
5 pastors, 23 congregations, and 1,413
communicants.
Austria. Since the World War the
Republic of Austria, with an area of
about 32,000 sq. mi., slightly less than
that of the State of Maine, with Upper
and Lower Austria, Styria, Salzburg,
Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorarlberg. The
territory included in this country was
originally Christianized at the time of
Charlemagne, who defeated the Avari and
placed their land in charge of a mar-
grave, calling it the Ostmark. The name
Austria was first officially given in 996,
and the main object of this territory was
to act as a buffer country against the
barbarians of the Hungarian plains. The
Benedictines, who were chiefly instrumen-
tal in evangelizing the country, founded
elaborate monasteries and established the
Christian Church ( Catholicism ) . Be-
tween 1483 and 1804 Austria, under the
Hapsburgs, was most intimately con-
cerned in all the fortunes of the German
Empire. Maximilian I really established
the empire and incidentally fixed its re-
lation to the Pope, especially by uniting
Spain and the Netherlands under his
dominion, so that his son Philip became
Austria
53
Ave Marla
mie of the most powerful Catholic mon-
archs the world has ever seen. At the
time of Charles V the Reformation gained
a foothold in Austria, and its influence
became a very strong factor, in spite
of the efforts of the Catholic hierarchy,
until the Counter -Reformation ( q. v.),
when 450 families of Protestant minis-
ters were driven out of the country. It
seems that about two-thirds of the in-
habitants had become friends of the evan-
gelical truth. But the cause of Protes-
tantism received a severe setback by the
Edict of Restitution of Ferdinand II, in
1629, so that the Evangelical congrega-
tions had to fight for their very exist-
ence. So severe did the persecutions of
the Protestants become that large areas
of the country were almost depopulated
by the zealotism of their rulers, as in the
case of the Salzburgers. (See Salz-
burgers. ) Since the beginning of the
eighteenth century, Protestantism has
existed within the area of Austria with
varying fortunes. The greatest victory
for the hierarchy was the Concordat of
1855, which practically made the Pope
the ruler of the country. But six years
later the Evangelicals again won a pro-
nounced success, and the Patent guaran-
teeing them religious liberty and ecclesi-
astical independence was followed by the
recall of the Concordat, in 1870. The
situation has not been materially changed
by the World War, and the Evangelical
Church enjoys a nominal equality, its
chief difficulty being the establishment of
religious schools.
The Catholic Church is both numeri-
cally and politically by far the strongest
church-body in the Republic of Austria.
There are, according to last reports, two
archbishoprics and a corresponding num-
ber of episcopal sees in the country. Of
its population, which numbers somewhat
more than six millions, about four -fifths
is Roman Catholic. It has countless Ro-
man Catholic societies, institutions, and
foundations. In almost every parish
there are brotherhoods and societies for
prayer, associations of both sexes and of
all ages, societies of priests, congrega-
tions of Mary, Franciscan Tertiaries,
and the Society of the Holy Family.
Children and the youth are cared for in
protectories and kindergartens, orphan
asylums, refectories, boarding-schools,
refuges, training-schools for apprentices,
and the like.
The Protestant, or Evangelical, churches
of Austria are not strong at present, the
total number of their adherents being
about 250,000. The movement away from
Rome has gained some force in the Ger-
man sections of Steiermark. Among the
institutions of the. inner mission of the
Evangelical Church the Deaconess Mother
House of Gallneukirchen is important,
since it has now been established for
more than fifty years. There is another
Deaconess Mother House at Graz, and
the number of orphanages, refuges, and
asylums has increased during the last
few years.
Other church organizations that have
some adherents in Austria are the Greek
Catholics, the Armenians, the Old Catho-
lics, the Anglicans, and the Mennonites.
The Jews are strong in Lower Austria,
and there are some followers of Islam
in Vienna and in Styria. Some work
has been done in recent years by English
and American denominations, but they
have been regarded as undenominational
before the law and are allowed to wor-
ship only in private.
Authenticity. As applied to the books
of the Bible, the attribute which places
their alleged authorship or divine source
beyond question, so that they may be ac-
cepted as genuinely Biblical.
Auto da Fe' (Portuguese: “act of
faith”). The public ceremony attending
the sentence and execution of persons
condemned by the Inquisition, especially
in Spain and Portugal and their colonies.
These spectacles, which were treated as
festive occasions, were usually held on
national holidays, at coronations, etc.
The condemned were led in solemn pro-
cession, preceded by Dominican monks
carrying the banners of the Inquisition.
A sermon was preached, the sentences
were read, and the victims were delivered
to the secular authorities, some to do
public penance, others (who had recanted)
to be strangled and burned, and the recal-
citrant to be burned alive. The most
famous auto da fe was held in Madrid, in
1680. From 1481 to 1808 32,000 persons
were burned by the Inquisition.
Ave Maria (Hail Mary.) The favorite
prayer among Roman Catholics, reading
as follows: “Hail, Mary, full of grace;
the Lord is with thee. Blessed art thou
among women, and blessed is the fruit
of thy womb. Holy Mary, mother of
God, pray for us sinners now and in the
hour of our death.” The first two sen-
tences are taken from Luke 1, 28 and 42;
the third was added in the 15th century.
The prayer first appeared in its present
form about 1514, and Pius V (1568)
ordered its daily use. The salutation
contained in the first two sentences be-
came a customary addition to the Lord’s
Prayer some centuries before the Refor-
mation. As a salutation it was accom-
panied with genuflections and prostra-
Averroes
54
Bach, Johann Sebastian
tions. St. Margaret (d. 1292) repeated
it a thousand times some days with pros-
trations. The Ave Maria is still coupled
with the Lord’s Prayer by Romanists,
and it constitutes the main part of the
rosary ( q. v. ) .
Averroes (corruption of Ibn Ruslul),
Arabic philosopher; b. 1126, Cordova;
d. 1198, Morocco. Commentator of Aris-
totle; much read by Christian School-
men. Held principle of twofold truth,
religious and philosophical, each having
own sphere.
Avesta. See Zend-Avesta.
Avignon and the “Babylonian Cap-
tivity The city is the capital of the
Department of Vaucluse, in Southern
France, about 50 miles north of Mar-
seilles. It became the home of certain
Popes between 1309 and 1377, namely, of
Clement V, John XXII, Benedict XII,
Clement VI, Innocent VI, Urban V, and
Gregory XI. During this so-called Baby-
lonian Captivity, when antipopes held
the throne at Rome, Avignon was a gay
and corrupt city. The antipopes Clem-
ent VII and Benedict XIII continued to
reside there, the latter till 1408, when
he fled to Aragon. It is not a flattering
chapter in the history of the papacy.
Awakening, Great. See Great A wak-
ening.
Awakening of Confessional Lu-
theranism. A designation applied to
two well-defined movements of the nine-
teenth century. The one had its center
in Germany and amounted to a reaction
to the order creating the Evangelical
Church of Prussia (a union of Reformed
and Lutheran bodies) with its attendant
violation of men’s consciences. It was
chiefly due to the arousing of the spirits
and a searching of minds that Breslau
became the center of a reaction which in-
tended to restore a Lutheran conscious-
ness based upon confessionalism. Sub-
sequently a number of free churches
(q.v.) were formed in various parts of
Germany, and the movement has received
some measure of impetus on account of
the consequences of the World War.
A similar movement swept through the
Lutheran Church of America in conse-
quence of the determined stand taken by
men like Walther, Wyneken, and others,
in sounding the tocsin of true Lutheran-
ism in our country. The attitude of these
men influenced large circles not imme-
diately and organically connected with
their own organization; and whereas, be-
fore this time, a large part of the Lu-
theran Church in the Eastern States had
become strongly rationalistic, a new wave
of confessionalism swept over the coun-
try, affecting even such bodies as had
grown decidedly indifferent with regard
to an unequivocal defense of the Bible
truth as found in the Confessions of the
Lutheran Church. The movement has
not yet spent its force, but may be ex-
pected to yield further results.
Axenfeld, Karl. Theologian; former
director of Berlin Missionary Society;
called as General Superintendent, Berlin,
1921.
Babel und Bibel. See Delitzssh,
Friedrich.
Babists. Mohammedan sect, founded
in Persia by Ali Mohammed, who in 1844
rose as reformer of Islam and proclaimed
himself Bab (Ar. and Pers., “gate”). At-
tacking the Persian state religion, he was
imprisoned and executed in 1850. When
some of his followers attempted to assas-
sinate the Shah, persecutions became
more severe, and many of the sect fled
to Bagdad. From there the Turkish gov-
ernment removed them to Adrianople.
Ali had appointed Mirza Yahya his
successor, but in Adrianople Yahya’s
half-brother, who assumed the title Baha-
ullah (“splendor of God”), rose in oppo-
sition and proclaimed himself “Him
whom God should manifest.” The re-
sulting hostilities forced the Turkish
government in 1808 to separate the two
leaders. The Babists (Yahya and fol-
lowers) were exiled to Cyprus. Balia -
ullali and his adherents, the Bahais or
Bahaites, were removed to Acre. While
the Babists decreased rapidly, the Ba-
haites grew in importance. For the sub-
sequent history of the latter see Bahais.
Bach, Johann Sebastian, and sons.
The genealogy of the Bach family, which,
during two centuries, supplied the world
with a number of most illustrious mu-
sicians and composers, has been traced
to Hans Bach, who was born about 1561
at a little town near Gotha. The musical
tendencies appearing in the family of
this man culminated, a century later, in
Johann Sebastian, the most famous of
the family and one of the greatest mu-
sicians of all times. He was born at
Eisenach in 1685 and took his first les-
sons on the violin from his father. His
genius developed very early, his ability
on the clavichord leading to harsh treat-
Bachman, John, 1). D.
55
JltMlliiK’, Joint ii n
ment on the part of his older brother
Johann Christoph. Later he was a chor-
ister at Lueneburg, where he made good
use of his time, studying violin, clavi-
chord, and organ, and perfecting himself
in the art of composition. In 1703 he
became violinist in the Weimar court
orchestra, the following year organist at
Arnstadt, whence, in the next year, he
walked to Luebeek to make the acquaint-
ance of Buxtehude. In 1708 lie became
court organist at Weimar and in 1714
l\ onzerlmeister, in 1723 Cantor at the
Tliomasschule in Leipzig and also organ-
ist and director of music at the two
principal churches, the Thomaskirche
and the Nikolaikirche. Here he com-
posed most of his religions music, in
which the acuteness of his intellect and
the sincerity and intenseness of his re-
ligious convictions combined in produc-
ing masterpieces which in more than one
respect have not yet been surpassed. His
compositions show a fusion of two eras:
the polyphonic contrapuntal and the har-
monic tonal, brought out with all the
originality and fecundity of thematic in-
vention; his style, elevated and sus-
tained; his momentum carries the theme
forward in a triumphant march. Among
lus best -known compositions are the Mat-
I haeus - Passion, the Johannes -Passion,
and the Christmas Oratorio. He died in
1750. — The genius of Bach appeared in
his sons. The eldest son was Wilhelm
Friedemann, organist first at Dresden,
afterward at Halle, the most clever mu-
sician of Germany after his father. The
third son of Bach was Karl Philipp
Kmanuel, who was chamber-musician to
Frederick the Great and later church
director of music at Hamburg. The
ninth son of Bach was Johann Christoph
Friedrich, who held the position of Ka-
pellmeister at Bueckeburg. The youngest
surviving son was Johann Christian, who
held positions in Milan and then at Lon-
don. A grandson of Bach, Wilhelm
Friedrich Ernst, was his last male de-
scendant, who, in the last years of his
life, was pianist to Queen Louise of
Prussia.
Bachman, John, D. D.; 1790 — 1874;
1). Bhinebeck, N. Y.; 56 years pastor in
Charleston, S. C.; helped found General
(Synod, General Synod in the South, and
Newberry College; distinguished natu-
ralist.
Bachmann, Johannes F. J. ; b. 1832;
professor and university preacher at
linstock; pupil of Hengstenberg; wrote
Life of Hengstenberg and Commentary
on Judges; d. 1888.
Bachmann, Philip; b. 1864, Geis-
I ingen; educated at Erlangen and Muen-
chen ; since 1902 Professor of Systematic
Theology at Erlangen; collaborator on
Th. Zahn’s New Testament Commentary.
Backhaus, J. L. ; b. in Amsterdam,
Holland, August 1, 1842; educated at
Teachers’ Seminary, Fort Wayne, Ind.;
professor of Teachers’ Seminary, Addi-
son, 111., 1884; resigned, 1895; d. March
11, 1919.
Backslide. The falling away in re-
ligion; apostasy. Acts ‘21, 21; 2 Thcss.
2, 3; 1 Tim. 4, 1. It must he distin-
guished from hypocrisy, as it may exist
in spite of good intentions, while hypoc-
risy is intentional fraud. According to
the Scriptures, backsliding is caused by
cares of the world, evil company, and
pride. It is manifested by indifference
to prayer and to the means of grace,
sometimes by gross immorality. Notable
instances are Saul, Judas, and Demas.
Bacon, Francis, English statesman
and philosopher; b. 1561, London;
d. 1626, near London. Entered Parlia-
ment, became Lord Chancellor, raised to
peerage. Charged with taking bribes,
found guilty. Paved way for modern
philosophy by criticizing scholastics for
neglect of natural sciences and advocat-
ing inductive (empirical) method. In
Novum Organum separated spheres of
faith (theology) and knowledge (phi-
losophy). Revelation sole source of faith.
Experience source of knowledge.
Bacon, Roger, 1214 — 1294, perhaps
the most learned man of the Middle
Ages, Doctor. Mvrabilis or Profundus ; of
Oxford. Opposing Scholasticism, he in-
sisted on the supreme authority of the
Scriptures in theology, the right of the
iaity to the Bible, and the importance of
its study in the original languages and
fearlessly castigated the corruption of
the priests and monks. His knowledge
of physics, chemistry, and astronomy,
gained by researches and experiments,
placed him far ahead of his times. He
did not escape the charge of sorcery and
heresy; his order, the Franciscans, at
one time forbade his lectures and twice
had him imprisoned, for ten and four-
teen years, respectively.
Bading, Johann; b. 1824, Rixdorf,
near Berlin. Studied in Gossner’s school
for African Missions, 1846 ; in Hermanns-
burg, 1848. Deciding to go to America,
he went to Barmen, 1852; was sent to
Wisconsin by the Langenberg Society,
1853. Held pastorates at Calumet, The-
resa, Watertown, Milwaukee (St. John’s),
Wis. His energy made him a leader from
the beginning. Was most active in re-
deeming Wisconsin Synod for sound Lu-
theranism. Chiefly instrumental in locat-
Bahais
36
Baptism
ing Northwestern College at Watertown
rather than in Milwaukee. President of
Wisconsin Synod, 1800 — 1889, excepting
1864 — 67. Journeyed through Germany
and Russia raising funds to finance
Northwestern, 1863—64. Though closely
related to German missionary societies,
lie did not hesitate to sever connections
with them when it became necessary, for-
feiting the fruits of his collection tour.
Was one of chief negotiators with Mis-
souri in forming the Synodical Confid-
ence, 1872, of which he was president
1882 — 1912. Resigned pastorate, 1908,
but remained assistant until his death
(1913). President of board of trustees
of Northwestern, 1805 — 1912.
Bahais, or Bahaites, adherents of
Bahaism, a movement which developed
from Babism, an offshoot of Shiite Mo-
hammedanism. The founder is Baha-
ullah, b. 1817, Teheran, Persia, for whose
earlier history and the preceding Babist
movement see Babists. The headquarters
of the cult, whicli gained members in
Persia, Egypt, Syria, and America, is
Acre, to which Baha-ullah was exiled by
the Turks and where he died, 1892, at
age of 75. He had two wives and a con-
cubine, and after his death his sons quar-
reled regarding the succession. — Abbas
Effendi drew the greater number of Ba-
hais with him and assumed the title
Abdul Baha, “Servant of Balia.” He
visited America, 1912, and died 1921.
No successor was chosen.
Bahaism aims to establish a spiritual
unity of mankind and international peace
through the unification of all religions
of the world into one superior religion.
Baha-ullah is worshiped as divine. There
are 100,000 to 200,000 Bahais in Persia
and 15,000 in other countries. The 1916
census reports 57 organizations and
2,884 members in the United States.
A large temple, called Mashrak-el-Azkar
(“The Dawning Point of Praise”), is
being built in Wilmette, near Chicago.
American periodicals: Star of the West,
Chicago; Reality, New York; Teaching
Bulletin, Washington, D. C.
Baha-ullah. See Babists.
Bahrdt, Karl Friedrich ', b. 1741,
d. 1792; one of the most infamous char-
acters of vulgar rationalism; professor
at various universities; died as inn-
keeper near Halle; his life a terrible
indictment of Rationalism.
Baier, J ohann Wilhelm ; b. 1647 ;
professor at Jena, rector of the Univer-
sity of Halle, general superintendent,
court preacher, and city pastor at Wei-
mar; d. there 1695. His chief work is
Compendium, Theologiae Positivae, which
shows the great influence Johann Mu-
saeus, his teacher and father-in-law, had
upon him ( synergism ) . This work
passed through many editions, latest by
Dr. Walther, St. Louis, Mo., 1879, with
a rich collection of extracts from ear-
lier Lutheran theologians.
Baierlein, Edward R. ; b. April 24,
1819; d. October 12, 1901, in Germany.
Lutheran missionary among the Chip-
pewa Indians near Prankenmuth, Mich.
(Station Bethany, St. Louis, Mich. ) , 1847
to 1853; missionary to India in service
of the Lutheran Leipzig Mission until
1886. Returned to Germany and engaged
in literary work.
Baker, Henry Williams, 1821 to
1877; educated at Cambridge; took holy
orders in 1844; vicar of Monkland from
1851 till his death; fine contributions
to hympody, among them “The King of
Love My Shepherd Is.”
Bakewell, John, 1721—1819, ardent
evangelist in Methodist circles; con-
ducted for some years the Greenwich
Royal Park Academy; author of a few
hymns, the best-known being “Hail, Thou
Once Despisfid Jesus.”
Balduin, Friedrich; b. 1575; d. 1627;
poet laureate 1597; 1601, member of the
philosophical faculty at Wittenberg;
1602, preacher at Freiberg; 1003, super-
intendent at Oelsnitz; 1604, professor of
theology at Wittenberg; 1607, also
superintendent. Among his numerous
books is a Latin commentary on all the
Epistles of St. Paul, a classical work in
Lutheran exegetical literature. His
Tractatus de Casibus Gonseientiae was
published after his death.
Ballou, Hosea. See Vniversalists.
Baltic States. See Esthonia, Latvia,
Lithuania.
Banns. See Betrothal.
Baptism. The Sacrament of Baptism
is the institution of Christ which con-
sists in the act of applying water to a
person in the name of "the Triune God,
who in and by such act efficaciously
offers the gifts of His grace and operates
toward their acceptance, as in infants,
or toward perseverance in, and greater
assurance of, the possession of these
gifts, as in adults who have previously
been regenerated by the Spirit through
the Word of God. — By the solemn charge
recorded Matt. 28, 18 — 20, Baptism was,
by divine authority, ordained as a per-
manent institution, whereby, to the end
of time and among all nations, men
should be made or confirmed disciples of
Baptiam
57
Baptism
Ohrist, members of His Church, enjoying
His gracious and mighty presence unto
the end of the world.
The visible element in the Sacrament
is water, 1 Pet. 3, 20 f. But the sacred
act which constitutes sacramental Bap-
tism comprises more than a mere appli-
cation of water; it is a “washing of
water with word,” Eph. 5, 26 (literal
translation). By the word of divine in-
stitution this water is constituted a
Sacrament, a means whereby men are
made disciples of Christ, sanctified and
cleansed by Him who has redeemed them,
giving Himself as a ransom for all.
Matt. 28, 19; Eph. 5, 25 f. By it we are
sanctified, entering into a holy relation
to, and union with, that God who has
revealed Himself as the Triune God, the
God of our salvation. Where this word
is discarded, there is no Sacrament. And
the word is what the sounds of char-
acters say. Hence all Unitarians, though
they use the sounds of the words of in-
stitution, have no valid Baptism, since,
having discarded the true meaning of the
words of institution, they do not say
what Christ said when He ordained, and
would have us say when we administer,
the Sacrament. — In Christ God has
reconciled the world unto Himself and
by His ambassadors invites us to be
reconciled to God. This application of
the benefit of Christ’s expiatory sacri-
fice to the individual sinner is effected
by Baptism, whereby peace is reestab-
lished between the sinner and God, a
compact, or covenant, of grace. Mark
(16, 15f.) explicitly records the promise:
“He that believeth and is baptized shall
be saved,” and this itself is a divine as-
surance of salvation to all believers. But
being, as it is in Christ’s commission to
His Church, bound up with the ordinance
of Baptism, it is assurance made doubly
sure to those to whom this Sacrament is
administered, that, believing, they shall
be saved. Baptism is thus of the nature
of a seal. Baptism, though its material
element be water only, is a pledge of
divine assurance that the covenant of
grace established under the washing of
water in conjunction with the word is
a true and valid covenant, and that for-
giveness of sins, life, and salvation,
promised and conveyed under such seal,
is actually, reliably, and securely con-
ferred upon him who holds and claims
it by virtue of the act and covenant so
sealed by divine ordinance and authority.
- — Hence, too, the validity of the Sacra-
ment does not depend on either the faith
or the unbelief of the person by whom
it is administered. It is a pledge of
God’s faithful performance of His prom-
ise, not a pledge of the minister’s faith.
For the same reason also the faith of the
recipient contributes nothing toward the
validity or efficacy of Baptism. Faith is
the acceptance of what God gives and it-
self is a gift of God. — Baptism is the
washing of regeneration, and regenera-
tion is essentially the bestowal of faith.
By this means God engenders faith, as
in the hearts of infants, who are thereby
made children of God by faith in Christ
Jesus ( Gal. 3, 26 f. ) ; or, where faith has
already been engendered by the Word of
the Gospel, it is, by this seal of God’s
covenant with the believer, strengthened
and confirmed. By Baptism we are
saved, 1 Pet. 3, 21, and salvation is in no
wise of ourselves, but solely and wholly
the work and gift of God, by whose grace
we are saved. — Is this regeneration
effected in every person baptized? Here
we must make a distinction between
adults and children. In the case of
every child properly baptized this re-
generation takes place. Every child that
is baptized is begotten anew of water
and of the Spirit, is placed in covenant
relation with God, and is made a child
of God and an heir of His heavenly
kingdom. All this, and whatever else
the Spirit may do for the child, is done
in the case of every child properly bap-
tized. In the case of an adult, regenera-
tion has already taken place; that is,
the person has already repented and al-
ready believes, otherwise he would not
be a fit subject for Baptism; first there
must be proof of repentance and faith.
When an unworthy person, a hypocrite,
has been baptized, he has not been re-
generated. Yet if a man had been bap-
tized in unbelief, but afterwards re-
pented and believed, all the assurance of
the grace and peace of God given by the
Sacrament and all the blessings intended
for God’s children by such means, would
be his, since he has now accepted in faith
what God had earnestly offered in Bap-
tism, an offer which had never been re-
voked or withdrawn. In like manner
those who have fallen from baptismal
grace should know that God’s promises
remain unshaken. 1 Sam. 15, 29.
Infant Baptism. There is universal
sin, universal need of salvation, under
the Old Testament and under the New.
Accordingly, when God would make a
covenant with His people through Abra-
ham, “the father of the faithful,” He
caused Abraham to receive the seal of
that covenant — Circumcision. The rule
was that people were to be brought into
the covenant in infancy, at the age of
eight days. Gen. 17, 12; Lev. 12, 3. If
adults and infants in the Old Testament
Baptism
58
Baptism
needed to be brought into the covenant,
they need the same relationship with God
now. In Col. 2, 11 St. Paul speaks of a
circumcision made without hands, and in
the next verse we learn that he is speak-
ing of Baptism. He tells the Ephesians
(2, 3) that they were by nature the 1 chil-
dren of wrath. Now, that which brings
down the wrath of God is sin; and being
“by nature the children of wrath” is but
a synonymous expression for “by nature
sinners.” The psalmist (51,5) has this
confession to make: “Behold, I was
shapen in iniquity, and in sin did my
mother conceive me.” The very concep-
tion of the child, then, is in sin. This
cannot be otherwise according to the law
of heredity set forth by Christ: “That
which is born of the flesh is flesh.” John
3, 6. The offspring of sinners can be
nothing but sinners. Being by nature
sinners, infants as well as adults need to
lie baptized. Accordingly, Christ gave
the command to make disciples of all
nations by baptizing them in the name
of the Triune God and teaching them
to obey His commandments. Matt. 28, 18,
R. V. Now, to baptize the nations we
must baptize all, infants as well as
adults. Compare also Acts 2, 38. 39;
16, 15. 33; 18, 8; 1 Cor. 1, 16, for the
apostolic practise. In all these cases the
children were certainly included. From
the apostolic age to the rise of Anabap-
tism in the sixteenth century the doc-
trine of infant baptism was undisputed.
Immersion. In the Church, from the
time of Moses to Christ, the baptisms, or
washings, were both evangelical and
typical. That they were typical is evi-
dent from the whole tenor of Scripture
concerning the ancient ordinances and
from the 9th chapter of Hebrews. Their
typical character has a bearing upon the
character and form of their fulfilment
and enables us to comprehend them. The
mode of administering the water of sepa-
ration was sprinkling. Num. 19, 17. 18;
cf. Heb. 9, 19 arid 1 Cor. 10, 1 — 6. The
word ftami^eiv (baptizein) had its estab-
lished usage in that age. It occurs, in
the verb and its derivation, 122 times in
the New Testament and in every case re-
fers to a ritual or religious act, not to
dipping. Besides, the derivative nouns
do not occur in secular Greek. “It is
therefore an exegetical outrage to force
upon these words a meaning construed
from their remote etymology, as from
the root fiaep, or taken from the classical
secular authors.” (A. L. Graebner. ) Cf.
also Mark 7, 4 and Luke 11, 38. Not a
single case can be quoted where, in apos-
tolic days, Christian baptism was admin-
istered by immersion. On the other
hand, there are instances recorded where
immersion was excluded by the circum-
stances of the case or by the terms of
the narrative. Thus in the very first
case recorded, when the three thousand
were baptized in one day, the Day of
Pentecost, at Jerusalem, where was the
river or pool in the city or its environ-
ments in which three thousand men,
women, and children might have been
immersed? The eunuch (Acts 8) was on
his way through a desert country, where
water was, and is to this day, scanty, the
watercourses being few and low in their
beds. That Philip and the eunuch “went
down into the water” and, after the bap-
tism, “came up out of the water” is so
far from establishing an instance of bap-
tism by immersion that it rather de-
scribes the simplest way in which the
two might get into position to permit
Philip to lift water with his hand even
from a low and shallow brook or pool
and pour it upon the eunuch’s head.
This would hold good even if in this case
immersion had not, because of the scan-
tiness of water, been impossible, but also
if the “water” had been the Mediterra-
nean, with volume enough to drown an
army. “While there is not one instance
of baptism in the time of Christ and His
apostles, the baptism of John not ex-
cepted, recorded in such a way that im-
mersion must be assumed, we have the
records of various instances in which im-
mersion cannot reasonably be assumed,
and it is probable that baptism by im-
mersion was never practised in apostolic
days.” (A. L. Graebner.) — In the pa-
tristic age of the Church those teachers
who were most loyal to the truth main-
tained the correctness of the proposition
that mode is not essential to a sacra-
ment. There is nothing extant, dated in
the first century, which gives any ac-
count of the mode of baptism. The most
credible date of the Teachings of the
Twelve Apostles is A. D. 120. According
to it the mode seems to have been pour-
ing. Nevertheless, it is held by histo-
rians that immersion wholly in water
was the prevailing mode in the first cen-
tury. — Cyprian says in his Epistle
(69, 12) concerning the baptism of the
sick : “Baptism by sprinkling is pure, . . .
is of the Lord’s faithfulness made suf-
ficient.” Again, he says of the baptis-
mus clinicorum (of invalids) : “I would
use so much modesty and humility as
not to prescribe so positively, but that
every one should enjoy the freedom of
his own thought and do as he thinks
best.” Again : “I do, however, according
to my mean capacity, judge thus: that
the divine favors can in no wise be muti-
Baptism
59
Baptism, I , i 1 11 rai <‘M 1
] filed or abridged [by sprinkling] so, that
anything less than the whole of them is
conveyed.” Again : “The water of asper-
sion is purification. From this it ap-
pears that sprinkling is sufficient.” From
these quotations it is certain that Cy-
prian did not hold that any particular
mode was necessary for the validity of
baptism. Walfridius Strabo says that
Laurentius, the martyr, A. D. 250, bap-
tized, with a pitcher of water, one of
his executioners who became converted.
Mention is often made of submerging the
head without any mention of the whole
body. Augustine said: “After you have
professed your belief, three times did we
submerge your heads in the sacred foun-
tain.” And Jerome: “He will immerse
the head three times in the washing.”
From the third century dates the well-
known picture in the catacombs which
represents John the Baptist baptizing
Jesus by pouring, thus indicating that
the mode of baptism originally was by
pouring or sprinkling. Gennadius, in
the fifth century, speaks of baptism
as being administered in the French
churches either by immersion or sprin-
kling. Pope Stephen II, A. D. 754, says
that if baptism is done by pouring water
on the head in the name of the Trinity,
it is valid and effective. The baptis-
teries were properly buildings adjacent
to the churches, in which the catechu-
mens were instructed, and were a sort
of cisterns into which water was let at
the time of the baptism and in which the
candidates were baptized by immersion.”
(Mosheim.) “After the model of the
Roman baths they were built in the
shape of a rotunda; the baptismal basin
stood in the middle and was surrounded
by a colonnade. Frequently a large ante-
chamber was provided, in which the cate-
chumens were wont to receive religious
instruction. When infant baptism be-
came general, separate baptisteries were
no longer necessary, and instead of them
stone fonts were placed in the churches
(towards the north, at the principal en-
trance).” (Kurtz, Church History , Vol. I,
p. 237). — Baptism was performed by im-
mersion and also by sprinkling through-
out the Middle Ages, but it appears that
sprinkling was the most prevalent mode.
Bonaventura says: “The way of affusion
in baptism was probably used by the
apostles.” “The Synod of Angers, 1275,
held that the general custom of the
Church was to dip or pour the water
three times on the candidate.” From all
this we conclude that the Christian
Church rarely, if ever, lost sight of, or
violated, the principle that mode is not
essential to the validity of Baptism.
Baptism, Liturgical. The ritual of
Baptism, as developed to the time of
Gregory the Great, remained practically
unchanged throughout the J|iddle Ages.
According to the Agenda Moguntinensis
of 1513 the following parts belonged to
the Order of Baptizing Children ( Ordo
ad baptizandum pueros) : I. Introduc-
tion (at the doors of the church): In-
quiry after name, Sign of Cross and
Prayer, Tasting of Salt, and Greeting of
Peace with Prayer, Great Kxorcism, the
Lesson, the Lord’s Prayer with Ave Ma-
ria and Apostolic Creed, Ephpliatha Cere-
mony, Entrance into Church; II. Rite
of Baptism: Renunciation, the Creed,
Anointing (on the breast, between the
shoulder-blades, in the form of a cross),
Admonition to Sponsors, the Act of Bap-
tism (performed with child’s head point-
ing to east, north, and south, respec-
tively, at the three infusions), Prayer of
Thanksgiving, Clothing in Chrisom, or
White Robe. Other ceremonies prescribed
by some church orders were the Kiss of
Brotherhood or Peace, the Placing of a
Lighted Taper into the Hand of the
Child, and others. The ceremonies of
the two exorcisms, the guslus salis
(placing a little salt in the mouth or on
the tongue of the child), and the act of
anointing were those whose significance
was emphasized so strongly as to cause
these ceremonies to obscure the rite of
baptism itself. Tn spite of this fact,
however, Luther retained the ceremonies
in his first compilation of the Order of
Baptism, since they were not essentially
wrong or to be condemned. His first
attempt in this line was his Taufbuech-
lein verdeutscht of 1523. It was in sub-
stance nothing but a translation of the
liturgy of Baptism as then in use in
Wittenberg. It contained the Small Ex-
orcism, Signurn Crucis with Prayers, the
Tasting of Salt with the “Flood” Prayer,
the Great Exorcism with Prayer and
Greeting of Peace, Lesson (Mark 10),
the Lord’s Prayer, the Ephpliatha Cere-
mony, Ingression; Renunciation, Creed,
Act of Baptism, Anointing (cross on
head only), Clothing with Chrisom,
Placing of Taper in Hands of Child.
After Luther had issued a second order
or outline of a liturgy for baptism,
omitting some of the ceremonies upon
which the papists had laid so much
stress, he came out in 1520 with an order
which discarded all the usages which
were in any way connected with super-
stition. But he retained the division
into two parts. Most of the Lutheran
church orders adopted the form of 1526,
many of them, however, preferring to
omit the exsufflation (the same as the
Baptism, Homan Catholic
60
Baptists
Small Exorcism above), the signation,
and the exorcism. They all agree in re-
taining the division of the act into two
parts, and the most prominent church
orders have the admonition to the spon-
sors at the end, since it is not an in-
tegral part of the ceremony. The ques-
tions are usually addressed to the child,
the sponsors being expressly asked to
answer in the name of the infant. The
tendency in our days is toward abbrevia-
tion of the liturgy, but it is to be hoped
that the prayers and the lessons will be
retained, with the introduction, and that
the division into parts will be carefully
observed.
Baptism, Roman Catholic Doctrine.
The Roman Church teaches that Bap-
tism indeed remits all sin, both original
and actual, of which the recipient stands
guilty at the moment of baptism, in-
cluding the deserved punishment. It de-
nies, however, that through repentance
and faith the efficacy of baptismal grace
is continued and renewed for sins com-
mitted after Baptism. Titus 3, 5 — 7 ;
2 Tim. 2, 13; Gal. 3, 24—27. For the
removal of these sins it demands sub-
mission to the so-called Sacrament of
Penance (g. v.) with its works of satis-
faction. Rome further denies that in-
fants themselves have the faith required
in baptism and teaches that they believe
through the faith of their parents or of
the whole Church (Catechismus Roma-
nus, II, 2. 32), a vicarious arrangement
of which the Scripture knows nothing.
Nor is there any Scriptural warrant for
the fantastic doctrine that Baptism im-
prints an indelible mark (see Character
Indelehilis) , which makes the recipient
capable of receiving the other sacraments
and subjects him of right, even though
“heretically” baptized, to the canon law
and the Pope. — Among the ceremonies
of Roman baptism are the following:
The priest breathes on the candidate and
exorcises the devil; puts salt in his
mouth; anoints his ears and nostrils
with spittle, his breast and hack with
oil, and the crown of his head with
chrism (see Oil, Holy) ; finally he places
a lighted candle in his hand. (Regarding
unbaptized infants see Lirnlio ; see also
Opus Operatum.)
Baptists. 1) General Statement. The
origin of the Baptist bodies must be
traced to the radical -.pseudoreformers
who since 1521 opposed Luther in his
effort of reestablishing the Church upon
the sound principles of God’s pure Word.
They boldly styled themselves “celestial
prophets,” boasted of special revelations,
rejected pedobaptism, and centered their
reforms in the attempt to abolish the
existing governments and to replace them
by communistic organizations. Expelled
from Wittenberg in 1521, they rapidly
spread through Germany, sowing the
seed of discontent and inciting the peas-
ants to a war of rebellion in 1524. This
was cruelly suppressed, and Muentzer,
one of the “celestial prophets,” was put
to death in 1525. In 1533 the city of
Muenster, in Westphalia, became the
center of Anabaptist propaganda. Under
the leadership of Knipperdolling, John
Matthiesen, and John of Leyden they pro-
claimed the dawn of the millennial reign,
abrogated the existing form of govern-
ment, expelled all “unbelievers,” and in-
stituted a reign of terror and licentious-
ness ( communism and polygamy ) , In
1535 the city was captured by the united
efforts of Protestants and Catholics, and
its leaders were beheaded. In spite of
persistent persecution the movement
spread, most of the Anabaptists (Rebap-
tizers, so called because they insisted
upon the rebaptizing of their members)
seeking refuge in Holland. There the
party was reorganized, in 1536, by Menno
Simons, a former Roman Catholic priest,
after whom his followers were called
Monnonites. From the Low Countries,
Anabaptism passed over into England,
where, already in 1534, small groups of
Anabaptists had appeared, meeting with
violent opposition, so that the movement
could gain no foothold. Nevertheless,
Anabaptist principles remained current
in England. In Amsterdam Thomas Hel-
wys and John Morton, in 1609, joined a
band of Separatist (English) refugees,
under the leadership of John Smith, who
had accepted Anabaptist views. Return-
ing to London, in 1611, to propagate
their tenets, they found a ready response.
In 1616 Henry Jacob, who had been pas-
tor of an exiled congregation of English
Dissenters at Middleburg, Zeeland, estab-
lished himself in London and organized
a church at Southwark. Out of this
church, in the course of time, arose, from
1633 to 1644, seven antipedobaptist con-
gregations, afterwards known as Particu-
lar (Calvinistic) Baptist churches. Some
of these, in 1640, became convinced that
baptism “ought to be by dipping the body
into water,” and after a conference with
immersionist bodies in Holland large
numbers of English Anabaptists were im-
mersed early in 1641 or 1642. Applying
to themselves the name “Baptists,” they
published a Confession of Faith in 1644,
which embodies the views of the great
mass of modern Baptists, the so-called
Six Principles ( see below ), as : supreme
authority of Scripture (which excludes
from doctriflp and practise whatever is
Baptist**
61
without Scriptural warrant); regenerate
membership ; democratic government,
with recognition of the headship of
Christ and the universal priesthood of
believers; believers’ baptism (immersion
alone being regarded as true baptism) ;
absolute liberty of conscience; and sep-
aration of Church and State. Due to
Mennonite influence the early Baptist
churches in England were Arminian
rather than Calvinistic in type and were
termed General Baptists, thereby ex-
pressing their belief in a universal atone-
ment, in contradistinction from Particu-
lar Baptists, who accepted the Calvinistic
view of a limited atonement. The Gen-
eral and Particular Baptists were united
in 1891, their distinguishing feature con-
sisting in the practise of immersion
rather than in any specific doctrine.
2) Baptists in America. The first in
America to advocate Baptist principles
was Roger Williams. Born about 1600
and educated at Cambridge, he became an
ardent non-conformist (q.v.) and at great
personal sacrifice emigrated to New Eng-
land, where he declined to supply the
pulpit of the Boston church because it
was “an unseparated church” and he
“durst not officiate to” it. Accepting a
pastorate at Plymouth, he spent much
time among the Indians, mastering their
language and seeking to promote their
moral and spiritual welfare. From 1634
to 1635 he, as pastor of the Salem church,
became involved in local controversies
and in controversies with the Massachu-
setts authorities, whose ill will he in-
curred by denying the right of the mag-
istrates to punish any sort of “breach of
the First Table,” such as idolatry, Sab-
bath-breaking, blasphemy, etc. Accord-
ingly, he was expelled and banished in
1635 from the Massachusetts Colony be-
cause “he broached and divulged new and
dangerous opinions against the author-
ity of magistrates.” Amid the hardships
and perils of the winter he made his
way to Narragansett Bay, where he was
joined by a number of Massachusetts
sympathizers and founded a colony on
the basis of soul-liberty. With the co-
operation of John Clarke and others this
was developed into the Colony of Rhode
Island. Having established himself at
Providence, R. I., Williams, in 1639,
adopted and proclaimed essentially Bap-
tist views, baptizing Ezekiel Holliman
as his first convert and being in turn
baptized by him. He boldly defended the
principle of liberty of conscience in The
Bloody Tenet of Persecution and in The
Bloody Tenet Yet More Bloody, by which
he became known as the “Apostle of
Liberty.” This principle was also de-
fended with equal ability by John Clarke
in his III News from New England.
Apparently without any connection with
the work of Roger Williams, Clark had
become convinced that infant baptism
was not warranted by Scripture and,
together with eleven others, had intro-
duced the believers’ baptism in the
church founded by him in 1639, or there-
about, at Newport, R. I., whither he had
come from New Hampshire. His colony
at Newport united with Williams’s Prov-
idence Colony in procuring a charter in
which civil and religious liberty was
fully provided for. Immersion was per-
haps introduced in the colony at New-
port in 1644, when Mark Lucar, who was
among the English separatists immersed
in 1641 or 1642, became a member of the
Newport church.
The early American Baptist churches
belonged to the Particular, or Calvin-
istic, branch. Although later Arminian
views, recognizing the universality of
atonement, were widely spread for a time,
the Calvinistic view of the atonement was
ultimately accepted by the main body of
Baptists throughout the Colonies. At a
relatively early date began to appear the
divisions that exist among Baptists to
this day. When, in 1652, the church at
Providence was divided, one party organ-
ized a church that marked the beginning
of the General-Six-Principle-Baptists. In
1671 the Seventh-day Baptist body organ-
ized its first congregation at Newport.
Although Arininianism disappeared from
the Baptist churches of New England
about the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the General Baptists who were
found in Virginia before 1714 gained a
strong and permanent foothold in the
South. The New-Light Movement, which
followed Whitefield’s visit to New Eng-
land in 1740, resulted in the organiza-
tion of the Separate Baptists, who at
one time were numerous. The Free Bap-
tists in New England, founded in 1779,
once more accepted the Arminian view
of the atonement. In 1788, shortly after
the Revolutionary War, the Colored Bap-
tist Church was organized, which aimed
at the evangelization of the Negro race.
The Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit Predestinarian
Baptists owe their existence to the gen-
eral revival movement at the close of the
eighteenth and the beginning of the nine-
teenth century and represent a reaction
toward a sterner Calvinism. The Primi-
tive Baptists, variously termed Old
School, Anti-Mission, and Hard-Shell
Baptists, not so much oppose mission-
work itself as rather its organization,
for fear lest ecclesiasticism might thus
be developed, while the Missionary Bap-
Baptists
62
Baptists
tists, although there is no definite de-
nominational organization under that
name, prove exceedingly zealous in mis-
sionary endeavors both at home and
abroad. Seventh-day Baptists agree with
other Baptist bodies except in regard to
the Sabbath. By far the largest body of
Baptists, not only in the United States,
but in the world, is that popularly known
as Baptists, though frequently referred
to, and. listed in the. census of 1890, as
Regular Baptists. Other Baptist bodies
prefix some descriptive adjective, such
as Primitive, United, General, Free, etc.;
but this, which is virtually the parent
body, commonly lias no such qualifica-
tion. The total strength of the Baptists
in all their branches is close to 8,000,000
souls.
3) History and Development. The his-
tory of the early Baptist Church in New
England is one of constant struggle for
existence. So bitter was the opposition
of the Puritan government of Massachu-
setts to the infant Church that almost a
century after Roger Williams there were
only eight Baptist churches there. Until
the middle of the eighteenth century it
seemed as if the General, or Arminian,
branch would be dominant at least in
New England; however, the Great
Awakening (that due to the rise of
Methodism) in 1740 and the labors of
Whitelield brought about two significant
changes in Baptist church life : 1 ) Cal-
vinistic views began to predominate, and
2) the bitter opposition to the Baptists
disappeared. In 1812 the American Bap-
tists numbered about 172,972 members,
of whom 32,272 were in New England,
26,155 in the Middle States, and the rest
in the South. Rhode Island College
(Brown University) was still the only
Baptist institution of higher learning.
The after -war period was marked by a
renewal of the revival interest and a new
development of the Arminian type of
Baptist churches. For some time the
Free Baptists, or Free-will Baptists, as
they were variously called, drew con-
siderable strength from the Regular Bap-
tists, but the latter soon became as
strong as ever. Another significant
movement in the Baptist churches was
that connected with the development of
foreign missions. Already in 1792 the
Baptists of England had organized a mis-
sionary society to send William Carey to
India, and as many of the Baptist
churches in the United States had be-
come interested in the movement, a for-
eign missionary society was organized in
America in 1810, in which Congrega-
tional, Presbyterian, Reformed, and other
churches united under the name of
“American Board.” The first missiona-
ries sent to India were Adoniram Judson,
his wife, and Luther Rice. In 1814 the
General Missionary Convention of the
Baptist Denomination in the' United
States of America for Foreign Missions
was formed, which went far to arouse
“denominational consciousness,” bring the
various local churches together, and over-
come the disintegrating tendencies of ex-
treme independence. For a time the con-
vention undertook to care also for home
missions, but with the increasing migra-
tion westward the task became too great,
and in 1832 a Home Missionary Society
was organized. In 1840 the Tract So-
ciety, which had been formed in 1824,
was renamed the American Baptist Pub-
lication Society. When the discussion of
the slavery question became acute, the
differences of opinion resulted in three
conventions — Northern, Southern, and
National. While the Northern Baptists
were antislavery, the Southern churches
did Pot oppose slavery, which difference
led to the organization of the Southern
Baptist Convention in 1845. This, how-
ever, was not a new denomination, but
simply a new organization for the direc-
tion of the missionary and evangelistic
work of the churches in the Southern
States. Some years after the organiza-
tion of the Southern Baptist Convention
the National Baptist Convention was
formed, which represented the Negro
churches.
4) Doctrine. On many points of doc-
trine, Baptists agree with other evan-
gelical bodies. W 7 hile their churches are
now harassed by Liberalism, Rational-
ism, and Higher Criticism, so that there
is a distinct dividing -line between the
Conservatives, who cling to the old con-
fessions of faith, and the Liberals, who
have cut loose from the fundamentals of
evangelical faith, the denomination as
such has always held, in a general way,
to the plain teachings of the Word of
God. Maintaining with other evangelical
bodies the great truths of sin and atone-
ment, they hold: 1. That the churches
are independent in their local affairs;
2. that there should be an entire separa-
tion of Church and State; 3. that reli-
gious liberty, or freedom in matters of
religion, is an inherent right of the
human soul ; 4. that a Church is a body
of. regenerated people who have been bap-
tized on profession of personal faith in
Christ and have associated themselves
in the fellowship of the Gospel; 5. that
infant baptism is not only not taught
in the Scriptures, but is fatal to the
spirituality of the Church; 6. that from
tlie meaning of the word, the symbolism
Baptists
63
Barnnlias, Epistle of
of the ordinance, and the practise of the
early Church immersion is the only
proper mode of baptism; 7. that the
Scriptural officers of a church are pas-
tors and deacons ; and 8. that the Lord’s
Supper is an ordinance of the Church
observed in commemoration of the suffer-
ings and death of Christ. These beliefs
have been incorporated in confessions of
faith, of which the Philadelphia Confes-
sion, as originally issued by the London
Baptist churches in 1689 and adopted
with some enlargements by the Phila-
delphia Association in 1742, and the New
Hampshire Confession, adopted by the
New Hampshire State Convention in
1832, are recognized as the most im-
portant. Both confessions are distinc-
tively Calvinistic. However, Baptists
adhere, in general, to the Word of God,
and these confessions are not regarded
as having special authority. At the same
time, within limits, considerable differ-
ences in doctrine are allowed, and thus
opportunity is given to modify beliefs as
new light may break from or upon the
“Word.” Accordingly, heresy trials are
rare, and the bane of Rationalism has
saturated both tlieir churches and their
institutions of learning.
5) Polity. Baptist church polity is
congregational and independent, each
church being sovereign, so far as its own
discipline and worship are concerned.
Admission to church-membership is by
vote of the church, usually after exami-
nation of the candidate by the church
committee. For missionary, educational,
or other purposes Baptist churches usu-
ally group themselves into associations,
of which the oldest is the Philadelphia
Association, which was organized in 1707.
The Charleston Association was formed
in South Carolina in 1751. These asso-
ciations meet annually and are composed
of messengers sent by the churches ; how-
ever, they have no authority to legislate
for the churches and no power to enforce
any action they may take. Applicants
for the ministry are licensed to preach
by the Church in which they hold mem-
bership, the right to license and to or-
dain being held by the individual church.
Previous to ordination there is always
an examination of the candidate on mat-
ters of religious experience, call to the
ministry, and views on Scriptural doc-
trine. When a question of dismissal
from the ministry arises, the individual
church calls a council of sister churches
for the examination of charges, and on
the recommendation of this council the
church bases its decision.
Baptists. See also Northern Baptist
Convention; Southern Baptist Conven-
tion ; General Sim-Principle Baptists ;
Free Baptists; Free-will Baptists; Col-
ored Free-will Baptists; General Bap-
tists; Regular Baptists; Separate Bap-
tists ; United Baptists; Duck River
Primitive Baptists; Tioo-Seed-in-the-
Spirit Predestinarian Baptists ; German
Seventh-day Baptists.
Baptists, Primitive Colored. See
Primitive Colored Baptists.
Bapzien, Michael, 1628 — 1693; pre-
centor at Hayn, in the principality of
Liegnitz, at Koenigsberg, and finally at
Thorn ; full of deep feeling, wrote :
“Kommt her und schaut, kommt, lasst
uns doch vou Herzen.”
Barbauld, Anna Laetitia, nee Atkin,
1 7 43 — 1 825 ; both father and husband dis-
senters ; eminently successful as hymn-
writer, largely for Unitarian circles;
wrote : “Praise to God, Immortal Praise,”
and others.
Bar-Cochba, a Jewish pseudo -Mes-
siah; led a revolt of his countrymen
against the Romans (132 — 135), but met
defeat at the hands of Hadrian’s general
Julius Servus. More than half a million
Jews were slaughtered, Jerusalem was
again destroyed, and nearly all Palestine
laid waste.
Barclay, Robert. See Friends, So-
ciety of.
Barefooted Monks (and Nuns). The
popular name for members of various
orders who wear no foot-covering what-
ever or only sandals. They are also
known as “discaleed” ( e . g., discalced
Carmelites ) , though this term is prop-
erly applied only to those who wear
sandals. The custom was introduced in
tile West by St. Francis (q.v.), probably
with reference to Matt. 10, 10. It has
been followed by the stricter branches of
man y orders, among others by Capuchins,
Poor Clares, Augustinians, Carmelites,
Servites, and Passionists.
Baring-Gould, Sabine, 1834 — 1924;
educated at Cambridge; held a number
of positions as clergyman, last in Devon-
shire ; wrote Lives of the Saints and
numerous other works; best -known
hymn; “Onward, Christian Soldiers.”
Barnabas, Epistle of, an anonymous
letter dating from the end of the first
or the beginning of the second century
and addressed, it would seem, to a com-
munity of Christians, not more definitely
known, who were in danger of lapsing
into Judaizing errors. The writer’s ex-
tremely allegorizing, at times even caba-
listic, method of interpretation makes it
impossible to identify him with Barna-
bas, the companion of the Apostle Paul.
BarnaMtes, Order of
64
Basedow, Johann Heinrich
He not only rejects the literal sense as
applied to the Jewish Ceremonial Law,
but declares such a conception a satanie
perversion. In other respects the writer
stands, in the main, on Pauline ground.
Barnabites, Order of. A religious
order of secular clergy, established at
Milan in 1533 and properly called Regu-
lar Clerks of the Congregation of St. Paul.
Barnardo, Thomas John; b. at Dub-
lin, Ireland, 1845 (father a Spaniard,
mother an Englishwoman) ; d. at Lon-
don, September 19, 1905. Studied medi-
cine. During an epidemic of cholera in
1865 his attention was directed to the
large numbers of destitute children. To
care for these became his life-work. The
first Barnardo Home for such children
was opened in London in 1867 ; at the
time of Barnardo’s death 112 homes had
been established. All destitute children
were received without distinction. By
means of a successful emigration system
Barnardo sent thousands of children to
the British colonies, especially to the
cities of Toronto and Winnipeg, Can., as
distributing centers, and to an industrial
farm (8,000 acres near Russell, Man.).
Barnardo emphasized the religious train-
ing of the children in his homes, but
sought to have each child brought up in
the religion of the parents.
Barnby, Joseph, 1838 — 1896. Early
development of musical talent; studied
under Lucas and Potter in London; held
a number of positions as organist, also
conductor of festivals; wrote music for
Canticles and other sacred pieces.
Barnes, Albert, 1798 — 1870; Presby-
terian theologian; b. at Rome, N. Y. ;
pastor at Philadelphia; leader of liber-
als at the disruption (1837) of Presbyte-
rian Church (reunited 1870) ; d. at
Philadelphia. Exegetical writer.
Barnes, Robert; b. 1495; prior of
Augustinians at Cambridge in 1523;
converted by Luther’s writings; fled to
Wittenberg about 1528; published Sen-
tences and a History of the Popes; fre-
quent messenger between Henry VIII
and Luther when the former was trying
to arrange for his divorce; arranged
meeting of the English divines with the
Wittenbergers in 1536 and that of the
Lutherans with the English at Lambeth
in 1538; had a part in arranging the
marriage of the king with Anne of
Cleves; burned July 30, 1540, after a
good confession, which Luther published
in memory of “our good, pious table com-
panion and guest of our home, this holy
martyr, St. Robertus.”
Baronius, Caesar. Prominent Roman
Catholic Church theologian since the Ref-
ormation ; b. at Sora, in kingdom of
Naples, 1538; d. at Rome, 1607; studied
theology and law at Veroli and Naples;
lived at Rome in the Congregation of the
Oratory, where he gathered material for
work in church history, working for
thirty years with the vast masses of un-
published material of the Vatican ar-
chives; wrote the Annales Ecclesiastici,
which begin with the birth of Christ and
go down to 1198, in chronicle form.
Barrow, Isaac, 1630 — 77; Anglican
theologian, mathematician. Londoner;
ordained 1659; professor of mathematics
at Cambridge, 1663 (resigned in favor of
his pupil, Isaac Newton) ; Vice-chancel-
lor, Cambridge, 1675. Sermons; Pope’s
Supremacy ; etc.
Barth, Christian Gottlob; b. July 13,
1799, Stuttgart; d. November 12, 1862,
Calw. Retiring from the ministry, 1838,
he devoted his life to missions in con-
nection with the Basel Missions. Founder
of the Missionary Society of Wurttem-
berg; was editor of the Calwer Missions-
blatt.
Barthel, Friedrich Wilhelm; born
April 2, 1791, at Rosswein, Saxony; died
February 12, 1857. One of the few who
in that rationalistic age retained the old
faith, he still held an influential govern-
ment position at Leipzig, and his home
became a center of true piety and Bib-
lical Christianity, especially for the seri-
ous-minded among the students of the
university. Emigrated with Stephan in
1838. First Treasurer of the Missouri
Synod and a prominent leader in the
Church.
Bartholomew, St., Massacre of. See
Massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Barton, Bernard, 1784 — 1849. The
“Quaker Poet”; first in business, then
private tutor, then bank clerk for forty
years; numerous poetical works; among
his poems : “Lamp of Our Feet, Whereby
We Trace.”
Barton, James Levi, D. D.; b. Sep-
tember 23, 1855, Charlotte, Vt. ; ordained
to congregational ministry 1885; mis-
sionary of American Board (Congrega-
tional) at Harpoot, Turkey, 1885- — 1892;
professor at Theological Seminary; 1888
to 1892 in field; Foreign Secretary of
American Board since 1894.
Basedow, Johann Heinrich; b. 1724,
Hamburg; d. 1790; prominent educa-
tional reformer, pedagogic writer, able,
but radical agitator. In his Philanthro-
pinum at Dessau he was given opportu-
nity to put his reform ideas into prac-
tise. He advocated the preparation of
appropriate text-books, of literature for
Basel Bible Society
65
Bataka
children, emphasized pleasurable inter-
est in teaching, object teaching, nature
study, physical training. Works: Me-
thodenbuch ; Element arwerk.
Basel Bible Society. See Nuremberg
Bible Society.
Basel, Council of, 17th ecumenical,
1431 — 1443 (1449) the last of the three
reforming councils (see Pisa and Con-
stance) ; failed to effect the “reforma-
tion in the head and the members” be-
cause of its failure to strike at the root
of the evil, the suppression of the Gospel.
It reaffirmed the Constance doctrine of
the supreme authority in the Church of
the Ecumenical Council in the face of
the Pope’s (Eugene IV) bull of dissolu-
tion and granted the use of the cup to
the Hussites. The reform decrees touch-
ing the scandalous life of the clergy,
particularly those aimed at the annates
(benefits from vacant dioceses) and
other popish extortions causing a split,
the counter-council of the papal party
at Florence effected a union, at least
on paper, with the Greek Church, and
the Rump Council at Basel, under the
leadership of Louis d’Allemand and
Nicholas Cusanus, deposed the Pope for
simony, heresy, and perjury and elected
a Pope of its own choosing, Felix V, both
councils exchanging excommunications.
After a last session at Basel, 1443, a rem-
nant at Lausanne accepted Eugene’s suc-
cessor as the real Pope, and the council
came to an inglorious end in 1449, Felix
having exchanged his title for a cardi-
nalate. Pius II (Lateran Council, 1512
to 1517) was free to proclaim and en-
force the absolute authority of the Pope.
Basel Evangelical Missionary So-
ciety. One of the oldest missionary so-
cieties, an offshoot of the Deutsche Chri-
stentumsgesellscJiaft. Founders: C. F.
Spittler, Nicolaus von Brunn, Friedrich
Steinkopf. Organized May 26, 1816;
Christian Gottlieb Blumhardt, formerly
secretary of the Christian Society, was
first inspector, or manager. The society
began sending out missionaries in 1822;
missions were opened in Southern Russia,
Liberia, the Gold Coast, South India,
Kamerun, and China. The society is
unionistic. Inspector Joseph Josenhans
(1850—79) did much in systematizing
and industrializing the work in the fields.
Under his supervision the Missionshaus
at Basel was erected. Female and med-
ical missionaries were first sent out dur-
ing the term of Inspector Otto Schott
(1879 — 84). The missions in India and
Africa suffered greatly during the World
War. — Fields: Asia: China, British
Malaya, Netherlands Indies; Africa:
Concordia Cyclopedia
Gold Coast, Togoland, English and French
Mandates in Kamerun. All work in In-
dia has been transferred to other organi-
zations; also that in Africa.
Basil the Great, 330 ( ?) — 379, of the
“three great Cappadocians” (see Gregory
Nazianzen and Gregory of Nyssa) ; nur-
tured in the faith by his mother Emmelia
and his grandmother Macrina; teacher
of philosophy, etc., in his native city,
Caesarea, Cappadocia; baptized and ap-
pointed lector; established a cloister in
Pontus, the pattern of all later Eastern
monasteries; presbyter in Caesarea, 364;
bishop, 370. Basil’s “great” work was
performed in connection with the Trini-
tarian controversies. The Church owed
the final suppression of Arianism and
Semi-Arianism to Athanasius and the
three Cappadocians. Basil thoroughly in-
structed and established his own congre-
gation in the Scriptural truth, influenced
others by his writings and wise counsels,
and checked the persecution of the Arian
Emperor Valens by his manly resistance.
His work in the field of liturgies (the
Byzantine Liturgy) and hymnology was
also valuable. And he was “great” in
“practical” Christianity, as is attested by
the Basilias, an institution for the care
of the travelers, the poor, the sick, to
which he devoted all his revenues, him-
self living in the humblest manner. He
has left a great number of important
books, among them the three books
against Eunomius, the leader of the ex-
treme Arians, and his work on The Pro-
cession of the Holy Ghost, against the
Pneumatomachians.
Basilians. 1) Monks or nuns follow-
ing the rule of St. Basil; therefore,
often, simply monks of the Greek Church.
Basilian monasteries acknowledging the
Pope are found in Sicily and Slavonian
countries. 2 ) Priests of St. Basil. A so-
ciety founded in France in 1800 for the
training of priests. It has no connection
with the rule of Basil or its monks. The
society has (1921) 12 members in the
United States. v
Basilica. See Architecture.
Basutoland, British crown colony in
South Africa (1884). Area, 10,300 sq. mi.
Population, 400,000. The Basutos belong
to the Bechuanos, generally classed as
Kaffirs. Missions by the Society des
Missions Evangeliques since 1825, the
Anglican Church, the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel. The Roman
Catholic Church has begun counter-mis-
sion work.
Bataks, also Batta, natives of Suma-
tra, East Indies. They number about
6
Bates, William
66
BeeUet, Thomas A
250,000 and have remained independent
of Dutch sovereignty. Their language is
a Malay dialect. The American Board
made unsuccessful mission attempts
(1834). The Rhenish Missionary So-
ciety was more successful, chiefly through
L. Nommensen (d. 1918). A large Chris-
tian Church has been founded of more
than 190,000 communicants.
Bates, William (1625—99). The sil-
ver-tongued divine. Londoner; pastor
(Presbyterian), London; ejected for non-
conformity, 1662; failed in all efforts to
bring about settlement between bishops
and Dissenters. Wrote Harmony of the
Divine Attributes.
Bathurst, William Hiley, 1796 to
1877. Educated at Oxford; held posi-
tion as clergyman for more than thirty
years, then retired to private life ; wrote :
“Jesus, Thy Church with Longing Eyes,”
and others.
Baumgarten, Sigismund Jacob;
b. 1706; d. 1757 as professor at Halle;
introduced the philosophical methods of
Chr. Wolff into theology, which marked
the transition of Pietism to Rationalism.
Baur, Ferdinand Christian; b. 1792;
d. 1860; founder and chief representative
of the later Tuebingen school of the-
ology; since 1826 professor of theology
at Tuebingen; applied Hegel’s principles
and methods of philosophy to theology.
The real essence of the Christian reli-
gion is to him the strictly ethical con-
tent of the teaching of Jesus, to the ex-
clusion of the miraculous element. Peter
represents the particularistic Jewish;
Paul, the universalistic heathen-Chris-
tian viewpoint of Christ’s teaching —
both antagonistic to each other. Later,
in the second century, these teachings
were gradually brought into agreement.
Thus the Christian religion has a per-
fectly natural historical development.
Of St. Paul’s epistles only those to the
Romans, Corinthians, and Galatians are
genuine; all the rest, because of their
conciliatory tendency, are considered spu-
rious. See Tuebinger School.
Bauslin, Dr. David H. (1853 — 1923).
Pastor of East Ohio Synod; professor
(1896) at Hamma Divinity School; edi-
tor of Lutheran World ; author of The
Lutheran Movement of the Sixteenth Cen-
tury, etc. Active in bringing about the
“Merger,” (United Lutheran Church)
1918.
Bavarian Foreign Mission Society.
See N euendettelsau Missionary Society.
Baxter, Bichard (1615 — 1691.) Edu-
cated at Wroxeter School; held chap-
laincy to Cromwell, later to Charles II;
refused bishopric of Hereford, afterwards
took out license as Non conformist min-
ister ; published Saints’ Everlasting Rest ;
did much work in early English hymnody
and the English Psalters; wrote: “Lord,
It Belongs Not to My Care.”
Bayle, Pierre, French philosopher;
b. 1647, Carla; professor at Protestant
University of Sedan, 1675; since 1681
professor at Rotterdam; dismissed be-
cause of unorthodox teachings, 1693;
d. 1706, Rotterdam. Devoted last part
of life to main work, Dictionnaire His-
torique et Critique, which through its
destructive criticism helped much to fos-
ter the rationalism of the following cen-
tury.
Beatification. See Canonization.
Bechuanas, Kaffir natives of Bechua-
naland in Transvaal, Africa, under Brit-
ish sovereignty. Number, approximately
300,000; amenable to civilization. Mis-
sions by the London Mission Society
(Livingstone, J. Moffat), the Anglican
Church, the Wesleyan Mission Society,
and the Ev. Luth. Hermannsburg Mission.
Beck, Johann Tobias; b. 1804, died
1878, Tuebingen; pastor till 1836, then
professor at Basel, professor and preacher
at Tuebingen. He aimed to base all doc-
trines on the Bible against the eritico-
historical tendencies then prevalent at
Tuebingen. Though he earnestly directed
students and hearers to Christ as the
only Savior, he erred grievously in not
considering justification as a purely
forensic act and also in regard to infant
baptism.
Becker, Albert Ernst Anton (1834
to 1899), conductor of the Berlin cathe-
dral choir. Oratorio: Selig aus Onade;
cantata: Herr, wie lange, Ps. 104, for
mixed chorus and orchestra; chief in-
terest in church music.
Becker, Kornelius (1561—1604). Pas-
tor and professor of theology at Leipzig;
some hymns, version of the Psalter,
1602; wrote: “Nun jauchzt dem Her-
ren, alle Welt”; “Lasset die Kindlein
koramen zu mir.”
Becket, Thomas a. The English Hil-
debrand, b. between 1110 and 1120. As
chancellor of England (1157) an ardent
supporter of King Henry II in his en-
deavor to obtain absolute mastery in
State and Church, he aimed as Arch-
bishop of Canterbury (1162) at the com-
plete exemption of the Church and
churchmen from all civil jurisdiction
and finally, after refusing to subscribe
to the “Constitution of Clarendon,”
which demanded the abandonment of the
clergy’s independence and of the Church’s
Beddome, Benjamin
67
Belgium
dependence from Rome, accepted by the
diet 1164, fled to France, to Pope Alexan-
der III. Followed the Pope’s threat of
excommunication against the king, a “rec-
onciliation,” the king’s refusal to restore
confiscated church property, Beeket’s re-
turn and threat to excommunicate his
opponents, an unguarded word by the
angered king, the murder of the primate
at the altar of the cathedral, 1170. Fol-
lowed, finally, the complete submission
of Henry, cowed by the Pope, the threat-
ening attitude of his people and rebel-
lious sons, his abject penance, and the
realization of Becket’s aim: the Church
in England a province of Rome. Becket
was canonized by Alexander as a martyr
and stigmatized by Henry VIII as a
traitor.
Beddome, Benjamin ( 1717 — 1795).
At first Anglican; joined Baptist Church;
from 1740 till his death, minister at
Bourton -on - the - water, Gloucestershire ;
wrote: “When Israel through the Desert
Passed,” and many other hymns.
Bede. Called “the Venerable” because
of his piety. The first great English
scholar; “the teacher of the Middle
Ages”; b. 673 in Northumbria; studied
and taught at Jarrow, 682 — 735, dictat-
ing the last chapter of an Anglo-Saxon
translation of the Gospel of John on his
death-bed. Many of his numerous pupils
rose to fill high places in the Church;
but he remained a simple monk. Teacher
of all Europe. He wrote scientific and
many theological treatises, among these
24 commentaries (allegorical), two books
of hymns and epigrams, some of them in
Latin and even Greek, and his famous
Church History of the Angles.
Beecher, Henry Ward (1813 — 87).
Famous orator ; b. Litchfield, Conn. ; son
of Lyman Beecher; minister (Presbyte-
rian) at Lawrenceburg and Indianapolis,
Ind., and at Plymouth Church (Congre-
gational), Brooklyn, N. Y., 1847 ; issued
hymnal ; made antislavery speeches ; lec-
turer; accepted evolution and higher
criticism ; was sued for adultery, but
acquitted ; withdrew, with his church,
from Congregational Association 1882;
d. Brooklyn. Author.
Beecher, Lyman (1775 — 1863.) Noted
clergyman; b. New Haven, Conn.; pas-
tor (Congregational) at Litchfield, Conn.,
and Boston; pastor (Presbyterian) at
Cincinnati and president there of Lane
Theological Seminary; d. Brooklyn, N.Y.
Author.
Beethoven, Ludwig van (1770 to
1827 ) . Composer representing the fullest
development and maturity of the piano-
forte-sonata, pianoforte-concerto, string-
quartet, and orchestral symphony, stud-
ied music, first under his father, then
under Pfeiffer, Van der Eeden, and Neefe;
in 1792 at Vienna with Schenck and
Haydn, also Albrechtsberger ; became
deaf in last years of his life; wrote ora-
torio Christus am Oelberg and many
sonatas, symphonies, and concertos.
Beghards, Beguins. Semimonastic
communities of Western Europe, from
the 1 2th century on, the sisterhood of
the Beguins the original order; celibacy
required as long as one remained a mem-
ber; supporting themselves by manual
labor, they devoted themselves to devo-
tional exercises and deaconess work. Al-
ready in the 13th century the second
stage of monasticism set in: corruption,
worldliness, immorality. Persecuted for
heresy and prosecuted for concubinage,
etc., many joined the Tertiaries of the
mendicant orders. The few Beguinages
remaining in the Netherlands serve for
the maintenance of unmarried women.
Behm, Martin (1557—1622). Tutor
in Vienna, diaconus, then chief pastor at
Lauban, Silesia ; hymns true and deep in
feeling; wrote: “0 heilige Dreifaltig-
keit” ; “0 Jesu Christ, mein’s Lebens
Lieht”; “O Koenig aller Ehren.”
Belgian Congo. See Congo.
Belgium. A small country north of
France, formerly a part of the Nether-
lands, but since 1830 a separate country,
the northern portion of which is Flemish
and the southern Walloon. The country
was really evangelized at the same time
when Northern France was gained for
the Gospel and, in part, when the low-
lands of Holland were Christianized. The
country became very strongly Catholic
and has so remained to the present day,
the Protestant communions being repre-
sented only sparingly by immigrants
from Germany and by Anglicans and
Methodists. The strongest Protestant
organization is the Union of Evangelical
Protestant Churches of Belgium, with
French, Dutch, and formerly German
congregations, the strongest stations
being LiSge, Verviers, Seraing, Brussels,
Antwerp, Ghent, La Bouverie, Dour, Patu-
rages, Jolimont, and Tournai. In addi-
tion to this body there is the Evangelical
Society or the Belgian Christian Mis-
sionary Church, which is a free Church,
made up of converts of Roman Catholi-
cism or their children. It has its greatest
strength in the Walloon districts. There
are English churches at Antwerp, Bruges,
Brussels, and Ostend.
The Roman Catholic Church of Bel-
gium was formally organized in 1561,
this date also indicating the cessation of
Bell, Book, and Candle
68
Benedictions
foreign authority. After Belgium be-
came an independent country, an adjust-
ment of boundaries was made to arrange
for the new situation. The priests are
educated at episcopal seminaries and at
the University of Louvain. The Roman
Catholic Church receives a direct sum of
money from the state, although it does
not enjoy any particular legal preroga-
tive. The archdiocese of Mechlin, which
is coextensive with Belgium, was created
by the Pope in 1559, and the most im-
portant bishoprics are those of Bruges,
Ghent, Li6ge, Namur, and Tournai.
Bell, Book, and Candle. An expres-
sion referring to symbolic actions for-
merly used in excommunication: shut-
ting the book after pronouncing the
curse, extinguishing a candle, and toll-
ing the bell as for the dead. “Bell, book,
and candle — candle, book, and bell, for-
ward and backward to curse Paustus to
hell” (Marlowe).
Bells, Church. In the early Chris-
tian Church the faithful were summoned
to worship by word of mouth; at a later
date, trumpets were used, also large ham-
mers, struck against wooden or iron in-
struments. Bells were introduced in the
ninth century, suspended first in special
bell-towers, or campaniles, later in the
spires of the churches themselves, their
use meeting with great favor almost
everywhere.
Bellarmine ( Bellarmino, Roberto
Francesco Romolo ) . Roman Catholic
theologian; b. in Tuscany, 1542; d. at
Rome, 1621, Showed brilliant gifts early
in life; his mother’s wish that he be-
come a Jesuit carried out; studied
theology at Padua and Louvain, begin-
ning with 1567 ; ordained priest at
Ghent, 1570; knew both Greek and He-
brew; his chief writing the celebrated
Disputationes de Controversiis Chris-
tiana ;e Fidei, in four volumes, the first
treating of the Word of God, of Christ,
and of the Pope, the second of the author-
ity of the councils and of the Church,
the third of the Sacraments, and the
fourth of grace, free will, justification,
and good works, a systematic presenta-
tion of the doctrines promulgated by the
Council of Trent, to which Chemnitz
(q.v.) gave the proper answer.
Benedicite. See Canticles.
Benedict, St. The father of Western
monasticism; b. at Nursia, Italy, about
480; d. 543. He became a hermit at the
age of twenty, later formed his disciples
into communities, founded the monastery
of Monte Cassino, and drew up the mo-
nastic rule known as the Benedictine.
This rule is remarkable for its modera-
tion in comparison with the austerities
found elsewhere. Over against the wan-
dering life of earlier monks it insists
that monks remain in one monastery and
strongly emphasizes the importance of
useful labor. Though not free from
ascetic vagaries, Benedict was uncom-
monly human and reasonable.
Benedictines. The monastic order
founded on the Rule of Benedict of
Nursia (480 — 543), the father of West-
ern monasticism. This rule was based
on earlier rules, and while strict in some
respects, was, in general, quite moderate.
In addition to the three usual obligations
of poverty, celibacy, and obedience it re-
quired manual labor of the monks, but
also provided for daily reading and for
the establishment of convent libraries.
Favored by Rome, the Benedictines ab-
sorbed the adherents of rival rules, and
by 811 only traces of the rivals remained.
Thereafter, for centuries, the Benedictine
remained the normal monastic type.
During the palmy days of the order
(821 — 1200) its influence controlled the
civilization of the entire Christian West.
The Benedictines repaid with usury the
favor extended them by the papacy. The
riches gathered by the monasteries, how-
ever, brought wide-spread corruption and
immorality into the order, which were
only partly and temporarily checked by
the Cluniac, the Cistercian, and other re-
forms. Inner decline and attacks from
without reduced the 37,000 Benedictine
houses of the 14th century to only 50 in
the early 19th century. At present there
are about 6,000 Benedictines, 1,371 of
them in the United States (1921).
Benedictine Nuns. Benedict’s sister,
Scholastica, established a convent, but it
is doubtful whether that was the begin-
ning of the Benedictine nuns. Certainly
many women early adopted Benedict’s
rule, though they were not strictly en-
closed. Benedictine nuns came to Ger-
many with Boniface. In the United
States there are 29 convents, with 3,155
nuns, most of whom teach in elementary
and boarding-schools.
Benedictus. See Canticles.
Benedictions. The Aaronic benedic-
tion, Num. 6, 24 — 26, was in use through-
out the Old Testament period, not as a
mere utterance of a pious wish, but the
offering of the grace of God, to be re-
ceived unto salvation by faith. The posi-
tion of the Aaronic benediction, both in
the Temple services and in synagog wor-
ship, was at the end of the liturgical part
of the service. This benediction was in
use in the early Church, as a passage
in the Apostolic Constitutions (II, 57)
Benefice
69
Benevolence
shows, and was retained by Luther in
his orders of service as the only one com-
manded by Go d. It conveys to the as-
sembled congregation, which has accepted
the salvation of God in the means of
grace, the blessing of the Triune God.
The Apostolic benediction, 2 Cor. 13, 13,
is properly used only in the minor ser-
vices, at the same place in the order of
worship which is set aside for the Aaronic
benediction in the morning worship.
Benefice. The right, granted to a
cleric, of receiving the income from lands
or other church property in return for
the performance of spiritual duties. The
value of benefices led to many abuses and
much controversy in the Middle Ages.
(See Simony.) Benefices are almost un-
known in the United States.
Benevolence (Liebestaetigkeit). The
Christian religion is a religion of mercy
and also in this respect distinguishes it-
self from the heathen religions. Heathen
religions are based upon the natural re-
ligion, which is a religion of selfishness.
Only those who have learned to know
and believe that God is merciful in
Christ, the Savior, can and will act
upon the Savior’s injunction: “Be ye
merciful, as your Father also is merci-
ful.” Luke 6, 36. Eleemosynary institu-
tions (hospitals, infirmaries, old people’s
homes, orphanages) are a direct product
of Christianity. The Christian religion
teaches man to love his neighbor as him-
self, Lev. 19, 18; Deut. 15, 11; Ps. 41, 1;
Is. 58, 7. The most glorious example of
His mercy God has given us in sending
His Son to suffer and die for sinners.
In the New Testament the Lord encour-
ages us to follow that example of mercy
by showing mercy to those who need it.
Luke 10, 30—37; Matt. 25, 31—46. In
the Middle Ages the following memory
verses were used: a) for bodily needs:
Vestio, poto, cibo, redimo, tego, colligo,
condo; b) for spiritual needs: Consule,
carpe, doce, solare, remittc, fer, ora.
Immediately after the Day of Pente-
cost the Apostolic Church began to prac-
tise Christian benevolence. Of the first
church of Jerusalem we read: “They
sold their possessions and goods and
parted them to all men as every man had
need.” Acts 2, 45. That this was not
communism is seen from Acts 5, 4. In
his letter to the Homans, Paul speaks of
the collection taken by the churches for
the poor saints at Jerusalem. Rom. 15,
25. 26; see also Gal. 2, 10. The early
Church indeed insisted that “if any
would not work, neither should he eat,”
2 Thess. 3, 10; that every man should,
if possible, provide for his own, 1 Tim.
5, 8; and that relatives should provide
for needy relatives, v. 4 ; but the really
poor and forsaken persons in the church
were not permitted to go begging, but
were cared for by their fellow-Christians.
Bearing in mind that the members of
the early Church were themselves poor,
we must all the more admire the large
amount of charity which they practised.
Also after the days of the apostles this
practise was continued. “Behold how
these Christians love one another!”
a heathen writer exclaimed when he saw
how devoted the Christians were to one
another. Tertullian writes: “A Chris-
tian woman will go into the poorest huts,
take a strange brother into her own
home, and care for him.” The early
Christians practised economy with ref-
erence to themselves that they would
have to give to him that needed. Nor
did they restrict their benevolence to
members of their own faith. During
times of persecution the heathen would
forsake their own, cast their sick out
into the streets, and not even remain to
bury their dead; the Christians would
come to the rescue of the unfortunates.
The church of Alexandria, in the days
after Constantine, had 7,500 names on
the lists of its poor. Sophia Church at
Constantinople employed 100 deacons
and 40 deaconesses, whose duty it was
also to care for the poor. In the course
of time, however, about 450, the benevo-
lence originally practised by the Chris-
tian congregation was, contrary to the
example of the apostles, Acts 6, 1 — 6,
taken over by the bishops. Chrysostom
is said to have fed daily 7,000 poor.
Such practise helped to encourage beg-
ging at the church-door. Other abuses
also early crept in. The giving of alms
was soon considered a good work where-
by man could merit his salvation. Even
Augustine said that the giving of alms
favorably disposed God toward the sin-
ner. Gregory I (600) said that by giv-
ing alms one could relieve the poor souls
in purgatory.
The erection of special buildings for
the care of the sick, the poor, and the
strangers was begun early. About 370
Basil, Bishop of Caesarea, in Asia Minor,
had established an entire group of such
buildings and had asked pastors to erect
special homes for lepers. He himself
took lepers into his own home and even
kissed and caressed them. Already in
the sixth century the church began to
specialize in the work of benevolence by
erecting separate institutions for stran-
gers, for the sick, for widows, for or-
phans, for the destitute and forsaken, for
foundlings, and for old men. All such
Benevolence
70
Ben Hnr, Supreme Tribe of
institutions were placed under the super-
vision of the bishop. Emperor Justinian
established a home in Constantinople for
fallen women, but no real attempt was
made to reform and again dismiss them.
Even so blind persons were received into
the cloisters, but were not instructed in
useful occupations.
Already at an early period the prac-
tise of benevolence was transferred to
the monasteries and the order of monks.
But even in those days the names of in-
dividual Christians who practised benev-
olence deserve to be mentioned: Nonna,
the daughter of Gregory Nazianzen; her
daughter Gregoria; Makrina, the sister
of Basil ; and others. In the Middle
Ages the Church did much to relieve
poverty and distress. It was, however,
itself not only the greatest capitalist,
but also the greatest beggar ; it received
much money and spent much money. It
is said that in a single day as many as
5,000 people were fed in one of the clois-
ters of the Cistercians. The Church not
only urged the people to give from wrong
motives, but by her indiscriminate sup-
port of beggars actually increased the
number of professional beggars. The
most noted hospital in the Middle Ages
was the Hotel Dieu in Paris. The Hos-
pitalers, or Hospital Brethren (an asso-
ciation of laymen, knights, canons, and
monks), devoted themselves to the plac-
ing of the sick and the poor in hospitals.
In 1160 one of the hospitals in Jerusa-
lem cared for more than 2,000 sick at
one time. Hospitals also cared for or-
phans, foundlings, lying-in women, and
travelers. As the number of cities in-
creased during the Middle Ages, hospi-
tals were built and maintained also by
the civil authorities.
The reformation of the Church in the
sixteenth century brought about a neces-
sary reformation also in the practise of
benevolence. People were again taught
to support themselves by their own work,
to care for their own, and to give alms,
not in order to merit salvation, but as
a fruit of faith. Luther himself was a
friend of the poor, and he would share
his last coin with them, or if he had no
money, he would give away expensive
gifts which he had received. Even so
Melanchthon. Katherine Zell, a pastor’s
wife in Strassburg, is said to have cared
for eighty guests in her home at one
time. It must, however, be said that the
people generally did not practise such
charity. As in other respects, so also in
this respect they much abused their
Christian liberty. The so-called Re-
formed Churches, especially in France
and Holland, had well-organized benevo-
lent work. Among the Roman Catholics
of that time we must mention such
names as John Ciudad (Brethren of
Charity) and Vincent de Paul (Mis-
sionary Brethren, Sisters of Charity).
Of the Pietists, August Herman Francke
(q.v.) deserves special mention. In 1695
Francke started, on a capital of four
Thalers and sixteen Groschen ( $3.86 ) ,
the present of a pious woman, a school
for poor children. Step by step he came
to establish his famous orphan asylum
at Halle. A large number of orphanages
and similar institutions were founded as
a result.
The history of Christian benevolence
since those days would fill volumes. We
cannot even briefly sketch it in the space
at our disposal. A large number of
church organizations of our day, includ-
ing, e. g., the Salvation Army, annually
spend many millions for organized char-
ity work, or Christian benevolence. Al-
most all the hospitals, orphanages, old
people’s homes, foundling asylums, and
similar institutions, also home-finding
societies, provident associations, and the
like, have been established, and are being
maintained, by members of churches.
Bengel, Johann Albrecht; b. 1687,
d. 1752 at Stuttgart; foremost theolo-
gian of the post-Reformation period in
Wuerttemberg; studied at Tuebingen;
professor of the Klosterschule at Denken-
dorf and (1713) pastor of the village con-
gregation; in 1741 appointed “prelate”
at Herbrechtingen, in 1749 at Alpirsbacli
and Consistorial Counselor, with resi-
dence at Stuttgart. Bengel was a man
of eminent piety and of vast and sound
learning. In 1734 he published an edi-
tion of the New Testament with an ap-
paratus criticus, based on a careful study
of the text in various manuscripts. His
greatest work — most valuable even to
this day — is Gnomon Novi Testamenti
(1742). His writings on eschatological
matters are unfortunately marred by
chiliastic vagaries ; he predicted the mil-
lennium for the year 1837.
Ben Hur, Supreme Tribe of. His-
tory. A “fraternal beneficiary associa-
tion, incorporated in Indiana in 1894 and
reincorporated in 1899. It was organized
by D. W. Gerard, an active and higli-
degree Freemason, and Gen. Lew Wallace,
the author of Ben Hur. The main office
of the order is located at Crawfordsville,
Ind. — Organization. The Supreme Tribe
of Ben Hur has “a lodge system and a
ritualistic form of work” and confers the
Temple Degree. The emblems of the
order are: the “Galley Ship,” with the
letters T. B. H. upon the sail, the “Char-
Benson, Lonla Fits-Gerald
71
Berkenmeyer, Win. C.
iot Race,” and the “Seven-pointed Star.”
The order is strictly secret, and members
may be punished for “revealing any of
the ritualistic work or private business
of the order to any one not a member
thereof.” The “obligation” which appli-
cants must sign reads: “I hereby sol-
emnly promise to abide by, and conform
to, all the laws, rules, and regulations
of the Supreme Tribe of Ben Hur that
may now be in force or which may be
hereafter adopted. I promise to be up-
right in my conduct, temperate in jny
habits, honest in my dealings, true to my
fellow-members, and loyal to the Tribe
of Ben Hur. I promise not to reveal
any of the private work or business of
the order in an unlawful manner, and
I will use every reasonable effort to
further the interests of the order.” —
Ritual. Each “court” has among its of-
ficials a “teacher,” whose duty it is “to
conduct the devotional exercises of the
court, administer ail obligations, assist
at conferring degrees, and perform such
other duties as are required by the con-
stitution, laws, and ritual of the order.”
The ritual is drawn from the hook Ren
Hur.
Benson, Louis Fitz-Gerald, 1855 — ,
Educated at University of Pennsylvania;
practised law; later in church -work as
Presbyterian minister ; wrote hymns and
did conspicuous work in liymnology;
published Studies of Familiar Hymns
and The English Hymn.
Bente, F., D. D. See Roster at end
of book.
Bentley, Richard, 1662 — 1742; foun-
der of historical philology; b. near
Wakefield; priest 1692; master of Trin-
ity College, Cambridge, and later Profes-
sor of Divinity; d. there. Philological
works; proposed critical edition of New
Testament; Lectures against Atheism.
Benze, Dr. Chas. Theo.; b. 1865 in
Warren, Pa.; pastor; president of Pitts-
burgh Synod (General Council), 1908 — 10;
president of Thiel College, 1909 — 13;
American professor at Kropp Seminary,
Germany, 1913 — 15; professor at Mount
Airy, Pa., since 1915; contributor to
the Lutheran, Lutheran Quarterly, etc.;
author, together with T. E. Sehmauk, of
The Confessional Principle of the Lu-
theran Church.
Berean Bands. In the year 1909
Charles J. G. Hensman, of London, Eng-
land, founded an international and inter-
denominational movement to encourage
the habit of memorizing Scripture and
named it Berean Band Movement. Grad-
ually the movement spread over England
and in America. Berean Bands are nu-
merous in Great Britain, with member-
ships running from six or more to many
hundreds. That of the Metropolitan
Tabernacle, London, has 800 members.
The sole obligation of membership is to
learn one Bible verse every week, with
the suggestion that this be called to
mind at least once every day until the
first Lord’s Day of the month following.
The membership fee is only five cents
annually, and a list of verses for the year
is furnished without charge. These are
carefully chosen, with a definite subject
each month and, as far as possible,
a completeness of subjects in each year.
The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago is
now the American representative of the
movement.
Berg Bible Society. Organized at
Elberfeld in 1814.
Berengar of Tours; b. early in the
11th century at Tours, canon of the
cathedral there and head of its school;
d. 1088. The important facts of his life
are connected with the Second Eucharis-
tic Controversy ( q . v. ) . This contro-
versy with Lanfranc ushered in the
period of Scholasticism.
Bergemann, Gustav Ernst; b. IIus-
tisford, Wis., August 9, 1862; graduate
of Northwestern College and Milwaukee
Seminary; pastor at Bay City, Mich.,
1887; Tomah, 1892; Fond du Lac, 1899.
On committee for Indian Missions, 1903
to 1917. President of Wisconsin Synod,
1908, until it dissolved in order to form
a larger body of Joint Synod, 1917 ; then
president of this body. As executive and
organizer instrumental in bringing about
reorganization of Joint Synod. On semi-
nary and college boards; member of
committee on schools. Ex officio member
of all important commissions of Joint
Synod.
Berkemeier, Dr. G. C. L., 1855—1924;
for many years German secretary of
General Council; director of Wartburg
Orphans’ Home, Mount Vernon, N. Y. ;
author, poet; editor of Der Deutsche
Lutheraner.
Berkenmeyer, Wm. C., 1686 — 1751 ;
b. in Lueneburg; became Falckner’s suc-
cessor in the Hudson Valley churches,
1725. During his pastorate in New York
a substantial stone church was built in
1729. In 1731 he moved to Loonenburg,
in the northern part of his extended
parish. Representing the orthodox school
of Lutheranism in America, he became
the leader of the pastors in the Hudson
Valley. A Kerck-Ordinantie, drafted by
him, bound the Dutch and German
churches of New York and New Jersey
together in a “synod” as early as 1735.
Berlin Missionary Society I
72
Betrothal
Author of pamphlets against false teach-
ings. Married Benigna Sibylla Kocher-
thal in 1727. His journal, written in
Dutch, German, and Latin, contains
much valuable historical material.
Berlin Missionary Society I (Ge-
sellschaft zur Befoerderung der evange-
lisohen Missionen unter den Heiden).
Originated by “Father” Jaenicke (1748
to 1827) in Berlin, 1800, when he founded
a training-school for missionaries; or-
ganized in 1824 by Neander, Tholuk, von
Gerlach, and others. 1834 the society
sent out its own missionaries. The char-
acter of the society is unionistic. It is
well organized, having many branches
throughout Germany. A large training-
school is maintained at Berlin. On the
field industrial work is fostered. Fields;
Africa, East Indies, China. In common
with all German missions in Africa the
mission-work was disorganized by the
World War. The work in China is being
continued; also in South Africa.
Berlin Missionary Society II. See
Gossner' Missionary Society.
Bernard of Clairvaux, St., 1091 to
1153. The most influential man of his
day; an upright monk (Cistercian),
spending himself in ascetic practises.
His wise rule as first and lifelong abbot
of the newly founded cloister at Clair-
vaux, France (1115), served to extend
the order (now also called Bernardines)
throughout Europe, and the influence of
his eloquence and personality gave a new
impetus to monasticism. He ended the
papal schism in favor of Innocent II.
In his controversy with Abelard, the ra-
tionalist (1140), he stood for the equally
false principle of mysticism. He preached
the Second Crusade (1146), which, con-
trary to his prophecy, did not sweep back
the Mohammedans, but swept Eugene III
into office. He was an eloquent preacher,
an able writer of theological treatises, a
composer of beautiful hymns, a universal
mediator, the adviser of Pope and king
and of the common man. Despite his
exaltation of monachism as the ideal of
Christianity, his excessive glorification
of Mary (whose “immaculate conception”
he, however, opposed), and his enthusias-
tic support of the papacy as the highest
authority in the Church, he was a sin-
cerely pious, a truly humble Christian,
and he was that because he loved the
Bible and because he believed in justi-
fication by faith, deploring on his death-
bed, as throughout his life, the sinful-
ness of his life (Perdite vixi ) , and im-
ploring the mercy of God for the sake of
the righteousness gained by Christ — a
psychological enigma indeed. Luther
says: “When Bernard is speaking of
Christ, it is a pleasure indeed to listen
to him; but when he leaves that subject
and discourses on rules and works, it is
no longer St. Bernard.”
Bernard of Morlaix, or of Oluny ;
lived in twelfth century; entered Abbey
of Cluny, afterwards becoming abbot,
while the monastery was at the height
of wealth and fame; composed De Con-
tempts. Mundi, from which the hymns
“Jerusalem the Golden” and “Brief Life
Is Here Our Portion” are taken.
Bernardine Monks. See Bernard of
Clairvaux and Cistercians.
Besant, Annie, theosophist; b. 1847,
London. At first devout Episcopalian,
later avowed freethinker. Joined The-
osophical Society, 1889. Devoted disciple
of Mme. Blavatsky ( q. v. ) . President of
Theosophical Society since 1907. Trav-
eled widely in its interest, especially in
India. Founded two schools for Hindus
in Benares. Prolific authoress: Karma,
1895; Theosophy and the New Psychol-
ogy, 1904; etc.
Besser, Wilhelm Friedrich; b. 1816;
d. 1884; educated at Halle (Tholuck)
and Berlin (Hengstenberg) ; opposed
Prussian Union; served as pastor of
Lutheran churches in Pomerania and
Silesia; member of Breslau Synod and
its ruling board; wrote Bibelstunden,
a work which has passed through many
editions.
Bethel Community. See Communis-
tic Societies.
Betrothal. The formal promise given,
or contract made, by a man and a woman
with a view to their marriage. The state
of having entered into this contract is
also called engagement. Among the He-
brews the betrothal was usually deter-
mined by the parents, even without con-
sulting the parties concerned until they
came to be betrothed. From the time of
this mutual consent and promise, how-
ever, the woman was considered the law-
ful wife of the man to whom she was
betrothed. The engagement, like mar-
riage, could be ended only by a divorce.
If the woman proved unfaithful, she was
considered an adulteress. Mary, after
she was Joseph’s betrothed, might, in
compliance with the law, have been pun-
ished if the angel of the Lord had not
acquainted Joseph with the mystery of
the Incarnation. Deut. 28, 30; Matt. 1,
18 — 21. The doctrine that a betrothal
has the binding force of a marriage is
in harmony with the legal principle,
Consensus, non concubitus, facit matri-
monium.
Bethune, George Washington 73
Bible, Canon of
“Clandestine espousals are those con-
tracted without parental approbation,
while the parents are living and of sound
mind, and such espousals are void, un-
less the objection of the parent be tanta-
mount to an absolute prohibition of mar-
riage, against 1 Cor. 7, 2; but the with-
drawal of the parental consent after the
espousal does not affect the latter. The
parental consent should be obtained be-
fore the compact of the parties proper,
but may be subsequently supplied and
renders the betrothal valid when thus
supplied. The compact entered into be-
fore the parental consent, while it does
not by itself superinduce the bond of
matrimony, imposes a vinculum, conscien-
tiae (obligation of conscience), binding
the parties conditionally, the condition
being the subsequent parental consent to,
or acquiescence in, the betrothal, which
is thereby made valid; but the parties
are free when such subsequent consent or
acquiescence is definitely denied.” ( A.L .
Graebner. )
The public announcement of betrothal
is called the banns of matrimony. Ac-
cording to the medieval custom the
banns were published three times in the
churches. The Lutheran form of the
banns commonly in use is the following:
“The following persons, and — — -,
desiring to enter the estate of matri-
mony, request the prayers of the con-
gregation. (Or: I publish the banns of
marriage between N., of , and N.,
of . ) If any one can show just cause
why they may not be joined together, let
him now speak, or ever after hold his
peace.”
Bethune, George Washington, 1805
to 1862; studied at Dickinson and
Princeton; pastor' of Reformed Dutch
Church in various cities; wrote original
hymns and translated Malan’s “It Is Not
Death to Die.”
Bettex, Friedrich, apologetical writer ;
b. 1837 at Eboy, Canton Waadt, Switzer-
land; d. at Stuttgart, Wurttemberg,
Germany, September 14, 1916; though
of Catholic parentage, yet strongly Prot-
estant in his later life; notable as writer
of powerful convictions, though not al-
ways correct in certain points; among
his books: Glaube und Kritik, Das erste
Blatt der Bibel, Die Bibel — Gottes Wort,
Naturstudium und Christcntum, and Is-
raels Geschichte.
Beyer, Johann Paul, clergyman; b. at
Reinwarzhofen, Bavaria, 1832; attended
Concordia College, Fort Wayne, and Con-
cordia Seminary, St. Louis (1855); pas-
tor at Memphis, Tenn. ; Altenburg, Mo. ;
Chicago, 111. ; Pittsburgh, Pa. ; and
Brooklyn, N. Y.; vice-president of Mis-
souri Synod 1893—99; president of
Eastern District 1875 — 88; editor of
Kinder- und Jugendblatt ; author of Der
Brief an die Epheser in Predigten ; d. at
Brooklyn, N. Y., 1905.
Beyschlag, Willibald; b. 1823, died
1900; since 1860 professor at Halle;
leader of the so-called Mittelpartei, me-
diating between Confessionals and Lib-
erals; opposed Ultramontanism in Ger-
many.
Beza, Theodore, 1519 — 1605. French
humanist, Reformed leader. B. at V6ze-
lay, France; renounced Catholicism at
Geneva, 1548; professor of Greek at
Lausanne; professor and pastor at Ge-
neva; defended burning of Servetus;
Calvin’s second self and successor; vili-
fied Lutheran doctrine of Eucharist and
of person of Christ; a power among the
Huguenots ; real originator of Testtus
Receptus (the Greek text used for sev-
eral centuries) ; presented Cambridge
with Codex D (an ancient copy of the
New Testament) ; d. at Geneva. Trans-
lation of New Testament into Latin with
Annotations; Ecclesiastical History;
Life of Galvin, etc.
Bible, Canon of. The Canon of Scrip-
ture may be defined as the authorative
standard of faith and life, composed of
those writings which have been given for
this purpose by divine inspiration. Orig-
inally the term canon was simply an
equivalent for “catalog” or “list” of sa-
cred books. Now the idea of regulative
norm is associated with the term. Clas-
sical Greek applied the term canon to
anything by which a thing could be esti-
mated; the classical writers whose style
was regarded as a normative model
were called “canonical” by the gram-
marians. Applied to Scripture, then, the
essential meaning is that of a standard
by which we decide all questions of faith
and duty, religion and ethics.
Concerning the Old Testament, Jo-
sephus distinctly affirms that during the
long time which had elapsed since the
closing of the canon (the last half of
the fifth century B. C., Malachi), no one
had dared either to add to, or to take
from, or to alter anything in, the sacred
books. The cessation of the prophetic
gift had defined the limits of the Old
Testament Canon and at the same time
pointed out its necessity. The main di-
visions of the Old Testament as well as
the order of its books were henceforth
regarded as settled.
To the apocryphal books (see Apocry-
pha) the Church of the Reformation has
refused to allow any dogmatic authority.
Bible, Canon of
74
Bible Christians
The note which Luther placed in the
front of his German translation of the
Apocrypha (1534), fairly represents the
opinion of Protestantism: “Apocrypha,
that is, books which are not placed on
an equal footing ( nicht gleich gehalten)
with Holy Scripture, and yet are profit-
able and good for reading.”
The canon of the Old Testament,
comprising thirty-nine books containing
23,206 verses, has stood unchanged for
2,300 years, after its growth had ex-
tended through a full thousand years
previous to its completion in Malachi.
The preservation of these books was the
task of the Jewish people, Rom. 3, 2,
from the hour when Moses committed to
“the priests, the sons of Levi, the book
of the Law he had written, that it should
be put in the side of the Ark of the Cov-
enant of the Lord,” Deut. 13, 9. 24 — 26,
where according to Josephus all the later
inspired books were deposited, to the
days of Ezra and Malachi, and from
Ezra to the days of Paul, when “Moses
of old time had in every city them that
preached him, being read in the synagog
every Sabbath-day.” Acts 15, 21.
The church of the new covenant was
not a new church with a new religion,
but a continuation of the one true
church. To this continuation of His
church, the same Spirit of God who had
spoken through Moses and the prophets
vouchsafed a continuation of the written
Word. Thus the Canon, which had been
closed in Malachi, the “seal of the proph-
ets,” was reopened to be completed by
the apostles and evangelists in about five
decades.
A well -supported tradition asserts that
each of the original churches of the apos-
tolic age, especially those of larger size,
collected for itself a complete set of
those writings which could be proved by
competent testimony to be the produc-
tion of inspired men and to have been
communicated by them to any of the
churches as part of the written Word of
God; so that in this way a great many
complete collections of the New Testa-
ment Scriptures came to be extant, the
accordance of which with each other, as
to the books admitted, furnishes irref-
ragable evidence of the correctness of the
Canon as we now have it. This opinion,
which in itself is highly probable, is ren-
dered still more so when we consider 1) the
scrupulous care which the early churches
took to discriminate spurious composi-
tions from such as were authentic ; 2) the
existence, among some, of doubt regard-
ing certain of the New Testament books,
indicating that each Church claimed the
right of satisfying itself in this matter;
3) their high veneration for the genuine
apostolic writings; and 4) the practise
of the church fathers of arguing the
canonicity of any book, from its recep-
tion by the churches, as a sufficient proof
of this. In this manner, then, by the
natural process of each body of Chris-
tians seeking to procure for themselves
authentic copies of the sacred writings,
the canon of the New Testament was
formed. That the epistles of Paul, or
the greater part of them, were known
even in the apostolic age among the
churches generally, is a valid inference
from 2 Pet. 3, 16. That they are placed
on a par with “the other Scriptures” is
also evident. One of the earliest unin-
spired Christian writings, the Epistle to
Diognetus, speaks of “the Law, the
Prophets, the Gospels, and the Apostles.”
Tertullian refers to the New Testament
canon by calling it “Evangelicum Instru-
mentum.” Before the middle of the third
century the New Testament Scriptures
were generally known by the Christians
in a collected form and reverenced as the
Word of God. By the Third Council of
Carthage (A. D. 397), a catalog of the
books of Scripture was formally ratified.
Over against the Roman claim that
only an infallible church is competent
to determine the canon, we hold that the
historical evidence is not the only evi-
dence involved. The canonicity of the
Scriptural writings cannot be considered
separate and distinct from their genuine-
ness (the fact that we have the actual
works heretofore known by these names) ;
their authenticity (that they are the
productions of the respective authors to
whom attributed) ; and their inspiration
(see Inspiration of Bible).
A proof that the Scriptural writings
are indeed a canon, an authoritative
norm of doctrine and life, is, for the
Christian, found in the testimony of the
Holy Spirit which addresses itself to us
from the sacred pages, in which there is
manifested not only a power and perfec-
tion divine in itself, but an influence
upon the heart and mind which is its
own best authentication.
Bible Christians (Bryanites). Popu-
lar name given a body of Christians
officially known as the Bible Christian
Connection. The sect has usually been
classed with the Methodists and is now
united with them. Its history is as fol-
lows: William O’Bryan (born in Gun-
wen, Cornwall, England), the founder of
the sect, was a loeal preacher who over-
stepped the boundary of the circuit in
which he had been placed. This caused
his rejection as a candidate for the itin-
erancy. He at once entered unoccupied
Bible History
75
Bible Reading;
fields in a new campaign. In 1815
twenty-two of his followers organized
into a society in Devonshire, England.
The society grew rapidly, and their
“evangelism” extended to different parts
of the country; also, by emigration, to
America. A tendency to despotic rule on
the part of O’Bryan caused dissension,
which reached a crisis in 1829, when the
eleventh conference refused to recognize
his authority and elected Andrew Cory
president in his stead. The conference
declared against an episcopacy, as it
also decided against ecclesiasticism by
admitting laymen to church government
in equal numbers with clerical members.
Eight years later these separatists nego-
tiated terms of reunion, but Mr. O’Bryan
never again reunited. Missionary work
was begun in Wisconsin, Ohio, and Michi-
gan in 1846, in Australia in 1850, and
later in New Zealand. In 1884 a union
was effected with the Methodist Epis-
copal Church of Canada; the Australian
Conference united with other Methodist
sects in that colony, and in 1907 the
Bible Christians formally united with
the Methodist New Connection and the
United Methodists, choosing the name of
United Methodist Church for the new
organization. At the time of this union
the Bible Christians had 638 chapels,
202 ministers, and 30,000 members.
Bible History. Distinguished from
Biblical history, which treats the events
recorded in the Bible as a continuous
history of God’s people, pointing out the
political, economic, social, and religious
phases of national life. Bible History
treats the individual Bible story as a
unit and stresses its educational and re-
ligious value. Both overlap in many in-
stances ; generally speaking, however,
they differ in method and aim. Bible
History is a series of selected Bible sto-
ries which shows the divine economy of
salvation and purposes to impart reli-
gious knowledge and education. It dif-
fers from the catechism in this, that, fol-
lowing the natural sequence of events, it
is less a doctrinal system and, being
based on the Bible story, is less abstract.
For this reason the study of Bible His-
tory is especially adapted for the lower
grades, while in the upper grades the
study of the catechism should predomi-
nate. For religious instruction and edu-
cation the study of Bible History is su-
premely important. The proper handling
of a Bible story culminates in a doctrine,
and the doctrines of the catechism should
be illustrated, wherever possible, with
Bible stories. Method: The teacher re-
lates, not reads, the story in parts, in-
serting explanatory remarks where nec-
essary, and then questions the children.
Finally the children are examined on the
entire story, and some are asked to re-
late it. The close should briefly point
out the doctrinal contents and make per-
sonal application. Bible History Charts
are very useful in the lower grades, in
the upper grades more historical infor-
mation and data may be added.
Bible, Poor Man’s. See Biblia Pau-
perum.
Bible Beading. The Bible, being the
inspired Word of God, furnishes abso-
lutely reliable information as to the ori-
gin, the fall, the redemption, and the eter-
nal destiny of man and therefore should
be the most interesting book, which is
to be diligently read and studied by every
human being. Among the early Chris-
tians this was done. Acts 17, 11; Col.
4, 16. The Bible being the sole source
of religious information, the reading of
the sacred writings formed an essential
part of the instruction communicated by
pastors to their congregations and their
catechumens. Chrysostom, d. 407, and
Augustine, d. 430, continually reminded
their hearers that private reading and
study of the Bible should follow attend-
ance at public worship. But in 1080
Gregory VII ordered that Latin should
be the universal language of Catholic
worship and, consequently, excluded all
vernacular reading of the Scriptures in
church services. Innocent III, in 1199,
prohibited the private possession and
reading of the Bible. The Council of
Trent, 1546, made the Vulgate Latin
Version the sole authoritative source of
quotation and condemned those who
dared to interpret the Bible contrary to
the accepted sense given by the Fathers.
Translations of the Bible other than
those approved by the Homan hierarchy,
were put on the index of forbidden books,
which also enjoined the necessity of ob-
taining written permission from the
bishop before a lay person was permitted
to read the Bible in the vernacular. As
late as 1864 Pius IX, in his Syllabus of
Errors, condemned Bible societies, be-
cause they published the Bible “without
[Catholic] note and comment.” Various
reasons are given by Catholics for their
attitude toward Bible reading: A lay-
man should hear the priest; the Bible
is hard to understand; Bible reading
does more harm than good. Because the
laymen had been denied access to the
only authoritative source of religious in-
formation, it was possible for the Homan
hierarchy to foist its man-made doctrines
upon the Church.
The Reformation wrought a change.
Bible Reading;
76
Bible Reading;
Luther himself read and studied the
Bible diligently, and he wanted others to
do the same. His masterly and hitherto
unsurpassed classical translation of the
Bible from Hebrew and Greek texts into
German (1534), the English Authorized
or King James Version (1611), and
many others make it possible for the
laity to read the Word of God in the
vernacular. Since then the Bible or
parts of it have been printed and pub-
lished in 713 languages and dialects, and
Bible Societies continue to translate and
spread the Sacred Scriptures, so that
they are within the reach of everybody.
But it is important that the Bible be
read. The mere fact that it is the Word
of God should be a sufficient incentive to
read it diligently. God wants us to read
the Book (John 5, 39) and promises great
benefit from the study of it (2 Tim. 3, 15).
But the Bible should not be read me-
chanically, thoughtlessly, not for amuse-
ment or criticism, not merely for theo-
logical study, nor only to defend false
doctrine; it should not be read as the
word of man, but as the Word of God.
1 Thess. 2, 13. The proper attitude,
when reading the Bible, is one of awe
and reverence. Is. 66, 2. Hence we should
read attentively, Matt. 24, 15, in faith
and obedience, keeping what we have
read in an honest and good heart and
bringing forth fruit with patience, Luke
8, 15. Read the Bible regularly, system-
atically ; not occasionally, but daily ; not
here a chapter and there a verse, but
a chapter to-day and the next chapter
to-morrow, marking with a pencil those
verses which especially impress you. It
is advisable to read the historic books
first, then the doctrinal and the prophetic
books. But it must be one’s aim to read
the entire Bible.
Christians should read their Bibles in
private where nothing disturbs their at-
tention and devotion. But also in the
regular family worship, Bible reading
should not be set aside for the reading
of other devotional books. In schools
(parochial) Bible reading should not
only be encouraged, but practised in this
manner, that the upper grades are re-
quired to read the Bible History lesson,
not from the text-book, but from the
Bible, and that in the schedule for the
week some time is set aside for cursory
Bible reading. The school should not
only teach the children the historical
and doctrinal contents of the Bible, but,
by having them read the Bible, must
familiarize them with the contents of the
Book. Bible classes afford excellent op-
portunity for Bible study to the adult
members of the congregation. The cur-
sory method may be followed, a chapter,
e. g., of Matthew, may be read at each
lesson, interspersed with necessary ex-
planatory remarks, until the entire gos-
pel is finished. Another way is the top-
ical method, according to which those
parts of the four gospels treating of the
same subject, e. g., the resurrection of
Christ, are selected and studied. (The
Reference Passage Bible.) There is also
the chronological method, according to
which the events in the life of Christ
are studied in their chronological order.
(Travis Bible Studies.) Tie epistles
are best studied in the cursory topical
order. In public worship it is advisable
to read not only the pericopes, but also
other suitable selections from the Bible
and occasionally, in a series of sermons,
homilies, to explain one or the other
book of the Bible. See Public Schools
and Bible Reading.
Bible Reading ( Bible Societies ) . In
harmony with Scriptural precept and ex-
ample (John 5, 39; Acts 17, 11), the early
Church promoted diligent Bible reading
by all. Gregory I still recommended it
without limitation, and Augustine urged
Bible translations to propagate the Gos-
pel. As the Roman Church departed
more and more from the Scriptural basis
in doctrine and practise, it naturally be-
gan to regard the unrestricted use of the
Bible as dangerous and to act accord-
ingly. The Bible was more and more
relegated to the background, in favor of
tradition, both genuine and forged.
When the Albigenses and Waldenses, in
the 12th and 13th centuries, appealed to
the Bible against the errors of Rome, all
vernacular translations were forbidden
to the laity, and such copies as could be
seized were burned. The Reformation
both emphasized the dangers for Rome
that arise from popular use of the Bible
and made it increasingly difficult to sup-
press the Word. The Index of Pius IV
(1564) authorized bishops and inquisi-
tors to issue written permits to read
Bible translations by Catholic authors
"by the advice of the priest or confessor,
to those persons whose faith and piety
they apprehend will be augmented and
not injured by it.” Even this latitude
was found too great, and later Popes
further restricted it. In an encyclical
of Leo XIII (Officiorum, et Munerum ,
Jan. 25, 1897), the rule is laid down
( ch. 3, 7 ) that “all versions in the ver-
nacular, even by Catholics, are alto-
gether prohibited, unless approved by the
Holy See, or published under the vigilant
care of the bishops, with annotations
from the Fathers of the Church and
learned Catholic writers.” So Roman
Bible, Inspiration
77
Bible, Inspiration
laymen may now read “properly anno-
tated” versions without special permis-
sion, but they are carefully taught not
to permit themselves to understand any-
thing in the Bible otherwise than the
Church tells them to understand it.
Even with these safeguards, Rome is far
from enthusiastic about Bible reading. —
It is both natural and illuminating that
recent Popes have bitterly condemned
Bible societies, which make it their ob-
ject to spread the simple Bible text,
as “a pest.” Pius IX (Qui Pluribus)
laments : “Thus the divine traditions
(sic!), the teaching of the fathers, and
the authority of the Catholic Church are
rejected, and every one in his own way
interprets the words of the Lord and dis-
torts their meaning, thereby falling into
miserable errors.” Rome has every rea-
son to fear the open Bible, and it does
fear it above all else.
Bible, Inspiration, Doctrine of. By
confessing the doctrine of inspiration, we
declare our belief — based on the words
of the Bible itself — that the Holy Spirit
exercised a special inlluence by which He
guided His chosen instruments to speak
the things He desired them to speak, and
to write the things He desired them to
write, in the precise manner and in the
very words in which He desired these
things to be spoken or written. Inspira-
tion differs from revelation inasmuch as
revelation is a direct communication
from God to' man concerning things
which it is necessary for man to know;
whereas inspiration is a special, potent
activity of the Holy Spirit which He ex-
ercises upon those men whom He has
chosen for His instruments to serve the
purpose of spoken or written utterance.
Revelations were already granted to the
patriarchs; but they were not inspired
to commit their revelations to writing.
The prophets had revelations; but not
all of them were inspired to communi-
cate through the medium of writing the
revelations they had received. Thus we
possess no writings of the prophets Eli-
jah and Elisha. St. Paul had revelations
and was inspired to commit them to
writing. Of St. Luke we do not read
that he merely had revelations; but he
was inspired to write his gospel and the
Book of Acts. Neither is inspiration the
same as illumination, the latter being
common to all Christians (Eph. 1, 18;
3, 9; 5, 18), while the former was re-
stricted to the holy men of God by whom
the holy Scriptures were given for our
enlightenment. A Scripture based upon,
or sprung from, revelation only or result-
ing from illumination would not be
simply and in the scriptural sense the
“Word of God.”
The fact of inspiration is taught in
various passages of Holy Writ, both of
the Old and of the New Testament.
What is written in the Bible is at one
time attributed to “the Holy Spirit” or
to “God” without mention of the divine
Person, at other times to the human
being, the instrument which God em-
ployed for the purpose of utterance. We
read “God spake” or “the Holy Ghost
spake” ; but also “David spake,” or
“Isaiah spake” — the various terms being
occasionally used in close textual con-
nection. (Matt. 19, 4. 5 and Gen. 2, 24;
2 Sam. 23, 1. 2; Matt. 22, 43; 15, 4, and
Mark 7, 10; Acts 28, 25 and John 12, 41;
Acts 1, 16 and other passages. Read also
St. Paul’s declaration Gal. 1, 1. 12, where
he reports the manner in which the Gos-
pel was communicated to him.)
That the Holy Spirit suggested to the
sacred penmen both the thoughts and the
words they uttered as they wrote, is a
truth established by such texts as the
following: 2 Tim. 3, 16; Jer. 30, 2;
1 Thess. 2, 13; 2 Pet. 1, 19—21; John
10, 34. 36; Matt. 22, 43. 44; Gal. 3, 16;
Heb.. 12, 27 ; 4, 17. Nor can it be ob-
jected that by making the Bible itself
the source of our doctrine concerning its
origin we are begging the question or
reasoning in a circle. To raise this ob-
jection is not only poor theology, but
also poor logic. Theology does not de-
pend upon reasoning processes to estab-
lish its teachings; it derives its cer-
tainty from the authority of Scripture.
And this authority, certified to us by the
testimony of the Holy Spirit, extends
also to those texts in which the Scrip-
tures speak of their own origin. As a
doctrine of Scripture, inspiration is
established like any other doctrine by
proof derived from Scripture.
To say that the Bible is the work of
the Holy Spirit does not imply the sus-
pension or extinction of the personality
or individuality of the organs employed
by the Spirit of God. It is not without
a peculiar purpose that God has given us
the Old Testament by a variety of organs,
Moses, David, Isaiah, and other proph-
ets, and the New Testament by four dif-
ferent evangelists and several apostles,
and that Paul was not prompted to write
all his epistles in the same frame of
mind and under the same circumstances.
God has, so they say, given us the bene-
fit of the various talents and peculiar
graces of a multitude of holy men in the
composition of His own Book, thus mak-
ing it an instrument of many stops vary-
ing in quality and volume of tone, but
Bilile, Inspiration
78
Bible Versions
all of them sounded by the same breath
and responding to the touch of the same
hand upon the keys, all the melodies and
harmonies originating in the same mind,
the Spirit of Truth. Even when Paul
gives us his judgment or “opinion,”
(1 Cor. 7, 25. 40) as distinguished from
the commandments of God, it is because
God would have him speak what he there
speaks, and just as he speaks, “for our
profit” (v. 35), and the Spirit of God did
not in that moment withdraw His in-
spiring influence from the apostle, who,
as one who “has the Spirit of God,” ap-
plied the general principle to an individ-
ual case by inspiration of God. “When
Paul speaks of his expectation and hope
and joy and desire, it is because God
would tell us in His Word what was in
the heart of His servant and apostle,
even as He inspired David to utter the
joy and hope and anguish of his soul in
words suggested by the Spirit of God,
that such Scripture also should be profit-
able for consolation, for doctrine, for re-
proof, for correction, for instruction in
righteousness, as truly as the Sermon on
the Mount or the fifty-third chapter of
Isaiah.”
The relation between the author proper
and the penman whom He employed is
expressed in the Nicene Creed by the
phrase “Who spake by the prophets.”
This phrase exactly summarizes not only
the comparison between such texts as
1 Cor. 5, 9 and 1 John 1, 4 with that
numerous group represented by Matt.
2, 17 and 24, 15; but is found as to its
very terms in Rom. 1, 2: “Which He had
promised by His prophets in the Holy
Scriptures.”
In view of all these plain statements
we assert the verbal inspiration of the
Bible, that is, its plenary inspiration in
the full sense of the word, absolute in
phrasing and in particular words. By
virtue of its inspiration we have in the
Scriptures the book of God, wherein God
would infallibly and with divine author-
ity tell us what to believe in matters of
faith, what to do and what to forbear
in matters of life and practise, what to
reject as error or falsehood.
About the manner of inspiration, noth-
ing that could be made applicable to
every case is revealed to us. Various
fantastic theories have been promulgated,
the inventors of which were prompted by
a desire to make clear to themselves just
how the Holy Spirit performed this
work. But we are as little able to com-
prehend the process of inspiration as we
are able to understand the two Natures
in the one Person of the Savior — or
even the mystery of body and soul being
united in one person. And this our in-
ability to conceive of the process of in-
spiration need not be a cause of won-
derment; we are not even able, to
understand the activity of God through
the powers of nature — as, for instance,
through electricity, radio, etc. Read also
what St. Paul says regarding great reve-
lations, 2 Cor. 12. The desire of explain-
ing and understanding the union of the
divine and the human in the word of
Scripture, has given rise to various
forms of error. On the one hand, there
has originated the “mechanical” explana-
tion, by which the sacred writers have
been represented as so many automata.
This theory has no ground in Scripture,
except in regard to rare instances con-
cerning which Scripture itself speaks in
such terms. It is at variance with many
passages in the New Testament, in
St.John, Luke, Paul, and Peter. Read
also the opening verses of Luke's gospel
and 1 John 1. The “mechanical” theory
has been mentioned very little by the
teachers of the Lutheran Church. But
such ruminations upon this mystery
have given rise to another error, and a
more dangerous one, which would render
the words of Holy Writ independent of
the Spirit of God. This is the result of
going to the other extreme — of placing
such stress on the human element of
Scripture as to deny the divine.
We maintain with absolute assurance
the unassailable authority of Holy Writ,
believing, in agreement with its own
teachings, that it contains the complete
and perfect truth in each and every one
of ifs parts. In the inspiration of the
New Testament we recognize the fulfil-
ment of the Savior’s promise to His mes-
sengers, John 14, 20; Acts 11, 16; John
16, 12 ff. In this last text both revela-
tion and inspiration are promised: What
they had not known, will be revealed to
them; and the Spirit will guide them
into all truth, so that they cannot err in
utterance. They were the chosen wit-
nesses for Christ; they should be guided
by strength from on high. Luke 24, 48 ff.
The result is the New Testament.
Bible Versions. The earliest attempt
to translate the Scriptures is repre-
sented by the Greek version of the Old
Testament, commonly known as the Sep-
tungint ( LXX ) . It owes its name to the
story (now discredited) that it is the
work of seventy-two translators, who at
the instance of King Ptolemy II (287 to
245 B. C. ) were deputed to Egypt by the
high priest Eleazar to prepare a version
of the Jewish Law for the royal library
at Alexandria. While there is doubtless
a kernel of truth in this story and the
Bible Versions
79
Bible Versions
bare fact of a translation of the Law in
the days of Ptolemy need not be ques-
tioned, the Septuagint as a whole ex-
hibits such varying degrees of skill and
accuracy in the art of translation that
it can neither be the product of a single
body of translators acting in unison nor
of a single age. The Pentateuch, for ex-
ample, is pretty well done, Daniel ex-
ceedingly poor, Ecclesiastes so slavishly
literal that it is little more than Greeized
Hebrew. The most that can be said as
to the origin of the Septuagint is that it
was begun ca. 285 B. C. and completed
before 130 B. C. (cf. Prolog of Ecclesias-
ticus). The Septuagint, especially in
the arrangement of chapters and verses,
frequently deviates from the Hebrew and
presents also in its renderings innumer-
able divergences from our present Mas-
soretic text. This is due in part, no
doubt, to the arbitrary procedure of the
translators, but also in some cases to a
Hebrew original differing from the text
we possess to-day. In more than one
instance this is tacitly assumed in Lu-
ther’s version. Indeed, the Septuagint,
though it must be used with caution,
is an invaluable aid in all text-critical
work on the field of the Old Testa-
ment. This translation was adopted by
the Greek-speaking Jews, was used by
Paul and the apostles, and regarded as
authoritative, even inspired, by the early
Christian fathers. The constant appeal
to it on the part of the leaders of the
Church to prove the Messiahship of
Jesus aroused the antagonism of the
Jews and gave rise to three rival trans-
lations known under the names of Aquila,
Theodotion, and Symmachus. These we
cannot discuss here. — The Targums (cf.
the Engl, “dragoman” ) , or Aramaic para-
phrases, arose from oral interpretations
of the Old Testament Scriptures which
had become necessary since the days of
the Exile, when Aramaic became the
language of common intercourse in Pales-
tine. These oral paraphrases, in course
of time, received literary form. There
are three Targums on the Pentateuch,
one on the Prophets and three on the
Hagiographa. — Syriac versions. The
version known as the Peshito, also
written Pesliittah, meaning possibly “the
simple,” was made at an early date for
the peoples of Syria and Mesopotamia.
Its origin is somewhat obscure. Accord-
ing to Jewish tradition it is reasonably
assumed that at least some parts of the
Old Testament were translated into
Syriac before the Christian era. The
completion of the work, however, seems
to be coincident with the Syriac version
of the New Testament, which by general
consensus dates from ca. 150 A. D. It is
not a uniform product. Some books are
literally translated, some are paraphras-
tic, others bear the marks of the Septua-
gint. The Syriac canon lacks the Books
of Chronicles and of Ezra-Nehemiah, and
the Nestorian (East Syrian) manuscripts,
also the Book of Esther. Among other
Syriac versions must be mentioned that
of Philoxenus ( 508 A. D. ) , made from
the Septuagint, the revision of Jacob of
Edessa (ca. 704 A. D.), who sought to
harmonize the Peshito and the Septua-
gint and particularly the translation of
the Old Testament by Paul of Telia in
Mesopotamia from the Hexaplar Greek
of Origen (016 — 617 A.D .) — -Egyptian
versions. There were three Egyptian, or
Coptic (a corruption of Aiyvnxios) ver-
sions: the Sahidic, the dialect of Upper
Egypt, the Bohairic (sometimes called
Memphitie), the speech of the western
delta, and the Fayyumic of Central
Egypt. In point of time these versions
fall between the fourth and sixth or sev-
enth centuries. In the Old Testament
the translation is based on the Septua-
gint, not on the original Hebrew. — The
Ethiopic version, used by the Abyssin-
ians, possibly dates from the fourth cen-
tury. In the Old Testament the trans-
lation was made from the Septuagint,
though it contains many variations from
the Greek. — Among the Arabic versions
of the Old Testament that of Saadiah,
an Egyptian Jew (d. 942), was made
directly from the Hebrew text. It won
great popularity even among the Jews
and was publicly read in the synagogs
by the side of the Hebrew text. How-
ever, only the Pentateuch, Isaiah, Can-
ticles, Proverbs, and Job have been
printed. The complete text of the Old
Testament in Arabic appeared in the
Paris and London polyglots of the seven-
teenth century; but it is of composite
origin. The Pentateuch is the transla-
tion of Saadiah. Joshua, though also
derived from the Hebrew, is by another
hand. Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chron-
icles, and Job are based on the Peshito,
while the Prophets, Psalms, and Proverbs
are made from the Septuagint. As to
the New Testament, Arabic versions have
been made from the Greek, from the
Peshito, from the Latin. “The current
Arabic New Testament is a translation,
in the main, from the Bohairic dialect,
with corrections and additions from the
Greek and Syriac.” — The Armenian ver-
sion, said to be distinguished for beauty
and accuracy, is ascribed to the patriarch
Sahag Isaac (Old Testament) and to his
secretary Misrob (New Testament), who
died 441 A. D. In the Old Testament the
Bible Versions
80
Bible Versions
translation was made from the Septua-
gint, but it shows signs of revision and
correction according to the Syriac and
Hebrew. — The Old Slavonia version,
dating from the middle of the ninth cen-
tury, is generally attributed to Cyril and
Methodius, the apostles of the Slavs.
The Old Testament translation is based
on the Septuagint, that of the New Tes-
tament on the Greek. — The Gothic ver-
sion is the work of Ulfilas (d. 381 or 383),
whose parents had been carried away
from Cappadocia during one of the
Gothic incursions. Of the Old Testa-
ment, which was based on the Lucianic
recension of the Greek, only the most
meager fragments remain. Most of the
New Testament is preserved in various
manuscripts, preeminent among which is
the superb Codex Argenteus, containing
177 leaves of the four gospels, the origi-
nal number being 330. The story that
Ulfilas omitted from the translation of
the Old Testament the Books of Kings
for fear of exciting the warlike passions
of the Goths is unworthy of credence,
since such considerations would have
barred Joshua and Judges as well. “The
probability is that Ulfilas did not live to
finish the translation.” — Latin versions.
The Latin versions antedating the work
of Jerome (346 — 420 A. D. ) are now
commonly designated as the Old Latin.
The term “Itala” formerly used and ap-
plied by Augustine to one of these ver-
sions is rightly avoided. From the frag-
ments that remain it is clear that for
the Old Testament the Old Latin is based
on the Septuagint. Jerome’s first efforts
as a translator were confined to a re-
vision of the Old Latin, undertaken at
the request of Pope Damasus. It is pos-
sible that he revised all the canonical
books of the Old Testament. The Psal-
ter, which appeared in 383, is still used
in the services of the cathedral at Milan.
Between 390 and 405 A. D. Jerome com-
pleted the stupendous task of translating
the Old Testament from the original He-
brew and revising the Old Latin of the
New Testament in accordance with the
Greek. “The New Testament,” he writes,
“I have restored to the true Greek form;
the Old I have rendered from the He-
brew.” It must be noted, however, that
the so-called Gallican Psalter, a revision
of the one mentioned above, was em-
bodied in the new version, while several
of the apocryphal books were taken over
without change from the Old Latin.
Jerome’s new translation encountered
stubborn opposition, and it was not un-
til the sixth or seventh century that it
won general acceptance in the Church.
Thenceforth it became known as the Yul-
gata, a name which had formerly been
applied to the Septuagint. On the sub-
sequent history of the Vulgate lack of
space forbids us to enter. Before pass-
ing on to modern versions mention must
be made of the translations of the Wal-
denses in the middle ages.
Modern Versions. — Since the Refor-
mation the Bible has been translated
into all the languages and many of the
dialects of Europe. Among French ver-
sions that of Lefbvre d’Etaples (Ant-
werp, 1530), of Olivetan (Neuchatel,
1535), and especially of Beza (Geneva,
1588) deserve particular notice. The
latter version, having undergone numer-
ous revisions, still holds its place, though
there are more recent translations. The
principal Dutch version is the so-callqd
States Bible (because authorized by the
States General of Holland), published
with the sanction of the Council of Dort
in 1637. It is still in use. The first
Bible translation in a modern tongue is
the English version of Wyelif, which
was based on the Vulgate. It appeared
in 1382. “Wyclif’s work and that of his
colaborers (especially Nicholas Hereford)
has indelibly stamped itself on our
present-day Bible.” The first English-
man to translate the New Testament
from the original Greek was William
Tyndale. The translation appeared on
the Continent in two editions (3,000
copies each) before 1526. In 1530 Tyn-
dale published the Pentateuch and in the
following year the Book of Joshua. In
1535 Miles Coverdale published, at Ant-
werp, his translation of the whole Bible
“out of the Douche and Latin”, (i. e., the
German of Luther and the Zurich Bible,
and the Vulgate). This was the first
complete Bible in English. The so-called
Matthew’s Bible, essentially a compila-
tion from Tyndale and Coverdale, pre-
pared by John Rogers (alias Matthew),
appeared in 1537 and was dedicated to
“The moost noble and gracyous Prynce
Kyng Henry the Eyght and Queen Jane.”
Because of the deficiencies of both the
Coverdale and the Matthew version,
Coverdale, at the instance of Thomas
Cromwell, undertook a new revision,
which appeared, under the name of the
Great Bible (because of its splendid pro-
portions), in 1539. Cromwell further-
more issued an order to the clergy that
a copy of this Bible be “sett up in summe
convenynt place” in every church of
England, so that the parishioners might
“most commodiously resort to the same
and rede yt.” Richard Taverner’s ver-
sion, which appeared in the same year
as the Great Bible, never became very
popular. During the persecution under
Bible Versions
81
Bible Versions
Mary Tudor some of the English re-
formers found refuge in Geneva. It was
here that Whittingham, a brother-in-law
of Calvin, and his associates undertook
a revision of the Great Bible. Their
work resulted in what is known as . the
Geneva Bible, which was completed in
1560 and was dedicated to Queen Eliza-
beth. It won immediate popularity, no
less than one hundred and twenty edi-
tions appearing up to the year 1611. It
did not, however, at once displace the
Great Bible, but was used side by side
with it until the appearance of the
Bishops’ Bible in 1568. This revision of
the Great Bible owes its name to the fact
that most of the revisers were bishops,
Archbishop Parker supervising the whole
work. The authority of the bishops was
sufficient to displace the Great Bible
from public use, the last edition of which
was printed in 1569. The Bishops’ Bible,
though never quite popular, passed
through twenty editions, the last ap-
pearing in 1606. At this point mention
must be made of the Roman Catholic
version, published at Douai, in Flanders,
1609 — 10. Its title-page reads: “The
Holie Bible, faithfully translated into
English out of the authenticall Latin,”
meaning of course, the Vulgate. The
translation is extremely literal and stiff.
The famous Authorized Version of 1611
owes its origin to the complaints of the
Puritans, who maintained that they
could not subscribe to the Prayer-book
because it embodied translations from
the Great Bible, which, they said, was
“a most corrupted translation.” This
led King James “to bethink himself of
the good that might ensue by a new
translation.” To insure accuracy, the
translators, numbering fifty-four (though
only forty-seven names are preserved)
were bound to observe no less than fif-
teen specific rules in the prosecution of
their task. In particular it was pro-
vided that every translator “of the entire
company of forty-seven passed upon the
work of every other man in the com-
pany.” The version is essentially a re-
vision of the Bishops’ Bible, which was
“to be followed and as little altered as
the truth of the original will permit.”
The new version, appearing under royal
authority and commended by the best
scholarship of the age, soon won general
favor. For three centuries it has held
its place as the Bible of the English-
speaking world. The rare grace and
purity of its diction, its dignified and
elegant simplicity, its reverential spirit
and attitude, have endeared it to mil-
lions of hearts and made it the most
popular book in the English tongue.
Concordia Cyclopedia
The discovery and collation of numer-
ous Biblical manuscripts in the first
half of the nineteenth century revealed
some of the inadequacies in the Author-
ized Version and started the move-
ment for revision. In 1870 a com-
mittee of fifty-four men, representing
nearly all the evangelical bodies of Eng-
land (no Catholics were included), was
entrusted with the work of preparing a
revised version. The New Testament
committee, composed of twenty-seven
members, began its work on June 22,
1870, the Old Testament Company on
June 30. In response to an invitation
on the part of the British revisers to
participate in the task, an American re-
vision committee was organized toward
the close of the following year. The de-
tails of the plan of cooperation were,
however, not fully arranged until 1875.
The English committee promised to give
due consideration to all the American
suggestions and renderings before the
conclusion of its own labors and to per-
mit the publication, in an appendix, of
all important differences of rendering
and reading which the British revisers
should decline to accept. On the other
hand, the American committee was to
give its moral support to the British
editions “with a view to their freest cir-
culation within the United States, and
not to issue an edition of its own for
a term of fourteen years.” May 17, 1881,
the English revised New Testament was
put on sale in England and three days
later in the United States. In both
countries the demand was enormous,
about three million copies being sold
within one year of publication. The Old
Testament revision was completed in
1884, and the entire Revised Version,
bound in one volume, appeared in the
following year. Another edition, em-
bodying the preferences of the American
appendix, was published by the univer-
sity presses of Oxford and Cambridge
shortly before the expiration of the
fourteen years referred to in the afore-
mentioned agreement. Thus the British
presses furnished the American market
with an American Revised Version be-
fore the American committee was re-
leased from its pledge not to issue an
edition of its own. The American Re-
vised Version appeared in 1901. It is
rightly classed with the best English
translations of the Bible to-day, though
it may lack the quaint charm and grace
of the Authorized Version. More schol-
arly translations, but full of strange, ob-
jectionable errors, are those of Moffat,
Moulton, and Weymouth. — The Bible
was translated into German as early as
6
Biblia Pauper mu
82
Biblical IsaKogicn
the fourteenth century. This translation
naturally follows the Vulgate. After the
invention of printing it appeared (1462
to 1522) in no less than eighteen edi-
tions, fourteen in the High and four ■ —
according to some, five — in the Low
German dialect. The origin of this pre-
Lutheran German Bible is still uncer-
tain. That Luther was acquainted with
it and made use of it has been estab-
lished by recent investigations. Lu-
ther’s version was made from the Hebrew
and Greek and everywhere bears the
stamp of originality. Its merits are well
known. Scliaff calls it “a wonderful
monument of genius, learning, and
piety.” Its homely simplicity and rug-
ged vigor, its idiomatic diction and
rhythmic flow of language, its happy
alliterative phrases (Stecken und Stab,
Dornen und Disteln, matt und muede,
etc.), and its freedom from all pedantic
restraint have assured it a permanent
place in the hearts of the German people.
Luther began his work on the New Tes-
tament in November or December, 1521,
and completed it in the following March
before he left the Wartburg. The trans-
lation was published in September, 1522.
In the greater and more difficult task of
translating the Old Testament, Luther
had the assistance of Melanchthon, Bu-
genhagen, Oruciger, and others. The
work was completed in 1534, but Luther
continued to improve his translation
with every new edition, especially on
the linguistic side. Luther’s version
not only formed the basis of several
other versions (Danish, Swedish, Ice-
landic, Dutch), but naturally gave rise
to counter -versions by the Catholics
(Emser, 1527; Dietenberger, 1534; Eck,
1537). The translation of Dietenberger,
as revised by Ulenberg in 1630 and by
the clergy of Mainz in 1662, became
known as the “Catholic Bible.” A re-
vision of Luther’s version known as the
“Bevidierte Bibel” appeared in 1892, but
has not met with general favor. Finally,
several scholarly translations deserve
mention, notably that of Kautzsch (Old
Testament) and Weizsaecker (New Tes-
tament), which have also been published
together in one volume, De Wette, J. Fr.
Meier, and others.
Biblia Pauperum. A Poor Man’s
Bible, a Picture-Bible, prepared in Middle
Ages for the children of the poor. It
consisted of forty to fifty pictures from
the life of Christ and some Old Testa-
ment events; each picture was accom-
panied by an illustrative text or sentence
in Latin. A similar work was called
Speculum Humanae Salvationis. Before
the Reformation these two books were
the principal text used by monks in
preaching. After the invention of print-
ing, the Biblia Pauperum was perhaps
the first book printed in Netherlands and
Germany. — The name Biblia Pauperum,
was also given to an entirely different
work, that of Bonaventura, in which the
Biblical events were alphabetically ar-
ranged and accompanied by notes for the
purpose of relieving the intellectual
shortcomings of the preachers.
Biblical Archeology and Christian
Archeology. Biblical archeology or Bib-
lical antiquities deals with the external
facts found in the Bible, the domestic
and social life of the Jews, their civil
and political institutions, their religious
and ecclesiastical rites and ceremonies.
Christian archeology is the correspond-
ing science of Christian antiquity, all
the information concerning the home and
church life of the early Christians. '
Biblical Canonics. That part of Bib-
lical Introduction which deals with the
historical side of the aim to determine
what books constitute the Bible.
Biblical Criticism. That branch of
Biblical study which deals with the text
of the Bible in its original form; it in-
cludes both textual criticism (q.v.) and
higher criticism (q.v.).
Biblical Geography. The study of
the lands of the Bible in both their pbys-
iographical and political relation, par-
ticularly in the changes due to political
movements.
Biblical Hermeneutics. That part
of theological study which deals with the
fundamental rules of apprehension and
interpretation of the Bible text, partly,
on the basis of general logic and gram-
mar, partly with reference to each par-
ticular book, always on the basis of the
principle that the Bible is the Word of
God.
Biblical History (Bible History). The
presentation of the historical facts of
Holy Scripture in a connected form, ac-
cording to their chronological order, the
name Bible History being applied more
correctly to an individual unit of the
larger history, either alone or in a series.
Biblical Isagogics. That branch of
theology, also known as Introduction,
which deals with the origin, authorship,
authenticity, general characteristics, con-
tents, and aim of the different books of
Holy Scripture. General Introduction
includes also a history of the written and
printed text of the Bible, including the
ancient translations and a history of the
canon; Special Introduction deals with
the individual books of the Bible.
Biblical Textual Criticism
83 Blnney, Joseph Getschell, D. D.
Biblical Textual Criticism. That
branch of theological study which aims
to determine the incorruptness or integ-
rity of the text in its individual parts,
thereby laying the basis for actual in-
terpretation.
Biblical Theology. The orderly pres-
entation of the doctrinal contents of
Holy Scripture in a manner which is
midway between exegesis and dogmatics.
Bibliography, theological. That
branch of the preliminary work in the
lield of theology which pertains to the
actual books recommended for use in
each department of theology.
Bibliology. That part of dogmatics
or doctrinal theology which deals with
the essence and attributes of the Holy
Scriptures in their relation to mankind.
Bickersteth, Edward Henry, 1825
to 1906, educated at Cambridge; held a
number of charges in the Established
Church; successful editor of hymnals;
wrote, among others: “Stand, Soldier
of the Cross.”
Bidding Prayer. An ancient prayer,
appointed especially for Good Friday,
with intercessions for the various estates
of men both in the Church and without,
so called because the deacon bids the
people pray and mentions the things to
lie prayed for.
Biedermann, Alois E.; b. 1819 in
Switzerland; d. at Zurich 1885; the
most radical dogmatician of Free Protes-
tantism; Hegelian pantheist; from 1850
to his death professor at Zurich.
Biedermann, Bichard D. ; b. in New
Wells, Mo., October 6, 1864; educated
at Concordia College, Fort Wayne, and
Concordia Seminary, St. Louis; gradu-
ated 1885; pastor in St. Paul, Minn.;
Mobile, Ala.; Kendallville and Indian-
apolis, Ind. ; President of Concordia
Seminary, Springfield, 111., 1914; secre-
tary of the Missouri Synod for fifteen
years; d. March 8, 1921,
Biel, Gabriel. The last notable school-
man, a nominalist, teacher at Tuebingen,
faithful exponent of Catholic theology,
lie stood for pronounced Semi-Pelagian-
ism (“merit depends on man’s free will
and God’s grace” ) , the mechanical theory
of the Sacraments (“our adversaries con-
tend that the Mass is a work that justi-
fies us ex opere operato and removes the
guilt ... in those for whom it is cele-
brated; for thus writes Gabriel”; Trigl.,
p. 179), and the “mighty dignity” of the
priest (“who in the Mass can create the
Cod who created him”). He was an ad-
vocate of the Immaculate Conception.
His position on Church polity was that
of the Council of Constance. D. 1495.
Bielefeld. See Bodelschwingh.
Bienemann, Kaspar (Melissander ) ,
1540—1591 ; general superintendent of
Pfalz-Neuburg, later tutor at ducal court,
Jena, then pastor at Altenburg; wrote:
“Herr, wie du willst, so schick’s mit mir.”
Biewend, Adolph Friedrich Theo-
dor. B. May 6, 1816, in Rotliehuette,
Hannover. Attended Gymnasium in
Clausthal. Studied rationalistic theol-
ogy at Goettingen; graduated 1838 and
tutored for three years. By 1841 he had,
through private study of the Bible, be-
come a believer in the vicarious satis-
faction. F. Wyneken induced him to
come to America. Pastor in Washing-
ton, 1). C., 1843 — 47, teacher of sciences
and ancient languages at Columbian Col-
lege, Washington, D. C., till 1849, when
he became successor of Wolter at the
college at Fort Wayne. Professor of
New Testament Exegesis, Isagogics, Phi-
losophy at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
and of mathematics and languages in
the college, 1850. The first instructor
of English at our institutions. Director
of the college in 1856. Delegate to con-
ventions of the Norwegian and Tennessee
Synods. Wrote for our publications, re-
viewing especially religious books. De-
clined call to Capital University, Colum-
bus, O. A man of wide attainments and
ripe scholarship. D. April 10, 1858.
Bilney, Theodore (? 1495- — 1531).
English martyr. Converted by perusal of
Erasmus’s New Testament and Luther’s
works; preached against Rome; submit-
ted ; preached again ; was burned in
London at Wolsey’s command.
Biltz, F. J. Born July 24, 1825, in
Mittel-Frohna, Saxony; came over with
the Saxons, an orphan of 13 years; one
of the first students at Concordia Col-
lege, Altenburg; ordained March 12,
1848; served in Dessin, Cape Girardeau
Co., Mo., Cumberland, Md., and Concor-
dia, Mo. Was active in spreading the
Gospel in the Western States; president
of the Western District of the Missouri
Synod ; member of Electoral College.
D. November 19, 1908.
Bingham, Joseph (1668 — 1723). Ar-
cheologist. — B. Wakefield; rector near
Winchester, Havant (d. there). Origines
Kcclesiasticae or Antiquities of the Chris-
tian Church (Anglican point of view).
Binney, Joseph Getschell, D. D.
B. Dec. 1, 1807, Boston, Mass.; d. on
/S'. /S'. Amarakoora, near Ceylon, Nov. 26,
1877. Pastor Baptist Church. Ameri-
can Board (Congregationalist) mission-
Btretta
84
BtachofC, Rudolf Adam
ary to Karens in Burma, 1844. In
United States from 1850 — 1858; re-
turned to Rangoon, Burma, 1858 — 1876.
Died after furlough on returning to field.
Bfretta. A square cap with three or
four projecting prominences and a tas-
sel, worn by priests when approaching
the altar for mass, and in choir, etc.
A cardinal’s biretta is red, a bishop’s
purple, that of other clerics black.
Birken, Siegmund von (Betulius),
1626-— 1681, tutor at various courts,
later private tutor in Nuernberg; hymns
somewhat artificial; wrote: “Jesu, deine
Passion”; “Lasset uns mit Jesu ziehen.”
Birth. Control. A movement to limit
the number of offspring by preventing
conception or by legalizing abortion,
chiefly by the use of artificial means, by
medicines, and by unnatural practises.
In modern times this movement goes
back to Thomas Robert Malthus, an Eng-
lish political economist, whose Essay on
the Principles of Population, 1798, was
founded on the hypothesis that popula-
tion increases in a geometrical, while
provisions increase only in an arithmet-
ical ratio. Although this theory is not
borne out by the facts of history, the
idea was accepted with alacrity, and the
Malthusian League has been very active
since 1877. The movement has now em-
bodied certain practical features and is
known as Neo-Malthusianism, with many
adherents in the various civilized coun-
tries. In America the propaganda has
been carried on with such energy that
the Sixth International Neo-Malthusian
and Birth Control Conference was held
in New York, with social workers, med-
ical men, and political economists from
America, England, Austria, India, China,
and a dozen other countries in attend-
ance. The president of the American
Birth Control League is Mrs. Margaret
Sanger, and she and several of her asso-
ciates also edit a periodical in the in-
terest of their theories. — The Bible very
emphatically does not sanction move-
ments of this kind. Ps. 127, 3 — 5; Ps.
128, 3; 1 Tim. 2, 15; 5, 14, and other
passages are in force to-day as they ever
were. One of the objects of marriage is
the procreation of children, and this can-
not be set aside by the whim or by the
selfishness of men. In a Christian home,
husband and wife will live together ac-
cording to knowledge, 1 Pet. 3, 7, and
each one will possess his vessel in sanc-
tification and honor, 1 Thess. 4, 4. In the
case of illness and by the advice of a
competent physician, total continence
may be practised, but beyond this Chris-
tians may not go, especially in advocat-
ing the murder of unborn children, for
that is what abortion amounts to,
Christians must consistently oppose the
sinful and destructive character of the
modern theory and become more and
more conscious of the grandeur and pre-
rogative of marriage and of offspring in
marriage. See also Sexual Life.
Bishop. The New Testament recog-
nizes no superiority of bishops (over-
seers) over the pastors (elders) of con-
gregations, for it uses the terms synony-
mously (Acts 20, 17. 28; Tit. 1, 5. 7).
The Roman Church, however, teaches
that bishops are, of divine right, superior
to simple priests (see Hierarchy ; Ordi-
nation), and that they alone have the
power of administering ordination and
confirmation, blessing holy oils, churches,
etc. A bishop is responsible only to the
Pope, and, except as he is limited by the
canon law or the papal will, is supreme
in his diocese over both clergy and laity.
He makes laws, abrogates them, and dis-
penses from them; he exercises judicial
power (see Courts, Spiritual ), pronounces
sentence, inflicts penalties, excommuni-
cates, and suspends; he erects and sup-
presses parishes, assigns charges to the
clergy, and superintends financial affairs.
Since the bishop cannot do all these
things in person, he is assisted by va-
rious officials, chiefly his vicar -general
(q.v.). Bishops are elected in various
ways, but must always be confirmed by
the Pope. They must visit Rome at
stated intervals, varying with the dis-
tance, to report on their dioceses (from
the U. S., every 10 years), and they can
be removed only by the Pope. “Titular”
bishops are those who bear the titles of
extinct dioceses (e. g., in Mohammedan
lands) and whose office is, therefore,
chiefly honorary. (See also Ordinary;
Diocese. )
Bismarck Archipelago, recently called
New Britain Archipelago. A group of
islands in the S. Pacific off the coast of
New Guinea, before the world war a Ger-
man protectorate, since the world war
taken over by Australia, Area: 18,000
sq. mi. Population: 200,000, mostly
Papuan. New Pomerania (New Britain)
has a population of about 190,000. Mis-
sions have been conducted by the Austra-
lian Wesleyans since 1875, mainly under
Dr. George Brown. Roman Catholic
counter-missions 1889. See also Mela-
nesia.
Bischoff, Rudolf Adam. Clergyman
and .educator, b. St. Louis, Mo., 1847, at-
tended Concordia College, Port Wayne,
Ind., and Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo. (1870) ; pastor at Alexandria, Va.,
Blanchard, Charles Albert
85
Boehme, Jacob
professor at Concordia College, Fort
Wayne, 1872 — 82, president 1882 — 86,
pastor at Bingen, Ind., again professor
at Fort Wayne, 1889 — 1904; edited Lu-
theran Pioneer 1879 — 1912; d. Bingen,
Ind., 1916.
Blanchard, Charles Albert (1848 — ).
Congregationalist. B. Galesburg, 111.;
connected with Wheaton College (111.)
since 1872; professor mental and moral
science and president since 1882. Mod-
ern Secret Societies; etc.
Blandina, a young female slave who
suffered martyrdom during the persecu-
tion at Lyons (177). “The wearied ex-
ecutioners wondered that her life could
endure under the horrid succession of
torments which they inflicted.” Inhu-
manly scourged, made to sit on a heated
iron chair, enclosed in a net and tossed
several times into the air by an infuri-
ated bull, she was finally transfixed by
the sword of a merciful barbarian. Her
baffled tormentors could extract from her
only the confession, “I am a Christian,
and no wickedness is done among us.”
Blaues Kreuz. A society organized
1877 by Pastor Roehat in Geneva for the
purpose of organized effort against the
evil of drunkenness and for the promo-
tion of true temperance. The society
consists of adherents who for an indefi-
nite time promise to refrain from the
use of intoxicating liquor, and members
who after a period of probation of three
months promise to abstain for at least
one year. The society demands total ab-
stinence on the part of its adherents and
members, but does not disapprove of a
moderate use of intoxicating drinks on
the part of such as are not members.
Since 1883 the society has annually is-
sued a calendar.
Blaurer, Thomas, 1499 — 1570, brother
of Ambrosius B., studied in Wittenberg,
later joined Reformed Church, mayor of
Constance, died in Thurgau; wrote:
“Herr, schafF uns wie die kleinen Kind’.”
Blavatsky, Mme. Helena Petrovna.
Theosophist; b. 1831, Russia; d. 1891,
London. Traveled extensively, especially
in America and India. Studied spirit-
ism, occult and cabalistic literature, sa-
cred writings of India. With H. Olcott
founded the Theosophical Society, in New
York, 1875. Claimed miraculous powers,
which were proved impostures. Wrote
Isis Unveiled, 1877, (textbook of Theoso-
phists), Secret Doctrine, 1888, Key to
Theosophy, 1889.
Bleek, Friedrich, b. 1793; d. 1859 as
professor at Bonn; mediating theolo-
gian; of Schleiermacher’s school; wrote
introduction to the Old and New Testa-
ments ; moderate critic.
Bliefernlcht, Edmund B. B. Oct. 3,
1882, Watertown, Wis. Graduate of
Northwestern College, Wauwatosa Semi-
nary. After brief pastorate at Darfur,
Minn., professor New Ulm Seminary
(now of the Wisconsin Synod), 1908;
president since 1920.
Bloomfield, Dorothy (Mrs. Gurney),
1858 — . Wrote a wedding hymn of great
poetic beauty for the marriage of her
sister in 1883, namely: “O Perfect Love,
All Human Thought Transcending!”
Blumhardt, Christian Gottlieb.
B. April 29, 1779, Stuttgart; d. Dec. 19,
1838, at Basel. He was one of the Basel
Missionary Society founders (1804); in-
spector Basel Missionary School (1816).
Blumhardt, Johann Christoph. B. at
Stuttgart, July 16, 1805; d. at Boll,
Feb. 25, 1880. Studied at Tuebingen.
Became teacher at the missionary insti-
tution at Basel, 1830, pastor at Moett-
lingen, 1838. He gained great fame as
one who could cure by prayer. His first
reported cure was that of a demoniac
girl. In 1853, he bought the royal water-
ing-place Boll (Bad Boll), to which place
all kinds of sufferers from all ranks of
society and from all countries flocked to
be cured by Blumhardt. In 1869 and
1872, he was joined in the work by his
sons. The work is continued by Stanger
in Moettlingen up to the present day.
Bodelschwingh, Friedrich von. Born
1831 ; d. 1910. German pastor at Paris
and later in a Westphalian village.
Founded the Epileptic Institute ( Bethel )
at Bielefeld, 1867, consisting of 50 build-
ings, including institutions for training
deaconesses and deacons. Bodelschwingh
also opened a colony at Wilhelmsdorf
for vagabonds, who were there compelled
to work for their lodging, food, and
clothing; when dismissed, they were di-
rected to profitable employment. Devo-
tional exercises were held and prayers
spoken at table. On Sundays services in
a nearby church were attended. Many
similar colonies were established in Ger-
many.
Boeckman, Markus Olaus, D. D.
B. in Norway, 1849, graduate Kristiania
University, emigrated, 1875, pastor 1888,
professor at Augsburg Seminary, presi-
dent United Norwegian Church Semi-
nary, president Luther Theological Sem-
inary; editor, author; knighted 1912 by
King Haakon VII.
Boehme, Jacob. German theosophist
and mystic; b. 1575, near Goerlitz;
shoemaker in Goerlitz; d. 1624, ibid.
Boehne, John William
86
Bolshevism
Called Philosophus Teutonicus. His the-
osophy attempts to explain origin of evii,
God contains conflicting elements in His
nature, harmoniously united, while in
the universe which is an emanation of
God, these conflicting elements separated,
hut can he harmoniously reunited through
regeneration in Christ. Profoundly in-
fluenced greater minds than his own
(Hegel, Schelling), and influence spread
to England, where a disciple, Jane Lead,
founded the Philadelphians. Believed in
Trinity, Incarnation, Atonement. Died
after having subscribed to Lutheran Con-
fessions. Wrote, Aurora Oder die Mor-
genroete irn Aufgang, Hysterium Mag-
num, Der Weg zu Christo.
Boehne, John William. Manufac-
turer; b. Vanderburgh Co., Ind., Oct. 28,
1856; attended Commercial College;
held offices of city councilman at large,
mayor of Evansville, Ind., member of
60th and 61st Congress U. S. A. ; held
position as member of Board of Direc-
tors, Missouri Synod.
Boehringer, Georg Friedr. B. 1812
at Maulbronn; d. 1879 at Basel; Re-
formed theologian; his chief work is
Die Kirche Christi und ihre Zeugen
(24 vols.)
Bogatzky, Carl fteinrich von, 1690
to 1774, studied at Jena and Halle, doing
work, first in law, later in theology under
Francke ; due to failure of his voice
devoted himself to religious authorship;
last decades of his life spent at Halle,
in one of Francke’s institutions; pub-
lished Meditations and Prayers on the
New Testament ; among his hymns:
“Wach auf, du Geist der ersten Zeugen.”
Bogomiles. A branch of the Cathari,
numerous in the twelfth century in Bul-
garia and Constantinople. Their the-
ology was a conglomerate of the wildest
dualistic-gnostic fancies; they rejected
Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, shunned
the churches as seats of evil spirits, and
practised much praying and strict as-
ceticism. They survived a number of
severe persecutions and found adherents
in the Western Church.
Bohemia. See Czechoslovakia.
Bohemian-Moravian Brethren. The
XJnitas Fratrwm (Community, or Assem-
bly, of Brethren) was founded by Utra-
quists ( s. Hus ) under Gregor and Peter
Chelczich and his followers in Kumwald,
Bohemia, 1457, some Waldensians join-
ing, and chose priests of their own at
Shotka in 1467, Matthias being conse-
crated bishop by a Waldensian. Owing
to the simplicity of their worship (some
of their hymns have found their way into
the Lutheran Church), their strict dis-
cipline, and their fervid brotherly love,
they had a considerable growth under
Bishop Lucas, numbering despite severe
persecutions 300 to 400 congregations in
Bohemia and Moravia in 1500. They re-
fused to join Luther because of the Lu-
theran doctrines, particularly of the
Lord’s Supper and of justification by
faith alone. A second Lutheranizing
movement was halted by John Blahos-
iaw, who stood for Calvinism. (His
Bohemian translation of the New Testa-
ment is a masterpiece; d. 1574.) Dis-
cipline relaxed, great numbers were ab-
sorbed by the Reformed Church, and
during the Thirty Years’ War the society
was wiped out as such in Bohemia,
Bishop Amos Comenius being among
those who were exiled, but survived for
some time in Poland and Hungary;
a scanty remnant still existing in Posen.
See Moravian Church.
Bohm, Ed. B. Aug. 30, 1840; assist-
ant pastor of St. Matthew’s, N. Y., 1882,
first director of Concordia Institute,
Hawthorne, N. Y. (now at Bronxville),
1882; d. Dec. 24, 1895.
Bolivia, Missions in. Republican
state in South America, formed 1825.
Area: 514,155 sq.m. Population, a mix-
ture of various races, half-caste Span-
iards and Indians; also from former
Negro slaves. Indian population, ap-
proximately 925,000. Roman Catholic is
recognized religion of state; other reli-
gions permitted. — Missions by : Assem-
blies of God ; Canadian Baptists ; Metho-
dist Episcopal Church; San Pedro Mis-
sion to Indians ; Seventh-day Adventists ;
Christian Missions in Many Lands;
Svenska Fria Missionen; Bolivian In-
dian Mission. Foreign Staff, 118; Prot-
estant Christian community, 4,568; Com-
municants, 3,908. See also South
America.
Bollandists. A company of Jesuits,
later of secular priests, named after Jan
Bolland, their object being to print all
liagiographical material pertaining to
early saints of the Catholic Church.
The work was begun about 1630, but is
not yet wholly finished, although an
immense amount of material, chiefly in
manuscripts and books, has been gath-
ered. The center of the work is now
Brussels.
Bolshevism. An extreme form of
Socialism, with strong communistic fea-
tures, as developed in modern Soviet
Russia or in the Union of Soviet Re-
publics. During the World War, in
March, 1917, there was a bloodless revo-
lution in Russia, as a consequence of
Bolfthevlfmi
87
Boniface, St.
which Kerensky became the leader of the
country. At the same time the extreme
Socialists urged immediate withdrawal
from the war and a social revolution,
the aim of which was the complete over-
throw of the existing social and economic
system and the establishment of a new
order based on the principles of Com-
munism. All private property was to be
abolished, and a dictatorship of the prole-
tariat or workmen was to take the place
of the former government. The move-
ment was led by the so-called Bolsheviki,
the terroristic branch of the Social Dem-
ocratic Party in Russia, which became
dominant during the year 1917. The
name literally means “the greater,”
since the party represented the larger
group or formed the majority. They
soon gained the control of the Duma and
the Soviet, a form of government ad-
ministered by delegates elected by work-
men, soldiers, and peasants. After the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, in March, 1918,
the Bolsheviki gained control of the en-
tire country, and they have since put
their wild ideas in operation in that sec-
tion of Russia which remained after
various provinces, such as Finland and
the Baltic Provinces, were taken away.
To some extent their ideas have gained
adherents also in other countries, notably
in those adjoining Soviet Russia, and
there are many extreme Socialists in
practically all the other countries who
have declared their assent to the Bolshe-
vistic principles. Under the leadership
of Trotzky and Lenin strange experi-
ments in political economy were under-
taken not only in overturning the
foundations of society, but also in na-
tionalizing all property, and above all in
waging war on the Church, often ren-
dering its work practically impossible.
The churches, hospitals, deaconess houses,
and homes of the various Protestant or-
ganizations have literally been put out
of commission by the unparalleled de-
preciation of money and by the nation-
alizing of their real estate. Many mem-
bers of the congregations lost all their
possessions, and most of the pastors were
left without an income of any kind. The
catechism of Bakunin spoke of the Chris-
tian religion in terms of the most hor-
rible blasphemy, and scenes were enacted
in connection with ancient customs on
festival days which defy description.
Full particulars regarding the situation
in Soviet Russia are only now reaching
the outside world. Just what the spirit
of Bolshevism consists in may be seen
from the reign of terror in the Baltic
countries. The Bolsheviki were in full
control from the end of January till the
end of May, 1919, with Riga as the cen-
ter of their pernicious activity. In this
city alone fourteen pastors died during
these five months, partly murdered,
partly as a result of prison fever with
which they were infected in the unspeak-
able jails. The worst day of the entire
period was May 22, when eight pastors
were murdered, some in a most atrocious
manner. It was only due to a fortunate
coincidence that not all the pastors of
the Evangelical churches were put to
death, for the command to shoot them
all had been given. All told, twenty-four
Baltic pastors suffered martyrdom dur-
ing this persecution, and more than
50,000 Baltic Christians were exiled on
account of their faith. Bolshevism is
one of the gravest menaces which has
ever threatened church and state.
Bonar, Horatius, 1808 — 1889, educated
at University of Edinburgh; minister in
Established Church, which he left for
the Free Church of Scotland; wrote
many hymns of high standard, among
which: “I Was a Wandering Sheep.”
Bonaventura, St. (Dr. Seraphious),
1221 — 1274; teacher at Paris, later gen-
eral of the Franciscans, and cardinal;
a standard Catholic dogmatician, rank-
ing next to Thomas Aquinas. A school-
man (realist), he attempts to prove that
the church doctrine agrees with reason;
of the school of mysticism, that mystic
contemplation leads to the highest
knowledge of God; a poet, he composed
The Mirror of the Blessed Virgin Mary
and Tke Psalter of the Blessed Virgin.
Boniface VIII. “Ideal” Pope, 1294 to
1303; patron of learning (Roman uni-
versity ) , practised nepotism and diver-
sion of crusade funds to private use, in-
vented the “jubilee,” 1300; maintained
the most extravagant claims of the hier-
archy ( see Unam Sanctam ) ; played the
role of arbiter of nations with varying
degree of success. Preparing to launch
the anathema against Philip the Fair
(otherwise known as Philip IV, of
France), who was preparing to bring
him before the bar of an ecumenical
council, he was kidnaped by his enemies
Sept. 7, rescued Sept. 9, d. Oct. 11.
Boniface, St. (Winfrid). B. near
Exeter, England, before 683, spent his
life in spreading Christianity and estab-
lishing the papal authority in Germany
— “the Apostle of the Germans,” though
not the first missionary, but indeed
“a pillar of papal hierarchy,” as Rome
styles him. Filled with missionary zeal,
he was, after a short stay in heathen
Friesland, commissioned in Rome, 718,
as missionary to Central Germany, and
Bonwetscli, G- Nathanael
88
Boole of Concord
later, swearing fidelity to Home, con-
secrated as bishop. Baptizing “many
thousands” in Hessia and Thuringia,
founding churches, felling the sacred oak
of Thor, one of the ancient German gods,
and expelling the anti-Roman priests
(Culdees, Old-British) , he won a new
province for Rome, which he organized,
now archbishop, by establishing sees
and monasteries, the English Church
sending monks, among them Lullus, nuns,
and money. A few years’ activity in
Friesland had intervened. In Bavaria,
where the Culdee Church was estab-
lished, he founded four sees, but could
not fully overcome the anti-Roman in-
fluence. Called by Karlmann and Pepin
to regulate the affairs of the Frankish
Church, he had the synods pass measures
concerning the introduction of Roman
laws, doctrines, and customs, the extir-
pation of the remnants of heathenism,
and the “reformation” of the Church.
Despite the opposition of a part of the
clergy, the German National Council of
742 declared for submission to the papal
authority and the expulsion of the mar-
ried clergy, and in 747 the majority of
the bishops fully acknowledged the papal
supremacy, the Pope bestowing upon
Boniface the see of Mainz. (His servile
submission did not prevent him from
protesting to the Pope against certain
abuses, but kept him from enforcing his
protest.) In 744, he had founded the
monastery of Fulda, for centuries the
principal school of the Benedictines, but
instead of seeking rest there in his old
age, the zealous missionary resigned his
office at Mainz in 754 to continue the
work in Friesland, where he met death
at the hands of the heathen, June 5, 755.
Bonwetsch, G. Nathanael. B. at
Nortkaa, Russia, 1848, professor at Dor-
pat; since 1891 professor of church his-
tory at Goettingen. Wrote books and
articles on historical subjects.
Book of Common Prayer. The only
official service-book used in the Church
of England and its affiliated bodies. It
contains in one volume the articles of
faith and all the rites, ceremonies, and
prescribed forms of the Church of Eng-
land and is thus not only a prayer-book,
but a ritual and confession of faith.
In 1548, the First Prayer-book of Ed-
ward VI was confirmed by Parliament.
A great part of it was taken from the
old services used before the Reformation,
but the labors of Melanchthon and Bucer
helped to give the book its Protestant
form. Exceptions were taken to some
arts of it, and in 1551 Parliament con-
rmed the second review. This was
known as the Second Prayer-book of Ed'
ward VI.
The liturgy of Elizabeth (1560) agreed
substantially with the Second Prayer-
book of Edward VI, with some minoi
changes.
The last revision of the English Prayer;
book was made in 1662 in order to pleasjB
the Non-conformists.
The American Prayer-book iB framed
closely upon the model of the English
book. It was adopted substantially in
its present form by the General Conven-
tion of 1789, with many variations from’
the English book, including those ren-
dered necessary by political and local
causes. Among the notable variations
are the following: the omission of the
Athanasian Creed, the Absolution in the
Visitation office, the Magnificat and the;
Nunc Dimittis, the Commination, and
the versicles after the Creed; the op-
tional use of the words “He descended
into hell” in the Creed, and in many
things considerably enlarging the discre-
tional power of the minister; the addi-
tion of a number of prayers ; the change
of “absolution” into “declaration of ab-
solution,” of “verily and indeed taken”
into “spiritually taken” (Catechism) and
the permission of using an alternative
formula instead of “Receive the Holy
Ghost,” etc. ( Ordinal ) ; the introduction
of the prayers of invocation and oblation
in the Communion office, which was in-
sisted on as rendering the liturgy more
in accordance with primitive models.
During the latter part of the 19th cen-
tury, a desire for liturgical enrichment
and increased flexibility resulted in the
adoption, in 1892, of a considerable num-
ber of changes, which brought the book
into closer harmony both with the Eng-
lish and with the earlier models. The
work of revision is still continuing.
Book of Concord, or Concordia, con-
tains the confessional writings of the
Lutheran Church, her Symbolical Books
(q.v.). They are the three Ecumenical
Creeds — Apostles’, Nicene, Athanasian ;
the Unaltered Augsburg Confession of
1530; its Apology; Luther’s Small Cat-
echism and the Large Catechism; Lu-
ther’s Smalcald Articles; the Formula
of Concord. Jacob Andreae’s German
edition appeared officially on June 25,
1580, fifty years after the presentation
of the Augsburg Confession; the Latin
edition came out in 1584. Concordia
Publishing House of St. Louis published
the German Concordia in 1880. Kolde’s
edition of Mueller is the best German-
Latin edition. The Henkels of New-
market in Virginia got out the first Con-
cordia in English in 1851 and an im-
Book of Di»clplli»e
89
Bowrlng, Sir John
proved edition in 1854. In 1882 Jacobs
got out his translation in two volumes,
in 1911 in one volume. Bente and Dau
got out their fine Concordia Triglotta —
German, Latin, and English - — at Concor-
dia Publishing House in 1921 ; it has
Professor Bente’s extremely valuable in-
troduction of 260 pages, written in En-
glish.
Book of Discipline. A volume pub-
lished quadrennially in the Methodist
Episcopal Church after the sessions of
the General Conference, entitled, The
Doctrines and Discipline of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church, containing six
parts: 1) Origin, Doctrines, and General
Rules; 2) Government of the Church;
3) Administration of Discipline; 4) Rit-
ual; 5) Education and Benevolent In-
stitutions; 6) Temporal Economy.
Boos, Martin. Roman Catholic priest;
b. at Huttenried, Bavaria, 1762; d. near
Coblenz, 1825. His experiences in asceti-
cism are somewhat along the line of
those experienced by Luther, and he sub-
sequently preached a doctrine which was
strongly Lutheran in character. Driven
out of the country by the opposition of
the church authorities, he lived in Aus-
tria from 1796 to 1818, when he had to
leave here also, spending his last years
at Duesseldorf and Sayn.
Borneo, Missions in. Fourth largest
island on the globe; under Dutch and
British government. Area, approxi-
mately 275,000 square miles. Popula-
tion, 1,500,000, mostly Mohammedans,
with some aboriginal tribes. Missions in
Netherlands Indies, Sumatra, Java, and
Borneo are conducted by 27 societies.
Foreign staff, 693 ; Christian community,
779,893; communicants, 475,848.
Bornholmers. An organization of
Danish Pietists united in “The Lutheran
Missionary Society for the Promotion of
the Gospel.” Though begun in Sweden
under Rosenius in the early nineteenth
century, it gained its first strong foot-
hold in Bornholm, Denmark. Here the
movement was led by Pastor Trandberg,
who left the State Church, organizing
a Lutheran Free Church, which also did
some mission-work. Trandberg came to
America in 1882 and later was professor
at the (Congregationalist) Chicago The-
ological Seminary. The movement still
continues in Denmark, though its ad-
herents are again more closely associated
with the State Church.
Borromeo, Carlo. Roman Catholic
theologian of the Counter-reformation;
b. at Arona, North Italy, 1538; d. at
Milan, 1584; studied law at Pavia, but
turned to theology upon the accession of
his uncle, Pius IV, to the papal see, be-
coming cardinal and archbishop of Milan
at the age of twenty-two; prominent at
the Council of Trent; founded semina-
ries for the better education of the
clergy; mercilessly severe against all
heretics; canonized in 1610.
Borthwick, Jane, 1813 — 1897; lived
in Edinburgh; together with her sister
a noted translator of German hymns,
published as Hymns from the Land of
huther; among her original hymns:
“Rest, Weary Soul.”
Bortnianski, Dimitri Stefanovitch,
1752 — 1825; studied at St. Petersburg
and later in Italy; director of the Im-
perial Chapel Choir in St. Petersburg;
wrote a Greek mass and a number of
four- and eight-part psalms, besides
smaller works.
Bosse, Benjamin. Manufacturer and
banker ; b. in Scott Township, Ind.,
1874; d. at Evansville, Ind., 1922;
mayor of Evansville; prominent in Lu-
theran Laymen’s League; member of
Missouri Synod’s Board of Control and
Board of Directors.
Bossuet, Jacques Benigne. Promi-
nent Roman Catholic preacher; b. at
Dijon, 1627; d. at Paris, 1704, studied
at Dijon and Paris, became priest and
Doctor of Theology in 1652, then canon
and archdeacon at Metz, finally bishop
of Meaux ; was also tutor of the dauphin
of France for some years. Noted as con-
troversialist, not only against Fdnelon,
but also against separatists among the
Catholics. His six Oraisons Funibres
(Funeral Orations) rank very high in
the oratory of his Church.
Botticelli, Sandro, Italian painter;
1447 — 1510; pupil of Fra Filippo Lippi,
whose style, however, he rejected; did
some work for the chapel of Sixtus IV
at Rome; noted for his “Magnificat” and
“The Burial of the Crucified.”
Bourdaloue, Louis. Jesuit preacher;
b. at Bourges, 1632; d. at Paris, 1704;
for some time teacher of literature and
philosophy; his persuasive powers used
in trying to regain Protestants for the
Roman Church; last years spent in the
service of the poor in Paris.
Bousset, Johann Franz Wilhelm.
German Protestant theologian; b. at
Luebeek, 1865; Professor of New Testa-
ment Exegesis at Goettingen since 1896.
Belongs to liberal historical school. Ac-
tive in Christian Socialist movement;
wrote: Gnosis; Religion des Judentums
im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter; d. 1920.
Bowring, Sir John, 1792 — 1872;
studies included philology, poetry, poli-
Boyle, Robert
90
Brahmanism
ties ; held important diplomatic posts,
twice member of Parliament; wrote “In
the Cross of Christ I Glory.”
Boyle, Robert, 1627 — 91. B. in Ire-
land ; educated in England ; devoted to
science (Boyle’s Law) and theology;
founder of Boyle Lectures, eight lectures
delivered annually in London against tin-
believers.
Boys’ and Girls’ Clubs. Such clubs
are organized for the same purpose as
young people’s societies ( q . v. ) . They
are often called junior societies. Be-
cause of the difference in age, maturity,
and thought it has been deemed wise not
to receive children who have just been
confirmed into the so-called young
people’s societies, but to permit them to
form their own organizations. While it
is extremely important to give attention
to those who have just been confirmed
(see quotation from Stall under Young
People’s Societies) , it is at the same time
extremely difficult to guide and interest
such as are just emerging from child-
hood and fail to understand that there
is yet much for them to learn. Much
patience, kind and sympathetic treat-
ment, and good judgment must be exer-
cised on the part of those who would
well manage the boys’ and girls’ clubs,
or junior societies, so that they will
prove to be a real blessing for the young
and for the Church.
Boy Scouts. This movement was be-
gun in England by Sir Robert Baden -
Powell. In 1908 he issued a handbook,
Scouting for Boys. The movement was
introduced into the United States in
1910 by W. D. Boyce, although prior to
that time a number of troops had already
been organized in various parts of the
country. The purpose of the organiza-
tion is stated in its constitution as fol-
lows: “To promote, through organiza-
tion, and cooperation with other agencies,
the ability of boys to do things for them-
selves and others, to train them in scout-
craft, and to teach them patriotism, cour-
age, self-reliance, and kindred virtues,
using the methods which are now in com-
mon use by boy scouts, by placing em-
phasis on the Scout Oath and Law for
character development, citizenship train-
ing, and physical fitness.” Stress is also
laid upon the effort made by the organi-
zation to further love for outdoor life;
for this purpose so-called hikes are made,
and some time is spent in summer camps.
Such outdoor life is also intended to con-
tribute to health and practical education.
The Scout Law, to which obedience must
be promised, says that the Scout must
be trustworthy, loyal, helpful, friendly,
courteous, obedient, cheerful, thrifty,
brave, clean, and reverent. Scouts are
required to “do a good turn daily.” The
scout idea is to instil into the boy love
and duty to God, home, and country.
Religious belief is no obstacle to member-
ship. — - Considering that the Boy Scout
movement seeks to develop character and
virtues and love to God, the organization
not only has a religious character, but
seeks to do on the basis of natural reli-
gion what can only be done by means of
the Gospel. Such effort is in line with
the attempt made by many churches to-
day to develop character without a thor-
ough regeneration of the heart and with-
out considering it necessary to be guided
in spiritual matters only by the inspired
Word of God. See Girl Scouts.
Bradford, John, ca. 1510 — 55; Prot-
estant martyr. B. at Manchester, Eng-
land; prebendary of St. Paul’s; chap-
lain to Edward VI; popular preacher;
burned at stake, Smithfield. Many short
works.
Bradwardine, Thomas. Doctor Pro-
fundus; b. 1290 ( ?) ; lecturer at Ox-
ford; fearless confessor of Edward III;
chosen Archbishop of Canterbury 1349,
the year of his death. Boldly proclaim-
ing the Gospel of grace, he struck at the
root of all evil in the Church — Pelagian-
ism (“How many, O Lord, despise Thy
grace and proudly declare that free will
is sufficient for salvation!”) and pre-
pared Wyclif for his work.
Brahma Samaj. See Hinduism.
Brahmanas. See Brahmanism.
Brahmanism. The religion of the
Brahmans, the priestly caste in India,
particularly ' its earlier development.
Though Brahmanism and Hinduism are
sometimes used interchangeably to de-
note the entire development of orthodox
religious thought in India, beginning
with the period that follows the com-
position of the Rig-Veda (see Veda)
down to modern times, the term Brah-
manism is more specifically applied to
the earlier form of this development, to
ca. 200 B. C., and the term Hinduism to
the later with its admixtures of popular
beliefs and worship. The earliest reli-
gion of the Aryan invaders of India, as
we find it portrayed in the Rig-Veda,
was, like that of the ancestors of the
Persians and that of the Indo -Germanic
peoples in general, a polytheistic nature
worship. Chief in the Vedic pantheon is
Indra, originally a thunder-god, the na-
tional deity, who leads his people in war
and brings them victory. Ranking next
are Varuna, the omniscient king of gods
and men, who upholds the physical and
Brahmanism
91
Brahmanism
moral world order, Agni (Lat., ignis),
a fire-god, Soma, originally a sacred in-
toxicating drink (Iranian, Haoma; see
Zoroastrianism), Mitra, a sun-god (Ira-
nian, Mithra), Dyaus pitar, “Father
Heaven” (Gr., Zevs izatgg, Lat., Dies-
piter, Jupiter) and his wife, Prithivi
matar,“ Mother Earth,” Ushas, the Dawn,
also gods of the storm, wind, rain.
Vishnu, a sun-god, and Rudra, a malig-
nant storm-god, have subordinated posi-
tions in the Rig- Veda, but in later cen-
turies rose to supreme importance (see
Hinduism, ) . The Vedic gods, with the
exception of Rudra, were beneficent.
Sacrifices of food, particularly of melted
butter and soma, were made to them.
Their help was implored against the mul-
titudes of demons and evil spirits, which
were believed to be the cause of disease
and misfortune of all kinds. The Vedic
eschatology included belief in heaven and
hell, to which, at death, the good and
the evil-doers pass respectively. In ear-
liest times there were neither temples
nor holy places nor priests. But toward
the end of the Vedic period a priesthood
developed. The power that lay in the
priestly sacrifices and prayers was per-
sonified in the deity Brahmanaspati, who
is also called the creator of heaven and
earth, Prajapati, “Lord-of-ereatures,” or
Vifivakarman, “All-worker.” There now
came a period of transition. The Aryan
invaders, who at first had occupied only
the northwestern part of India, the Pun-
jab, or “five-river” country, moved south-
ward and subjugated the darker-skinned
aborigines. A mixture of races resulted,
the consequence of which was the be-
ginning of the caste system, which has
become such a prominent feature in Hin-
duism. The four castes are: the Brah-
man, or priestly caste, which became so-
cially supreme; the Kshatriya, or war-
rior caste; the Vaisya, or agricultural
caste; the Sudra, or servile caste. The
literary documents of this transitionary
period are the Brahmanas, prose ritual-
istic commentaries on the Vedic texts,
whose composition began ca. 800 B. C.
Priestly speculation sought the unity of
the godhead and the prominence now
given to the idea of an impersonal deity
marks the end of the Vedic period of
Indian religious development and the
beginning of Brahmanism. During the
period that followed the main features
of the Vedic religion were retained, essen-
tially the same gods were worshiped, and
the Veda was regarded as a divine reve-
lation; but the Brahmans gained ever
greater importance, until they were re-
garded as “gods on earth.” The priestly
speculation which marks this period was
a reaction against the sacrifices, which
had become more and more numerous,
and against the ritual, which, increas-
ingly emphasized, had become an un-
bearable burden. The essential feature
of this speculation, which was philosoph-
ical rather than religious, was the belief
in an eternal, unchangeable principle, or
world-soul, the continuation of the Vedic
Brahmanaspati. This principle, called
Brahman or Atman (i. e., “Self”), lies at
the basis of the universe, and all beings
are manifestations of it. Man emanated
from it and returns to it at death. Sal-
vation is no longer believed to come by
works, as during the Vedic period, but
through knowledge of, and intellectual
absorption in, Brahman-Atman. During
this period the doctrine of the trans-
migration of souls ( q . v.) was also de-
veloped. According to this doctrine a
man is reincarnated immediately at
death, and the deeds in his previous
existence determine the character of his
rebirth. He is reincarnated in a higher
state if his previous deeds were good,
but in a lower state, even in animal
form, as that of a pig, ass, etc., if his
previous deeds were evil. As rebirth
meant continued suffering, the great aim
was to be released from rebirth. But it
was desire that led to rebirth, therefore
all desire had to be abolished, and to
abolish all desires that fetter the soul
to the world and to become one with
Brahman-Atman was the great object of
human endeavor. This terrible doctrine
probably is the result of the fact that
life in India had become extremely hard.
The Rig-Veda shows that as long as the
Aryan invaders were in the Punjab, the
joy of living was still theirs; but when
they spread over Southern India, the de-
pressing climate changed their outlook
upon life. The writings which contain
this pantheistic and pessimistic philos-
ophy are the Upanishads, the third group
of sacred Indian texts. They date from
the 6th century B. C. onward. In the
6th century B. C. the “great heresies,”
Buddhism and Jainism (qq. v.) also arose
as revolts from the Brahmanic system.'
During the centuries in which they flour-
ished six systems of Brahmanic philos-
ophy were developed, which are based on
the Upanishads and are considered or-
thodox, in distinction from Buddhism
and Jainism. Each taught its own way
of salvation, i. e., how to be released from
rebirth. They are Vedanta, Sankhya,
Yoga (q. v . ), Mimansa, Nyaya, Vaice-
shika. The last three are minor systems.
The Sankhya is atheistic and dualistic.
It teaches that on the one hand there is
the soul, or an infinite plurality of in-
Brahms, Johannes
92
Brauci', E. A.
dividual souls; on the other, matter.
Release from rebirth comes to him who
recognizes the complete difference be-
tween these two eternal beings. The
Vedanta, the most important system, ap-
pears in various forms. The most in-
fluential school is that of Cankara (ca.
800 A. D. ) . It teaches the identity of
the ego with the infinite, unchangeable
Brahman. He alone exists, and the mul-
tiplicity of phenomena is an illusion. He
who attains this knowledge has salva-
tion and is released from rebirth. Op-
posed to these six systems is the Car-
vakas, a materialistic philosophy, which
rejects the Vedas and the Brahmanic
system and considers the soul merely a
product of the four elements constituting
the body. For the later religious devel-
opment in India see Hinduism.
Brahms, Johannes, 1833 — 1897, one
of the greatest of modern composers;
earlier work technical; later works show
remarkable individuality; made many
concert tours, spent much time in his
later years at Vienna; composed sym-
phonies, concertos, etc., and also sacred
music (motets and songs).
Brainerd, David. B. at Haddam,
Conn., April 20, 1718; d. October 9, 1747,
at Northampton, Mass.; ordained by
the New York Presbytery, 1744, for work
among the Indians; labored devotedly
and successfully in Stockbridge, Mass.,
Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. His at-
tempt to colonize the converts as farmers
was not successful.
Bramante, assumed name of Donato
Lazzari, 1444 — 1514, celebrated Italian
architect; planned and executed the
buildings connecting the Belvedere and
the Vatican in Rome; also designed
St. Peter’s Cathedral, afterward com-
pleted by Michelangelo.
Bramhall, John. Anglican prelate.
B. near Pontefract, 1594; ordained ea.
1616 ; bishop of Derry, Ireland, 1634;
archbishop of Armagh, 1661 (vacant since
Ussher’s death); d. at Omagh, 1663.
Brand, F. See Roster at end of book.
Brand, P. B. November 3, 1839, at
Ansbach, Hessen-Nassau; attended col-
lege at Cologne; studied theology there
and in the seminary at Neuendettelsau;
came to America in 1857 ; missionary at
St. Clair, Mich. (Iowa Synod) ; pastor
in Eden Valley, Farnham, and Buffalo
(Buffalo Synod); successfully combated
the error of Grabau; one of the com-
missioners at the “Colloquium”; 1869
pastor in Washington, D. C. (Missouri
Synod) ; 1876 of St. Paul’s, Pittsburgh
(Ohio Synod). Protesting against the
stand taken by the Ohio Synod on the
doctrines of election and conversion, his
congregation with others formed the Coni
cordia Synod and later joined the Mist
souri Synod. He died as pastor of
St. Paul’s, Pittsburgh, January 17, 1918i
He had been president of the Concordia
Synod, president of the Eastern District)
(1888), vice-president of the General
Body (1899), member of the Board for
Foreign Missions. He was a wise and
fearless leader, a tactful and energetic
manager of affairs. j
Brandelle, Dr. Gust. Alb. Theoloi
gian; president of Augustana Synod*
b. 1861 at Andover, 111.; educated a®
Augustana College; pastor at Denverj
1884—1918; Rock Island, 111., 1918 to
1923. As president of the Augustan®!
Synod he toured the world in the inter-
est of its work.
Brandt, Nils Olsen. B. in Norway;
January 29, 1824; graduate of Kristi;
ania University, 1849; emigrated to
America, 1851; pastor in Wisconsin and
Iowa; professor at Luther College; co-
editor of ICirketidende; one of the organ-
izers of the Norwegian Synod and its
vice-president, 1857 — -71; d. 1921.
Brandt, Olaf Elias. B. at Monterey,
Wis., February 19, 1862; graduated at
Luther College, 1879; Northwestern Uni-
versity, Watertown, Wis., 1880; Concor-
dia Seminary, 1883; pastor at Cleve-
land, 0., 1883—92; Chicago, 1892—97;
professor at Luther Seminary, 1897 — ;
member of “The Norwegian Synod” and
later of “The Norwegian Lutheran
Church of America.”
Brastberger, Immanuel Gottlob.
B. 1716, d. 1764 as Spezialsuperintendent
at Nuertingen. His sermons on the Gos-
pels, Evangelische Zeugnisse der Wahr-
heit, are very popular; 85th edition in
1883 at Reutlingen.
Brauer, August G. Manufacturer;
b. at Pittsburgh, Pa., 1857; attended
Walther College, St. Louis, Mo.; mem-
ber of Board of Control of Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis, Mo.; prominent
member of Lutheran Laymen’s League of
Missouri Synod and first secretary of
organization.
Brauer, E. A. B. in Northeim, Han-
nover, April 19, 1819; studied theology
at Goettingen and at Berlin. Moved by
the appeal of Wyneken, at the advice of
Dr. Petri and Pastor Loelie, he came over
to America with the Rev. F. Sievers and
his company of missionary emigrants and
several students in 1847. Rev. Selle in
Chicago prevailed upon him to take
charge of the newly organized congrega-
tion in Addison, 111. Here he performed
pioneer work for ten years; became pas-
Brazil
93
Brenz, Johann
I, or in Pittsburgh, Pa., 1857 ; took an
active part in the controversy with Gra-
Imu; 1863 — 72 professor of Exegesis,
Logic, and Isagogics in Concordia Semi-
nary, St. Louis; 1872 — 78 pastor of
Trinity Church, St. Louis; 1878 pastor
in Crete, 111.; very prolific contributor
to Der Lutheraner and Lehre and Wehre;
for a time editor of the latter; wrote
a number of tracts; member Electoral
College; d. September 29, 1896.
Brazil. See South America; Catha-
rine, Santa, Synod of.
Brazil District of Missouri Synod.
In 1899 Synod passed the resolution to
begin mission- work in Brazil, Rev. F.
Ilrutsehin having requested Synod to
send a pastor to become his successor.
Synod sent Rev. C. J. Broders to recon-
noiter the field and begin work. He
found twenty-five parishes without an
ordained Lutheran pastor. The “pseudo-
pastors” who served the churches were
usually unscrupulous characters. With
the help of a devout Lutheran, who had
influence with the better class of the
people, a congregation was organized in
Sao Pedro, Rio Grande do Sul, and in
1901 entrusted to Rev. W. Mahler, the
first settled pastor of the Missouri Synod
in South America. The same year three
candidates of theology went to Brazil to
take charge of some of the parishes
which had petitioned Synod to send them
pastors. The following year four more
were called. In 1905 the work was car-
ried over into Argentina, where also
large numbers of Lutherans, principally
immigrants from Russia, are like sheep
without shepherds. Several stations in
Paraguay are at the present time being
served by an Argentine pastor. In No-
vember, 1903, the first issue of the South
American Lutheran church-paper Das
liv.-Lutherische Kirchenblatt fuer Sued-
mnerika made its appearance. Early in
1 904 plans were made to open an institu-
tion for the education of pastors and
teachers in Bom Jesus, in Sao Loureneo,
which was later on moved to Porto Ale-
gre, the capital of Rio Grande do Sul,
under the name of Concordia Seminary.
During the World War, when the Bra-
zilian Government restricted the preach-
ing of the Gospel in the German lan-
guage, missions were begun among the
Luso-Brazilians with signal success. In
1904 Pastor L. Loehner, a member of
the Mission Board, visited Brazil. The
Brazil District of the Missouri Synod
was organized in Rincao Sao Pedro;
14 pastors (8 voting), 10 congrega-
tions, 1 teacher; W. Mahler, President.
Statistics of Brazil District for 1924:
49 pastors, 37 congregations in full mem-
bership, 82 not yet members, 104 preach-
ing-stations; 25,866 souls; 36 pastors
teaching school; 39 teachers; 11 woman
teachers; 2,537 pupils (the schools are
mostly bilingual). —Owing to the good
work of the seminary at Porto Alegre
the District is no longer entirely de-
pendent on North America for its supply
of workers.
Breklum Missionary Society. Or-
ganized by Pastor Jensen and others,
who formerly were in connection with
the North German Missionary Society,
beginning with a mission institute in
1876 as a Lutheran organization. First
missionaries sent out in 1882, to India.
Work suffered by World War. Since
then their only field is China. The field
in India was transferred to the United
Lutheran Church of America. The
African mission has been abandoned.
Brenner, John. B. July 11, 1874, at
Hustisford, Wis.; pastor of St.John’s,
Milwaukee, 1908; active member of vari-
ous boards of Wisconsin Synod; chair-
man of building committee of new semi-
nary, 1921.
Brenz, Johann. B. 1499; precocious.
Saw Luther at Heidelberg in 1518 and
became his follower. Suspected and in-
vestigated, in 1522, he went to Hall in
Suabia and reformed there for twenty-
four years. In 1525 he, like Luther, told
the truth to peasants and princes alike.
Oecolampadius’s attack on the Lutheran
doctrine of the Lord’s Supper was re-
pelled in the Syngramma of 1525 under
the leadership of Brenz. He attended the
Marburg Colloquium (q. v.) in 1529,
though without high hopes. He grieved
because Hall would not sign the historic
Protest at Speyer in 1529. In 1530, at
Augsburg, he, like Melanchthon, was
timidly willing to concede to the papists
the Communion in one kind, priestly
vestments, episcopal jurisdiction, and the
papal primacy as of human right; of
course, he was severely criticized. From
the notes for sermons came many com-
mentaries; Amos has a fine introduction
by Luther. As early as 1529 Brenz
wrote a Small Catechism, followed by a
Large Catechism for adults; the order
is: Baptism, Creed, Law, Prayer, Lord’s
Supper, an order still followed in Wurt-
temberg. In 1532 he helped Osiander get
out the Nuernberg-Brandenburg Order of
Service, which influenced others. Exiled
since 1519 and returned after the victory
of Laufen in 1534, Duke Ulrich of Wurt-
temberg used Brenz to carry out the
reformation of the country from Stutt-
gart. Brenz was honored at Schmal-
Breslau Synod
94
Brethren, Plymouth
kalden in 1537, and he reformed the
University of Tuebingen. He was silent
at Hagenau and Worms in 1540, seeing
no possibility of uniting the devil and
Christ, i. e., the Pope and Luther, and he
condemned the Interim of Regensburg in
1541. During the Smalcald War, Brenz
the “traitor” had to flee to Basel with a
price on his head; on his return he was
to be taken “dead or alive,” and he went
into hiding. Duke Christopher, son and
successor of Ulrich, called Brenz as his
chief adviser, and now Wurttemberg was
thoroughly reformed in Church and
State, but with a mixing of the two. Me-
lanchthon faulted Brenz for pacifism in
Osiander’s doctrine of justification, and
Brenz upheld Ubiquity and attacked Me-
lanchthon for departing from the Lu-
theran doctrine of the Lord’s Supper.
Brenz was a practical preacher; he re-
fused presents from great lords and
lucrative places in Magdeburg, Prussia,
and England. D. 1570.
Breslau Synod. One of the first in-
dependent synods organized by Lutherans
in Germany after the deplorable decree
of Frederick William III, according to
which the union Agenda was to be intro-
duced into all the Lutheran and Re-
formed churches of his kingdom. A per-
secution of staunch Lutherans followed,
which caused a number of those living in
Silesia and Saxony to organize and, with
the permission of Frederick William IV,
in 1841, to form “The Evangelical Lu-
theran Church in Prussia,” with head-
quarters at Breslau, the general synod
assembling there quadrennially. The
Synod maintains a theological seminary
at Breslau.
Brethren Church, The (Progressive
Dunkers). This body separated from the
general organization in 1882, in opposi-
tion to the presbyterian system of polity,
which had gradually superseded the ear-
lier congregational form. They organ-
ized under the name of “The Brethren
Church,” though they were generally
known as “Progressive Dunkers.” In
doctrinal matters the Brethren Church
is in general agreement with the Church
of the Brethren, though they strongly
emphasize the congregational system of
church polity. Of late years there have
been movements to reunite with the
Church of the Brethren. In 1921 they
reported 292 ministers, 206 churches, and
24,679 communicants.
Brethren of the Common Life. An
association of pious priests and laymen,
founded by Gerhard Groot, of Deventer,
a Carthusian, for a time lay preacher,
and Florentius Radewin, not long before
the death of Groot in 1384. The Sisters,
of the Common Life, together with two
cloisters for regular canons (see Clergy;
Chapter), were founded soon afterwards.
The theology of the Brethren of the Com-
mon Life was that of Mysticism (q. v.)
of the practical type; their object, the
furtherance of piety; their occupation,
the study of Scripture, the copying and
circulating of useful books, manual labor,
preaching, and, particularly, popular edu-,
cation. Their organization was of the
monastic type, but without the taking of
lifelong obligations. The brother-house
was at Deventer, in the Netherlands.
Their spreading of the Scriptures and
their piety (commended by Luther) ex-
erted a wholesome influence; but, empha-
sizing Christ in us to the virtual exclu-
sion of Christ for us, they were unable to
effect a real reformation. See Thomas
a Kempis.
Brethren (Plymouth). The history
of the bodies included under this name
is traced back to various religious move-
ments which appeared early in the nine-
teenth century in England and Ireland.
In 1829 the first permanent meeting of
the Brethren was formed in Dublin, Ire-
land. Other important meetings were
organized at Plymouth and Bristol, Eng-
land, the name “Plymouth Brethren”
being derived from the meeting at Ply-
mouth, which first gained prominence in
members and teachers. This name, how-
ever, has never been adopted by the com-
munities, which speak of themselves as
“Believers,” “Christians,” “Saints,” or
“Brethren.” Many men of note identi-
fied themselves with the movement,
among whom were John Nelson Darby,
George Mueller of Bristol, and Samuel
Prideaux Tregelles. In England the
strongest influence upon their develop-
ment was exerted by John Darby, who
also visited the brethren that had emi-
grated to America. Very early divisions
arose among them, some meetings being
called “exclusive” and others “open.” Six
different bodies are at present comprised
under the name of Brethren ( Plymouth ) .
In 1921 these six bodies reported 458
churches with 13,244 communicants.
There is no regular ministry among
them. In doctrine the different bodies
of Brethren are in substantial accord,
acknowledging no creeds and looking
upon the Scriptures as their only guide.
They look for the personal premillennial
coming of Christ and believe that the
punishment of the unregenerate will be
eternal. As regards polity, they ac-
knowledge no ritual or definite ecclesias-
tical organization and do not believe in
human ordination of the ministry, since
Brethren, River
95
Bridgewater Treatise
the exercise of the privileges of the min-
istry is involved in the priesthood of all
believers under the special guidance of
the Holy Ghost. Hence they have no pre-
siding officers in their assembly meet-
ings; any one having this gift may ex-
ercise it. Women take no part in the
public ministry. Considering the vari-
ous denominations as unscriptural, be-
cause they are based upon creeds, an
ordained ministry, separate church asso-
ciations, etc., they do not fellowship
with them. Baptism is observed by im-
mersion, and the members meet every
Sunday to “break bread,” by which term
they designate the Lord’s Supper, Ad-
mission into membership is based upon
the confession of faith in Christ and in
the Scriptures as the Word of God. All
the branches are active in Gospel work
and contribute to the support of mis-
sionaries, though they have no mission-
ary societies.
Brethren (River). This denomina-
tion includes three distinct organiza-
tions, known as Brethren in Christ, Old
Order or Yorker Brethren, and United
Zion’s Children. Originally these Breth-
ren comprised thirty Mennonite families,
which in 1750 emigrated from Switzer-
land to England and thence to America,
where one company (the other being lost
at sea) settled in Pennsylvania, in the
spring of 1752, under the leadership of
John and Jacob Engle. In 1843 and
1853, respectively, the two last-named
bodies separated from the brotherhood,
though there has been no essential dis-
agreement in doctrine. The Brethren
(River) reject all creeds and confessions
and have no certain generally recognized
doctrines to which they adhere. They
practise trine immersion, confession of
sin to God and man, foot-wasliing, and
the doctrine of non-resistance. The eccle-
siastical organization of the denomina-
tion includes the local church, a system
of district councils, and a General Con-
ference. No salaries are paid to the offi-
cers of the church, who are divided into
bishops, ministers, and deacons. Foreign
missionary work is carried on in Africa
and India, and their Bible School and
Missionary Training Home is located at
Grantham, Pa. In 1921 the three bodies
numbered 204 ministers, 122 churches,
and 5,962 communicants.
Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb. Born
1776; d. 1848 as general superintendent
at Gotha; so-called rational supranatu-
ralist; prolific writer on dogmatics and
of a lexicon on the New Testament.
Breviary. The book containing the
“divine office” which every cleric of the
Church of Rome, from subdeacon up-
ward, is bound to recite daily under pain
of mortal sin. It is written in Latin
and is divided into four parts, corre-
sponding approximately to the four sea-
sons, an “office” being provided for each
day. The contents consist of extracts
from Scripture, the Church Fathers, and
Roman theologians, of prayers, hymns,
antiphons, and collects. The book
abounds in ridiculous legends, but
though the reader must devoutly recite
these, he is fortunately not bound to be-
lieve them.
Bricklayers’ and Masons’ Interna-
tional Union of America. History.
A labor union of international import-
ance. All citizens of the United States
and Canada are eligible to membership.
Organized in Baltimore in 1865, per-
fected at Philadelphia in 1866, with John
A. White as its first president. The
Union held its thirty-third annual con-
vention at Hartford in 1899. Objects.
Its objects are to unite in one body, for
mutual protection and benefit, all mem-
bers of the mason’s craft, or who work
at the same, there being no restrictions
as to creed or color; and to maintain a
“just scale of wages” and “the eight-hour
day.” Benefits. Death-, accident-, and
sick-benefits are paid by subordinate
unions; death-benefits, which range from
$50 to $500, by assessment; accident-
and sick-benefits, ranging from $10 to
$25, are met by dues. Principles. The
union is not affiliated with any other
labor organization, encourages strikes
only as a last resort, and believes in
arbitration. Membership. The union
has about 45,000 members in the United
States and 5,000 in Canada.
Bridges, Matthew, 1800 — 1894; edu-
cated in Church of England; joined
Roman Catholic Church; published a
number of prose productions, also Hymns
of the Heart; wrote; “Crown Him with
Many Crowns,” and others.
Bridget, St. (Brigitta). B. near Up-
sala, Sweden, 1303; d. 1373. Claimed to
have had visions and wrote books (Reve-
lations) which contain traces of evan-
gelical tendency. Founded Brigittines
(q. v.).
Bridgewater Treatise. A set of
eight celebrated works On the Power,
Wisdom, and Goodness of Cod as Mani-
fested in the Creation, written by eight
authors (Chalmers, Prout. Kirby, Buck-
land, Bell, Kidd, Wliewell. Roget) emi-
nent in their departments and published
(1833 — 40) under a bequest of the last
Earl of Bridgewater.
Brlesmnmi, Johann
96
Brooks, Charles Timothy
Briesmann, Johann. B. 1488; d. 1549;
monk at Wittenberg; won for Luther by
the disputation at Leipzig; spread the
Gospel in Riga and other cities of Livo-
nia; returned to Koenigsberg. “The first
disseminator of the pure doctrine in
Prussia.”
Briggs, Charles Augustus, 1841 to
1913. Biblical scholar. B. and d. at
New York City; Presbyterian minister;
professor of Hebrew, then of Biblical
Theology in Union Theological Semi-
nary; suspended from the ministry by
General Assembly, 1893, for entertaining
liberal views on place of reason in re-
ligion; joined Episcopal Church; ex-
ponent of higher criticism. Joint edi-
tor of International Critical Commen-
tary, etc.
Brigittines. An order founded in
Sweden by St. Bridget (q.v.), in 1346, as
an instrument to spread the kingdom of
God on earth. The monasteries were
double, one portion for monks, the other
for nuns. The order contributed to the
civilization of the North, but was nearly
obliterated by the Reformation. Only a
few convents remain.
British Columbia. See Canada.
British and Foreign Bible Society.
About twenty societies with cognate de-
sign preceded it and prepared the way.
The first impulse toward its organization
was given by an urgent demand for Bibles
for Wales. At a meeting in London, in
1802, the Rev. Jos. Huges (Baptist) re-
marked, “Certainly, such a society might
be formed; and if for Wales, why not
for the world?” As a result the British
and Foreign Bible Society was organized
March 7, 1804, at the London Tavern, the
meeting having been attended by about
300 persons of all denominations. The
Church of England at first refused to co-
operate with dissenters and also later
opposed the work, but at the organiza-
tion the Rev. Josiah Pratt of the Church
of England was chosen as one of the
secretaries, and Lord Teignmouth was
elected president. The object of the So-
ciety was declared to be “to promote the
circulation of the Holy Scriptures, with-
out note or comment, both at home and
in foreign lands.” Attention was first
given to Wales, and 25,000 Bibles and
Testaments were printed in Welsh and
distributed. The work was then ex-
tended to continental Europe, to Asia,
Africa, South America, and Canada. At
first the Apocrypha were printed, but in
1826 this was discontinued. This de-
cision caused more than fifty societies to
separate from the original organization.
British Guiana. See South America.
British Honduras. See Central
America.
British West Africa consists of the
colony and protectorate of Nigeria; the
Gambia Colony and Protectorate; the
Gold Coast Colony with Ashanti and
Northern Territories; and the Sierra
Leone Colony and Protectorate; parts of
Togoland and the Cameroons (formerly
German). Area, approximately 332,000
sq. mi. Population, about 17,500,000.
Mohammedanism and Paganism domi-'
nate. Some Christian missions. See
constituent states.
Broadcasting. See Radio and Pub-
licity.
Broadus, John Albert, 1827 — 95.
Baptist. B. in Virginia; professor at
University of Virginia and pastor at
Charlottesville; professor, then president
at Southern Baptist Seminary, at Louis-
ville, Ky., till his death; wrote: Prepa-
ration and Delivery of Sermons, etc.
Brobst, Sam. K., 1822 — 76. Influen-
tial for thirty years as editor of German
periodicals: Jugemlfreund, Luth. Zeit-
schrift, Theol. Monatshefte, Luth. Ka-
lender; member of General Council.
“Sometimes erred and exposed himself to
the charge of inconsistency.” (Morris.)
Brochmand, J aspar Rasmussen.
B. 1585; d. at Copenhagen, 1652, as
bishop of Zealand; author of Sy sterna
Universae Theologiae, very highly es-
teemed, also of polemic and devotional
works, one of which is still in use in
Denmark.
Brockmann, J. H. B. 1833; d. 1904.
Graduate of Hermannsburg, 1862; im-
mediately came to Wisconsin Synod;
pastor at Algoma, Mosel, Fort Atkinson,
Watertown; active member of North-
western and Indian mission boards.
Brohm, Th. J. B. September 12, 1808,
in Oberwinkel, near Waldenburg, Saxony ;
studied theology in Leipzig, 1827 — 32;
after graduating, became attached to
Pastor Stephan and refused to accept a
position in the state church; emigrated
with Stephan to America; his private
secretary; took part in founding Con-
cordia College; chief instructor until
1843; pastor of Trinity Congregation,
New York; 1858 pastor of Holy Cross
Church, St. Louis; resigned 1878; d.
September 24, 1881.
Brohm, Th., Sr., Ph. D. See Roster
at end of book.
Brook Farm. See Communistic So-
cieties.
Brooks, Charles Timothy, 1813 — 83;
educated at Harvard and at Cambridge;
Brooks, Phillips
97
fimnn, Friedrich
Unitarian minister in several cities, at
last in Newport; wrote the well-known
hymn: “God Bless Our Native Land.”
Brooks, Phillips, 183S — 93. Episco-
pal bishop; pulpit orator. B. at Bos-
ton; rector at Philadelphia, 1859; Bos-
ton, 1869; Bishop of Massachusetts,
1891; d. at Boston. Hymn: “0 Little
Town of Bethlehem”; author.
Brotherhoods and Sisterhoods. Such
organizations as the World Brotherhood
Federation (London), which seeks to
interpret brotherhood in the light of the
life and principles of Jesus and to or-
ganize brotherhood societies in various
countries; the Brotherhood of Andrew
and Philip ( Philadelphia ) , an interde-
nominational organization of Christian
men for the purpose of advancing the
kingdom of Christ; Big Brother and
Big Sister Federation (New York City),
which is devoted to a personal effort of
caring for wayward children; and simi-
lar organizations.
Brotherhood of St. Andrew. An or-
ganization of laymen in the Protestant
Episcopal Church in the United States,
in the Church of England, and in their
branches. The purpose of the society is
“the spread of Christ’s kingdom among
men, especially . young men.” Organized
in St. James’s Church, Chicago, on St.
Andrew’s Day, 1883, under the leader-
ship of James L. Houghteling. Two
rules were adopted: 1. “To pray daily
for the spread of Christ’s kingdom among
men”; 2. “to make an earnest effort
each week to bring at least one young
man within the hearing of the Gospel of
Jesus Christ as set forth in the services
of the church and in young men’s Bible
classes.” A junior department for work
among boys admits to membership boys
twelve years old. There are no amuse-
ments or attractions of any kind. No
chapter of the brotherhood may be or-
ganized without the written consent of
the rector in charge of the church.
A monthly magazine is published, St. An-
drew’s Gross.
Brothers Marists (Little Brothers of
Mary). A Catholic religious institute
founded in France in 1817, doing only
educational work in parochial and
hoarding-schools, orphanages, etc. The
brotherhood developed rapidly in the last
seventy years and lias over 6,000 mem-
bers in all parts of the world. It entered
North America in 1885.
Brown, Ford Madox, 1821 — 93; En-
glish painter; studied at Bruges, Ghent,
Antwerp, and Paris; associated with
the Preraffaelite brotherhood; worked
chiefly in the secular field.
Concordia Cyclopedia
Brown, Dr. James A., 1821 — 82;
General Synod; conservative preacher,
opposed to “Definite Platform”; profes-
sor at Newberry, S. C. ; Sehmueker’s
successor at Gettysburg; president of
General Synod, 1866; editor of Luth.
Quarterly.
Brown, John, 1722 — 87. Scottish
clergyman and commentator. B. at Car-
pow; taught himself Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew while herdboy to a shepherd;
pedler; soldier; schoolmaster; preacher
at Haddington, which he never left; pro-
fessor of theology. Self-interpreting
Bible, etc.
Browne, Sir Thomas, 1605 — 82. Well-
known English author. B. at London;
practised medicine at Norwich (d. there).
Iieligio Medici (blending religious feel-
ing and skepticism), Urn Burial, etc.
Brownists. Name applied to all who
left Anglican Church at end of 16th cen-
tury and beginning of next. Derived
from (Robert) Browne (ca. 1550 to ca.
1033), who urged people to withdraw
from Establishment and form independ-
ent congregations. When Browne made
his submission, Separatists repudiated
the name and became known as Congre-
gationalists, or Independents.
Brownson, Orestes Augustus, 1803
to 76. B. at Stockbridge, Vt. ; brought
up a Presbyterian; preacher (Universal-
ist, Unitarian, Society of Christian Prog-
ress) ; Catholic, 1844; Catholic apolo-
gist; d. at Detroit. Editor, author.
Brumder, George. B. in Strassburg,
1839; came to Milwaukee at age of six-
teen; publisher of German newspapers,
Germania (now Amerika ) , Rundschau,
etc.; first publisher of Wisconsin Ger-
man hymnal, which he turned over to
that synod before original agreement
matured; d. at Milwaukee, 1910.
Brunelleschi ( Brunelleseo ) , Filippo,
1379 — 1446; artist, chiefly architect;
solved the problem of a central building
over polygonal foundation; builder of
the Dome of Florence; developed the
classical Renaissance in architecture.
Brunn, Friedrich. B. 1819 in the
Castle Schaumburg, Duchy of Nassau;
studied at Leipzig, Bonn, and the theo-
logical seminary at Herborn; entered
the ministry in 1842; severed his con-
nections with the state church of Nas-
sau in 1846 and with 26 families organ-
ized an independent congregation at
Steeden; 1846 to 1860 years of develop-
ment; result: break with the Breslau
Synod in 1865, with the Immanuel Synod
in 1870, and with the Lutheran state
church in 1875. First meeting of the
7
Bryanites
98
Baddliiam
Ev. Lutli. Free Church of Saxony, which
Brunn joined, was held in 1877. Brunn’s
first contact with the Missourians dates
back to probably 1858, when he was in
correspondence with Professor Craemer.
Walther’s visit to Germany in 1800 gave
the impetus to the opening of the pre-
paratory institution at Steeden in 1861,
which furnished the Missouri Synod
about 250 men. Brunn d. in 1894.
Bryanites {Bible Christians). A Chris-
tian sect founded by William O’Bryan,
a Wesleyan local preacher in Cornwall,
who separated in 1815 from the main
body of the Wesleyan Methodists and be-
gan to form separate societies. In 1829
he left the body he had formed. In 1831
missionaries were sent over to America,
and in 1840 missions were organized in
the States of Wisconsin, Ohio, and Mich-
igan. Missions were also organized in
Canada, which in 1884 united with other
churches into the Methodist Church of
Canada, and in Australia, where in 1907
the Bible Christians united with the
Methodist New Connection and the
United Methodists, assuming the name
of United Methodist Church. The name
Bible Christians was due to the per-
sistent use of the Bible in private devo-
tions and public services by the peas-
antry in general, which was but scantily'
provided with the Book, and to the con-
sistent practise of its precepts by their
early ministry. At the time of approved
union the Bible Christians had 638
chapels, 202 ministers, and 30,000 mem-
bers.
Bryant, William Cullen, 1794 — 1878.
First of the great American poets; edu-
cated at Williams College; practised
law for only ten years, after which he
followed literary pursuits; general poet-
ical works are well known; among
hymns, written at intervals during his
life: “Look from Thy Sphere of End-
less Day.”
Bucer, or Butsser ( Kuhhorn ), Martin.
B. at Schlettstadt, 1491; entered the
order of Dominicans; studied theology,
Greek, and Hebrew at Heidelberg. The
works of Erasmus inclined him towards
Protestantism, and his views were con-
firmed by the influence of Luther at the
disputation in Heidelberg, 1518. In 1523
he introduced the Reformation at Strass-
burg. To avoid theological divisions, he
advocated compromises and employed
dubious expressions. In the disputes be-
tween Luther and Zwingli he adopted a
middle course, endeavoring to reconcile
both; but his views of the Sacrament,
approaching those of Zwingli, exposed
him to Luther’s criticism and reproba-
tion. At Augsburg, 1530, he generally
accorded with the Lutheran views, but
declined to subscribe to the Augsburg
Confession and later drew up the Con-
fessio Tetrapolitana (Strassburg, Con-
stance, Memmingen, Lindau). At the
Diet of Ratisbon he also tried to unite
Protestants and Catholics. Refusing to
sign the Interim, he accepted an invita-
tion of Archbishop Cranmer to teach
theology at Cambridge and to assist in
furthering the Reformation in England.
D. at Cambridge, 1551.
Buchheimer, L. See Roster at end
of book.
Buchner, Charles. B. 1842 at Irwin-
hill, Jamaica; d. 1907. Moravian mis-
sionary, 1879; director of Teachers’ Sem-
inary at Niesky, 1880 — 1907; member of
Mission Board, Berthelsdorf.
Buchwald, Georg Apollo. B. 1859;
since 1896 pastor of St. Michael’s at
Leipzig; one of the foremost writers on
Luther.
Buck, Dudley, 1839 — 1909. Studied
chiefly at Leipzig and Dresden; held po-
sitions as organist in Chicago, Boston,
Brooklyn, and New York; wrote a num-
ber of cantatas and some excellent church
music, both for liturgical and choir use.
Buckley, James Monroe, 1836 to
1910. Methodist Episcopal. B. at Rah-
way, N. J. ; filled various pastorates;
very influential in his denomination.
Author; edited New York Christian Ad-
vocate, 1880 — 1912.
Buddeus, Johann F. B. 1667; d. 1729.
Professor at Wittenberg and Jena; medi-
ated between orthodox Lutheranism and
Pietism; was considered the most accom-
plished theologian of his time; several
times rector of the University. His In-
stitutiones Theologiae Dogmaticae, based
on Baier, and Isagoge llistorico-Theolo-
gica ad Theologiam Universam were
highly esteemed.
Buddhism. The religious system
founded by Gotama Siddhartha, called
the Buddha, i. e., “the Enlightened One,”
in the 6th century B. C., in Northern
India, as a revolt against Brahmanism
(q.v.). It denies the authority of the
Vedas, rejects the Bralimanic caste sys-
tem, ritual, and philosophic speculations,
and offers a new way to salvation. For
the life of the founder see Gotama. The
texts upon which our knowledge of early
Buddhism is based are sacred books
found in Ceylon and written in the Pali
language, called the Pitakas. The most
important of these contain the Jatakas,
wonderful stories of Buddha’s birth and
previous existence. Other books come
Buddhism
99
Buddhism
from Nepal, written in Sanskrit, and
from China and Tibet, written in the
languages of these countries. Strictly
speaking, Gotama’s doctrine is not a re-
ligion, but a practical atheism. Of the
five requisites of religion: “the belief in
a divine power, the acknowledgment of
sin, the habit of prayer, the desire to
offer sacrifice, and the hope of a future
life” (Max Mueller), not one is found in
Gotama’s system. Though he did not
deny the existence of the traditional
gods, yet he held that prayer and sacri-
fice to them were of no avail, as they,
like men, were subject to death and re-
birth and in rebirth might sink to the
level of inferior beings, while men in re-
birth might rise to the level of gods.
Gotama likewise denied the existence of
the soul ( see Transmigration ) . How-
ever, he held in common with Brahman-
ism the pessimistic view that life was
not worth living; that man was subject
to a continuous round of rebirths; that
a man’s karma (q.v.), i.e., his acts in
one existence, determined his lot in
future existences; that salvation con-
sisted (not in escape from sin and hell,
as Indian philosophies do not recognize
these two factors, but) in obtaining free-
dom from rebirths; and that ignorance
is the cause of the whole evil. But as he
rejected the Vedas and taught a new way
of destroying ignorance and obtaining
freedom from rebirth, his doctrine, like
Jainism (q.v.), was considered a heresy
by the Brahmans. His entire doctrine
is based on the so-called “four noble
truths,” which speak 1. of the univer-
sality of suffering, 2. of the causes of
suffering, 3. o^the abolition of suffering,
4. of the path that leads to the abolition
of suffering. All conscious existence,
birth, growth, illness, death, separation
from what we love, contact with what we
hate, not to attain what we desire, in
short, all human life, is suffering and
sorrow. This suffering is caused by
“thirst,” i. e., a craving for life and its
pleasures, and this attachment causes re-
birth and continued misery. Freedom
from rebirth and consequently from suf-
fering can be obtained if this craving is
completely destroyed. The path that
leads to this end is the “noble eightfold
path,” namely, “right belief, right aspi-
rations, right speech, right conduct, right
means of subsistence, right effort, right
mindfulness, right meditation.” . This
path is called the “middle path,” as it is
removed from the two extremes of a sen-
suous life and of asceticism. He who
follows this path to its end becomes an
arahat, or saint. He has destroyed his
ignorance, become perfect by knowledge,
and broken the fetters that bind him to
the wheel of life. The supreme and final
goal of this spiritual discipline is nir-
vana (q.v .) , literally, a “blowing out,”
namely, of the desires and passions that
lead to rebirth. As the old karma is ex-
hausted and no new karma is added, the
round of rebirths ceases and ends in an
unconscious state. Whether this is
equivalent to the annihilation of person-
ality was not stated by Gotama, but
many Buddhist texts interpret it in this
sense. Nirvana may in a certain sense
be obtained in this life by the arahat,
but it is entered upon completely only
at death.
The followers of Gotama soon were
organized into a mendicant order, which
was open to all men over twenty years
who were physically and legally fit, with-
out caste distinction. The monks, called
bhikkus, i. e., “beggars,” obligated them-
selves to keep ten commandments, which
forbade 1. the taking of life, 2. theft,
3. sexual impurity, 4. lying, 5. the use of
intoxicating liquors, 6. eating at forbid-
den times, i. e., between noon and the fol-
lowing morning, 7. taking part in danc-
ing, singing, music, the theater, 8. using
ornaments and perfumes, 9. sleeping on
beds raised from the floor, 10. receiving
gold or silver. Every monk had to take
the vow of absolute celibacy and pov-
erty. Great stress was laid on the vir-
tues of benevolence, — even to animals,
— patience, and humility. Twice a
month he had to confess his faults be-
fore the assembled brethren. He had to
dress only in rags, beg his food, with the
alms-bowl in his hand, live much of the
time in forests, and spend many hours
in contemplation. Thus an elaborate
system of rules governed his entire life.
Subordinated to the monks were the
nuns, whom Gotama, according to tradi-
tion, admitted to the order only with
great reluctance. Beside this monastic
order also a lay membership was organ-
ized. The rules for the lay members,
however, were far less strict. They were
obligated to observe only the first five
of the ten commandments mentioned
above, and they must at all times prac-
tise benevolence and charity. As Bud-
dhism is atheistic in principle, it makes
no provision for a cult or priesthood.
Wherever these are found in modern
forms of Buddhism, they are a later de-
velopment.
Little is known of the history of Bud-
dhism during the first two centuries.
Tradition relates that the movement suf-
fered numerous schisms and that two
councils were held to fix the canon of
sacred books, one shortly after Gotama’s
Buddhism
100
Buehler, Jacob Matthias
death, the other a hundred years later
at Vaisali. Assured historical knowledge
of the progress of Buddhism begins with
the reign of Asoka, king of Magadha, in
the third century B. C., who became a
convert to the new religion and its first
royal champion. He convened a third
council and proclaimed Buddhism the
state religion of his kingdom. Another
great name in its history is that of the
Indo-Scythian king Kanishka, in the
first and second centuries A. D., who also
convened a council. A great missionary
activity set in during the reign of Asoka.
Buddhism spread to practically all India
and to Ceylon. It reached Tibet and
China about the beginning of our era
and spread from China to Korea and
Japan. Still later it spread to Burma
and Siam. — The later history of Indian
Buddhism is marked by the great con-
flict between the two schools called Hina-
yana, “Little Vessel,” and Mahayana,
“Great Vessel.” This led to a permanent
division into two great sects. The Hina-
yana is the conservative system. It
holds to the original teachings of Bud-
dhism, regards Gotama as a mere man,
and teaches that salvation can be ob-
tained by only few mortals. It main-
tained itself in the southern part of the
Buddhist sphere, Ceylon, Burma, Siam.
Mahayana Buddhism, on the other hand,
called so because it claimed to be the
better vessel to take man across the
stream of existence to nirvana, trans-
formed Gotama into a god or an incarna-
tion of the Absolute. It is the northern
form of Buddhism and is found in Tibet,
China, Korea, and Japan. The peculiar
hierarchical form into which it developed
in Tibet is called Lamaism (q.v.). The
last phase of decadent Indian Buddhism
is that influenced by Tantric Hinduism,
beginning with ca. the 7th century A. D.
and marked by the crassest superstitions
and magic. Gradually Buddhism lost its
foothold in India, yielding mainly to
Hinduism, later in certain sections to
Mohammedanism, and by the 13th cen-
tury had become practically extinct in
the land of its origin.
Regarding the number of Buddhists in
the world to-day, it is impossible to give
even approximate figures. Some scholars
estimate their number at 500,000,000, or
one third of the human race; but this
estimate includes as Buddhists practi-
cally all Chinese and Japanese, an un-
warranted assumption. Accurate statis-
tics are available only for the countries
under British rule. The census of 1921
gives 11,571,268 in India, all but 369,325
of whom are in Burma. In China, Bud-
dhism is intertwined with Confucianism
and in Japan with Shintoism, so that it
is impossible to ascertain the number of
adherents of each religion. As to the
question of the relationship between
Christianity and Buddhism, some schol-
ars have maintained that Christianity
borrowed from Buddhism; others, that
Buddhism borrowed from Christianity.'
But aside from the impossibility of ad-
mitting the first assumption from the
Christian point of view, the consensus of
conservative scholars is that neither
hypotheses has any foundation in fact.
Budget. A congregational budget is
a financial estimate of the moneys needed
in the course of a year for salaries, light,
fuel, repairs, printing expenses, synod-
ical treasuries, etc. A synodical budget
is an estimate of the moneys needed by
a synod to carry on its work in the
course of a year. The budget is desir-
able in order that the needs of the
Church and the proportionate amounts
needed by each treasury may be known.
When a synodical organization, for in-
stance, has many treasuries, some re-
quiring much larger sums than others,
it is almost impossible for the individual
Christian to determine the proportionate
share which he is to give to supply the
needs of each. Budgets should be made
up by the financial officers and the
church boards. Moneys paid into the
budget or general treasury are distrib-
uted in accordance with a certain per-
centage basis, which has been previously
determined upon in accordance with the
needs of the various treasuries. But it
should be remembered that even where
the budget plan has been adopted, Chris-
tians may, in addition tp their regular
contributions for the budget, give addi-
tional sums for specific purposes, which
then must be used in accordance with
the donor’s wish.
Buechsel, Karl. B. 1803; d. 1889.
Preacher at Berlin, 1846; 1853 — 84 gen-
eral superintendent and court-preacher;
a very influential positive theologian in
the Prussian Union, with Lutheran
leanings.
Buehler, Jacob Matthias. The pio-
neer pastor of the Missouri Synod on the
Pacific Coast. B. August 8, 1837, in Bal-
timore, Md. ; attended Concordia College
and Seminary at St. Louis, graduating
1860; pastor in San Francisco same
year. Because of his firm stand for
confessional Lutheranism a split ensued,
and St. Paulus was organized 1867, the
mother church on the Pacific Coast. He
organized a day-school in 1872, of which
Teacher Hargens was in charge for over
forty years. California and Oregon Dis-
Buenger, Johann Friedrich
101
Bngenhagen, Johannes
trict organized in 1887 ; Buehler presi-
dent till his death. An excellent
preacher, a wise counselor, an ardent
lover of the Lord, a friend of the chil-
dren, a splendid organizer. D. Septem-
ber, 1901.
Buenger, Johann Friedrich. B. Jan-
uary 2, 1810, at Rosswein, Saxony; scion
of a family of clerics reaching back to
the Reformation. As student of the-
ology at Leipzig he came under the in-
fluence of Candidate Kuehn; acted as
private tutor in Dresden ; became ad-
herbnt of Stephan and was one of the
immigrants. Of a practical turn of
mind, he was of great assistance to the
colonists in Perry Co., Mo., being one of
the founders of the College at Altenburg.
Teacher of Trinity School in St. Louis
1841; assistant pastor of Trinity 1844;
pastor of Immanuel 1847. Walther called
him the American Lutheran Valerius Her-
berger. His practical nature was exem-
plified in his pastoral work. President
of Western District of Missouri Synod
1803 — 74. A friend of missions; “Father”
of our Negro Missions. Founder of the
Lutheran Hospital of St. Louis, the
Orphans’ Home, and the Old Folks’
Home.
Buenger, Th., D. D. See Roster at
end of book.
Buerger, Ernst Moritz. One of the
Saxon pioneers; b. 1800 in Saxony, Ger-
many; pastor at Lunzenau; joined the
emigrants under Stephan; charter mem-
ber of the Missouri Synod; pastor at
Buffalo, later at West Seneca, N. Y.;
then at Washington, D. C.; finally at
Winona, Minn; d. March 22, 1890.
Buffalo Synod. Until 1880 officially
called “The Synod of the Lutheran
Church Emigrated from Prussia.” Origi-
nally composed of congregations from
different parts of Germany which emi-
grated to America in 1839 under the
leadership of J. A. A. Grabau and settled
in and near Buffalo, N. Y., and in Wis-
consin, while some remained in New
York and, through Grabau, called Rev.
Theo. Brohm in 1842 and afterwards
joined the Missouri Synod. The original
immigrants were strengthened by later
arrivals under Kindermann and Ehren-
stroem. The latter became the victim of
strange hallucinations and was excom-
municated by Grabau. In 1845 Grabau,
together with H. Von Rohr, Leberecht
Krause, and G. A. Kindermann, organ-
ized the Buffalo Synod in Milwaukee,
Wis. Grabau remained the dominating
spirit till his death in 1879. At first
there were high hopes of combining Gra-
bau’s adherents with the Saxon immi-
grants of 1839 and the Loelie emissaries,
because, in opposition to other Lutheran
synods of that day, they were all un-
equivocally committed to the Lutheran
Confessions; but a Pastoral Letter
which Grabau issued to the churches
under his influence, warning them
against preachers who in his opinion
were not properly ordained, caused them
to remain separate. This Letter, which
was sent to the Saxons in Missouri for
criticism, precipitated the conflict be-
tween Grabau and Walther and, later,
between the Buffalo and the Missouri
synods. The strife continued for many
years with much bitterness, especially
since Missouri felt bound to give pastoral
care to such as were unjustly excom-
municated by Grabau. In 1853 Grabau
visited Germany in the hope of winning
friends for his cause. All efforts of the
Missouri Synod to bring about a recon-
ciliation by an amicable discussion of
the differences were frustrated by Gra-
bau’s unwillingness to submit his ortho-
doxy to a test. His hierarchical action
drove some of the best congregations of
the Buffalo Synod into the fold of Mis-
souri. Another appeal for reconciliation
was answered by Grabau in 1859 with a
formal “excommunication” pronounced
upon the whole Missouri Synod (over
200 congregations). But as many of the
pastors and congregations of the Buffalo
Synod were getting tired of Grabau’s
arbitrary rule, the synod was divided
into two camps, headed by Grabau and
Von Rohr, respectively. The latter fac-
tion held a colloquium with the Missouri
Synod in November, 1866, which resulted
in the admission of Rev. Chr. Hochstet-
ter and eleven other pastors into the lat-
ter synod. The Von Rohr party contin-
ued to exist until 1877, when some of
the pastors returned to the Grabau fac-
tion, while others entered other synods.
As early as 1840 the Martin Luther Col-
lege had been established at Buffalo,
with Grabau as its head. Grabau, as
“Senior Ministerii,” also edited the In-
formatorium. Since 1866 the official
organ of the synod is Die Wachende
Kirche. In 1886 the constitution was re-
vised, and many of its earlier peculiari-
ties were quietly set aside. The synod is
still strict in doctrine and practise. Pri-
vate absolution is the rule, but public
absolution is permitted since 1891. No
member is allowed to belong to a secret
order. In 1925 the Buffalo Synod num-
bered 35 pastors, 44 churches, and 6,806
communicants.
Bugenhagen, Johannes. B. 1485 on
the island of Wollin, belonging to Pome-
rania; talented and studious; rector of
Bnlgraria
102
Bnrial
the Latin school at Treptow and lecturer
on the Bible in the cloister. In 1520 he
read Luther’s Babylonian Captivity. —
“The whole world is blind and in great
darkness; this is the only man that sees
the truth.” He came to Wittenberg in
1521, lectured on the Psalms, was made
pastor of the City Church in 1522, held
out during the plague in 1527, helped Lu-
ther in the translation of the Bible, the
publication of which he celebrated every
year with a festival in his home. His
great talent for organizing the Church
was called into use in 1528 in Brunswick
and Hamburg, in 1530 in Luebeek, in
1534 in Pomerania, in 1537 in Denmark,
in 1542 again in Brunswick and in Hil-
desheim. After declining three bishop-
ries and other calls, he was made Gen-
eral Superintendent of Electoral Saxony.
Luther’s death broke Bugenhagen’s heart,
and he aged rapidly. During the siege
of Wittenberg he was told the Kaiser
would draw and quarter him, but he re-
mained. After the surrender he preached
on the differences between the Lutherans
and the Romanists in the presence of
many courtiers. Mayhap the surprising
mildness of the Kaiser made Bugenhagen
judge the Interim with such surprising
mildness. His life’s motto was: “If you
know Christ well, it is enough, even if
you know nothing else; if you do not
know Christ, it is nothing, even if you
learn all else.” D. 1558.
Bulgaria. Won for Christianity
chiefly by Cyrillus and Methodius of the
Greek Church, placed, ecclesiastically, by
King Boris under the jurisdiction of
Rome (a contributing cause of the Great
Schism), and returned to the allegiance
of Constantinople in 869. Slavic re-
ligious literature was especially fostered
in Bulgaria. In 1870 Bulgaria achieved
its independence from the oppressive rule
of the Greek patriarch, the governing
body of the National Bulgarian Church
being the Holy Synod, consisting of four
bishops chosen by the rest, presided over
by the Exarch. Population, 4,861,439.
Orthodox Greeks, 3,643,918; Mohamme-
dans, 602,078; Roman Catholics, 32,150;
Protestants, 6,335. See Greek Church.
Bulgarian Orthodox Church in the
United States. Directly connected with
the mother church in Bulgaria; its doc-
trine and polity that of the Greek Ortho-
dox Church. In 1916 4 congregations,
1,992 members, 4 priests.
Bullinger, Heinrich, 1504 — 1575.
Swiss Reformed leader. B. Bremgarten;
left Catholic Church 1522; Zwingli’s suc-
cessor at Zurich 1531; d. at Zurich.
Part author of First Helvetic Confes-
sion; sole author of Second Helvetic Con-
fession, History of the Reformation, etc.
Bulls. Documents authenticated by
appended (usually leaden) seals (bul-
lae). The name is now applied only to
documents issued in the name of the
Pope. Less formal papal letters, known
as briefs, are sealed on the document it-
self. On one side of the leaden seal are
the heads of Peter and Paul, on the other
the Pope’s name. All bulls are written
on parchment and begin with the name
of the Pope, followed by the title Servus
servorum Dei (Servant of the servants
of God). Some bear the Pope’s signa-
ture; some, that of cardinals and other
officials. Bulls and other papal docu-
ments are designated by their first
words. Among the most famous bulls
are the following: Unam Sanctam (Bon-
iface VIII, 1302), containing the most
sweeping claims ever advanced by the
papacy; In Coena Domini (Urban V,
1362), excommunicating heretics, etc., by
name — published, with additions, every
Maundy Thursday till 1773; Exsurge,
Domine (Leo X, June 15, 1520), the bull
which Luther burned; Decet Romanum
Pontificem (January 3, 1521), excommu-
nicating Luther; Dominus ac Bedemptor
Roster (Clement XIV, 1773), abolishing
the Jesuits, and Sollicitudo Omnium
(Pius VII, 1814), reestablishing them;
Ineffabilis (Pius IX, 1854), proclaiming
the dogma of the Immaculate Concep-
tion; Pastor Aeternus (Pius IX, 1870),
defining papal infallibility.
Bunsen, Christian K. J., Baron von.
German scholar and diplomat; b. 1791
at Korbach; d. 1860 at Bonn; studied
theology and philology; in diplomatic
service at Rome; Russian ambassador
at London; friend of Frederick Wil-
liam III and IV of Prussia; assisted in
preparation of the Prussian Unions-
agende; edited a hymn-book and wrote
extensively on theological and philosoph-
ical themes; was in favor of the Union.
Bunyan, John, 1628 — 88. Immortal
dreamer of Bedford jail. B. at Elstow;
tinker; soldier; member of Non-con-
formist congregation; Baptist 1653;
preacher 1657 ; preferred Luther's Com-
mentary on Galatians to every other book
except Bible; fame as preacher grew
until his death in London. Pilgrim's
Progress (written in Bedford jail), most
successful of allegories; Grace Abound-
ing, a spiritual autobiography; etc.
Buonarroti, or Buaonarotti. See
Michelangelo.
Bnrial. The usual mode of the dis-
posal of the bodies of the dead, accord-
ing to Bible accounts. Thus we read
Burial
103
Burnand, Emgen
that Abraham bought a sepulcher from
the Hittites for the burial of Sarah, and
that subsequently he himself was buried
there, as well as Isaac and Rebekah, his
wife; later also Leah and Jacob. Gen.
49, 29—32. This hurial-place was a crypt
in an underground tomb, and it is still
shown. Rachel was buried “in the way
to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem.” Gen.
35, 19. The two forms of tombs in the
Old Testament were cave-sepulchers,
either in natural cavities in the rock or
hewn into the side of a rocky hill, and
graves dug in the ground. The idea of
cremation seems to have been repugnant
to the Jews from the beginning; that
which took place in the case of Saul and
his sons was probably done on account
of the defilement attending their being
mutilated by the Philistines. 1 Sam.
31, 12; 1 Chron. 10, 12. In the case of
criminals this mode of disposing of the
bodies was used, but not at other times.
Gen. 38, 24; Lev. 20, 14; 21,9; Is. 06, 24.
There was no change in the form of
burial in New Testament times, for we
have a reference to whited sepulchers, or
graves which were treated with a coat of
whitewash to make them conspicuous
even at night, Matt. 23, 27 ; we read of
the grave of Lazarus as being a cave, or
opening in the ground, with a stone upon
it, John 11, 38; and we have the descrip-
tion of Christ’s tomb as being hewn in
stone, with a low entrance closed by a
stone which could be rolled in place.
Luke 23, 53; 24, 2; John 20, 1. 5.—
Regarding the preparation for burial, the
embalming, of which we read in the case
of Jacob and Joseph, was merely in line
with Egyptian custom, Gen. 50, 2. 26, and
has no significance with reference to
Jewish usage. In the time of Christ the
body was washed, anointed with fragrant
spices, such as myrrh and aloes, and
more or less completely wrapped in linen
clothes, a sudary being spread over the
face. Mark 16, 1; John 11, 44; 20, 5. 7;
Acts 9, 37.
The Lutheran Church adheres quite
closely to Biblical usage in the matter of
interment as well as in the use of the
Word and prayers. Customs differ in
the various synodical bodies, but the
reading of Scripture and the singing of
hymns, together with an appropriate
funeral address, are found practically
everywhere. A funeral in the Lutheran
Church may rightly be only a church-
burial, that is, it must be conducted by
the minister in the name of the whole
congregation, membership in which is
confessed by the act of Christian burial.
Such as are not members of the Church,
either because they have never joined or
because they have been excommunicated,
are not to receive Christian burial.
Suicides also, unless not responsible at
the time the act was committed, are ex-
cluded, as are open despisers of the Word
and Sacraments and those who have
died under conviction of a capital crime
and have not repented. The last-named
cases fall under the general heading of
excommunicates. See also Cemeteries
and Cremation.
Burial, Liturgical. One of the prin-
ciples stated by the reformers of the
16th century was this, that every Chris-
tian was entitled to an honorable burial,
that is, that ordinarily the pastor of the
congregation should conduct the funeral,
whether in the church or at the house,
in the name of the entire congregation.
The idea underlying this principle was
the manifestation of the fellowship of
the believers, both in this world and in
the world to come, and to make open con-
fession of the church’s doctrine of the
resurrection. There is little uniformity
in the church orders of the various coun-
tries relative to burial, the act of com-
mitment being omitted in most of them.
In the American Lutheran Church the
division of the funeral ceremonies into
three parts is commonly observed, The
service at the house usually includes the
singing of a hymn, together with Scrip-
ture lessons and prayer. The service in
the church is an act of preaching and
prayer, the essential constituents being
the lessons, the sermon, and the prayers,
the object being to teach, to console, and
to admonish. At the cemetery, commit-
ment follows the singing of a hymn and
of prayer, and the service is concluded
with the blessing upon the assembly (not
the dead ) . On the Sunday following the
death or the funeral, mention is made of
the departed in the church service,
thanks being returned to God for the
blessings bestowed upon the departed,
and intercession made on behalf of the
family and friends. The prayer must in
no way partake of the nature of an inter-
cession for the dead.
Burgk, Joachim von, 1541 — 1610,
organist in Muehlhausen, Thuringia,
after 1566; very eminent as church-
composer, with decided influence also on
hymn-tunes.
Burmeister, Franz Joachim, 1633 to
1672, diaconus at Lueneburg. His poems
lack fluency, but are full of fervor;
wrote: “Es ist genug, so nimm, Herr,
meinen Geist” ; “Du keusche Seele, du” ;
“Was soil ich, liebstes Kind.”
Burnand, Eugen, 1850 — . Swiss art-
ist; studied at the Gymnasium at Schaff-
Barnet, Gilbert
104
Callxt, George
hausen and at Zurich; interested espe-
cially in architecture and painting; later
at Paris. Among his etchings: “Peter
and John on Easter Morning,” “Return
of the Prodigal,” and the series on the
Parables of the Lord.
Burnet, Gilbert, 1643 — 1715. Angli-
can. B. at Edinburgh; professor of
divinity at Glasgow; preacher at Lon-
don 1674; bishop of Salisbury 1689;
d. in London. Wrote: History of the
Reformation; History of My Own Time.
Busenbaum, Hermann. German Jes-
uit theologian. B. in Westphalia, 1600;
d. there (Muenster), 1668; teacher at
Cologne ; rector at Hildesheim and
Muenster. His Jesuit moral theology
embodied in Medulla Theologiae M oralis.
Bushnell, Albert, D. D. “Patriarch
of West African Missions.” B. February
19, 1818, at Rome, N. Y.; d. at Sierre
Leone, Africa, December 2, 1879. Em-
barked for Africa 1844 as missionary of
American Board (Congregationalist) ;
stationed at Gaboon, Africa. Returned
to United States five times for reasons
of health, always again returning to his
African field.
Bushnell, Horace, 1802 — 76. Con-
gregationalist. B. at Litchfield; pastor
at Hartford 1833 — 59, when he resigned
on account of ill health; d. at Hartford.
c
Caaba. See Kaaha.
Cabala. See h'abala.
Caedmon. A Christian poet of Eng-
land, living in the seventh century, who,
according to the testimony of the Ven-
erable Bede ( q. v. ) , composed the first
version of the Bible story in Old English
alliterative verse.
Cajetan, Thomas. Italian cardinal;
b. 1469, d. 1534; member of Dominican
order; legate at Diet of Augsburg, 1518;
had task of examining and rejecting the
writings of Luther, but failed to suppress
Lutheranism.
Calas, Jean. French Protestant, vic-
tim of fanaticism; b. 1698, d. 1762;
eldest son committed suicide, and charge
was raised that the father had slain him
because he was about to embrace Catholi-
cism; condemned to die on wheel and
his body burned, goods confiscated; later
a reversal was secured, the family prop-
erty restored, and the widow pensioned.
Calendar, Ecclesiastical. See Chureh-
year.
California, German Synod of. See
Synods.
Held “moral-influence theory” view of
atonement. Voluminous writer.
Butler, Dr. John G., 1826—1909.
Pastor of Luther Place Church, Wash-
ington, D. C., 1848 — 1909; chaplain in
army during Civil War; later, chaplain
of Congress; editor of Lutheran Evan-
gelist. Extremely liberal in practise.
Butler, Joseph, 1692 — 1752. Angli-
can. B. at Wantage; bishop of Bristol
1738, poorest see in England; of Dur-
ham, 1750, richest see; d. at Bath. His
Analogy of Religion, Natural and Re-
vealed, ingenious, but inconclusive.
Buxtehude, Dietrich, 1639 — 1707;
Danish composer and organist; held po-
sition at Marienkirche in Luebeck for
almost forty years; introduced special
musical vesper services, for which he
composed many pieces.
Buxtorf (Buxtorff), Johann, the El-
der, 1564 — 1629. “Master of the Rab-
bins.” B. at Camen, Westphalia; pro-
fessor of Hebrew at Basel 1591 (d. there).
Lexicon Ohaldaioum, Talmudieum et
Rahhinicum ; etc. — Johann Buxtorf the
Younger, 1599 — 1664. Son of preceding;
like father, noted Orientalist; professor
at Lausanne; successor to father at
Basel. — Unlike Luther, Zwingli, and
Calvin, both maintained divine inspira-
tion of Hebrew vowel points.
California, Synod of. See United
Lutheran Church.
Calixt, Georg. Foremost champion
of so-called “syncretism” (q.v.) and rep-
resentative of Melanchthonian theology;
b. 1586 in Medelbye, Schleswig; d. 1656.
Studied at Helmstedt, where a somewhat
liberal tendency in theology prevailed;
from 1609 to 1613 he traveled through
Germany, Belgium, England, and France ;
professor of theology at Helmstedt. His
main idea was that the prime object of
theology was not so much purity of doc-
trine as a Christian life; hence his
unionistic tendency towards the Catholic
and Reformed churches. At the Conven-
tion of Thorn he sided with the Reformed
delegates, where also, as before, he advo-
cated, as a basis for union, the teachings
of the Church in the first five centuries
(Consensus Quinquesaeeularis). — He held
that only the doctrinal matter of Scrip-
ture was inspired, while in other matters
the writers had been merely governed
and kept from error by the Spirit. — He
introduced the analytic method into dog-
matics.
Gall
105
Calvin, John
Call. The call, or vocation, of men
by God, in the sense of the Third Article
of the Creed, is the act of God, specific-
ally that of God the Holy Ghost, by
which He, through the means of grace,
the Gospel and the Sacraments, 2 Thess.
2, 14, earnestly offers, Is. 55, 1, to all who
hear or read the Gospel, Col. 1, 28; Matt.
28, 19, or to whom the Sacraments are ad-
ministered, Acts 2, 38. 41, the benefits of
Christ’s redemption, 1 Cor. 1, 9; 1 Pet.
2, 9, truly and earnestly invites and ex-
horts them to accept and enjoy what is
therein offered, Matt. 22, 4, and endeavors
to move and lead them by the power in-
herent in the means of grace, which
makes them and the call efficacious, Rom.
I, 16; 1 Pet. 1, 23, to such acceptance
and enjoyment of the benefits of their
redemption. It is, then, by the divine
power inherent in the means of grace,
working through the same and intended
for all men, John 3, 16, that the calling
grace of God effects regeneration, or con-
version. The call of God is efficacious,
Rom. 8, 30; 2 Tim. 1, 9; but, like other
acts of God which are not performed by
virtue of His majesty, it is resistible.
The power to heed the call is in the means
of grace; the power and intention to re-
sist the call is in man, who alone there-
fore is responsible if he does not accept
the invitation extended to him to partake
of all the blessings and benefits of the
Word. John 3, 19— 21.
Calov, Abraham. B. 1612; studied
in Koenigsberg and Rostock; 1643 rec-
tor of the Collegium IUustre and pastor
in Danzig; took part in the Colloquy of
Thorn in 1645, where he opposed Georg
Calixt. Elector John George I called
him in 1650 as theological professor to
Wittenberg, where he was also made
Pastor Primarius and General Super-
intendent of the district. In all these
offices he was eminently successful, draw-
ing many students to Wittenberg. He
was the staunchest champion of strict
Lutheranism of his age, against Roman-
ism, Calvinism, and syncretism. The
number of his writings is almost incred-
ible. Foremost of his works is his Biblia
Illustrata, 4 vols., in refutation of the
commentaries of Grotius. Other works
are : By sterna Locorum Theologicorum ,
12 vols.; Consensus ltcpetitus Fidei
Verae Luther amir. D. of apoplexy at
Wittenberg, 1686.
Calvin., John (Cauvin, Jean), 1509 to
1564. Chief founder of the Reformed
Church of France and French Switzer-
land. “Lumen Galliae,” “Thomas Aqui-
nas of Protestantism.” B. at Noyon,
France (of middle-class parents). His
education beginning in a nobleman’s
family, he early acquired refinement of
manners. Since he looked forward to
priesthood, he entered the University of
Paris in 1523; but in 1528, at his
father’s wish, he began to read law at
Orleans. Then he went on to Bourges
and graduated as Licentiate in Law at
the end of 1531 or the beginning of 1532.
His father having died, he returned to
Paris, devoting himself to Greek and He-
brew. His first work, a commentary on
Seneca’s Treatise on Clemency (1532), re-
vealed his elegant Latinity and his
familiarity with classic literature. While
he was studying law and the humanities,
ho also searched the Scriptures and Lu-
ther’s writings, with the result that he
experienced “a sudden conversion,” most
likely between 1532 and 1533. In the
latter year he had to ilee from Paris
with Nicholas Cop, rector of the univer-
sity, for whom he had written an in-
augural address which contained evan-
gelical ideas. For a while he enjoyed
the protection of the Queen of Navarre,
and he aided Olivetan, a relative, in re-
vising and completing the first Protes-
tant translation of the Bible into French.
In 1535 he reached Basel, where he wrote
the Christianae Religionis Institutio
(1st ed. 1536; last, 1559; admirable
French, 1541), his interpretation of the
Christian religion. In 1536 he passed a
few months at the court of the sympa-
thetic Duchess of Ferrara in Italy. After
a visit to Noyon to wind up his father’s
estate, he happened to stop for a night
at Geneva, where Farel, the reformer of
the city, prevailed upon him to stay.
Both, however, were banished two years
later because of their stand on church
discipline and their refusal to celebrate
the Eucharist according to the Bernese
method, without previous discussion. In
October, 1538, Calvin repaired to Strass-
burg, where he became pastor of the
French refugees and lectured at the Gym-
nasium. In 1540 he married Idelette de
Bure, a widow. Their only child, a son,
died in infancy. During his Strassburg
residence, Calvin attended colloquies at
Frankfort, Worms, and Ratisbon and
there met Melanchthon, with whom he
formed a lasting friendship. But he
never saw the Wittenberg Reformer, for
whom he felt the profoundest reverence,
and who, after reading “with singular
pleasure” Calvin’s reply to Cardinal Sa-
dolet’s letter exhorting the Genevese to
return to the Roman fold, sent Calvin
his compliments. The reply to the car-
dinal had pleased the Genevese also, and
they recalled Calvin in 1540. Twenty-
four hours after- his return, in Septem-
Calvin, John
106
Calvinism
ber, 1541, Calvin set about reorganizing
the Genevan Church. He gave it four
orders of officials — pastors, teachers,
elders, and deacons. He also created two
commissions — the Venerable Company,
composed of the clergy, whose duty it
was to preach, administer the Sacra-
ments, and superintend the education
and ordination of ministers; and the
Consistory, made up of five pastors and
of twelve elders chosen annually from
the three councils, which attended to all
the other ecclesiastical affairs. Both
bodies, as well as the three councils of
Geneva, acted under Calvin’s inspiration
in everything, down to prescribing the
manner in which women were to do their
hair. Before long the Consistory devel-
oped into an inquisitorial tribunal, whose
instructions were promptly carried out
by the councils. The rack, the block, and
the stake were unsparingly used. In
1545 forty-three women were burned
alive for practising witchcraft; in 1553
Servetus, the anti-Trinitarian, was con-
demned to the flames, considered an “act
of faith,” to which the entire Swiss Re-
formed Church was a party. Until 1555
Calvin had encountered determined oppo-
sition; but thereafter his work pro-
gressed without difficulty. Thus Geneva
became the hearthstone of Reformed
Christianity. At Geneva, Calvin preached
and taught, trained ministers and apos-
tles in his “academy,” wrote most of his
famous commentaries, conducted a world-
wide correspondence, penned, for Bul-
linger, the statement on his conception
of the mode of Christ’s presence in the
Eucharist, which led to the Consensus
of Zurich, 1549, reviled Westphal and
assailed Hesshusius in the Eucharistic
Controversy, and there he ended his
career — a theologian of high endow-
ments, enormous capacity for work, and
profound moral earnestness, who, how-
ever, because of his intellectualistie and
legalistic bias, and especially because he
made reason the criterion in church doc-
trine and not the Bible failed to attain
the full stature of an evangelical teacher
of the Church.*
Calvinism. The term, derived from
the name of John Calvin (q.v.), is cur-
rently employed in two or three senses,
denoting the individual teachings of
John Calvin, the doctrinal system con-
fessed by the body of Protestant churches
known as “Reformed Churches,” or “Cal-
* By calling the judicial murder o£ Ser-
vetus “a signal act of piety,” Melanchthon
gave color to Coleridge’s criticism that the
burning of Servetus “was not Calvin’s guilt
especially, but the common opprobrium of
all European Christendom.”
vinistic Churches,” and, lastly, the en-
tire body of conceptions, theological,
ethical, philosophical, social, and polit-
ical, which owe their origin to Calvin.
Sometimes, also, the term Calvinism com-
prehends his views regarding both theo-
logical doctrine and ecclesiastical polity,
and at other times it is limited to the
former, especially to his views on the
doctrine of grace. These views are some-
times called the Five Points of Calvin-
ism, or simply the Five Points : 1 ) Par-
ticular election (supralapsarianism) ;
2) particular redemption; 3) moral in-
ability in the fallen state; 4) irresistible
grace; 5) final perseverance. These Five
Points of Calvinism were opposed hy the
rival system of Arminianism ( q . v . ),
which was presented by the Remonstrants
at the Synod of Dort. In 1618 and 1619
the Synod of Dort condemned the Ar-
minian doctrines, enforcing the decrees
of the council by pains and penalty. In
addition to what may be called the doc-
trines of grace (in which he never reached
the right Biblical understanding), Cal-
vin held the spiritual presence of Christ
in the Holy Eucharist, hut not the doc-
trine of the real presence of Christ’s body
in the Sacrament. Calvin’s views of
church government were essentially such
as are now called Presbyterian. Holding
that the Church should be spiritually in-
dependent of the State, he, nevertheless,
was willing that the discipline of the
Church should he carried out by the civil
magistrates. This last opinion involved
him in heavy responsibility for the death
of his Socinian opponent, Michael Ser-'
vetus.
The work which first made Calvinism
prominent in the world was Calvin’s In-
stitutes of the Christian Religion, pub-
lished in 1536. Various Protestant
churches adopted Calvin’s theological
views, together with his ecclesiastical
polity. Thus Knox carried both Calvin’s
theology and polity to Scotland, where
the first Presbyterian General Assembly
was held in 1560. The early reformers
of the English Church mostly held Cal-
vin’s views of the doctrines of grace,
which prevailed to the end of Queen
Elizabeth’s reign. When the rival sys-
tem of Arminius was brought to trial at
the Synod of Dort in Holland, in 1618,
the English clerical representatives gave
Calvinistie votes. In spite of this, Ar-
minianism took deep root in the English
as in various other churches. Arch-
bishop Laud was its warm friend and
advocate, as were the High Church party
generally, while Low Churchmen con-
tinued Calvinistie. The ecclesiastical
polity of Calvin was embraced by the
Calvinlzlng Churches
107
Cameroun
Puritan party, but never enjoyed the
favor of the majority of the English
people. Most of the clergymen whom
the passing of the Act of Uniformity, in
1662, dissevered from the Church were
Calvinists. Of the two great English re-
vivalists of the eighteenth century,
Whitefleld was Calvinistic (Calvinistic
Methodists) and Wesley Arminian (Wes-
leyan Methodists). The majority of En-
glish Baptists are Calvinistic. The theo-
logical tenets and the ecclesiastical polity
of Calvin have nearly always been domi-
nant in Scotland, though the sterner
features of both have almost impercept-
ibly been softened down.
Calvinizing Churches. This term
includes all those churches which have
more or less come under the influence of
Calvinistic views and tenets, such as the
Calvinistic Baptists, Calvinistic Metho-
dists, the Evangelical churches, the Ger-
man Reformed Church, various Calvin-
istic tendencies within the Lutheran
•Church, etc., though in most of these
churches strict Calvinism was replaced
by moderate Calvinistic views. See Cal-
vinism.
Calvisius, Sethus ( Seth Kallwitz),
1566 — 1615. After work in Gymnasium
studied at Helmstedt and Leipzig ; main
position that of cantor of the Thomas-
sohule at Leipzig and musical director of
the church; hymnological writings val-
uable sources.
Calvoer, Kaspar, 1650 — 1725; very
learned theologian of the school of Ca-
lixt; interested in liturgies; among his
writings : Rituale Ecclesiasticum, the
liomiletical part of which is of interest
even to-day.
Campanius, John, 1601 — 83. A na-
tive of Stockholm; came to New Sweden
with Governor Printz, February 15, 1643,
and ministered to the Swedes on the
Delaware until 1648. He was chaplain
to the governor on Tinicum Island, just
below Philadelphia, where the first Lu-
theran church edifice in America was
dedicated, September 4, 1646. He also
translated Luther’s Small Catechism into
the language of the Indians (fifteen
years before Eliot’s Indian Bible ap-
peared). “He was a man most highly to
be praised on account of his unwearied
zeal in always propagating the love of
God.”
Campbell, Alexander, 1788 — 1866.
Son of Thomas Campbell. B. in Ireland;
studied in Scotland; came to America
1809; found himself in accord with his
father’s principles; settled at Bethany,
W. Va., and was licensed to preach by
Brush Run Church 1811; was baptized
by immersion 1812 and took charge of
the movement originated by his father;
joined Baptist association with his ad-
herents 1813; was refused further fel-
lowship by Baptists 1827 ; started Mil-
lennial Harbinger 1829 (opposed eman-
cipation and set coming of Christ for
1866) ; founded Bethany College 1840;
preached throughout United States, as
well as in England and Scotland; d. at
Bethany, W.Va. Published ea. 60 works.
Campbell, Robert, 1814-— -68. Studied
at Glasgow and Edinburgh; advocate at
law; joined Episcopal Church of Scot-
land, later the Roman Catholic Church;
among his translations : “Christians,
Come, in Sweetest Measures.”
Campbell, Thomas, 1763 — 1854. Pres-
byterian minister in Ireland; emigrated
to America 1807; issued Declaration
and Address 1809 (profession of faith in
Christ and obedience to Him suffleient
for membership in Church) and organ-
ized 1810, with his son (Alexander) and
others, “The First Church of the Chris-
tian Association of Washington, meeting
at Cross Roads and Brush Run, Wash-
ington Co., Pa.” — beginning of the Dis-
ciples of Christ (Campbellite) movement.
Campbellites. See Disciples of Christ.
Campanus, Johannes, anti -Trinita-
rian and Anabaptist of 16th century.
B. in bishopric of Liege; d. ca. 1575.
Held that Holy Spirit is not divine; Son
not coeternal with God the Father. Im-
prisoned last twenty years.
Camisards. A sect of French Hugue-
nots, who, towards the end of the 17th
century, carried on a sort of guerrilla
warfare against their Catholic perse-
cutors. Their name was derived from
the jacket (camisia) which they wore
over their clothes during their night at-
tacks. They claimed to be prophets and
to be inspired by the Holy Ghost. Their
assemblies ranged from 400 to 4,000.
They, cried for mercy, and the hills re-
sounded with their imprecations against
the Pope and his antichristian dominion,
with predictions of the fall of popery.
The government finally interfered, and
in 1702 a number of Camisards were put
to death under application of torture.
After a long series of barbarous mas-
sacres and awful cruelties these people
were finally put down in 1705. Some of
their leaders were burned alive, and
some were broken on the wheel. Many
of the Camisards fled to England.
Cameroun, also Kameroons, a former
German colonial possession in Africa,
now a British protectorate. Area, 295,000
sq. mi. The native inhabitants are al-
most all of Bantee stock. — Missions:
Camera
108
Canada, Dominion of
The English Baptists came in 1845. In
1885 the Baptists withdrew, the German
Basel Mission entering into their work.
Later the Gossner Mission, the German
Baptists, and also the American Presby-
terians began work. Besides, the Roman
Catholic Church has some stations. Dur-
ing and since the World War the Ger-
man missionaries were expelled, the
Paris Evangelical Mission Society and
the Board of Foreign Missions of the
Presbyterian Church in the United States
taking over the German work. At the
outbreak of the war the Basel Mission
had 13,176 baptized members, with
21,622 pupils in school. See also French
Equatorial Africa.
Camera. See Curia, Roman.
Camaldules. A strict monastic order,
originally eremitical, later partly ceno-
bitic, founded by Romuald, about 1018.
It now has 24 houses, all hut one in
Italy, with less than 400 inmates.
Canada, Catholic Church in. Since
the territory now included in the Domin-
ion of Canada was largely settled by
pioneers of the Roman Catholic persua-
sion, the entire eastern section of the
country is to this day predominantly
Roman Catholic. It was the Frenchman
Cartier who, in 1534, took possession of
the Labrador region in the name of
France and, in 1535 — 6, ascended the
St. Lawrence as far as Montreal. When
the first permanent settlement was made
at Quebec, in 1608, under the leadership
of Champlain, the settlement with its
outposts was strongly Catholic from the
beginning. For a while, after the coun-
try had come under English control, in
1763, the number of Protestants in-
creased fairly rapidly in the eastern
part of the Dominion, hut during the
eighteenth century the immigration from
Ireland was steady, while the French
Catholic population was increased after
the Franco-Prussian War by a number
of Alsatians. There is no state church
in the Dominion of Canada, but the Ro-
man Catholics of Quebec are guaranteed
the privileges which they enjoyed before
the English became masters of the coun-
try, and the Roman Catholic schools
have always received recognition before
the law, while private schools conducted
by Protestant bodies have often been con-
ducted under a handicap which wrought
much harm. In the entire Dominion of
Canada the Roman Catholics constitute
more than forty per cent, of the popula-
tion, being most numerous in Quebec. ■ —
The Catholic religious history of the Do-
minion may properly be said to begin
with the year 1625, when the Jesuits ar-
rived, immediately beginning their edu-
cational and missionary endeavors. The
first bishop of Quebec was Francois
Xavier de Laval-Montmorency, in 1674.
When the English government took over
the Dominion of Canada, there was some
trouble about the bishopric of Quebec,
but the difficulty was finally overcome,
and Joseph Octave Plessis became the
first Canadian archbishop, in 1819. The
entire Dominion now has an apostolic
delegate, who resides at Ottawa. There
are twenty dioceses in Canada: Halifax,
Antigonish, Charlottetown, Chatham, and
St. John, in the Province of Halifax;
Kingston, Alexandria, Peterborough, and
Sault Ste. Marie, in the Province of
Kingston; Montreal, Joliette, Ste. Hya-
zinthe, Sherbrook, and Valleyfield, in the
Province of Montreal; Ottawa and Pem-
broke, in the Province of Ottawa; Que-
bec, Chicoutimi, Nicolet, Rimouski, and
Three Rivers, in the Province of Quebec;
St. Boniface and St. Albert, in the Prov-
ince of St. Boniface ; Toronto, Hamilton,
and London, in the Province of Toronto;
Victoria and New Westminster, in the
Province of Victoria. These eight prov-
inces are roughly indicated by the loca-
tion of their archdioceses. Besides the
dioceses here listed, there are four vica-
riates apostolic, namely, that of the Gulf
of St. Lawrence, of Athabasca, of Sas-
katchewan, and of Mackenzie. The total
number of adherents of the Roman Cath-
olic Church is close to two and one half
million.
Canada, Dominion of, Missions in the
country lying north of the United States,
except Alaska. Originally comprising
the large range of territory as far west
as the Mississippi, inclusive of the Great
Lakes, after the War of American inde-
pendence it was restricted to the region
formerly known as Upper and Lower
Canada and now as Ontario arid Quebec.
The Dominion of Canada is a confedera-
tion of colonies of British North America,
which was voluntarily entered into by
all the countries lying north of the
United States. It embraces Prince Ed-
ward Island (2,184 sq. mi.); Nova Sco-
tia (21,428 sq. mi.) ; New Brunswick
(27,985 sq. mi.) ; Quebec (706,834 sq.
mi.); Ontario (407,262 sq. mi.); Mani-
toba (251,832 sq. mi. ) ; Alberta and Sas-
katchewan (each 255,000 sq. mi.); Brit-
ish Columbia (355,855 sq. mi.); Yukon
(206,427 sq. mi.) ; Mackenzie (563,200
sq. mi.); Ungava (456,000 sq. mi.) ; Ke-
watin (756,000 sq. mi.). The total area
is believed to be 3,729,655 sq. mi.; the
population, 7,206,643. Ottawa is -the
capital. — There is no state church in
Canada. Full liberty of worship is guar-
Cnnadft, Dominion of
(a lulled
109
anteed. The original inhabitants of this
large country were the North American
Indians. No accurate statement of their
number can be given. By the white men
and their vices and by intertribal wars
their number lias been decimated. Their
whole number may not exceed 115,000.
The Roman Catholic Church has worked
among the Indians since 1010. About
one half of them are adherents of this
Church. The Roman Catholic Church
is found throughout the Dominion. Its
numerical strength is in Quebec. The
Hudson Bay Company, chartered 1009 by
Charles II, did nothing for the evangeli-
zation of the Indians, rather opposing it.
Since the organization of the Dominion
in 1809 the Indians have received very
humane treatment. The first evangelical
mission among the Indians was origi-
nated by John West, near Winnipeg, in
1820. Owing to his efforts the Church
Mission Society took over the work, and
its activity readies from the seas to
Alaska. In 1872 it was reported that no
heathen Indians wore to be found in the
Winnipeg district. Hudson Bay was
taken hold of in 1851 by John Horden of
the Church Mission Society. In 1893
missions had been founded among the
Cree, Ojibway, and Chippewa tribes and
among the Eskimos. Several mission-
aries are employed in the Indian reser-
vations in Saskatchewan and Alberta.
Work has also been begun in the Yukon
since 1858 with good success. British
Columbia was the field of William Dun-
can since 1850. In 1802 he founded a
station and settlement at Metlakalitla,
near Fort Simpson. Because of differ-
ences of conviction between him and the
Church Mission Society touching the ad-
ministering of the Lord’s Supper to the
Indians, he severed his connection with
the society and removed his people to
Alaska. Metlakahtla has since been con-
tinued by the Church Mission Society.
Many of these missions have now been
united with Anglican dioceses. In addi-
tion to the Anglican missions, work is
done by the Methodists in Alberta, On-
tario, British Columbia, and Manitoba.
The Presbyterians conduct missions
chiefly in Ontario, Saskatchewan, and
British Columbia; the Baptists have
missions in Ontario. Among the Chi-
nese, Japanese, and East Indians, most
of whom live in British Columbia, only
very little mission-work has been at-
tempted by the Anglicans, Presbyterians,
and Methodists. In Winnipeg a small
mission is conducted among the Chinese
by the Methodists and the Presbyterians.
Canada, Lutheran Church, in. Lu-
therans came to Canada about 1750. The
congregation at Lunenburg, N. S., dates
back to 1752.* The church at Halifax,
established about the same time, was lost
to the Anglicans chiefly through the fault
of B. M. Houseal, who had been pastor
of the old church in New York to the
end of the American Revolution and then,
being an ardent royalist, was compelled
to emigrate to Halifax. In 1774 Lu-
therans from the Mohawk Valley, N. Y.,
emigrated to Canada and built a church
at Williamsburg, Dundas Co., Ont. (dedi-
cated 1779). Another church was foun-
ded near Toronto in 1792. The early
churches in Ontario were first served by
Aug. F. Meier, Phil. Wieting, J. G. Wei-
gand (before 1800), Wm. McCarty (1816),
J. P. Goertner (1824), F. H. Guenther
(1825), and other emissaries of the New
York Ministerium. A number of the
early pastors joined the Anglican Church.
In 1845 the Pittsburgh Synod, in re-
sponse to a request of Adam Keffer, of
Vaughan, who traveled 500 miles, mostly
on foot, to attend the synod, resolved to
bring the Gospel to the Lutherans in
Canada. Rev. G. Bassler visited Canada
in 1849 and gathered a number of con-
gregations; in 1853 these formed a con-
ference, which, in 1861, developed into
the Synod of Canada (General Council).
The Manitoba Synod (1897) is a daugh-
ter of the Canada Synod. The Missouri
Synod also entered the field about 1860
and now has three Districts in Canada —
the Ontario, the Alberta and British
Columbia, and the Manitoba and Sas-
katchewan District. The Nova Scotia
Synod was organized in 1903 out of a
conference of the Pittsburgh Synod (Gen-
eral Council ) . The Central Canada
Synod (General Council) dates from
1908. Since 1908 the Ohio Synod has a
Canada District, and Iowa is also rep-
resented there.- — In 1911 Canada had a
Lutheran (nominally) population of
229,864.
Canada Synod. See United Lutheran
Church.
Canada, Synod of Central. , See
United Lutheran Church.
Candles. The Lutheran Church has re-
nounced all superstitious use of candles,
as practised in the Roman Church, and
has returned to the simple ceremonial
employment of candles or lights, two
candles being commonly lighted during
the celebration of the Eucharist, the
* P. D. Bryzelius, a German-Swede of Mo-
ravian leanings, served them about 1767.
In 1768 the congregation petitioned the
Pennsylvania Ministerium for a minister.
Eev. Frederick Schultz was sent in 1772
and served the congregation for ten years.
C'anisiuH) l’etrus
110
Canticles
place of the wax tapers, however, often
being taken by electric lights, candelabra
with three, five, and seven arms or in-
dividual lights having been introduced.
The purpose is to remind the communi-
cants of “the night in which He was be-
trayed.” In some Lutheran churches the
candles are lighted when the Gospel-les-
son is read to remind the congregation
of the light of the Gospel.
Canisius, Petrus. Prominent Jesuit
of Germany; b. in the Netherlands,
1521; d. in Switzerland, 1597; studied
at Cologne, where he founded the first
Jesuit colony, the order spreading from
there throughout Germany. Noted for
his Catechism.
Canonics. See Biblical Camonics.
Canonization. The process by which
the Koman Church declares a person a
saint and admits him to the honors ac-
corded saints. The first stage of this
long and complicated process determines
whether the candidate for sainthood has
shown “heroic” virtue during life and
can duly be credited with miracles. The
inquiry is begun by a bishop and is then
transferred to Rome, where it passes
through various steps, the “postulators”
urging the claims of the candidate, the
‘promoter fidei (“devil’s advocate” —
q. v.) raising objections. If the inquiry
turns out favorably, the Pope issues a
decree of beatification. This confers the
title of beatus (“blessed”) on the suc-
cessful one and permits his limited and
partial veneration (in certain districts,
orders, etc.). — The process may end here
or may, at a later date, be followed by
a similar procedure, designed to examine
the contention that at least two miracles
have been wrought by the intercession of
the beatus since his beatification. If this
contention is upheld, canonization fol-
lows. The Pope solemnly pronounces
that the person in question shall be in-
scribed on the register of saints ( Canon
Sanctorum) . Henceforth he is venerated
throughout the Church, a certain day is
set apart for his memory, his relics are
exhibited, indulgences are granted for
visiting his tomb — in short, he is a full-
fledged saint. Ordinarily, proceedings for
beatification cannot be started till fifty
years after death.
Canstein, Baron Karl Hildebrand.
B. 1667, d. 1719. When, as a young offi-
cer, he was sick unto death with dysen-
tery, he promised to serve God with all
his powers if spared. Met Spener at Ber-
lin. Noticed that low spiritual life in
Germany called for a Bible in every
home. In 1710 he made an appeal for
funds: Ohnmassgebender Vorschlag, wie
Gottes Wort den Armen zur Erbauung
urn einen geringen Preis in die llacnde
zu bringen sei. Prince August of Den-
mark, among others, sent him 1,000
Thaler. Had stereotyped plates of Bible
made. 5,000 copies of New Testament
published in 1712; whole Bible in the
following year. Later the Canstein Bible
Institute was transferred to the Orphan-
age at Halle (Francke). It has pub-
lished over 7 million Bibles and Testa-
ments.
Canstein Bible Institute. See Can-
stem.
Cantata. A composition for chorus
(mixed chorus, male chorus, and soli),
usually with full organ or orchestral ac-
companiment; either sacred in both text
and music, in the style of an oratorio,
but shorter, or secular, when it is usually
in the form of a lyric drama, in the lat-
ter case often with a view of stage pres-
entation with more or less elaborate
acting.
Canticles. Non -metrical spiritual
songs, psalms, or hymns, taken directly
from Scriptures and used in the Church
from the earliest times, usually chanted
at the prescribed place in the services.
In some instances the Bible-text has been
paraphrased to some extent; in others it
has been retained practically unchanged.
The canticles which are in use in the
Church at this time are the following:
the Gloria Patri: “Glory be to the Fa-
ther,” etc., based on the baptismal for-
mula Matt. 28, 19, a paraphrase in use
since the first century, also known as the
Lesser Doxology; the Gloria in Exoelsis,
or song of the angels, Luke 2, 14, en-
larged into a hymn of adoration cele-
brating the glory and majesty of God as
manifested in the merciful gift of His
Son; the Tersanctus, or hymn “Holy,
Holy, Holy,” at the service of celebration
of the Holy Supper, a combination of the
hymn of the seraphim before the throne
of God, Is. 6, 2. 3, and of the song of
the multitudes as they went forth to meet
Christ at the time of His triumphal
entry into Jerusalem, Matt. 21, 9, the sec-
tion chanted by the people being taken
from the great Hallel of the Jewish fes-
tival season, Ps. 118, 25. 26; the Nuno
Dimittis of the aged Simeon, Luke 2,
29 — 32, his joyful thanksgiving for the
salvation manifested and bestowed in
Christ Jesus, sung at the close of the
Communion service, as well as at ves-
pers; the Te Deum Laudamus, a hymn
of praise, whose authorship is ascribed
to either Athanasius or Ambrosius, in-
cluding praise, confession of faith, and
petition, sung in the morning service, or
Canon LaW
in
Cape of Good Hope
matins ; the Benedicite, beginning, “0 all
ye works of the Lord, bless ye the Lord,”
from the “Song of the Three Holy Chil-
dren,” in the Apocrypha; the Magnifi-
cat , beginning, “My soul doth magnify
the Lord,” the song of praise of the Vir-
gin Mary, Luke 1, 46 — 55, used in ves-
pers since the earliest times; the Bene-
dictus, beginning, “Blessed be the Lord
God of Israel,” the song of praise intoned
by the aged Zacharias after the birth and
circumcision of John the Baptist, Luke
1, 08 — 79, used in festival services, espe-
cially at Christmastide.
Canon Law. “Canon law is the as-
semblage of rules or laws relating to
faith, morals, and discipline, prescribed
or propounded by ecclesiastical author-
ity.” The term usually refers to the
body of laws governing the Roman
Church. The chief repository of canon
law has been the Corpus Juris Canonici,
consisting of the Decretum Oratiani, a
compilation and annotation of canons of
councils, decrees of Popes, etc., made by
Gratian, a monk of Bologna (1151), five
books of decretals published by Greg-
ory IX (1234), one by Boniface VIII
(1298), the Clementines of Clement V
(1316), and two books of Extravagantcs,
containing decretals down to 1484. To
these must be added the Jus Novissi-
mum, consisting of the canons of the
Council of Trent, papal decretals, de-
cisions of Roman Congregations, concor-
dats {q. v.), etc. During the Middle
Ages the canon law ruled in all coun-
tries subject to the spiritual jurisdiction
of Rome, not only in ecclesiastical affairs,
but in many matters relating to the civil
sphere. For six centuries the stupen-
dous forgeries known as the False De-
cretals (q.v.) were accepted as law, and
even when they were rejected, they had
ineradieably stamped their spirit on the
Roman Church and its discipline. Be-
cause many provisions of the canon law
were unscriptural, and because Rome de-
clared its man-made precepts binding on
the consciences, Luther emphatically
repudiated it. On December 10, 1520,
together with the papal bull of excom-
munication, he burned the Corpus Juris.
A new codification of the canon law, be-
gun by Pius X, was recently completed.
See Courts, Spiritual.
Canon of Hippo Regius. At the
first general African council, held at
Hippo Regius in 393, whose canons, con-
tained in the Breviarium Canonum Hip-
ponensium, were confirmed at Mileve in
402, the most important resolution per-
tained to the list of books contained in
the Bible. The list agrees entirely
with that adopted by the Council of
Carthage in 397. See Carthage, Synods
of; Canon of.
Canons Regular (Augustinian Can-
ons). Priests who live in common as
members of an order constituted accord-
ing to the Augustinian Rule. Such are
the Premonstratensian and Trinitarian
orders. The difference between a monk
and a canon is that, while a monk may
be a priest, only a priest can be a canon.
Cantor. The precentor, or chief singer,
of the one section of the choir in an
Anglican church; more loosely applied
to an organist and choirmaster in Ger-
man churches.
Cantus firmus, or planus (Plain
Chant), the form of melody introduced
by Gregory the Great, moving forward,
without regard to meteT or rhythm, in
tones of equal length, the melody of the
hymn ( cantus choralis).
Canvass, Every-Member. Accord-
ing to the Scriptures every Christian is
in duty bound to support the Church.
Luke 10, 7; 1 Cor. 9, 14; Gal. 6, 6. 7;
1 Tim. 5, 17. 18. God excuses none who
can give; neither should the church.
The every-member canvass is an attempt
to enlist every communicant member of
the church to give regularly in accord-
ance with his means. Every member of
the congregation should, therefore, be
visited in his home and asked to pledge
himself to give a certain amount weekly
(or monthly) for the support of the
home church and the Church at large
(synod). Men and women may be en-
listed to make such a canvass. After
tiie necessary information and instruc-
tion has been given to the members of
the congregation and also, in special
meetings, to the canvassers, the canvas-
sers should, on a certain Sunday after-
noon, or on some other day, visit every
home of the congregation and secure the
pledges on a pledge-card {q.v.). This
canvass should be made once a year,
about one or two months before the close
of the fiscal year. Securing pledges by-
mail is unsatisfactory.
Cape of Good Hope, formerly Cape
Colony, a province in the Union of South
Africa. Area, 276,966 sq. mi. Popula-
tion, about 2,600,000, of whom 600,000
are Europeans. The native colored races
are chiefly Kaffirs, Bechuanas, Hotten-
tots, and Basutos. In 1737 the Mora-
vian George Schmidt began mission-work
there, the Dutch having done no spiritual
work among the natives. They were fol-
lowed by the South African Society for
Promoting the Extension of Christ’s
Kingdom (Van der Kemp and Voss) ; the
L. M. S., the Primitive Methodist So-
Capuchins
112
Carpzov
ciety, the Scotch Presbyterians, the An-
glican Church, the Berliner Missionsge-
sellschaft (I), the Barmer Mission. Large
native churches have been formed. For
latest mission statistics see South Africa.
Capuchins. A branch of the Fran-
ciscan order, founded in Italy, in 1528,
with the purpose of restoring the origi-
nal simplicity of the Franciscan Rule.
It became independent in 1619. Its
members are bound to observe silence all
day except during two hours, to practise
flagellation, to beg only enough for each
day, to take no compensation for masses,
and never to touch money. They wear
coarse brown habits, long beards, and
pointed hoods ( capuches ) . The defection
of their third general, Ochino of Siena,
to Protestantism (1542), nearly destroyed
the order, which then renounced all in-
dependent judgment in matters of faith
and doctrine. Rapid growth came after
the middle of the 16th century, which
culminated two hundred years later. The
present membership is about 10,000. In
the United States there are ( 1921 )
13 monasteries and 322 members.
Cardinals. Dignitaries of the Roman
Church who rank immediately after the
Pope and are his chief counselors. Their
number, since 1586, is limited to 70, in
three ranks: cardinal bishops (6), car-
dinal priests (50), and cardinal deacons
(14). The places are rarely all filled.
Together they form the Sacred College,
over whose meetings (consistories; q.v.)
the Pope presides. Cardinals are created
by the Pope, and while all nations are
supposed to be considered, most cardi-
nals are Italians. Though the Pope is
not bound to ask or accept their advice,
he consults them in all important mat-
ters, both in consistory and otherwise.
The cardinals take an active part in the
government of the Roman Church through
the offices which they hold in the Curia
(q.v.) and various commissions. They
frequently serve as legates (q.v.). Since
the 11th century the cardinals elect new
Popes ( see Conclave ) . Though in theory
any one, even a layman, is eligible to
the papal chair, none who was not pre-
viously a cardinal has been elected since
Urban VI (1378). Cardinals wear red
birettas and robes, are styled Your Emi-
nences, and claim the right of addressing
emperors and kings as “brothers.”
Cardinal Gibbons. See Gibbons,
James, Cardinal.
Carlstadt. See Karlstadt.
Carey, William. B. at Paulerspury,
England, August 17, 1761; d. June 9,
1834, at Serampore, India; the path-
finder in England for modern missions.
A shoemaker by trade, early interested
in missions, he studied theology, was
pastor of Baptist churches, gave impulse
to founding of Baptist Missionary So-
ciety, October 2, 1792. In 1793 he was
sent to India. Finding English doors
closed against his missionary pleading,
he finally went to Serampore, Danish-
India, and with Marshman and Ward
founded a press, which did almost im-
possible things. He translated the Bible
into six, the New Testament into 21,
languages and dialects, parts of the
Bible into seven more dialects. No man
in India did more fundamental mission-
ary labor than Carey.
Cary, Lott, first American Negro mis-
sionary to Africa. B. 1780 in Virginia
as a slave; converted 1807; bought his
freedom; founded Richmond Foreign
Missions Society, 1813, and the Rich-
mond African Baptist Missionary So-
ciety, 1815, by which Cary and Collin
Teague were sent to Liberia, 1822. Cary
was later Governor of Liberia. D. in
Africa, 1828.
Cary, Phoebe, 1824 — 1871, sister of
Alice Cary, with whom she moved from
her home in Ohio to New York, N. Y.,
their mutual affection attracting much
interest; poetical gift of both of about
equal merit, both contributing some
hymns; the most popular hymn of
Phoebe Cary : “One Sweetly Solemn
Thought.” *
Carnival (from carni vale, farewell
to meat), applied to the period just pre-
ceding Lent (during which season the
eating of meat is prohibited in the
Roman Church), the period being char-
acterized in many countries and dis-
tricts by festivals of a more or less ex-
uberant nature.
Carpzov, renowned family of lawyers
and theologians. Benedikt; b. 1595;
d. 1666; professor and judge at Leipzig;
in his Jurisprudentia Ecclesiastica he
established scientifically the “episcopal
system” of church polity . — Johann Bene,
dikt the Elder, his brother; b. 1607,
d. 1657; professor at Leipzig; wrote
best commentary on the Symbolical
Books, Isagoge in Libros Symbolicos. —
Johann Benedikt the younger, son of the
preceding; b. 1639, d. 1699; professor
and pastor at Leipzig; opponent of
Pietism, especially of Spener. — Samuel
Benedikt, brother of preceding; b. 1647,
d. 1707; Spener’s successor as court
preacher at Dresden. — Johann Gottlob,
son of preceding; b. 1679, d. 1767 as
superintendent at Luebeck; very learned
and author of Introductio in Libros Ve-
teris Testamenti and of treatises against
Carol
113
Corns, Paul
Pietists and Moravians. — Johann Bene-
di.kt, grandson of Johann Benedikt the
Younger; b. 1720, d. 1803; professor at
Leipzig and Helmstedt; opponent of
Rationalism.
Carol. A popular spiritual song for
festival occasions, particularly a spir-
itual folk-song for the Christmas season,
the best ones having come into vogue in
Germany, England, and Prance during
the Middle Ages and after the Reforma-
tion.
Caroline Islands, a large archipelago
in the western Pacific Ocean, containing
about 525 coral islands. Area, 560 sq. mi.
Population, 140,000 Micronesians. Form-
erly belonged to Germany; since the
World War a Japanese mandate. Mis-
sions by the American Board of Commis-
sioners for Foreign Missions; Lieben-
zeller Mission (before the World War).
The Roman Catholic Church is also ac-
tive. See also Polynesia.
Carlyle, Joseph Dacre, 1758 — 1804;
professor of Arabic at Cambridge, later
vicar of Newcastle-on-Tyne; journey to
the Orient; wrote: “Lord, when We
Bend before Thy Throne.”
Carmelites. This order was founded
as a hermit colony on Mount Carmel, in
Palestine, during the 12th century. Vio-
lent persecution by Saracens later drove
it to Europe, where it became a mendi-
cant order. The Carmelites were pro-
tagonists of Mariolatry and introduced
the scapular ( q . v . ) of Our Lady. Be-
fore the Reformation the order declined,
but later became more ascetic and grew
rapidly, reaching its zenith in the 17th
century. The Carmelites have concocted
some of the wildest pieces of ecclesias-
tical fiction. Their arrogant enumera-
tion of all prophets and apostles among
their ancient membership led to an acri-
monious controversy with the Jesuits,
which was ended only by papal com-
mand. A portion of the Carmelites are
barefoot, and these eat no meat, sleep on
a board, and live a highly ascetic life.
At present the Carmelites number about
2,700; in the United States (1921), 111.
Cartilage Canon. A resolution or
canon of the Council of Carthage, held
in the year 397. This canon (No. 39)
lists the books of the New Testament as
we now have it: four gospels, the book
of the Acts of the Apostles, thirteen
epistles of the Apostle Paul, the Epistle
to the Hebrews, two epistles of Peter,
three epistles of John, the Epistle of
James, the Epistle of Jude, the Revela-
tion of John.
Carthage, Synods and Councils of.
Since Carthage was, for several centuries,
Concordia Cyclopedia
the center of North African Christianity,
many important meetings were held
there. Even in the third century, par-
ticularly about the middle of the century,
at the time of Cyprian and afterward,
synods were held there at which as many
as seventy-one bishops were in attend-
ance. Some of the chief resolutions at
this time concerned the form of penance.
During the fourth and at the beginning
of the fifth century a number of councils
took place, there, most of which were held
on account of the Donatist Controversy.
At this time also we have the councils
of Carthage: the First Council of Car-
thage, between 345 and 348, which was
attended by fifty bishops, and the Second
Council of Carthage, in 390, at which
sixty bishops were present. A general
African council was held at Hippo, near
Carthage, in 393. This is notable for its
complete list of the New Testament books.
During the time when Augustine (q.v.)
was bishop, a number of synods were held
in connection with the Pelagian Contro-
versy. Among the last important synods
held at Carthage was that of 419, at-
tended by 217 bishops, and that of 422,
both of them showing that a certain feel-
ing of independence, which had always
been noticeable in North Africa, was still
in evidence.
Carthusians. A monastic order, noted
for the uncommon severity of its prac-
tises. Disheartened with the degeneracy
of the Church in his time, Bruno of Co-
logne, about 1086, formed a colony of
hermits in the lofty Valley of Cartusia
(Chartreuse), near Grenoble, France. He
did not intend to found an order and
wrote no rule; nevertheless, the Carthu-
sian order grew from his example and
was officially recognized in 1170. The
boast of Carthusians is that they alone
among monastics have never required re-
forms. The rule prescribes practical iso-
lation, not only from the world, but also
from brother monks. Bach has his own
cell. Manual labor, study, prayer, and
contemplation follow in prescribed order.
The smallest details of life are regulated.
Not even the sick receive meat. The
order, never very large, now has 26 mon-
asteries, none in this country.
Cartwright, Thomas, 1535 — 1603.
Puritan. B. at Hertfordshire, England;
professor at Cambridge; attacked prel-
acy, presently to be defended by Hooker;
championed Presbyterian polity; drew
up Holy Discipline for Presbyterian con-
gregations; d. at Warwick.
Carus, Paul. German-American edi-
tor and author; b. at Ilseburg, 1852;
d. 1919. Educated in Germany. Came
8
Casas, Bartolome' de las
114
Catacombs
to Chicago, 1883. Edited The Open
Court, The Monist. Wrote on philosophy
and religion, especially Oriental. Held
that religion must be purified by scien-
tific criticism. See Monism.
Casas, Bartolome' de las. Spanish
priest and missionary; b. at Seville,
1474; d. at Madrid, 1566; became ac-
quainted with the natives of the West
Indies and Mexico and was formally de-
clared their protector; hostility of the
conquistadores (the Spanish conquerors,
who laid a heavy toll on the country)
put many obstructions in his way, but he
persisted in his efforts in their behalf;
bishop of Chiapa, Mexico, 1544 — 47 (517);
spent last years of his life in Spain;
wrote General History of the Indies.
Casaubon, Isaac, 1559 — 1614. Fa-
mous French classicist, ranking imme-
diately after Scaligbr. Reformed theo-
logian. Born at Geneva; professor of
Greek there, then at Montpellier; royal
librarian at Paris; prebendary of Can-
terbury, Westminster; d. there.
Cassiodorus, Magnus Aurelius.
Latin monk and historian; b. in Cala-
bria, 480; d. ca. 570; at first in public
life, from which he retired in 540 to a
monastery founded by him at Vivarium,
devoting himself to literary work, of
which he had already made a beginning
by writing consular chronicles and Gothic
history; his book Institutiones represents
a summary of spiritual and secular learn-
ing and is intended for a course of in-
struction for the Western clergy; wrote
also exegetical works, notably on the
Psalms.
Caspari, Karl Heinrich, Lutheran;
b. 1815 at Eschau; d. 1861 as pastor in
Muenchen; wrote Qeistliches und Welt-
ficft.es, Der Schulmeister und sein Sohn;
also on the Catechism.
Caspari, Carl Paul; b. 1814 at Dessau
of Jewish parents ; d. at Christiania,
1892; baptized 1838; studied at Leipzig,
called as lector to Christiania in 1847,
in 1857 full professor. He was a strict
orthodox Lutheran and exerted great in-
fluence in Norway.
Caspari, Walter; b. 1847; till 1885
pastor, then professor of practical the-
ology and university preacher at Er-
langen. Contributed many articles to re-
views and cyclopedias.
Castalio (Castellio), Sebastian, 1515
to 1563. French Reformed. B. at Savoy;
rector of Latin school at Geneva; pro-
fessor of Greek at Basel; advocated re-
ligious toleration (denounced burning of
Servetus ) ; Latin and French transla-
tions of Bible; d. at Basel.
Caste. See Missions, India.
Castes, Hindu. See Hinduism.
Casuistics. That part of theological
knowledge, chiefly connected with Chris-
tian ethics, which applies the Scriptural
rules of life to individual cases.
Casuistry. A branch of theological
knowledge related to pastoral theology,
although usually regarded as a branch
of ethics, dealing with the solution of
doubtful cases of conscience or questions
of right and wrong according to Scrip-
ture and in agreement with well-estab-
lished customs and conventions of the
respective church organization. Ctisu-
isties, as it is also called, must not sink
to a mere outward legalism, but should
be based at all times upon the evangel-
ical understanding of norm of human
conduct taught in the Bible, with the
law of love as the governing principle.
Caswall, Edward, 1814 — 1878; edu-
cated at Oxford; in office near Salis-
bury; joined Roman Church in 1850,
lived at Oratory, Edgbaston, rest of his
life; among his hymns: “0 Jesus, King
Most Wonderful.”
Catacombs. Caverns, grottoes, and
subterranean passages, partly natural,
partly enlarged by excavating the tufa
and sandstone beneath and near certain
cities, chiefly in the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean Sea, many of them
having their origin in quarries. There
are catacombs in Syria, Persia, and
among the Oriental nations. Those of
Upper Egypt arc notable for their ex-
tent. At Gela, Agrigentum, and Syra-
cuse, in Sicily, there are caverns which
rank with the principal monuments of
this kind, as well from their extent and
depth, as from their architectural orna-
ments and from historical recollections
attached to them. The catacombs in the
tufa mountains of Capo di Monte, near
Naples, were explored thoroughly by
Celano in the middle of the seventeenth
century. They consist of subterranean
galleries, halls, rooms, basilicas, and
rotundas, which extend to the distance
of two Italian miles. But the most
noted catacombs are those of Rome,
along the Via Appia, especially those of
Balbina and of Calixtus, that of Domi-
tilla, on the Via Ardeatina, and that of
Lucina on the Via Ostiensis. These and
other catacombs are composed of practi-
cally interminable subterranean galleries,
extending beneath the city itself as well
as the neighboring country. Along the
corridors are horizontal excavations in
the walls, which are often widened out
into cells or small rooms. Here the dead
were deposited, usually in sarcophagi,
Cateclieties
115
Catechisms, Luther’s
their total number being estimated at
six million. The larger chambers, in-
cluding the tombs of martyrs, were called
cryptae; ordinary chambers, cubicula;
the horizontal tombs, sepulcra or loca.
However, while the catacombs were pri-
marily burial-places, being used as such
also by the Christians (frequently dur-
ing persecutions), some of whom, in fact,
constructed such galleries for their own
use and that of their brethren, some of
the crypts were expressly designed for
Christian worship, as, for example, that
of Miltiades in S. Calixtus. A still
larger chapel is a crypt in the Ostrian
cemetery, which is divided into nave,
presbytery, and apse. Still another very
interesting place of worship is the Ca-
pella Graeca in S. Priscilla, especially
on account of its beautiful decorations.
After the year 410, in which the invasion
of Alaric took place, the catacombs were
no longer used as burial-places, and a
few centuries later even the crypts of
the martyrs were abandoned, tlieir bones
having meanwhile, in most cases, been
removed to the altar-crypts of various
churches which bore their names. Dur-
ing the siege of Rome by the Lombards
the catacombs were in part destroyed
and soon after became entirely inaccess-
ible, so that they were practically for-
gotten, the first excavations in recent
times having been made in the sixteenth
century.
Catechetics. That branch of practi-
cal theology which deals with the theory
and practise of training men for the spe-
cial work of teaching the truth of the
Bible, especially in catechumen classes
and in Christian schools.
Catechisms. Books of instruction
composed of questions and answers.
While occasionally also secular subjects
are so treated, the term is now usually
confined to manuals of religious in-
struction for the laity, especially the
young. There were a few catechisms be-
fore Luther’s time, but their history
and educational importance really begins
with the Reformation. (See next article.)
Many catechisms were subsequently pub-
lished in the Lutheran, the Reformed, and
the Catholic Churches, but none of them
equals the Small Catechism of Luther,
which, brief in form, clear, concise, clas-
sical in language, comprehensive in con-
tents, has often been called the Bible of
the laity. At first catechism instruction
consisted chiefly in memorizing the text;
further explanations were left to the
catechetical sermons. To avoid mechan-
ical memorizing, expositions in questions
and answers and Bifale-texts were added,
e. g., the Catechisms of Dietrich and of
Schwan. To help the children still more
to obtain an intelligent knowledge of the
doctrinal contents of the Catechism and
to assist them in making personal appli-
cation thereof, catechizations were intro-
duced which center about the text of the
Enchiridion. Thus the study of the
Catechism ceases to he mere memoriter
work; on the contrary, it becomes an
excellent mental discipline, at the same
time assuring a definite knowledge of
Bible truths. Many denominations have
therefore published catechisms as the
most effective means of indoctrinating
the young; and yet better results could
be obtained if they were still more gen-
erally used and more thoroughly studied.
In 1S80 Luther’s Catechisms were em-
bodied in the Book of Concord.
Catechisms, Luther’s. Two books of
religious instruction written by Luther
for the use of old and young. Visiting
Saxon churches, Luther found the people
sunk in superstition and the pastors in
ignorance and immorality, and in order
to raise the standard, he preached a
course of sermons in 1528 on the funda-
mentals of Christianity and used this
material in writing his Catechisms,
which were published in 1520. The first
to appear was the Small Catechism, on
charts; then came the Large Catechism
and later the Small Catechism in book-
form. The Small Catechism, in the form
in which we have it now, dates from
1531 — 42. The Office of the Keys was
not formulated by Luther; Brenz helped
to introduce it. It is not yet certain
whether Luther or his friend John Lang,
of Erfurt, wrote “The Christian Ques-
tions.” — The Christian faith is not only
to be learned, but also to be lived; liow
it is to be lived by every one in the
various walks and stations of life is
plainly shown in the “Table of Duties,”
which was probably suggested by John
Gerson’s Mode of Living for All the
Faithful, reprinted at Wittenberg in
1513. Probably Luther is not responsible
for “What the Hearers Owe to Their
Pastors” and “What Subjects Owe to
Their Government.”
The transcendent merits of both Cate-
chisms gained for them an instant en-
trance into the home, the school, and the
Church, and they were soon confessed “as
the Bible of the laity, wherein every-
thing is comprised which is treated at
greater length in Holy Scripture and is
necessary for a Christian man to know
for his salvation,” as the Epitome of the
Formula of Concord has it. The writer
holds the Small Catechism to be the
greatest book of instruction ever written
Cateebisiuus Romantu
116
Cateohamenate
and the explanation of the Second Ar-
ticle to be the greatest sentence from a
pen not inspired. Justus Jonas was
firmly convinced that the writing of the
booklet was inspired by the Holy Ghost.
It is a confession of faith, and it can be
prayed. The great historian von Ranke
says: “Blessed is he that nourishes his
soul with it, that holds fast to it! He
possesses an imperishable comfort in
every moment, under a thin shell the
kernel of truth that will satisfy the
wisest of the wise.” In our day McGiffert
calls it “the gem of the Reformation.”
The Large Catechism was written to
aid pastors in teaching the young. It
is practical, popular, and, at the same
time, deep — an incomparable book. Von
Zezschwitz cannot name many other
writings that, next to the Bible itself,
can more further a Christian and teacher
in sure faith and sound doctrine. In the
Decalog we come to the knowledge of our
sins, in the Creed to justification by
faith in Christ, and in the Prayer is
manifested the new life in the Spirit.
The Small Catechism was soon translated
into other languages, and for four hun-
dred years it has been in constant use to
train the young. The claim has been
made that it has a wider circulation
than any other book, the Bible alone ex-
cepted. For a fine and full discussion
see Prof. Bente’s Introduction to Concor-
dia Triglotta.
Cateehismus Romanus ( Tridentine
Catechism ) . The Council of Trent (1545
to 1563) planned to publish a catechism
to counteract the catechisms of Luther
and other reformers. This plan was not
realized, and the matter was turned over
to the Pope, who appointed four theo-
logians to compose the book under the
supervision of three cardinals. The re-
sulting volume, the Cateehismus Roma-
nus, was approved by Pius V and pub-
lished by his order in 1566. The Latin
original was soon translated into Italian,
French, German, and Polish. This cate-
chism is not intended as a popular hand-
book, but as a manual for priests in pre-
paring to catechize. It is divided into
four parts, which treat of the Apostles’
Creed, the Sacraments, the Decalog, and
Prayer. Chiefly through the efforts of
the Jesuits, who have never been
friendly to it, it has been pushed some-
what into the background. In popu-
larity it has been unable to compete with
the catechism of the Jesuit Peter Cani-
sius (q. v.). Its authority, however,
though not absolute, is higher than that
of any other Roman catechism.
Catechization. A well-organized in-
struction composed of questions and
answers. Though any suitable subject
may thus be treated, catechizations are
especially employed in teaching children
the fundamentals of religion. The cate-
chization is commonly divided into five
parts: The Introduction leads up to the
topic to be discussed; tha Text may be
one or more questions from the Cate-
chism or a Bible story; the Theme
briefly states the chief topic; the Body
of the catechization evaluates the text
material, making use of the analytic or
the synthetic methods, as the case may
demand, carefully organizing it to bring
out the theme; the Conclusion may con-
tain a short summary and an applica-
tion. The review of the lesson in the
next period may be either in the form
of an examination catechization, which
differs somewhat from the explanatory
catechization of the first period, or, with
advanced pupils, in the form of a topical
recitation.
Catechizing is a difficult art, learned
only through much practise. Preparation
on the part of the catechist is absolutely
necessary; he must thoroughly under-
stand the lesson material, have a clearly
defined outline of the entire catechiza-
tion, must be skilled in asking such ques-
tions as will lead the child to do its own
thinking in finding what it is to learn,
and must be resourceful in finding illus-
trations that will make difficult points
clear. It is therefore advisable that cate-
chizations be worked out in full until
the art of catechizing is mastered. Never
satisfied with mechanical drill, the cate-
chist must, by asking thought-questions,
engage the attention of the children,
stimulate self-activity, and exercise
their mental faculties. Making use of
Scripture texts and material, he must
endeavor to convey not only clear con-
cepts, but also the conviction that the
lessons learned are divinely true; he
must reprove the gainsayers and apply
the lesson to the life of the child. The
language should be plain, the tone and
spirit in keeping with the subject.
Catechumenate was the method of
receiving and instructing, in prepara-
tion for baptism, those who applied for
membership in the early Christian
Church. At first applicants were appar-
ently freely admitted, and baptism was
administered with but short delay, Acts
8, 38; 10, 48; but because many re-
lapsed into heathenism or sought mem-
bership from interested or treacherous
motives, more care was exercised, and
some security was demanded as to the
belief and conduct of the candidate, who
was not admitted to full membership
until adjudged worthy of baptism. Thus
Cateelmmenate
117
Cathedral
developed, by the middle of the third cen-
tury, that system of instruction and dis-
cipline known as the catechumenate.
The catechumens were divided, generally
speaking, into two classes. Having an-
nounced their desire to join the church,
they received preliminary instruction,
were called audientes, and were permit-
ted to hear the sermon and the reading
of the Scripture-lesson in the services
(missa catechumenorum ) , but departed
before the more solemn part of the lit-
urgy, the Eucharist ( missa fidelium),
was celebrated. After two or three years,
during which they were instructed and
their conduct was observed, they were
permitted to ask to be baptized, and
thus they entered the class of competen-
tes, their names were inscribed in the
church list, they received special instruc-
tion from tlie bishop, and were taught
tlie words of the Creed and the Lord’s
Prayer. After they had recited the
Creed and once more renounced pagan-
ism, they were baptized, usually in tlie
night before Easter, and thus became full
members of the church and were permit-
ted to partake of Holy Communion. The
Catechetical Lectures of Cyril of Jerusa-
lem (347) are the most important ex-
tant document relating to the catecliu-
menate. During the fourth and fifth
centuries the catechumenate attained its
greatest development. The Church was
the great pedagog, not so much through
its personal organs as through the total
impression and influence of its educa-
tional and devotional institutions. In
tlie sixth century this admirable system
for religious instruction and education
began to decline. Because of the in-
creasing numbers of those who sought
admission into the church, the prelimi-
nary instruction was dropped, and tlie
catechumenate was reduced to an im-
mediate preparation for baptism. The
Middle Ages never developed a system of
instruction which approached in effec-
tiveness the catechumenate of the early
Church. The Roman hierarchy in gen-
eral concerned itself little with the labo-
rious instruction of children. The Ref-
ormation brought about a great change.
Luther emphasized the necessity of in-
structing the young and thus revived the
catechumenate, which, however, was not
to prepare for baptism, but to instruct
and indoctrinate the baptized children
of the Church and to prepare them for
their first Communion. Hence the term
catechumens is now frequently used to
denote those who are instructed prepara-
tory to their first Communion. Our
Christian day-schools more than equal
the catechumenate of the early Church,
Categorical Imperative. Term used
by Kant (g-v.) to denote highest moral
law, in so far as it demands absolute
obedien.ce, regardless of any possible ad-
vantage or pleasure, and by him stated
thus : “Handle so, dass die Maxime dei-
nes Willens jederzeit zugleich als Prin-
zip einer allgemeinen Gesetzgebung gel-
ten koenne” (“Act so that the maxim of
thy will may at any time be adopted as
a universal law”). Opposed to eudemon-
ism (q.v.).
Catena (chain) is a commentary com-
posed of extracts from different authors
elucidating a text, especially the Bible.
Their composition dates from the fourth
century to the close of the Middle Ages.
Many extracts of otherwise unknown
works have thus been preserved.
Cathari ( Catharists ) . A new Mani-
cliean sect related to the Bogomiles, the
Bulgari, and the Albigenses, found in
various countries of Western Europe, in
Northern Italy, in France, in Germany,
and in Flanders. They were not sound
in the doctrine of the Trinity, believed in
a baptism of the Spirit in a very peculiar
sense connected with ordination, but
claimed to have a perfect degree of
purity in doctrine and life. They flour-
ished chiefly in tlie eleventh and twelfth
centuries.
Catharina, Santa ( Parana, and Other
States), Synod of. An Evangelical Lu-
theran synod in Brazil, founded 1898,
affiliated witli the Iowa Synod; 28,827
baptized and 13,905 confirmed members
(1923).
Cathedral. The chief church of a
diocese, containing the cathedra, or
official throne, of the bishop of the dio-
cese. There are many notable examples
of superb art, both in architecture and
in decoration, among the cathedrals of
Europe, and their fame has extended
throughout the world. Even in the
Byzantine style there are some cathedral
churches of unusual size and beauty.
The most perfect church embodying the
ideas and characteristics of the Byzan-
tine style is the Hagia Sofia of Constan-
tinople, which was built by Emperor
Justinian from 532 to 537, after the de-
struction of the first Church of the Holy
Wisdom. The ground-plan of this church
shows a three-aisled, oblong basilica, its
center being a circle inscribed in a
square, which, in turn, is flanked by
half-circles of the same diameter as the
center one. In addition, there are three
semicircular cells opening out from the
half-circles, one of them serving as the
apse. The church is 250 feet long by
235 feet wide, and tlie ceiling of the dome
Cathedral
118
Cathedral
rises 180 feet above the center of the
floor. At the time of its completion it
was considered the most gorgeous
church in the world, and even to-day it
ranks with the most beautiful edifices of
its kind. — The most majestic church of
the second period of the Byzantine style
is San Marco of Venice, built as a shrine
for the relics of St. Mark, which were
brought from Alexandria to Venice in
828. After the first structure had burned
down, the present building was erected,
the dedication taking place in 1094. It
is an imposing structure, and many
critics, including Ruskin, have almost
exhausted the English language in de-
scribing its beauties. It is built accord-
ing to the cruciform plan. “St. Mark’s
of Venice rivals St. Sophia in exquisite
beauty of interior and excels it in ornate
richness of the exterior.” — Among other
isolated instances of Byzantine influence
in the West might be noted the Cathe-
dral of Pisa with its tower.- This cathe-
dral has the basilican principle of length
and peristyle and the regular cruciform
shape, but its principal and most con-
spicuous feature is its Byzantine dome,
this characteristic being found also in
Ravenna and in Aachen.
Among the cathedrals of the Roman-
esque period those of Tournay, Angou-
leme, Angiers, and Poitiers are master-
pieces, the beauty of their facades being
fully equaled by the disposition and
ornamentation of the interior. The Min-
ster of Cluny prepared the way for the
transition to the late Romanesque. Its
nave had barrel vaulting, the transepts
cross-vaulting. The pilasters and pillars
were constructed with the greatest tech-
nical skill to counteract the thrust of
the arches. — Of the Norman cathedrals
of England which have not been recon-
structed in the Gothic style is the Cathe-
dral of Durham. It is here that we find
the flying buttress employed to rest
against the wall of the clerestory and to
counteract the thrust of the main roof.
The same principle is applied in the
transept of the Cathedral of Ely. — In
Sicily and Southern Italy, where the
Romanesque type was introduced during
the Norman occupation, there are sev-
eral monuments which are notable, espe-
cially the cathedrals of Palermo and
Cefalu. A peculiarity in this entire part
of Sicily is the use of Saracenic orna-
mentation.
The Romanesque churches of Germany
show a regular, rhythmic, consistent de-
velopment of the fundamental ideas of
the style. The steady progress of archi-
tecture was especially notable along the
Rhine, the distinctive characteristic of
the German Romanesque being the cube
capital. The Cathedral of Speier was
reconstructed twice, due to floods and
faults in the vaulting. In its final form
it presented a three-aisled vaulted ba-
silica with single transept and semicir-
cular apse. The Cathedral of Mainz was
modeled after that of Speier, with minor
changes, such as the omission of the
ornamental half-column in the case of
pilasters that received no thrust. The
third cathedral belonging to this group
is that of Worms. The round towers of
this church flanking both the eastern
and the western choir and the octagonal
towers over the cross-vaulting of the
transept and over the eastern apse are
especially noteworthy. The Cathedral of
Limburg is an example of the transition
from the Romanesque to the Gothic, the
round arches of its windows being very
agreeably offset by the pointed arches of
the inside wall and over the aisles. The
same feature is found in the Cathedral of
Magdeburg, one of the fine examples of
German architecture during this period.
The birthplace of the Gothic style is
the Isle de France, an island of the Seine
in the heart of Paris, where the mag-
nificent Cathedral of Notre Dame was
erected between 1163 and 1235. The
western facade was the last to be built,
the towers being carried up to their
present height, hut no spires added. Al-
though the unity of the original five-
aisled plan has suffered somewhat on ac-
count of restorations and changes, the
simple beauty of the structure appeals
to every visitor. With the increasing
iloridity in style came a lighter construc-
tion of Gothic cathedrals. The Cathe-
dral of Chartres (1195 — 1260) in its
every line expresses daring and pride,
mixed with sternness. The apse received
an addition of three ceils, or niches;
nave and transept were three-aisled and
of the same width. No less stately and
beautiful was the Cathedral of Rheims
(1211 — 1295), whose appeal was en-
hanced by its historical associations.
This church belongs to the period of the
best development in France, everything
being designed to assist the idea of
length and growth. The Cathedral of
Amiens (1220 — 1288), in many respects
the most gorgeous of all French churches,
marks the turning-point of Gothic art
in France. It is 521 feet long, and its
vault rises in a tapering arch to a height
of 140 feet. But the excellent propor-
tions of its construction are made sec-
ondary to the elaborate decoration of its
arches and tympanum, with Scriptural
reliefs, figures of saints, apostles, mar-
tyrs, and angels.
Cathedral
119
Catholic Apostolic Church
In England, national characteristics
and racial development combined in im-
pressing upon the Gothic style a peculiar
dignified and challenging stateliness,
without the softening features of free-
dom and grace, while at the same time
the English cathedrals generally surpass
their Continental rivals in beauty of de-
tail and elegance of proportion, chiefly
because the English were the first to
grasp the decorative side of the Gothic
style. Among the earlier structures,
which also exhibit the features of suc-
cessive periods, are the Cathedral of
Canterbury, that of Lincoln, and that of
Salisbury. Although Gothic features
preponderate in these churches, yet the
other characteristics are strong enough
to stamp their peculiarity upon them.
Next in order we have the Minster of
Beverly, the Cathedral of Wells, and
parts of the cathedrals of Rochester,
Lincoln, Peterborough, and Ely. In all
these churches the length of the choir
becomes abnormally great, terminating
invariably in a straight wall. Examples
of the decorated style in England are the
cathedrals of Exeter (1280 — 1370), Lich-
field (1290—1420), York (1291—1388),
and Wells. Of these, the Cathedral of
York is considered by many critics the
best exponent of the Gothic style in Eng-
land, magnificent stateliness being ex-
pressed in almost every line of the build-
ing. Its facade is the most beautiful in
England, although the enormous win-
dows seem out of proportion.
In the countries of the Continent out-
side of France, Italy has the Cathedral
of Milan, the one true representative of
Gothic art beyond the Alps; Spain has
the Cathedral of Burgos, designed after
that of Paris. Germany has several
notable examples of Gothic art, its most
perfect church, mathematically consid-
ered, being the Cathedral of Cologne
(1248 — 1516), the very perfection of its
parts having an almost monotonous
effect. Other churches of the first rank
are the Minster of Ulm and the Cathe-
dral of Strassburg, the latter being not-
able for its single spire. Among the,
fine churches of Nuremberg that of
St. Lorenz, with its beautiful facade, is
rightly given the first place. — Among
the churches which have been erected
since the force of the Gothic in Europe
spent itself is St. Peter’s, of Rome, be-
gun by Bramante, continued by Michel-
angelo, and finished by Fontana, its dome
presenting the most beautiful and ex-
alted outline of any edifice in the world,
and St. Paul’s, of London, built by Sir
Christopher Wren (1675 — 1710)... It has
the proportions of a Gothic cathedral,
with rotunda and dome, the latter reach-
ing the magnificent height of 360 feet.
The building reflects the spirit of the
age, when rigid Protestantism became
the religion of the people. See also
Architecture.
Catholic. This word, taken from the
Greek and meaning “universal,” is first
applied to the Christian Church as a
whole in a letter of St. Ignatius (ca.110):
“Whore Christ is, there is the Catholic
Church.” It was later applied to the
true Church in distinction from heretical
sects. The word made its appearance in
the Third Article of the Apostles’ Creed
in the fourth century. When the East-
ern and Western Churches separated, the
former called itself the Orthodox, the
latter the Catholic Church. Since the
Reformation the word has become a mere
appellative for the papal Church, often
with the prefix “Roman” (though also
Greek Catholic, Anglo-Catholic). Some
Protestants have tried to rescue the
term, but as it is not of Biblical origin,
no more principle is involved than in the
analogous restriction of the term “Amer-
ican.”
Catholic Apostolic Church. This de-
nomination had its inception in a move-
ment which arose in the beginning of the
second quarter of the nineteenth century.
Impressed by the nearness of the Lord’s
second coming and appalled by the un-
readiness of the Church, in its divided
condition, to receive Him, people of all
denominations began to pray for a gen-
eral revival and for the outpouring and
restoration of such a measure of the
Holy Ghost as distinguished the' apos-
tolic age. In Scotland the movement be-
gan in 1830 and took its distinctive form
in 1835. In February, 1830, some mem-
bers of a Presbyterian church near Glas-
gow began to speak in what were be-
lieved to be supernatural utterances. In
May, 1831, similar utterances were beard
in London, the first in a congregation of
the Church of England; and soon the
same spiritual phenomena appeared in
other places of England. Though these
utterances were forbidden by the bishop,
as interfering with the service, many be-
lieved them to be of divine origin. The
manifestations continued, and in 1832,
as a result of the “prophetic revelations,”
certain men were regarded as called to
the office of apostle. Others were added
from time to time, until, in 1835, twelve
in all had been chosen, corresponding to
the number of the original apostoiate.
The call of these men was held to con-
stitute them a college of apostles, “dis-
tinguished from all other ministry by the
Catholic Apostolic Church
120
Celano, Thomas a
claim that their call and mission were
not by election of the Church, but by
direct call and mission from the Lord
Jesus Christ, by the Holy Ghost, making
them superior in mission and authority
to all other ministry.” The “apostles”
proceeded to ordain and commission
evangelists and to organize in nearly all
Christian nations, churches, on what
they regarded as the original apostolic
pattern, which would show how the Lord
would govern His Church, if it would
permit itself to be governed thus. The
principle upon which the organization of
the Catholic Apostolic Church is based
is that a twelvefold apostleship, as in the
first days of the Church, is the Lord’s
only ordinance for supreme rule over the
whole Church and for revealing His
mind. Local churches are each under
the charge of a bishop, designated
“angel,” with a staff of priests and dea-
cons, whose call, consecration, appoint-
ment, and rule are subject to the
apostles. A call from the Lord by the
Word of the Holy Ghost through proph-
ets is a prerequisite to the office of priest
or bishop. Ordination to the priesthood
and diaeonate and consecration to the
episcopate are exclusive functions of the
apostleship. Bishops and priests, thus
called and ordained, are classified for the
ministry as elders, prophets, evangelists,
or pastors, this classification following
the four kinds of gifts specified in Eph.
4, 11 — 13. Persons seeking admission to
the Church are received by the bishop of
the local church on the certificate of the
evangelist bishop as to baptism, instruc-
tion in doctrine, and acceptance of the
authority of the apostles. The support
of the ministry is provided for by the
payment of the tithe, in addition to free-
will offerings for worship and for the
poor. The organization has no foreign
missionary, educational, or institutional
work, the work of the church being
directed toward the awakening of the
Christian Church to the hope of the
Lord’s coming and preparation therefor,
-r— The first church in the United States
was organized at Potsdam, N. Y., and
the second in New York City, in 1851.
The adherents of this communion are fre-
quently called “Irvingites,” from the fact
that the celebrated preacher Edward
Irving was prominent in the movement
resulting in its formation. — In 1862 the
New A-postolic Church was organized by
Bishop Schwarz in Hamburg, Germany,'
who, teaching that the spirit of the
apostles had often inspired new selec-
tions for that office, selected a priest
named Preuss. Therefore the followers
of Bishop Schwarz were excommunicated
from the Catholic Apostolic Church and
thus commenced the New Apostolic
Church. This body is in full agreement
with the teachings of the Catholic Apos-
tolic Church; but while the latter main-
tains that there should he only twelve,
apostles, the New Apostolic Church does
not limit itself to this number. — Doc-,
trine. While the Catholic Apostolic
Church accepts the three historic cath-
olic creeds, the Apostles’ Creed, the Ni-
cene, and the Atbanasian, it emphasizes
the restoration of the ordinances of the
laying on of hands by the apostles for
imparting the fulness of the gift of the
Holy Ghost; the necessity of the gifts
of the Spirit, as tongues and prophecies,
and the other gifts, for the perfecting of
the Church; the payment of the tithe as
due to Christ, the High Priest, in addi-
tion to voluntary offerings; and the
hope of the Lord’s speedy coming to raise
the dead and inaugurate His reign of
peace on earth, commonly called the Mil-
lennium. — In 1916 the Catholic Apos-
tolic Church numbered 13 organizations
and 2,768 members; the New Apostolic
Church, 20 organizations with 3,828
members.
Catholic Church of North America.
A Bmall body of Catholics who are not
organically connected with the Roman
Church, but have retained all its doc-
trines and usages. See Old Catholics.
Cave, William, 1037 — 1713; Angli-
can patristic scholar. B. at Pickwell;
rector at London; canon of Windsor;
viear of Isleworth; d. at Windsor; wrote
Lines of the Fathers ; etc.
Cawood, John, 1775 — 1852; educated
at Oxford; held various positions as
clergyman, the last as incumbent at
Bewdley, Worcestershire; among his
hymns: “Hark! What Mean Those Holy
Voices”; “Almighty God, Thy Word is
Cast.”
Cazalla, Augustino, 1510 — 59; Span-
ish martyr. Accompanied Charles V to
Schmalkald War; lost faith in Cathol-
icism; arraigned by Inquisition and ex-
ecuted as a Lutheran heretic in first
auto-da-fe.
Cecilia, Saint, a Christian martyr,
died about A. D. 230 ; her feast-day in
the calendar being November 22. Patron
saint of music, particularly of church
music, legend ascribing invention of
organ to her.
Celano, Thomas a. Hymn-writer of
the' 13th century, born in Italy, later
a pupil of Francis of Assisi, whose biog-
raphy he wrote; joined the Franciscan
order when it was founded; subsequently
Celebes
121
Celibney
custos of the convents of Worms and
Cologne and afterwards of the Rhine dis-
i riots ; composed sequences : “Fregit
Victor Virtualis” and “Sanctitatia Nova
iSigna,” but above all the world-renowned
“Dies Irae, Dies Ilia” (“Day of Wrath,
That Day of Mourning” ) .
Celebes. An island of Dutch East
Indies. Area, 71,150 sq. mi.; popula-
tion, estimated at 2,000,000; mostly Ma-
lays and Indonesians. Islam and Hindu-
ism are reigning religions. Missions:
The Netherlands Missionary Society, ac-
tive for more than ninety years, estab-
lished a strong native Christian Church
among the Alifurs, whole districts being
Christianized.
Celestin.es. The name of two minor
monastic societies, both long extinct,
which owed their origin to Pope Celes-
tine V.
Celibacy. Celibacy, the renunciation
of marriage, is required in the Roman
Church of all who enter major orders,
therefore of subdeacons, deacons, priests,
and bishops. A married man can be or-
dained only if he separates from his
wife with her eonsent. Unsound notions
concerning the married state appeared
in the Church in very early times, pos-
sibly before the death of the apostles.
Perhaps the influence of the Jewish sect
of Essenes and of certain pagan concep-
tions gave rise to the idea that the single
state was more perfect and holy than the
married. One of the early apocrypha,
the Acts of Paul and Thekla, embodies
this notion ; monasticism (g. v.) adopted
and further inculcated it. Presently
many Christians began to look for this
perfection in their shepherds and to give
preference to unmarried pastors. The
great Synod of Nicea (325) was asked
to forbid the marriage of the clergy, and
all the arguments now advanced by
Romanists were urged, but it refused to
take such a step. The Synod of Gangra
(355?) found it necessary to raise its
voice against those who refused to ac-
cept the ministrations of married clerics.
In 386, however, Pope Siricius forbade
the marriage of priests, claiming that
they could not properly perform their
spiritual duties if hindered by “obscene
desires.” This expression, applied to
legitimate marriage, characterizes the
view of marriage as something impure
and contaminating, which underlies the
movement toward celibacy. Later Popes
confirmed this edict, and the synods of
the West issued canons in the same
spirit. But Popes and synods notwith-
standing, the priesthood, for over six
hundred years, struggled openly and in
secret against the tyranny of its su-
periors. The varying fortunes of the
struggle cannot be traced here. In the
eyes of Rome the wives and children of
priests were concubines and bastards and
were treated with brutality. The Synods
of Pavia (1018) and Amalfi (1189) ad-
judged them to actual slavery. The
famous Hildebrand (known in Germany
as Hoellenbrand, “a brand of hell”), as
Pope Gregory VII, decided the struggle
for the papacy. He renewed enactments
according to which a married priest who
said Mass and a layman who took Com-
munion at his hands were both excom-
municated. When Gregory saw that the
opposition of the married priests and
the half-hearted support of the hierarchy
threatened to nullify his plans, he did
not scruple to incite the nobility and the
common people against the married
priests and their families. The brutal
nobles and the ignorant populace of that
dark age welcomed the opportunity of
persecuting the men who had been their
superiors, but whom the head of the
Church now pronounced sinners of the
worst type. Every species of brutality,
including mutilation, torture, and death,
was visited on the unhappy priests and
their still more unfortunate families.
By such means the yoke of celibacy
was riveted on the Roman clergy, and
though their struggles against this tyr-
anny continued long after Gregory’s
time, the issue was never again in doubt.
The Reformation called attention to the
vicious results of the institution, which
were evident on every hand (see Art.
XXIII of the Augsburg Confession and
the Apology). Emperor Ferdinand and
the sovereigns of France, Bavaria, and
Poland asked the Council of Trent to
consider the repeal of celibacy, but the
Council decreed: “If any one saith that
clerics constituted in sacred orders . . .
are able to contract marriage, and that,
being contracted, it is valid, ... let him
be accursed.” ( Sess. XXIV, can. 9. ) “If
any one saith that it is not better and
more blessed to remain in virginity or in
celibacy than to be united in matrimony,
let him be accursed.” (Ibid., can. 10.)
Rome knew too well the advantages of
having at the disposal of the hierarchy
a priesthood free from every ordinary
tie and attachment. Yet the Council
found it necessary to make special pro-
visions regarding “the illegitimate sons
of clerics.” (Sess. XXV, chap. 15.) • — Ro-
manists draw specious arguments from
such passages as Matt. 19, 12; 1 Cor. 7,
8. 32. 33, passages which refer to volun-
tary continence and cannot be applied
to enforced celibacy (see 1 Cor. 7, 7. 9).
Celsn*
122 Central America and Went Indies
The position of the apostles appears from
1 Cor. 9, 5; 1 Tim. 3, 2; Titus 1, 6; the
mark of Antichrist is foretold 1 Tim. 4, 3.
By making celibacy obligatory, Rome im-
poses a tyrannous yoke on many who
have not received the gift of virginity
from God (1 Cor. 7, 7), exposes them to
temptation, and opens the door to gross
immorality and unnatural vices. To
what extent this is true, the reader may
learn for himself from the bulls of Popes
and the decrees of synods hy referring to
Dr. H. C. Lea’s monumental works on
Sacerdotal Celibacy and on Confession
and Indulgences. Rome invests matri-
mony with the sanctity of a sacrament
and admits that celibacy is only an in-
stitution of the Church, but how it re-
gards its own ordinance as against the
Law of God was plainly expressed by
Sir Thomas More when, in answer to
Tyndale, he averred that the marriage of
priests “defileth the priest more than
double or treble whoredom.”
Celsus, pagan philosopher, second cen-
tury A. D.; first known literary oppo-
nent of Christianity. Wrote Logos Ale-
the s, A. D. 178, which was lost, but
known to us through Origen’s reply
Kata Kelson , A. D. 248. First attacks
Christianity from Jewish viewpoint,
then attacks Judaism and Christianity
from pagan viewpoint. Christianity is
height of nonsense, Christ a mere juggler.
Celtic Church in Britain and Ire-
land. Long before the mission of Augus-
tine (597) a Christian church existed in
parts - of Great Britain and Ireland.
Afterwards, when the new Anglo-Roman
Church had become established, it main-
tained its independence for some time,
comprising two branches, one in Roman
Britain and Wales, the other in Ireland
and Alba ( Scotland ) . There is no trust-
worthy account of the introduction of
Christianity into Britain, but no doubt
the Gospel came to the island by the
ordinary intercourse with other coun-
tries, most probably from Gaul and the
lower Rhine, and thus Christianity took
a firm foothold in the cities and stations
of the Roman highway. In the fourth
century the Christian Church in Britain
was well organized and was in constant
touch with the rest of the Church, par-
ticularly in Gaul. — From Britain, Chris-
tianity was brought to Ireland during
the fourth century as a natural outcome
of a close intercourse between South-
western Britain and Southeastern Ire-
land. The actual foundation of the
Celtic Church in Ireland must be re-
garded as the result of that first great
wave of monasticism which swept over
Gaul and Britain in the middle of the
fourth century and carried a number of
half-Romanized Christian Britons to Ire-
land. On the northeast coast of Ireland,
Christianity no doubt was established
about 400. In North Britain, or Scot-
land (Alba), a Briton by the name of
Nynia (St. Ninian) founded a monastery
on the peninsula of Wigtown, in the ex-
treme southwest of Scotland, about the
year 400, from which Christianity spread
among the Piets south of the Grampian.
The Celtic Church attained to full de-
velopment and maturity between the
fifth and ninth centuries, owing to the
work of Augustine, the Saint of Canter-
bury, Gildas, Bede, Patricius, Columba,
and others in Ireland. However, the
true facts are shrouded in impenetrable
mystery, and the legends of the Roman
Church render it still more difficult to
pierce the veil which envelops the ancient
Celtic Church in Britain, Ireland, and
Scotland. The story of St. Patrick seems
to be a legend only. Due to the activity
of the monasteries, the Celtic Church be-
came more and more Romanized, and be-
tween A. D. 800 and 1200 it was com-
pletely assimilated with the Roman
Church, which by this time had taken
a firm hold in these countries.
Cemeteries. According to the ety-
mology of the word ( coemeterium — -
koimeterion) , sleeping-places; according
to Christian use, the final resting-places
of those who die in the faith. A beauti-
ful sentiment is expressed in the ancient
designation “God’s acre.” The name
cemeteries was applied, since ancient
days, to special plots set apart for the
purpose of burying the dead; but it re-
ceived a new significance in connection
with the catacombs, the subterranean as-
sembly-places and burial-grounds of the
Christians, chiefly during persecutions.
See also Burial; Catacombs.
Cenobitism. See Monasticism.
Censor. Roman Catholics are held to
submit “all writings having special ref-
erence to religion and morality” to the
bishop before publishing them. A theo-
logian, appointed censor by the bishop,
examines them 'and renders a written
verdict. He expresses complete approval
with the words Nihil obstat, followed by
his signature. See Index of Prohibited
Books.
Central America and the West In-
dies, Catholic Church in. The territory
here included is that of British Hon-
duras, Guatemala, the Republic of Hon-
duras, Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
and Panama, on the mainland of Central
America, and the islands of Cuba, Porto
Ventral America anil West Indies 123
Central America, Missions In
Rico, Haiti and Santo Domingo, Ja-
maica, and the Leaser Antilles, together
with the Bahama Islands, east of the
Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico.
By virtue of the claims of discovery and
exploration following the journeys of Co-
lumbus at the end of the fifteenth and
the beginning of the sixteenth century,
Spain, a strongly Catholic country, made
very strong efforts to establish the Ro-
man Catholic Church in the new posses-
sions. Roman Catholic missionaries ac-
companied every expedition, especially
some of those under the leadership of
Balboa, Cortez, Alvarado, and Pizarro.
Their mode of making converts, with an
almost total absence of any serious at-
tempt at indoctrination of the natives,
soon made the present Central American
countries nominally Roman Catholic. To
this day the Indians in many localities
retain their native language and live in
almost primitive conditions. Where they
are classed as Roman Catholic converts,
their relation to the Church is hardly
more than a name. The uncertain con-
ditions characteristic of the Central
American republics, after their success-
ful revolt against the mother country in
the second decade of the last century,
brought much suffering to the Church.
Its property was confiscated, monasteries
were abolished, monks were banished,
and the members of the secular clergy
were persecuted. Another heavy burden
upon the Roman Church has been its
great poverty. The relation between the
Roman See and the Central American
countries has been regulated by a series
of concordats, and the state religion is
still everywhere that of the Roman
Church, although religious toleration is
now legally assured in all the states.
The diocese of Guatemala was founded
in 1534, attaining to the dignity of an
archiepiscopate in 1743. The suffragan
bishoprics are Nicaragua, since 1534;
Comayagua, for Honduras, since 1561 ;
San Salvador, since 1842; and San Jose
of Costa Rica, since 1850.
The religious history of the West In-
dies resembles that of Central America,
with the one exception that stronger at-
tempts have been made to bring the
pure Gospel to the natives of the islands.
One of the first missionaries of the Ro-
man Church was Las Casas {q. v.), who
came to Cuba in 1502, proving himself
the champion of the natives in more
than one respect. After the death of
this man the wish of Columbus, namely,
“the conversion of these people to the
holy faith of Christ,” made good prog-
ress along the lines usually adopted by
the Roman Church in gaining countries
for its dominion. During the last half
of the sixteenth century the history of
the West Indies is a daTk record of
slavery, piracy, and cruelty. Church and
State were one; no faith but that of the
Roman Church was permitted, and the
inquisition was introduced to drive out
heresy in every form. A large part of
the original native population disap-
peared during this reign of terror, its
place being taken by a mixed multitude
of Africans, Chinese, and Hindus, to-
gether with a vicious lot of half-breeds.
African fetishism and voodooism con-
tinued to be practised side by side with
the customs and the worship of the Ro-
man Church. Cuba and Porto Rico are
still predominantly Roman Catholic,
Haiti and Santo Domingo are also out-
wardly so, while Jamaica has become
Protestant in part, as have the Bahamas,
while the Lesser Antilles are still
strongly Roman Catholic. The bishopric
of Havana is the most powerful in the
islands, and the cathedral is one of the
costliest, if not the most beautiful,
church-building in the former Spanish
possessions. But till 1898, at the time of
the American occupation of Cuba, prac-
tically nothing had been done for the
Christian education of the natives and
their children, and conditions are still
far from being even approximately ideal
in this respect, except in Porto Rico,
where the government of the United
States has introduced public schools and
many Protestant denominations are ac-
tive in spreading the Gospel.
Central America, Missions in. Gua-
temala, the northernmost state. Area,
48,290 sq. mi.; population, 2,120,000,
mostly Indians and half-caste. Capital,
La Nueva. Prevailing religion, Roman
Catholic, with assured toleration. Lan-
guage, Spanish. Missions: Central Amer-
ican Mission; Church of the Nazarene;
Friends’ Church of California; Presby-
terian Church in the United States;
Primitive Methodist Church; Seventh-
day Adventists ; United Free Gospel and
Missionary Society; Church of England.
Foreign staff, 80; Protestant Christian
Community, 10,455 ; communicants, 6,238.
— Salvador, the smallest Central Amer-
ican republic. Area, 7,225 sq. mi.; popu-
lation, 1,800,000 ; chiefly Indians of mixed
race. Language, Spanish. Religion, Ro-
man Catholic, with toleration of other
faiths. Missions: American Baptist
Home Mission Society; Central Ameri-
can Mission; Seventh-day Adventists.
Foreign staff, 21; Protestant Christian
Community, 1,003; communicants, 953.
— Honduras, republic in Central Amer-
ica, Area, 44,275 sq. mi. ; population,
Central America, Missions in 124
Chalcedon, Council of
600,000, of Spanish and Indian mixture.
Language, Spanish. Religion, Roman
Catholic, with nominal toleration. Mis-
sions: Central American Mission, Evan-
gelical Synod of North America ; Friends’
Church of California; Seventh-day Ad-
ventists; Wesleyan Methodist Mission-
ary Society; Church of England. For-
eign staff, 45 ; Protestant Christian
Community, 1,727 ; communicants, 1,350.
— - British Honduras, or Belize, Britiih
crown colony in Central America. Area,
8,598 sq. m. ; population, 40,500, Negroes
and Indians. Language, Spanish and
English. Missions: Wesleyan Methodist
Missionary Society; Church of England;
Independent. Foreign staff, 15; Protes-
tant Christian Community, 1,723; com-
municants, 1,197. — Nicaragua, Central
American republic on the isthmus. Area,
49,200 sq.m.; population, 75,000, Span-
iards and Indian mixture. Natives, Mos-
quito Indians. Language, Spanish. Ro-
man Catholicism is state religion, with
toleration. Missions among Mosquitos
since 1741 by Society for Propagation of
Gospel. Other missions : American Bap-
tist Home Mission Society, Central
American Mission; Unitas Fratrum
(Moravians) ; Church of England. For-
eign staff, 44 ; Protestant Christian Com-
munity, 10,708; communicants, 3,861. —
Costa Rica, republic in Central America,
extending from Caribbean Sea to Pacific
Ocean. Area, 23,000 sq. mi. ; population,
estimated, 430,000, of Spanish and In-
dian mixture, with some native tribes in
interior. Language, Spanish. Religion,
Roman Catholic, with toleration. Mis-
sions: Central American Missions;
Methodist Episcopal Church; National
Baptist Convention; Seventh-day Advent-
ists; Wesleyan Methodist Missionary
Society; Church of England; Jamaica
Baptist Missionary Society. Foreign
staff, 22; Protestant Christian Com-
munity, 1,019; communicants, 701. —
Panama, republic of the isthmus. Area,
32,380 sq. mi.; population, exclusive of
canal zone, which belongs to the United
States, 375,000, of Spanish, Indian, and
Negro descent. Language, Spanish. Re-
ligion, Roman Catholic, with toleration.
Missions (Canal Zone included) : Ameri-
can Bible Society; Free Methodist
Church; Methodist Episcopal Church;
Protestant Episcopal Church; Seventh-
day Adventists; Southern Baptist Con-
vention; Salvation Army; Wesleyan
Missionary Society; Jamaica Baptist
Missionary Society; Independent. For-
eign staff, 57 ; Protestant Christian Com-
munity, 5,170; communicants, 3,665. —
Panama Canal Zone, a strip of land
across the isthmus, acquired by United
States in treaty concluded November 18,
1903, for the express purpose of build-;
ing the Panama Canal. Missions; see
sub Panama.
Centuries, Magdeburg. A church
history published at Magdeburg, each of
the 13 volumes covering a century, pro-
jected by Flacius in 1553, helped by
Wigand, Judex, Faber, Corvinus, Ams-
dorf, Veltbeck, Holthuter, and Alemann,
1560 — 74. The monumental work proves
Lutheranism to stand on apostolic ground.
Caesar Baronius opposed it with his
Annals, 1588 — 1607.
Cerinthus, a Judaizing Gnostic, who
maintained the validity of the Mosaic
Law, but in true Gnostic fashion sepa-
rated the creator (Demiurge) from God,
denied the humanity of Christ (Doce-
tism), yet, inconsistently, retained the
Jewish notion of a millennium with its
center in Jerusalem. According to Ire-
naeus the Gnostic ideas of Cerinthus fur-
nish the background of St.John’s polemic
in his epistles.
Certosa. In reality a Carthusian
monastery, but applied also to a second-
ary or side church connected with the
cathedral or dome church, the special
form having been developed at Florence.
Ceylon, island south of India, British
crown colony. Area, 25,481 sq. mi.;
population, ' 4,757,000, mostly native
Singhalese, 800,000 Tamils. Religions:
Buddhism, Hinduism, Mohammedanism.
474,000 Christians. — Missions: Ameri-
can Board; Seventh-day Adventists;
Y. M. C. A.; Y. W. C. A. British: Bap-
tist Missionary Society; British and
Foreign Bible Society. Ceylon and India
General Mission : Church Missionary So-
ciety; Church of England Zenana Mis-
sionary Society; Friends; Salvation
Army; Society for Propagation of Gos-
pel; Wesleyan Methodist Society; Swed-
ish Church Mission; Heuratgoda Vil-
lage Mission; India Christian Mission,
Independent. Foreign staff, 229; Chris-
tian Community, 64,589; communicants,
32,388.
Chalcedon, Council of. The Fourth
Ecumenical Council was held at Chal-
cedon, a city in Bithynia,' on the Bospo-
rus, opposite Constantinople, in 451. It
was occasioned by the Eutychian Contro-
versy ( q . v.), which, in turn, was brought
about by the rival spirit between the
patriarchs of Antioch, Alexandria, and
Constantinople. The question centered
in the point that the two natures of
Christ were included in His one person,
not parted or divided into two persons.
Leo the Great had already expressed him-
self on the disputed point with great
Chaldean Christians
125
Chaplain
emphasis, and his exposition was fol-
lowed by the Council when it declared:
“Following the holy fathers, we all with
one voice teach men to confess that the
Son and our Lord Jesus Christ is one
and the same, that He is perfect in god-
head and perfect in manhood, truly God
and truly man, of a reasonable soul and
body, consubstantial with His Father as
touching His godhead and consubstantial
with us as to His manhood, in all things
like unto us, without sin; begotten of
His Father before all worlds according
to His godhead; but in these last days
for us and for our salvation of the Vir-
gin Mary, the Theotokos, according to
His manhood [humanity], one and the
same Christ, Son, Lord, only-begotten
Son, in two natures, unconfusedly, im-
mutably, indivisibly, inseparably; the
distinction of natures being preserved
and concurring in one person and hypos-
tasis, not separated or divided into two
persons, but one and the same Son and
Only-begotten, God the Word, the Lord
Jesus Christ, as the prophets from the
beginning have spoken concerning Him.”
Chaldean Christians. See Nestori-
ans.
Chalmers, James. B. at Ardishaig,
Scotland, 1841; d., in company with
Oliver Tomkins, at the hands of canni-
bals on Goaribari Islands, in the South
Pacific, April 8, 1901. Sent by London
Missionary Society to Rarotonga, 1866,
where he trained many native evangel-
ists; later transferred to New Guinea.
Chalmers, Thomas, 1780— 1847. First
leader of Free Church of Scotland. B. at
Anstruther; minister at Kilmany, 1803,
interest centering in mathematics and
chemistry; pastor at Glasgow, 1815 — 23,
combating vice and pauperism and estab-
lishing schools while in charge of St.
John's; professor at St. Andrews, 1823;
at Edinburgh, 1828; also member of
Church Extension Committee, helping to
build 220 new churches. The General
Assembly refusing to grant the parishes
veto power upon nomination of obnox-
ious ministers, 471 clergymen left the
Establishment and founded the Free
Church of Scotland under the moderator-
ship of Chalmers, 1843. D. as principal
of Free Church divinity school, Edin-
burgh. Prolific author (refuted Hume’s
objection to truth of miracles).
Chandler, John, 1806 — 1876. Edu-
cated at Oxford; published numerous
sermons and tracts, also devotional lit-
erature; very successful in translating
Latin hymns; wrote: “The Advent of
Our God,” and others.
Channing, William Ellery, fore-
most American Unitarian theologian.
B. 1780 at Newport, R. I.; d. 1842 at
Bennington, Vt. Since 1803 pastor in
Boston. Rejected Biblical doctrines of
inspiration, Trinity, atonement, total
depravity, devil, but accepted Christ’s
sinlessness, miracles, resurrection. See
Unitarianism.
Chants and Chanting (Liturgical).
The musical setting and the proper in-
flections for the liturgical part of the
church services, including those for the
collects, versicles, prefaces, responses,
lections, etc., the beautiful psalm tunes,
and the whole body of original melodies
for the antiphons, introits, graduals, and
the festival forms of the Kyrie, Gloria,
Tersanctus, Agnus Dei, and many hymns,
based upon the Gregorian music, as mod-
ified by the motet. In the churches in
which there is a proper appreciation of
the liturgy as conducive toward edifica-
tion the liturgist will pay due attention
to his chanting, in order to eliminate
the personal, dramatic element as much
as possible, the objective feature being
thereby given the right emphasis. The
enunciation, especially during the chant-
ing of the Communion liturgy, must be
clear and distinct, lest the accusation be
brought that the Lutheran Church also
makes use of Secreta. The pericopal les-
sons and all lessons read at the lectern
are no longer chanted, chiefly on account
of the extreme difficulty in sustaining
the chant for so long a period.
Chapel. Originally the sanctuary in
which was preserved the cappa, or cope,
of St. Martin of Tours, then expanded
to designate any sanctuary containing
relics. Many of these being the private
or court churches of rulers and princes,
the name was chiefly applied to such
sanctuaries. At present the name is used
for special compartments or recesses in
cathedral churches, usually bearing a
special name, and for small churches of
any denomination, as distinguished from
large parish churches.
Chaplain. A clergyman, usually with
special, limited functions, as one em-
ployed in a private chapel to read the
lessons and to preach; used in America
especially of men opening or conducting
religious services in an assembly of a
public or semipublic nature, as in legis-
lative assemblies, in public institutions,
this feature having become a positive
nuisance in the army or on board a ship.
The name is used also for the man con-
ducting religious exercises of any kind
in secret societies.
Chapman, J. Wilbur
120
Charles V
Chapman, J. Wilbur, 1859 — . Pres-
byterian. B. at Richmond, Ind.; pastor
at Albany, Philadelphia, etc.; evangel-
ist, 1893 — 6; member of General As-
sembly’s Committee on Evangelistic
Work. Author.
Chapter (of a cathedral). The canons
(q.v.) and other dignitaries of an Angli-
can cathedral church, who together form
a kind of diocesan senate and assist the
bishop in various ways. The bishop is
required to have their counsel for some
administrative acts and their consent for
others. There are no chapters in the
United States.
Character Indelebilis. A term used
in Roman Catholic theology to denote
a certain spiritual mark which is said
to be impressed on the recipients of cer-
tain sacraments. “If any one saith that
in the three Sacraments, to wit, Baptism,
Confirmation, and Order [ordination],
there is not imprinted in the soul a char-
acter, that is, a certain spiritual and in-
delible sign on account of which they can-
not be repeated: let him be accursed.”
(Council of Trent, Sess. VII, can. 9.)
The “character” of Baptism is said to
distinguish the baptized (including Prot-
estants ) as soldiers of Christ and to sub-
ject them to the Pope and the canon
law, while the “character” of Order sets
apart the clergy from the laity. This
curious doctrine is one of several which
were spawned in the speculations of the
scholastics and ended by being solemnly
proclaimed Roman doctrine, with a curse
for gainsayers attached. The whole fan-
ciful structure is built on three Bible-
passages which speak of being sealed
with the Holy Spirit.
Charity, Brothers of. A name com-
mon to several benevolent orders of the
Roman Church, among them an order
founded by John of God in 1540, which
is probably the moat important male
order devoted to the care of the sick.
A flourishing order of the same name
was founded in Belgium early in this
century and has extended its work to
America.
Charity, Sisters of. A name applied
loosely to a dozen or more female com-
munities in the Roman Church, devoted
especially to nursing and the care of the
sick. Most prominent are the Sisters of
Vincent de Paul, who teach in parochial
schools, conduct hospitals and orphan-
ages, and are in a kind of dependence on
the Lazarists.
Charlemagne {Charles the Great).
Founder of the Holy Roman Empire.
B. 742, son of Pepin of the Carolingian
line; d. at Aachen, 814, He was anointed
( together with his father and his brother
Karlman) king of the Franks by Pope
Stephen II in 754 and crowned emperor
of the Romans, by Pope Leo III, on
Christmas Day, 800. He carried forward
the policies of his father and strongly
supported the Roman Pontiff throughout
his reign, recognizing the Pope’s head-
ship and undertaking to deliver the
papal territory from Lombard oppres-
sion. He conducted five campaigns
against the Lombards, the final result
being the inclusion of their territory in
his own domain. He undertook eighteen
expeditions against the Saxons, which
had the object of bringing Christianity
to this part of Germany and of establish-
ing Frankish rule. Whenever he extended
the boundaries of his realm, he provided
for the speedy Christianization of the
territory acquired by covering the coun-
try with Christian institutions and by
forcing the people to submit to baptism
and to a full agreement with the cultus
of the Roman Church; for the conver-
sion of the entire population in this
sense he considered essential to the at-
tainment of his political ends. — There
can be no doubt that Charlemagne’s ser-
vices to learning are a prominent feature
of his history. He succeeded in gaining
some of the most eminent educators of
Britain and Italy for this work, among
whom Alcuin (q.v.) is particularly not-
able. Through the monasteries and
churches the emperor sought to spread
civilization and learning throughout his
realm, also in the matter of church
music, a field which at that time was
still seriously neglected in Germany.
He took a decidedly negative stand in
the Iconoclastic Controversy (q.v.), and
it was largely due to his influence that
there was a revival of Christian art in
Germany. At the same time he con-
demned the adoration and service of
images. Altogether, Charlemagne was
one of the most outstanding figures of
the Middle Ages.
Charles V, ruler of German Empire.
B. February 24, 1500; elected emperor
June 28, 1519. As a good Catholic he
condemned Luther in the ferocious Edict
of Worms in 1521, also to please the
Pope, whose help was needed against
France. In 1526 the Reichstag at Speier
had to be tolerant to the Lutherans, for
the League of Cognac boded ill for the
Kaiser, and the Turk was a menace. The
second Reichstag at Speier, in 1529, was
not so tolerant, for the Kaiser felt
stronger after the Peace of Cambray in
1529. Crowned at Bologna in 1530, he
would end the Lutheran trouble at Augs-
burg. But the Lutherans stood firm in
Charles, Elizabeth
127
Chemnitz, tlarl ( n
their Augsburg Confession, and the Turk
was again threatening, and so Charles
could do no crushing, and the Nuernberg
Religious Peace of 1532 gave the Luther-
ans religious liberty for one year. The
Turk was allied with France and forced
the Kaiser to further concessions to the
Lutherans at Speier in 1541 and 1544.
In 1547 Charles crushed the Smalcald
League in the Battle of Muehlberg.
Maurice of Saxony turned on him and
almost took him prisoner at Innsbruck
and forced on him the Passau Treaty of
1552 and the Augsburg Religious Peace
of 1555. In 1556 he resigned and ended
his days in the cloister of St. Just in
Spain.
Charles, Elizabeth, nSe Bundle, 1828
to 1896; author of popular works on
various periods of church history, also of
simple hymns intended principally for
children, among which: “A Hymn of
Glory Let Us Sing.”
Charnock, Stephan, 1628 — 80. Puri-
tan; Londoner; proctor at Oxford;
chaplain in Ireland; beginning with
1660 preacher without regular charge;
joint pastor of Presbyterian congrega-
tion, London. Wrote Existence and At-
tributes of God; etc.
Chastity. In its more general sig-
nification the state of physical and moral
purity in sexual relations and the proper
attitude of positive aloofness from un-
permitted sexual desires. Strictly speak-
ing, it involves the complete control of
the sexual tendency in the unmarried
and the proper governing of this ten-
dency within the married state. While
the sexual instinct in itself is not sinful,
every transgression of its lawful expres-
sion is unchastity, whether in thought
(Matt. 5, 28), in word (Epli. 5, 3. 12), or
in deed (1 Cor. 6, 15).
Chasuble. See Vestments, R. G.
Chautauqua. The methods and ideas
of the Chautauqua movement are trace-
able to the Chautauqua Sunday-school
Assembly, which held its first ten-day ses-
sion on the shores of Chautauqua Lake,
N. Y., in 1874. Since then the scope of
the work was enlarged, including all
branches of popular education, offering
a variety of courses, lectures, religious
addresses, entertainments, and concerts.
Chautauquas are now held in various
parts of the United States; they are a
unique feature of American life and a
factor in the educational system of
America. It is estimated that in a single
season nearly 2,000,000 people attend the
Chautauquas in the United States. While
formerly, on the whole, centers from
which stimulating suggestions, important
information, and wholesome entertain-
ment were distributed, the chautauquas
have now largely deteriorated to the
level of entertainment bureaus. In point
of religion they are unionistic.
Chemnitz, Martin, Lutheran theolo-
gian. B. 1522 of an impoverished noble
family; worked his way through school;
studied at Wittenberg in 1545, befriended
by Melanchthon; missed some of Lu-
ther’s lectures on account of philology
and astrology; was appointed librarian
to Albrecht of Prussia at Koenigsberg in
1550 and studied theology to his heart’s
content; attacked Osiander’s false doc-
trine of justification and, when Moerlin
was deposed, returned to Wittenberg in
1553, Melanchthon’s guest and pupil, and
substituted for him in lecturing on his
Loci; Moerlin’s coadjutor in Brunswick
in 1554, ordained by Bugenhagen; pres-
ent, in 1557, at Wittenberg at the con-
ference between the true Lutherans and
the Philippists and at the religious con-
ference between the Lutherans and the
Romanists at Worms, where he saw the
need of a united front against Rome.
When Moerlin became bishop at Koenigs-
berg in 1567, Chemnitz was made super-
intendent of the city of Brunswick, which
paid the expenses of his doctorate at
Rostock. He successfully upheld true
Lutheranism against Selnecker’s Philip-
pism in 1570 He helped Duke Julius
organize the University of Helmstedt in
1575 and dedicated it. He took the lead-
ing part in getting out the Formula of
Concord , and the Catalog of Testimonies,
which is appended to the Symbolical
Books, is essentially his work. When
Duke Julius consecrated one son bishop
of Halberstadt according to the Roman
ritual and tonsured two others, Chemnitz
criticized him and was deposed as Coun-
selor, and the Formula of Concord was
denied symbolic recognition in Bruns-
wick, though before this Julius had
spent money for the good work. To-
gether with Selnecker and Kirchner,
Chemnitz, in 1582, published an Apology
of the Book of Concord. He defended the
Lutheran doctrine of the Lord’s Supper
in 1561, 1569, and 1570. His Chief
Chapters of Jesuit Theology appeared in
1562 and his monumental Eceamen of the
Council of Trent in four volumes, 1565
to 1573. His Gospel Harmony came out
in 1593 (continued by Polycarp Leyser
and finished by John Gerhard), the
greatest work of this kind until that
time. His Loci were published by Leyser
in 1591. Failing health forced him to
resign in 1584; d. 1586. The most
learned theologian of his time was
mourned by the whole Lutheran Church;
Cherubim
128
Chiliaim
his importance is seen in the Catholic
saying that if Chemnitz had not come,
Luther had not stood.
Cherubim. The plural form of cherub,
a name applied to a certain rank of
angels. They are mentioned for the first
time in Gen. 3, 24. Cherubim are espe-
cially prominent in the visions of Eze-
kiel (chap. 10). What form they were
given in the embellishment of the Ark
of the Covenant in the Tabernacle is a
mystery which may never be solved since
we have no description, either in the Old
Testament or in Jewish tradition, of
these figures. In the vision of John the
cherubim are evidently a type, no longer
of vengeance, but of forgiveness, since
they appear in the same choir with the
redeemed multitudes (Rev. 4, 7; 5, 13),
no longer armed with flaming swords,
but joining in the new song of the Church
Triumphant.
Cherubini, Luigi, 1760 — 1842; stud-
ied under his father and various other
teachers at Florence, later at Milan ;
precocious; composed in his early teens,
chiefly secular music, but also ' eleven
masses, two requiems, and other sacred
pieces.
Cheyne, Thomas Kelley, 1841 — 1915.
Anglican ; Radical critic. B. in London ;
priest in 1865; Oriel Professor of Inter-
pretation of Scripture at Oxford, 1885 ;
member of Old Testament Revision Com-
pany; d. at Oxford. Commentaries and
many other publications.
Chicago Synod (formerly Synod of
Indiana ) , belonging to the General Coun-
cil, so called since 1895, embraced con-
gregations in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio, and
Michigan. It maintained Weidner In-
stitute in Mulberry, Ind., established at
Colburn, Ind., in 1903. In 1918 the Chi-
cago Synod entered the United Lutheran
Church. In 1920 it was divided into
three parts, one helping to form the
Illinois Synod (II), one the Indiana
Synod (III), and one the Michigan
Synod (III) of the U. L. C. At the time
of its division it numbered 44 pastors,
41 congregations, and 6,485 communi-
cants. See also Synods, Extinct, and
United Lutheran Church.
Children, Dependent, Care and
Training of. Dependent children are
now commonly eared for in orphanages,
by so-called home-finding societies, and,
if infants under three years of age, in
foundling-homes. Since the child rightly
ought to be brought up in the home, the
home-finding societies make it their busi-
ness to have orphans and abandoned
children adopted by Christian families.
Children’s Crusade. See Crusades.
Children’s Services. A form of pub-
lic worship in which hymns and anthems
sung by children are the outstanding
feature, supplemented by readings, reci-
tations, and catechizations bringing out
the special purpose of the day and its
service. A warning is in place that ser-
vices of this nature must always bear a
churchly character. They are commonly
held at Christmas, Easter, on Reforma-
tion Day, at Pentecost, and on Rally
Day. The teaching of the Word of God,
at least by Bible readings, must never
be omitted in such services.
Chile. See South America.
Chiliasm (or Millenarianispi ) is a be-
lief in the Millennium, i. e., the belief
that Christ will reign personally on
earth with His Baints for one thousand
years or an indefinitely long period be-
fore the end of the world. This belief
is based upon Rev. 20, 1 — 6. The belief
antedates the Christian Church; for the
Jews, mistaking the spiritual character
of the Messiah’s kingdom, entertained
the opinion that as the Church had con-
tinued two thousand years before the
Law and two thousand years under the
Law, so it would continue under the per-
sonal reign of the Messiah for two thou-
sand years until the commencement of
the eternal Sabbath. They expected that
the Messiah would rule visibly and glo-
riously in Jerusalem, His capital, over all
the nations of the earth, and that the
Jews, as His special people, would be
exalted to permanent dignity and privi-
leges. That the chiliastic, or millena-
rian, belief was entertained in the early
Christian Church is abundantly attested.
It was adopted by the apostolic fathers
of the Jewish Christian branch of the
Church, such as Barnabas and Pastor
Hermae, and prevailed generally through-
out the Church from A. D. 150 to 250,
its principal advocates being Irenaeus
and Tertullian. Since that time mille-
narianism, or chiliasm, always officially
rejected by the Christian Church as
such, has, nevertheless, been held and
circulated by individuals and particular
denominations, especially those of the
Adventist type. Millenarians are divided
into two classes, Premillenarians and
Postmillenarians. Basing their doctrine
on the literal interpretation of Rev. 20,
1 — 10, Premillenarians hold — 1) that
after the development of the Antichris-
tian apostasy at some time, variously
estimated, Christ would suddenly appear
and commence His personal reign of one
thousand years in Jerusalem. The dead
in Christ — some say only the martyrs
Chlllaam
129 '
Chlllaam
— would then rise and reign with Him
in the world, the majority of whose in-
habitants would be converted and live
during this period in great prosperity
and happiness, the Jews in the mean
time being converted and restored to
their own land; 2) that after the thou-
sand years there will come the final
apostasy, which will endure for a little
season, and thereupon the resurrection
of the rest of the dead, that is, the
wicked, and their judgment and con-
demnation at the Last Day, the final
consummation, and the new heavens and
the new earth. Although differing among
themselves as to details, premillenarians
are in substantial agreement with the
views just stated. They are called pre-
millenarians because they believe that
the second advent of Christ will occur
before the millennium. In contradistinc-
tion to premillenarians, postmillenarians
believe: 1) That through Christian agen-
cies the Gospel will gradually permeate
the entire world and become immeasur-
ably more effective than at present;
2) that this condition will continue for
one thousand years; 3) that the Jews
will be converted, either at the beginning
of, or some time during, this period;
4) that, following this, there will be a
brief apostasy and a terrible conflict be-
tween Christ and evil forces; 5) that
finally and simultaneously there will oc-
cur the advent of Christ, the general
resurrection, the judgment, the destruc-
tion of the world by fire, and the reve-
lation of the new heaven and the new
earth. The opponents of millenarianism
advance the following Scriptural argu-
ments to disprove its views: 1) That
the premillenarian theory is distinctly
Jewish in its origin and Judaizing in its
tendencies; 2) that it is not consistent
with the Scriptures, which teach a) that
the kingdom of Christ is spiritual, that
regeneration is the condition of admis-
sion to it, and that its blessings are
purely spiritual, consisting in forgive-
ness of sin, sanctification, and eternal
life, John 3, 3. S; 18, 36; Col. 1, 13. 14;
b) that the kingdom of Christ has al-
ready come, Acts 2, 29. 36; Heb. 10,
12. 13, and that, accordingly, the Old
Testament prophecies which predict this
kingdom refer to the present dispensa-
tion of grace, in which Christ gathers
His spiritual kingdom through the Gos-
pel, and not in order to establish a fu-
ture reign on earth in person among men
in the flesh; 3) that the second advent
of Christ will not occur until the resur-
rection, when all the dead, both good and
evil, are to rise at once, Dan. 12, 2; John
5, 28. 29; 1 Cor. 15, 23; 1 Thess. 4, 10;
Concordia Cyclopedia
4) that the second advent will not occur
until the simultaneous judgment of all
men, the good and the evil, together,
Matt. 25, 31—46; Rom. 2, 5—16; 1 Cor.
3, 12—15; 2 Cor. 5, 9—11; 2 Thess. 1,
6 — 10; 5) that the second advent of
Christ will be attended with a conflagra-
tion and the revelation of the new heav-
ens and the new earth, 2 Pet. 3, 7 — 13.
Antimillenarians object to the literal
interpretation of Rev. 20, 1 — 10 for the
following reasons : 1 ) Rev. 20, 1 — 10 is
part of a book of the Bible which uses
highly figurative language, in conse-
quence many passages of the book must
be interpreted figuratively and not lit-
erally. 2) The passage in question does
not treat of the second coming of Christ
and does not prove the millenarian view.
3) The view supposedly proved by this
difficult passage, viz., of two resurrec-
tions, first of the righteous and then
after an interval of a thousand years of
the wicked, is taught nowhere else in the
Bible, hence it is contrary to sound exe-
gesis to base a view so far-reaching upon
a single passage, which is at best ob-
scure. 4) The Scriptures uniformly
teach that the nature of the resurrection
body is “spiritual” and not “natural” or
of “flesh and blood,” 1 Cor. 15, 44; hence
it is presumptive and contrary to the
Scriptures to teach that the saints, or
at least the martyrs, will rise and reign
a thousand years in the flesh and in the
world as constituted at present. 5) The
literal interpretation of this passage con-
tradicts the clear and uniform teaching
of the Scriptures, which declare that all
the dead, good and evil, will rise and be
judged together at the second coming of
Christ, which will he attended by an en-
tire revolution of the present order of
creation. In opposition to the view of
the future general conversion of the
Jews, antimillenarians offer the follow-
ing objections: 1) Outside of Rom. 11,
15 — 29 the Hew Testament is entirely
silent on the subject of a general con-
version of the JewB. This would be an
inexplicable omission in the clearer reve-
lation if that event were really to take
place. 2) If Rom. 11, 15 — 29 is to be
taken in a literal sense, then all those
Scripture-passages must be taken in a
literal sense which speak of the personal
reign of David in Jerusalem, Ezek. 37, 24,
and of the restoration of the Levitical
priesthood and the reintroduction of
bloody sacrifices offered to God, Jer. 17,
25. 26 ; Ezek. 40 — 48. The literal in-
terpretation would thus lead to the re-
vival of the entire ritual system of the
Jews, which is inconsistent with the
spirituality of the kingdom of Christ and
9
Chillingrwortli, William
130
China
opposed to all those passages of Scrip-
ture which assert the abolition of all
distinction between the Jew and Gentile
and of the whole Levitical priesthood
with its sacrifices, which were but types
of the body of Christ. Gal. 4, 9. 10; Col.
2, 16—23; Heb. 7, 12—18. Lastly, it is
maintained that both the Old Testament
prophets as well as the apostles clearly
distinguish between Israel according to
the flesh and Israel according to the
Spirit; and that the Scriptures clearly
emphasize that only the spiritual Israel,
the holy seed, consisting of the elect of
God, shall be saved. Rom. 11, 1 — 10;
9, 31 — 33. — See also Millennium.
Chillingworth, William, 1602 — 44.
Anglican. B. at Oxford; Catholic 1630;
Anglican again 1634; chancellor of
Salisbury 1638; chaplain of royal army;
prisoner of “rebels”; d. at Chichester.
Wrote Religion of Protestants ; Safe
Way to Salvation.
China (anciently Cathay), a republic
on the Western Pacific; embraces a vast
territory, well-nigh a continent. Area,
4,278,350 sq. mi. Population, estimated,
325,000,000. The Chinese call it “The
Middle Kingdom.” The immense country
is commonly divided into China proper
— consisting of eighteen provinces, all
more or less independent of each other,
with the northern half, generally speak-
ing, acknowledging Peking as the capi-
tal, and the southern half Canton — and
the dependencies: Manchuria, Mongolia,
Chinese Turkestan, Sungoria, and Tibet.
Being in the temperate zone, China has
a climate very much like that of the
United States in the same degrees of
latitude and is largely influenced by the
regular monsoons. The greater part of
the country is mountainous, but there
are large tracts of fertile soil, chiefly on
the Great Plains and in the valleys of
the great rivers. The most important
rivers are the Yangtze, 3,000 miles; the
Hwang-Ho, or the Yellow River, 2,600
miles; the Sin-(Kiang), 1,250 miles; the
Amur. The Grand Canal (650 miles)
connects the Yangtze and the Hwang-Ho.
The Chinese belong to the Mongolian
type of the human race, some sixty tribes
being represented. For centuries the
Chinese have been a civilized nation,
education being held in highest esteem,
though it was not common. Rigorous
examinations in the classic literature of
the country were required for political
preferment. A great change in educa-
tional methods was brought about after
the revolution of 1911, common schools
being rapidly increased in number and
opened to “Western” methods. The early
history of the Chinese people, while
highly elaborated and embellished by
Chinese historians, is hidden in darkness.
Dynasty after dynasty is recorded of
which no tangible trace appears. But
China was a civilized nation when all
European nations were steeped in bar-
barism. Its culture unquestionably ante-
dates that of the Greeks and Romans.
The oldest dynasty bordering on histor-
ical domain appears to be the Chow
Dynasty, founded by Wu Wang, and last-
ing from 1100 B. C. to 255 B. C. During
this dynasty Confucius, the great teacher
(551 B. C.), and other prominent men,
whose writings are still extant, flour-
ished. The religion of China is eclectic,
a mixture of Confucianism, Taoism, and
Buddhism. All over China there is a
multitude of temples, large and small,
elaborate and mean, in a good state of
preservation and dilapidated and crum-
bling, and an endless number of ritual-
istic acts is performed by the generally
densely ignorant priests and monks. The
average Chinese lives in constant dread
of evil spirits, whose malicious inten-
tions he must needs thwart, whose anger
he must appease. Ancestor worship is
an outstanding feature of the Chinese
cultus. The worship of Heaven, the
Earth, the Sun, in short, natural forces,
is elementary with Confucianism. Mo-
hammedanism claims some 15 million ad-
herents. Buddhism in China is of later
origin than Confucianism. Its most
prominent feature is the countless births
through which each individual' must pass
before entering into “salvation.” In the
early history of Christianity religious
Christian thought appears to have pene-
trated to China. Some Buddhist sects
have distinct reflexes of Biblical truth
derived from tracts like The Awakening
of Faith, and The Lotus Scripture, which
date back to the third century A. D. (cf.
The Creed of Half Japan, by Arthur
Lloyd). Manicheism unquestionably had
found an entrance into China long before
A. D. 800 (cf. “An Ancient Chinese Chris-
tian Document” in the Church Mission-
ary Review, October, 1912). Nestorian-
ism in China is historical through the
remarkable “Nestorian Stone,” which
dates from the eighth century and was
discovered at Hsianfu in 1625, and
through the records of persecutions con-
tained in Chinese literature. The Popes
at Rome, during the centuries antedat-
ing the Reformation, made repeated at-
tempts to introduce the Roman faith
into China, but only with passing suc-
cess and with no lasting results. In the
16tli century new Roman Catholic at-
tempts were made by Francis Xavier
China
131
Choir, Chorister
(d. December 2, 1552, on Shangchinan,
near Maeov) and Ricci, a Jesuit. In
1631 the Dominicans arrived. These
were followed by the Franciscans in
1633. These two orders protested vio-
lently to Rome against the Jesuitic ac-
commodation to paganism, and finally
Pope Innocent issued a bull against the
Jesuits (1645), which was annulled by
Pope Alexander VII (1656), hut virtu-
ally renewed by Clement XI (1704). In
1692 Kanghsi, the Chinese emperor, who
had been educated by the Jesuits, legal-
ized the dissemination of the Christian
religion throughout the empire. His
successor, Yungcheng (1736), inaugu-
rated persecutions against the Romish
Church, which continued for many years.
Many laws were promulgated against
popery. Later, popery and the French
colonial policy formed an alliance, which
led to a renaissance of the Catholic
Church in China, but because of its po-
litical intrigues also served to make not
only it, but all mission-work obnoxious.
Only the Protestant missions, with their
positive stand against court cases, served
to remove some of the odium resting
upon their work.
Protestant missions, due to the Chi-
nese policy of hermetic exclusion of all
foreigners, did not enter into China until
the middle of the 19th century. Robert
Morrison, sent by the L. M. S., came to
China, September 7, 1807, followed by
Mr. and Mrs. Milne in 1813, who lived in
Mocav, Malakka, and secretly in Canton,
doing valuable linguistic work. In 1813
Morrison published a translation of the
whole New Testament. In 1830 the
American Board sent Bridgman to Can-
ton. Guetzlaff, a missionary of Father
Jaenicke’s Seminary in Berlin, reached
China in 1831, doing independent mis-
sionary work, but only on the border of
China. After the notorious Opium War
between England and China (1842),
China was forced to open the five port
cities : Shanghai, Ningpo, Fuchow, Amoy,
and Canton, and as a result a new era
for commercial and missionary endeavor
was ushered in. Later wars opened new
ports, but also increased the Chinese
opposition to foreign commercial and
religious contact, which resulted in fre-
quent persecutions and culminated in the
Boxer outbreak of 1900, in which thou-
sands lost their lives. To-day all Chiha
is open to missionary endeavor. For-
eigners going far into the interior are
unmolested and frequently are welcomed.
Although American, Canadian, and con-
tinental missionary societies of all de-
scriptions are doing religious work in
China, there are still many districts,^
populated by millions that have not a
single bearer of the message of salva-
tion which is in Christ Jesus. Since
1835 missions were opened in China by
a great number of organizations in
Europe, America, and Australia, and by
the International China Inland Mission.
In addition, 18 China agencies are en-
gaged in some form of mission endeavor.
— Total number of organizations, 138.
Foreign staff, 7,663; Protestant Chris-
tian Community, 795,075; communi-
cants, 402,539. The Roman Catholic
Church reported 1,971,189 members in
1920. See also Missouri Synod, Missions.
China Inland Mission, founded by
the Rev. J. Hudson Taylor in England,
1865. The Society is interdenominational
and international. Separate homes for
training male and female missionaries
have been established in the field. Aux-
iliaries have been formed in different
countries. No other missionary society
has penetrated China like, the C. I. M.
It works in 19 provinces.
China, Religions of. See Confucian-
ism, Taoism, Buddhism, Ancestor Wor-
ship.
Chiniqui, Charles Paschal Teles-
phore. Controversial writer; b. in Can-
ada, 1809; d. at Montreal, 1899; Ro-
man Catholic priest 1833 to 1858, “Apostle
of Temperance of Canada”; left Church
of Rome and joined Canadian Presbyte-
rians; lectured extensively, also in Eng-
land and Canada; wrote tracts on tem-
perance and books bitterly hostile to
Roman Church.
Choir, Chorister. Although hymns
and antiphonal psalms and songs were
in use in the Christian Church since
earliest times, the choir as a separate
organization does not appear until the
establishment of Christianity as the
state religion, in the fourth century.
At that time the choir members, all of
them male voices, as a matter of course,
were reckoned as members of the lower
clergy, their position in the church being
next to the apse, in the east end of the
nave, between the two ambons. During
the Medieval period, when the choir took
the place of the congregation in the en-
tire liturgical service, its position was
shifted to the organ-loft, opposite the
altar. Since the Reformation three ten-
dencies are to be noted. In the Anglican
Church the choir is divided into two sets
of voices, the one sitting on the north
and the other on the south side of the
chancel, the one set being known as the
o antores, from their position near the
cantor or precentor, the other as the de-
cani, from their nearness to the decanus,
Choral
132
“Christ, Benefits of”
or dean. The decani usually have the
best voices and sing the solos and the
first choir in eight-part music. The
choristers in the Church of England are
vested and are considered members of
the lower clergy. The Anglican idea has
influenced many other Reformed bodies,
which have either adopted it as a whole
or adapted it in some form, since it
agrees so well with their notion of prayer
as a means of grace. In the Lutheran
Church the choir does not belong to any
lower clergy; it should, therefore, not
he vested, nor should it occupy a position
in the apse or in front of the congrega-
tion. Its position is on the organ-loft,
opposite the organ; it is a part of the
congregation and is supposed to lead in
the singing, especially of the liturgical
part of the services, and to embellish the
worship with ensemble , not solo work
(except as a part of a larger piece).
Choral. The choral was developed
from the cantus ehoralis, or choral chant,
the Plain Chant introduced at the time
of Gregory the Great. It was really
structurally monotonic, in part mere
musically graduated, stereotyped recita-
tive, the rise and fall of the vocal tone,
the choice of intervals, the tonic measure,
being determined not with reference to
the rhythm of the words or to grace and
expression of melody, but simply by the
textual notation. To carry out his ideas,
Gregory founded a large music school in
Rome and ordered that no man was to
be ordained priest unless he was thor-
oughly acquainted with singing. From
Rome choral singing of this form spread
to England and to the empire of Charle-
magne, the latter being very active in
founding schools for singing north of the
Alps, the most renowned being that of
Metz, under the management of Rhahanus
Maurus. The noble simplicity of the
Gregorian choral was continued in the
Lutheran choral, as introduced by Lu-
ther and his coworkers, the reformers,
however, possessing the necessary insight
into the circumstances of their times,
which prompted them to embody in the
choral tunes the elements of the religious
folk-song, making the Lutheran choral
a symmetrically coherent, rhythmically
expressive, sonorously emotional unit,
well adapted for the stately beauty as
well as for the delicate shadings of the
hymns which were composed in the cen-
tury of the Reformation.
Chorister. See Choir.
Chosen. See Korea.
Chrischona (St. Chrischona), Pilgrim
Mission ( Pilgermission von St. Chri-
schona bei Basel) ; founded by Pastor
C. F. Spittler of St. Chrischona, 1840, as
a mission-school; expanded 1860 for
mission-work in Abyssinia, which, how-
ever, was unsuccessful and therefore was
soon abandoned; since 1895 in connec-
tion with the China Inland Mission.
Chrism. The oil used for certain rites
of anointing in the Greek and the Roman
Catholic churches, especially in baptism,
confirmation, ordination, and extreme
unction. The blessing of this sacramen-
tal oil takes place annually, on Maundy
Thursday.
Christadelphians, i. e., “Brothers of
Christ,” a small American anti-Trinita-
rian sect, founded by John Thomas (q.v.),
who, after being a Disciple for a, few
years, left that denomination and taught
that all existing churches had become
apostate. He gained adherents, who or-
ganized into congregations which re-
jected the name “churches” and called
themselves .“ecclesias.” Their tenets, as
contained in A Declaration of the First
Principles of the Oracles of the Deity,
are as follows: They reject the doctrines
of the Trinity and of atonement. Christ
is merely the revelation of the eternal
Creator and the Holy Spirit an “efflu-
ence” of divine power. They reject the
doctrines of a personal devil, the immor-
tality of the soul, eternal damnation,
and infant baptism. They believe in the
Millennium, with the gathering of the
twelve tribes to Palestine and establish-
ment there by Christ of a kingdom in
place of human governments. At the
Judgment the just will be given immor-
tality; the wicked will be punished and
annihilated. Only those are saved who
believe the Christadelphian faith. Those
who never heard the Gospel or are sunk
in ignorance and brutality will not be
resurrected. They practise immersion
and close Communion. They have no
foreign missions and no ordained minis-
ters; lay workers are paid no salaries.
They had 145 “ecclesias” and 2,922 mem-
bers in the United States, 1916, and a
few “ecclesias” in England. Organs:
The Christadelphian Advocate, Chicago;
The Faith, Waterloo, Iowa.
Christaller, Gottlieb. B. at Winnen-
den, Wuerttemberg; d. at Stuttgart, De-
cember 16, 1895. Missionary of Basel
Missionary Society to West Africa;
made researches into Sudan languages;
translated Bible into Tzi (Tschi) and
G-a languages.
“Christ, Benefits of.” The title of
a famous evangelical treatise attributed
by some, though without sufficient evi-
dence, to the Italian reformer and mar-
tyr Aonio Paleario. The book was circu-
Christ Jesus;
133 His Person, States, and Office
lated in thousands of copies, but was
suppressed by the Inquisition.
Christ Jesus; His Person, States,
and Office. 1. The Person of Jesus
Christ. Concerning the person of Christ
the Scriptures teach that Jesus Christ is
the Son of God, very God, begotten of the
Father from eternity, and also true man,
conceived by the Holy Ghost and born of
the Virgin Mary. The union of the hu-
man and divine natures in the person of
Immanuel ( God-with-us, the God-man)
was revealed in prophecy, Is. 9, 6, and is
announced in the message of Gabriel. Of
the Son of Mary and descendant of Da-
vid, Luke 1, 32, the angel who announced
His conception and birth to His human
mother also said: “He shall be called
the Son of the Highest”; and His hu-
manity and divinity are asserted in one
statement of a subject and a predicate,
“That Holy Thing which shall be born
of thee shall be called the Son of God,”
Luke 1, 35. A human being can, by its
nature, never be essentially anything but
a human being. Hence Christ is not an
apotheosized man, a human person who
at some time or by some process of devel-
opment has been elevated to divine dig-
nity. Such a concept would involve a
contradiction in itself, incompatible with
the true notions both of humanity and
of divinity, and with the notion of nature
itself. Not by a deification, but by eter-
nal generation, Ps. 45, 6; 2, 7, Jesus is
true God; by the Word which was made
flesh all things were made. John 1, 3.
Because of the unity of His essence with
the Father He could truly say: “I and
My Father are one,” John 10, 30, and:
“He that hath seen Me hath seen the
Father,” John 14, 9. On the one hand,
then, the divine nature of Christ is and
ever was truly and essentially divine.
On the other hand, His human nature
is, and from its conception was, essen-
tially human, consisting of a human
body and a human rational soul, with its
own human intelligence, will, and affec-
tions, in all essentials a nature like our
own. He had a human body, flesh and
blood, as other children of men, and a
human soul, or spirit, a human under-
standing capable of natural growth,
a human will distinct from the divine
will, and human affections and emotions.
He suffered hunger and thirst and
fatigue and pain and temptation, lived
a human life, and died a human death,
the separation of body and soul.
But the duality of natures in Christ
must not be construed into a duality of
persons. There is in Christ but one per-
sonality, that of the divine nature, which
subsisted by itself as a person distinct
from the Father from eternity. Thus in
the Second Psalm the Son speaks of
Himself in the first person and is
spoken to by the Father in the second
person, the Father speaking of Himself
in the first. Nothing of the kind occurs
between the human and the divine na-
tures of Christ. And while the incarnate
Son distinguishes between His person
and that of the Father and that of the
Holy Ghost, speaking to the Father in
the second and of the Father and of the
Holy Ghost in the third person, John
17, 6, he invariably speaks of Himself as
one person.
Being true God, yet not the Father
nor the Holy Ghost, the man Christ
Jesus was able to be a mediator between
God and men, giving Himself a ransom
for all. This is the mystery of Imman-
uel, God manifest in the flesh, 1 Tim.
3, 16. This was possible, because, while
there is in Christ no mixture or con-
fusion of natures, there is in Him a com-
munion of natures, so that the divine
nature is the nature of the Son of Man
and the human nature the nature of the
Son of God, so that in Bethlehem the
Lord, the Son of God, was born, Luke
2, 11; Gal. 4, 4, and on Calvary God’s
own blood was shed, Acts 20, 28, and the
Son of God suffered an ignominious
death, Bom. 5, 10. Thus the personal
union and the communion of natures
established in Christ forms the basis of
an intercommunication of attributes be-
tween the natures personally united in
the God-man. Though in the person of
Christ each nature retains its essential
attributes unchanged and undiminished
in kind and number, yet each nature
also communicates its attributes to the
other in the personal union, so that the
divine nature participates in properties
of the human nature and the human
nature in those of the divine nature.
The statements of Scripture teaching
this communication of attributes (com-
municatio idiomatum) are of three kinds,
or genera, which, according to the ac-
cepted terminology, are genus idiomati-
cum, genus majestaticum sive auchenu. i-
ticum, and genus apotelesmaticum. It is
necessary to observe that by “attributes”
this terminology does not limit itself to
qualities of the divine and human na-
tures, but includes everything that these
natures do or suffer. Compare also the
presentation of the Formula of Con-
cord, Art. VIII; Concordia Triglotta,
p. 1016 ff. The reference to the three
kinds of communion of attributes in
the Formula of Concord is due to the
heretical perversions of this doctrine, as
when it was maintained that the Son of
Christ Jesus;
134 His Person, States, and Office
God could not really have human at-
tributes; nor the human nature such as
are divine.
Scripture-passages classified as state-
ments of the genua idiomaticum are
those whereby attributes of either na-
ture are ascribed to the entire person of
Christ, divine attributes are ascribed to
the concretum of His human nature, and
human attributes are ascribed to the
concretum, of His divine nature, for in-
stance, Heb. 13, 8 and John 21, 17 ;
Matt. 9, 6 and Gal. 4, 4.
Propositions of the second group, the
genus of glory, deal with the divine at-
tributes showing forth the glory of the
Only-begotten of the Father. Though
the human nature of the person of
Christ remains truly human, yet all the
divine properties and perfections and
the honor and glory thereto pertaining
are as truly communicated to His human
nature, so that the divine perfections
which the divine nature has as essen-
tial attributes the human nature has
as communicated attributes. In Christ
dwelleth all the fulness of the Godhead
bodily, Col. 2, 9; Heb. 1, 3. By virtue
of the personal union the Son of Man,
while He walked on earth and was
closeted with Nicodemus, was also in
heaven, John 3, 13, even as now, being
ascended into heaven, He, the Son of
Man, is with His Church on earth even
unto the end of the world, Matt. 28, 20.
By the direct communication of the op-
erative attributes, Jesus was constituted
an omnipotent man; in the man Christ
Jesus there dwelt, through and with the
operative attributes, eternal life, infinite
wisdom, immutable holiness and right-
eousness, boundless power, love indivis-
ible and everlasting as God Himself.
Although the human nature in Christ
remained truly human and as such could
be, and was, exposed to temptation, this
human nature, by this communicated
holiness, was not only sinless, but ab-
solutely impeccable.
The third group of Scripture-texts con-
cerning the communion of attributes in
Christ classifies as the genus apoteles-
maticum. The term is derived from the
Greek word for the performance of a
task. Scripture-texts under this head
assert a union by which in official acts
each nature performs what is peculiar
to itself with the participation of the
other. Not only did the entire person,
Christ, die for our sins, 1 Cor. 19, 3, but
we were reconciled to God by the death
of His Son, Rom. 5, 10. Thus also the
obedience of the child Jesus was a ful-
filment of the Fourth Commandment
rendered by the Son of God. And when
He died on the cross, such suffering of
body and soul was undergone by that
nature to which alone it was proper to
suffer and die, but with the concurrence
of the divine nature personally united
with the human nature. The third
genus, particularly, might appear as an
unnecessary burdening of Christian dog-
matics. It is, like the Lutheran treat-
ment of Christology in general, occa-
sioned by the Reformed opposition.
Reformed theology to the present day
strenuously demands the separation of
Christ’s actions as man from His actions
as the Son of God. For instance, Hodge :
“Omnipresence and omniscience are not
attributes of which a creature can be
made the organ.” “The human nature
of Christ is no more omniscient or al-
mighty than the worker of a miracle is
omnipotent.” “A human soul which is
omniscient is not a human soul.” As a
matter of fact even the Reformed Chris-
tian will not hesitate to accept 1 John
1,7. But by accepting this text, he sub-
scribes to the three genera of the com-
munion of attributes : for he believes
1) that the blood of Christ, which was
the blood of a human being, was the
blood of God’s Son ; 2 ) that divine
power, the cleansing of sin, is to be
ascribed to the blood of the man Christ;
and 3) that both natures cooperate in
a human-divine act.
2. The States of Humiliation and Exal-
tation. a) For the work of redemption
Christ, the God-man, humiliated Him-
self. Phil. 2, 6. To humble oneself is to
forego prerogatives which one might
rightfully claim. That nature according
to which Christ humbled Himself was
the human nature, the divine nature as
such being not capable of humiliation or
exaltation or any other change of state
or condition. Yet it was not the man
Christ, independent of the Logos, who
humiliated Himself, — for thus the man
Christ never existed, — but the indivis-
ible person Jesus Christ. This humilia-
tion did not consist in the assumption of
the human nature by the divine nature,
for then His exaltation must have con-
sisted in an abandonment of the human
nature by the divine nature and a dis-
solution of the personal union, ■ — the er-
ror of the Gnostics of old, — and in this
case the Sdn of Man would not now sit
at the right- hand of the Father Al-
mighty. The humiliation of the God-
man rather was that self-denial by which
He forbore using and enjoying con-
stantly what He might rightfully have
used and enjoyed. When He might have
deported himself as the Lord of lords,
He took upon Himself the humble form
Christ Jeans;
135 His Person, States, and Office
of a servant. Being rich, He took upon
himself poverty. He who fed the thou-
sands by the lakeside suffered hunger in
the desert and thirst on the cross. It
was the Lord of Glory who was crucified ;
the Prince of Life was killed. Lastly,
the body of the Holy One of God was
laid low in another man’s grave. Of
course, what Christ did willingly and
obediently forego was not the possession,
but the full and constant use, of the
divine majesty communicated to His hu-
man nature. Through all the years of
His humiliation, from the night of His
nativity to the night which shrouded
Golgotha in darkness at midday, rays
and flashes of the glory of the Only -be-
gotten of the Father bore witness to the
majesty of the Son of Man. He knew
what was in Nathanael’s heart, read the
past history of the Samaritan woman,
and saw the thoughts of the disciples as
well as of His enemies. He was in heaven
while He taught Nicodemus by night. —
The purpose of this humiliation of the
God-man was the redemption of the
world. The Holy One of God humiliated
Himself and became obedient unto death
to make atonement for our rebellious
disobedience. God in His righteousness
demanded that man should fulfil the Law
in perfect love toward God and toward
his neighbor. And lienee man’s Sub-
stitute was “made under the Law.” But
as the continued use of His divine maj-
esty would have placed Jesus beyond the
power of His human enemies, it was nec-
essary that He should forego such full
and constant use of His divine power and
majesty, in order that the work of re-
demption might be performed and the
Scriptures might be fulfilled. Matt.
28,19.20.
b) The resumption and continuation
of such full and constant use of His
divine attributes according to His human
nature, was and is the exaltation of
Christ, the God-man. The God-man was
exalted according to the same nature
which alone could be humbled and which
alone could be exalted. Eph. 4, 8; Heb.
2, 7. After His quickening in the sep-
ulcher He, according to His human na-
ture, descended to hell and manifested
His glory to the spirits condemned be-
cause of their unbelief. 1 Pet. 3, 18 if.
See Descent into Hell. Christ’s resur-
rection was the public proclamation of
His victory over sin and death. By His
ascension He visibly entered according
to His human nature into His heavenly
kingdom. And now, sitting at the right
hand of Power, He exercises dominion
also according to His human nature over
all creatures and especially over His
Church. Thus the form of a servant has
been forever put away, and when His
exaltation will culminate, He will come
again, indeed, as the Son of Man, but
He will come and appear in His glory
and sit upon the throne of His majesty
with power and great glory. Matt. 25, 31 ;
Luke 21, 27.
3. The Office of Christ. The name
Christ, strictly speaking, is not a proper
name, but a designation of office. It
signifies a person set apart for a pur-
pose, one anointed to a task, and, in the
case of our Lord, “the Anointed One,”
who functioned and functions in an ab-
solutely unique sense as Prophet, Priest,
and King. While Luther, Melanchthon,
and the other early Lutheran theologians
do not use this distinction technically,
it appears even in Eusebius. It was in-
troduced into Lutheran theology by Ger-
hard. — Anointed, then, means that Jesus
was appointed, qualified, commissioned,
and accredited to be the Savior of men.
He was divinely appointed to the office
which He filled. Heb. 5, 4. He was
qualified in that He received the Spirit
“without measure.” He was divinely
commissioned — - the Father sent Him;
cf. also Is. 49, 6. He is divinely accred-
ited, Acts 2, 22. Such is the intensive
force of the term Christ. It is summed
up in Acts 10, 38: “God anointed Him
with the Holy Ghost and with power.”
a. Prophet. Jesus is the great Eevealer
of divine Truth, both in His own person
and by His Word; the Logos of God to
man, revealing to lost mankind the holi-
ness, but above all the mercy and love
of God.
b. Priest. By His spotless, all-perfect
obedience, obedience unto death, He pro-
pitiated, in the place of all mankind, the
offended majesty of God. “Himself the
Victim and Himself the Priest,” He has
by His vicarious life and suffering ful-
filled all righteousness and atoned for all
sin. See Atonement ; Faith; Justification.
c. King. Possessed of “all power in
heaven and on earth,” Jesus, also accord-
ing to His human person, is now “Lord
of all,” so that all external events in
the world of man and of nature and all
spiritual influences are equally under
His control. As King He carries into
full effect the great purpose of His reve-
lations as Prophet and of His atoning
sacrifice as High Priest. Particularly,
He exercises dominion over the Church
He has redeemed, through the Gospel
and the holy ministry, in which and for
which Church He now reigns over heaven
and earth.
See also Ascension of Christ , Descent
into Hell, Judgment, Resurrection.
Christenlehre
136
Christian Church, The
Christenlehre. An instruction of the
Christian congregation by means of cate-
chizing, developed from the catechume-
nate. It flourished during the Reforma-
tion, but soon again fell into disuse. The
subject-matter treated is the Word of
God, which is profitable for doctrine, etc.
2 Tim. 3, 16. Faith in Christ not being
a transitory feeling, but based upon clear
knowledge of the Scriptures, it is neces-
sary to indoctrinate Christians thor-
oughly. In sermons the lecture method
is employed, in the Christenlehre the
catechetical method, which has this ad-
vantage, that it holds the attention, leads
to thinking, treats the doctrine more
systematically, dwells upon points not
fully clear, and affords excellent oppor-
tunity of pertinent application. While
it is true that in our churches the chil-
dren are asked and also answer the ques-
tions, the instruction is really intended
for the entire congregation. Still better
results would be obtained if the adults
also participated in the catechization.
Formerly Christenlehre was frequently
held on Sunday afternoon; now many
congregations devote about fifteen min-
utes of the morning service to Christen-
lehre.
Christian and Missionary Alliance.
This organization originated in a move-
ment started in the year 1881 by the
Rev. A. B. Simpson, pastor of a Presby-
terian church in New York City. For
several years he held services in public
halls, theaters, and so-called Gospel-
tents. In 1887 two societies were organ-
ized, respectively, for home and foreign
missionary work, one known as the
Christian Alliance, for home work among
the negleeted classes in towns and cities
of the United States; the other, the
International Missionary Alliance, for
the purpose of planting missions among
neglected communities in non-Christian
lands. In 1897 the two societies were
united in the Christian and Missionary
Alliance. — Doctrine. The Christian and
Missionary Alliance is evangelistic in its
doctrine and advocates a life of separa-
tion and practical holiness. It has no
strict creed, is not a sectarian body, and
is in fraternal union with evangelical
Christians of all denominations. — Polity.
There is no close ecclesiastical organiza-
tion, though the society has in the United
States and Canada about a dozen organ-
ized districts with some two to three
hundred regular branches. The territory
covered by the home and foreign mission
work of the Alliance embraces the United
States, Canada, the West Indian Islands,
the republics of Chile, Ecuador, and Ar-
gentina in South America, the Philippine
Islands, the Congo State and Western
Sudan in Africa, Japan, China, India,
and Palestine. In 1916 the Christian
and Missionary Alliance numbered 166
organizations, 99 pastors, 13 assistants
and 9,316 members.
Christian. Brothers (Brethren of the
Christian Schools). The most noted and
influential Roman Catholic educational
brotherhood, founded at Rheims in 1680
by Jean Baptiste de la Salle. The mem-
bers take the three simple vows (see
Vows), are pledged to teach without
compensation, and wear a special habit.
They dare not teach Latin, nor may
priests with theological training become
members (hence called Ignorantins ) .
Their organization and discipline recalls
that of the Jesuits, though they have no
official connection with that order.
Christian Catholic Church in Zion.
See Dowieites.
Christian Church. See Disciples of
Christ.
Christian Church, The. (American
Christian Convention). The pioneer of
this movement was the Rev. James O’Kel-
ley, a Methodist minister in Virginia. In
1792 he, with a number of others, with-
drew from the Methodist Episcopal
Church, organizing a separate body un-
der the name of Republican Methodists.
In 1794, however, they resolved to be
known as “Christians” only, taking the
Bible as their guide and discipline and
accepting no test of church-fellowship
other than Christian character. Similar
movements prevailed in other parts of
the country. In 1800 Rev. Abner Jones,
of Vermont, became convinced that “sec-
tarian names and human creeds should
be abandoned, and that true piety alone
should be made the test of Christian fel-
lowship and communion.” On this basis
he, in the same year, organized a church
at Lyndon, Vt. Likewise in 1800 there
was inaugurated in the Cumberland Val-
ley of Tennessee and Kentucky the
“Great Revival,” which was confined to
no denomination, but affected many, espe-
cially the Presbyterian Church. In con-
sequence of this movement separations
from the churches occurred, and in 1803
these separated bodies adopted the name
“Christians.” In 1832 this organization,
under the leadership of B. W. Stone,
joined the “Christians,” also named
“Campbellites,” after Alexander Camp-
bell, a prominent leader of the move-
ment, who in 1829, with a number of
followers, had separated from the Bap-
tists of Pennsylvania and Ohio. — Doc-
trine. The general principles upon which
the first churches of this denomination
Christian Church,
137
Ontllne History of
were organized continued to characterize
their doctrinal position. They set forth
no “creeds” or statements of doctrine
other than the Bible itself. Christian
character is the only test of church-
fellowship, and no professed follower of
Christ is debarred from membership be-
cause of differences in theological belief.
This same liberty extends to the ordi-
nances of the Church. Baptism is not
made a requisite to membership, al-
though it is often urged upon believers
as a duty. While immersion is generally
practised, no one mode is insisted upon.
Open Communion is practised, and ef-
forts are maintained to promote the
spirit of unity among all Christians.
With regard to the Trinity, the Person
of Christ, and other doctrines, they main-
tain Unitarian principles, for which rea-
son they also have been called “Unitarian
Baptists.” Other names applied to this
body are: “New Lights,” “New Light
Church,” and “Christian Connection.”
Their doctrines are stated in the follow-
ing summaries of faith: “Positive The-
ology, or, My Reasons for Being a Mem-
ber of the Christian Church,” by A. L.
McKinney. “ Christian Principles, or,
Why I Prefer the Christian Church,” by
J. J. Summerbell. — Polity. The general
polity of the denomination is congrega-
tional, each local church being independ-
ent in its organization. The mission-work
of the American Christian Convention is
carried on in two departments, home and
foreign, under the direction of a board
of ten members elected by the Conven-
tion. Foreign mission work is carried on
in Japan and in Porto Rico. The de-
nomination is especially represented in
Ohio and Indiana. Their denominational
organ, the Herald of Gospel Liberty, was
founded by Elias Smith at Portsmouth,
N. H., in 1808; it is the oldest religious
newspaper in the United States published
in the English language. It is now pub-
lished at Dayton, O., by the Christian
Publishing Association, which also issues
the Sunday-school literature. In 1921
the American Christian Convention num-
bered 861 ministers, 1,094 churches, and
97,084 communicants.
Christian Church, Outline History
of. The first followers of Christ were
gained by Him shortly after His baptism,
after He had returned from the wilder-
ness. John 1, 35—51. In the course of
the three years of Christ's public min-
istry this small band of followers grew
into a congregation numbering some hun-
dred and twenty in Jerusalem and the
vicinity, and a total of five hundred
brethren throughout the Holy Land. Acts
1, 15; 1 Cor. 15, 6. But the Day of Pente-
cost, following the resurrection and as-
cension of Christ, is commonly regarded
as the birthday of the Christian Church,
since the outward organization of what
has since been known as the Church may
be said to go back to that day. Acts
2, 41 — 47. The missionary activity of
the apostles began with this day, for
they followed the command of the Lord
to be witnesses to Him in Jerusalem and
in all Judea and in Samaria and unto
the uttermost part of the earth. Acts
1, 8. By the end of the seventh decade
of the first century, when the Apostles
Peter and Paul suffered martyrdom, the
Gospel had been spread in all the coun-
tries along the Mediterranean Sea, from
Syria throughout all the provinces of
Asia Minor, through Macedonia and
Achaia, including Illyricum, through
parts of Italy, and very likely in parts
of Gaul (France) and Spain as well.
The message of salvation had alsq been
proclaimed on the islands of Cyprus and
Crete, and it may have been known along
the northern coast of Africa. By the hnd
of the first century, according to fairly
reliable accounts, the apostles and their
assistants had spread the Word still
farther, so that it was known also in
Egypt, throughout the valley of the
Euphrates and Tigris, and as far east
as India, while in the north it had pene-
trated to Scythia and to the region along
the Danube. During the time from about
100 to 325 A. D., which includes what is
known as the Subapostolic, the Post-
apostolic, and the Ante-Nicene periods,
the Christian Church was further estab-
lished, to the uttermost parts of the Ro-
man Empire, and even beyond. We have,
at this time, the Apostolic Fathers, some
of them disciples of the apostles, among
them Ignatius of Antioch, Clement of
Rome, Polycarp of Smyrna, and Papias
of Hierapolis. But while the Church
grew and prospered, the enemies did not
rest and look idly on. During the first
century the government had not paid
particular attention to the Christians,
since they were regarded as a Jewish
party or sect. The persecution of Nero
was a sporadic outburst, the whim of
a cruel emperor, who needed some scape-
goats to cover up some of his own sus-
picious acts. In quite a few cases thiB
persecution found victims also outside of
Rome and its immediate vicinity. But
the situation changed in the last part of
the first century, and especially during
the second and third centuries. Histo-
rians distinguish as many as ten perse-
cutions, of which those under Domitian
(81 — 96), Septimius Severus (193 — 211),
and Valerianus (253 — 260) were not
Christian Church
138
Outline History of
particularly severe, while those under
Trajan (98 — 117), Marcus Aurelius (161
to 180), Decius (249 — 251), and Diocle-
tian, or, to be more exact, Galerius
(284 — 305), were marked by varying de-
grees of cruelties. During this period,
men like Irenaeus, Origen, Cyprian,
and Tertullian were prominent in the
Church. After the decree of Milan, by
which Emperor Constantine officially
recognized the Christian religion, the
Church rapidly rose to a position of in-
fluence and power, some of the rulers,
like Theodosius I and Justinian I, serv-
ing its interests with all the authority
at their command. Among the Church
Fathers of the Post-Nicene period the
names of Athanasius (d. 373), Basil the
Great, Gregory Nazianzen, Cyril of
Alexandria, Eusebius of Caesarea, Chrys-
ostom, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Ephraem
the Syrian, Ambrose of Milan, Jerome,
Augustine, and Johannes Damascenus
are notable. The rise of the papacy in
its outward organization may be traced
hack to the end of the first century, when
the hierarchical system of church govern-
ment was gradually developed. Origi-
nally the Church was altogether demo-
cratic in its organization, but the bishops
of large congregations soon claimed for
themselves powers which they did not
possess by divine right. For a while
there was a strenuous rivalry between
the incumbents of the strongest bishop-
rics, especially those of Antioch in Syria,
Alexandria in Egypt, Constantinople,
and Home. As early as the latter half
of the second century the bishops of
Rome presumed to dictate to churches in
the East. As time went on, their power
grew in proportion to their demands,
and by the end of the sixth century,
when Gregory the Great was the incum-
bent of the bishopric of Rome, the pa-
pacy was fairly well established, being
recognized quite generally, except by a
number of sectarian organizations. Be-
tween 600 and 1500 A. D. the full devel-
opment of the mystery of iniquity took
place, the bishops of Rome and their
henchmen being responsible for the in-
troduction of the false doctrines which
were subversive of the foundations of
the Christian religion, such as the doc-
trine of salvation by works, the worship
of saints, purgatory, seven sacraments,
transubstantiation, and others. These
centuries, especially after the eleventh
century, are rightly known as the Dark
Ages, not so much on account of a lack of
progress in material things, as on account
of the spiritual darkness which settled
over the people as a consequence of the
fact that the message of salvation was
withheld from them and by reason of
the increasing moral corruption of the
clergy. Matters reached such a pass
that many demands for the reformation
of the Church “in head and members”
were made, and three councils of the fif-
teenth century (Pisa, Constance, Basel)
were called for the purpose of bringing
about a change in the system then pre-
vailing in the Church. Men who hon-
estly opposed the errors of the Church
on the basis of the Word of God, such
as John Huss and Jerome of Prague,
were put to death. — But when the dark-
ness of spiritual neglect and ignorance
had covered practically the entire Church,
the Lord sent His chosen vessel, Martin
Luther, to proclaim the eternal truth of
the Gospel in all its pristine beauty.
The effect of Luther’s preaching and
writing was marvelous. His treatises
were read and studied not only in Ger-
many, but also in England, Denmark,
Sweden, Norway, France, Italy, Austria,
and elsewhere, and men began to turn
to the Bible as the only rule of doctrine
and life. The various Reformed church-
bodies may trace their origin chiefly to
Zwingli, in Switzerland, Calvin, in
France and Switzerland, and Knox, in
Scotland. Luther was fortunate in hav-
ing a number of excellent coworkers,
among whom Melanchthon, Bugenhagen,
Justus Jonas, and Spalatin may be men-
tioned. The leaders of the Church re-
fused to listen to the voice of truth and
to purge their organization of the errors
in doctrine and life which had crept in,
if they had not deliberately been intro-
duced, and so the Roman Catholic
Church became a sect. This was be-
tween 1517 and 1530, when the Augsburg
Confession and its Apology should have
brought them all to the knowledge of the
truth. The Romish Church definitely
fixed its status as a sect by the resolu-
tions of the Council of Trent, 1545 — 63.
The Counter -Reformation, inaugurated
by the Jesuits and others, succeeded in
holding quite a few people in the mazes
of error. Moreover, when the Church of
the pure Gospel had been once more
established and the doctrine of the Bible
formulated by the theologians of the lat-
ter sixteenth and the early seventeenth
century, the Thirty Year’s War wrought
havoc throughout Germany and inter-
fered materially with the steady growth
of the Word. The movement known as
Pietism was intended to bring a healthy
reaction against a threatening mechan-
ical orthodoxy, but overreached itself
and resulted in a doubtful attitude
against the doctrines of the Bible, the
consequence being the Age of Rational-
Christian Clinreh, History of 139 Christian Chnrch, History of
ism with its effort to make the Bible
subservient to the reason of men. The
result was an attitude of hypercritieism
over against the Bible and its doctrines,
especially in the university circles of
Germany, Prance, and England, the
movement reaching America somewhat
later. On the other hand, there has been
an awakening of confessionalism both in
Europe and in America, and matters
have taken a turn for the better in some
sections, the chief danger to the Church
of the pure confession at the present
time being the Social Christianity built
on the teaching of Schleiermacher and
Ritschl in Germany, and the unionistic
tendency which is characteristic of our
age. Nor dare we overlook Higher Criti-
cism and the so-called religionsgeschicht-
liehe movement as most dangerous fac-
tors. Compare the special articles on
the various persons and movements men-
tioned in this article.
Christian Church, History of, spe-
cial features of, 100—325 A. D. The
history of the Christian Church from the
close of the Apostolic Age to the acces-
sion of Constantine furnishes a striking
illustration of the parable of the leaven,
on the one hand, and of the Savior’s
words: “I came not to send peace on
earth, but a sword,” on the other. Dis-
daining all carnal weapons and relying
solely on the truth of her message, the
infant Church wrought a silent revolu-
tion and transformation, religiously,
morally, and socially, in the Greco-Ro-
man world (and beyond), which is one
of the wonders of history. Though
recruiting her members chiefly from the
lower ranks of society, though denied
even a legal existence, otherwise pruden-
tially accorded to the numerous foreign
cults and superstitions that flooded the
empire, she moved steadily and irresist-
ibly onward and eventually gave a new
character and a new complexion to the
ancient world. The leaven of Christian-
ity had penetrated and permeated the
lump. When Constantine the Great gave
his imperial recognition to the hitherto
proscribed and persecuted religion, pa-
ganism as a dominant force in the
world’s affairs had surrendered, and “the
Galilean” had conquered. The achieve-
ment of this result meant, above all, the
undermining of a system of superstition
which was inwrought into the very fabric
of life and constituted, in particular, an
integral part of the vast machinery of
state. It meant, further, an intellectual
victory of the Church over the preten-
sions of ancient wisdom and philosophy,
which in a last desperate struggle sum-
moned all its waning energies to refute
the claims of Christianity and to stay
its steady progress. It meant, finally,
the triumph over antichristian Judaism,
which constantly incited the passions of
the Gentiles against the hated rival and
cast reproach upon the Nazarene and
His followers. In addition to all this,*
the Church of this period was seriously
disturbed by insidious foes within her
own pale. She successfully overcame the
paganizing tendencies of Gnosticism,
Manicheism, and other sects, which
threatened to destroy her identity and
sink her into a mire of vague mysticism
and fantastic speculation, as also the
Judaizing tendencies of Ebionitism, which
sought to ingraft her teachings on the
stock of Pharisaic legalism and particu-
larism. That the Church during this
age of conflict received her baptism of
blood can only be referred to here. It
was the age of persecution and Christian
martyrdom [see Persecutions). Regard-
ing the theological literature of the pe-
riod, that was largely determined by the
adverse conditions. It was mainly con-
troversial, taking the form of apologetics
to repudiate the odious charges and cal-
umnies of the heathen and to vindicate
the truth of Christianity, or of polemics
to preserve the integrity of Christian
teaching against the various inroads of
heresy. As a necessary complement to
this her defensive activity and also by
an inward necessity the Church gave
formal expression to the content of faith
for its own sake. Our period witnessed
the development of Catholic theology
and various types of Christian thought
as represented by the Alexandrian, Afri-
can, and Antiochian schools. To the
large mass of apocryphal and pseudepi-
graphical literature fabricated in the in-
terest of heresy, or with a view to shed
additional glory on Christianity by pious
frauds and by filling up the supposed
gaps in the Gospel history, we can only
draw attention here.
This brief sketch would, however, be
incomplete without a word more on the
spread of Christianity and the secret of
its growth. Christianity was at first re-
garded as a Jewish sect, and as such it
shared the protection (and the contempt)
of the Roman government. But as soon
as its real character as a distinctive re-
ligion, avowedly hostile to the existing
order and aiming at nothing less than
world conquest, became known, it was
put under the imperial ban and pro-
scribed as a menace to the state. This
already in the days of Trajan, though
that wise ruler, in his rescript to Pliny
(112), advised caution in dealing with
the Christians. But though it was a
Christian Church, History o t 140
Christian Endeavor Society
religio illicita (an unlawful religion),
though cordially hated for its aloofness,
though it offered no concessions to the
inclinations of the flesh (as Mohamme-
danism did later), it grew, so to speak,
• while men slept, winning its way silently
by its own inherent truth. The fact,
however, that Christianity was officially
recognized by the state at the opening of
the fourth century must not suggest, as
might be the case, the mistaken idea that
it was also numerically in the ascendant.
The actual number of Christians at this
time can never be ascertained. Various
estimates place it all the way from one-
twentieth to one half of the entire popu-
lation. The truth will lie somewhere
between. Besides, the Christians were
more numerous in some parts of the em-
pire than in others. But regardless of
number, Christianity had proved itself
the salt of the earth and was henceforth
the determining factor of history. Just
when it was introduced into the different
parts of the empire cannot always be
established. Before the close of the first
century it had taken root in Palestine,
Syria, Asia Minor, and Italy, doubtless
also in Egypt, and even perhaps in
Spain; cf. Rom. 15, 24. 28. At any rate,
Harnack thinks it probable that Paul
carried out his plan to visit this latter
country. In the second century it was
found in Gaul, Germany (on the left
bank of the Rhine, perhaps in Cologne
and Mainz), North Africa, Britain; in
the East: in Mesopotamia (Edessa),
Media, Persia, and Bactria. An apocry-
phal account has it that the apostles
Thomas and Bartholomew carried the
Gospel to India. More trustworthy is
the statement that Pantaenus of Alexan-
dria went there in 190 and laid the foun-
dations of the Church. Arabia and Ar-
menia were included' within the circle of
Christendom during the third century.
For details see Harnack, Mission und
Ausbreitung des Christentums. The
marvelous success of the church is traced
by Gibbon to five causes: the zeal of the
Christians, the belief in a future life,
miracles, the austere morals of the Chris-
tians, the union and discipline of the
Church. As has been well observed, these
“causes” are but the effects of a primary
cause which the skeptical historian ig-
nores. “The zeal,” says Fisher, “was
zeal for a Person and a cause identified
with Him. The belief in the future life
sprang out of faith in Him who had died
and risen again. . . . The miraculous
powers of the early disciples were con-
sciously connected with the same source.
The purification of morals . . . was like-
wise the fruit of their relation to
Christ.” (Fisher, The Beginnings of
Christianity. ) Little more need be added.
Christianity owes its success to its in-
trinsic worth as a religion of universal
salvation, answering the deepest yearn-
ings and needs of the human heart and
appealing equally and impartially to all
classes and races of men. Then, too, the
authority and boldness with which it
proclaimed its message, not as a mere
speculation, but as a divine revelation,
doubtless commended it in a world dis-
tracted by fantastic creeds and contra-
dicting philosophies. But just to what
extent the evident decay of the ancient
traditional faith was a negative advan-
tage to Christianity it may be hazardous
to say. Of this, perhaps, too much is
commonly made in explaining the prog-
ress of Christianity. The actual hold of
the old religion on the popular mind
cannot be gaged by the flippant skepti-
cism of the cultured classes and the flings
of poets and philosophers.
Christian Druthmar. See Druthmar,
Christian.
Christian Education. See Education.
Christian Endeavor Society. Offi-
cially known as “The Young People’s
Society of Christian Endeavor.” Founded
February 2, 1881, by the Rev. Francis E.
Clark in the Williston Congregational
Church, Portland, Me. The organization
was not long confined to America, but
spread to all parts of the world. At the
world’s convention at Geneva, in 1906,
a platform of principles was adopted by
the representatives of all the great na-
tions and many Protestant denomina-
tions, from which the following is quoted :
Its covenant for active members demands
faith in Christ, open acknowledgment of
Christ, service for Christ, and loyalty to
Christ’s Church. Its activities are as
wide as the needs of mankind, and they
are directed by the churches of which
the societies are an integral part. Its
ideals are spirituality, sanity, enthusi-
asm, loyalty, fellowship, thorough organ-
ization, and consecrated devotion. Chris-
tian Endeavor stands for spirituality and
catholicity, for loyalty and fellowship,
for Christian missions and all wise phi-
lanthropies at home and abroad, for good
citizenship, for peace and good will
among men, for beneficence and generous
giving, for high intellectual attainments,
high devotional attainments, and for
pure home life, honest business life, loyal
church life, patriotic national life, joy-
ous social life, and brotherhood with all
mankind. Being interdenominational in
character, this organization is unionistic
and not conservative in doctrine.
Christian Science
141
Christian Selence
Christian Science. A pseudophilo-
sophical system, with a veneer of Chris-
tian terms, or according to the Standard
Dictionary, “a system of moral and re-
ligious instruction founded upon prin-
ciples formulated by Mary Baker G. Eddy
and combined with a method of treating
diseases mentally.” — History. Mrs. Mary
Baker G. Eddy, the founder of the strange
cult which pretends to combine Chris-
tianity and science, was born near Con-
cord, N. H., in 1821, and died at Chest-
nut Hill, Mass., in 1910, the name of her
father being Mark Baker. Even in her
youth she had a peculiar tendency to-
ward the occult and the mysterious,
spending much time with mesmerism,
magnetism, spiritism, hypnotism, and
similar subjects. She was married three
times: to Major George W. Glover of
Charleston, S. C., who died after a few
years; to Daniel Patterson, from whom
she was divorced; and to Gilbert A.
Eddy, who also died after some years.
While still a young woman, Mary Baker
spent some time in studying homeopathy,
her studies convincing her that all causa-
tion is mental. Of her peculiar system
she writes herself, in Retrospection and
Introspection: “It was in Massachusetts,
in February, 1860, that I discovered the
science of divine metaphysical healing,
which I afterwards named Christian
Science. The discovery came to pass in
this way. During twenty years prior to
my discovery I had been trying to trace
all physical effects to a mental cause,
and in the latter part of 1866 I gained
the scientific certainty that all causation
was mind and every effect a mental phe-
nomenon.” The next nine years were
spent in retirement and in preliminary
work, the result being the strange book
Science and Health with Key to the
Scriptures, which was published in 1875.
This book is the bible of the organization
founded in Boston, Mass., in 1879. Later
investigations have clearly shown that
the book Science and Health is not the
product of Mrs. Eddy alone, but that
she based her strange conclusions on a
metaphysical method of healing discov-
ered by a certain Doctor Quimby, who
is known as the “parent mental healer”
of America. The ideas of Quimby may
be summarized as follows: 1. Sickness
is unreal, does not really exist, but is
present only in the imagination of man.
2. The object of healing is to take away
the belief in the existence of the sickness
in the patient, and that through the
truth, namely, that truth, that God Him-
self is perfect health, and that man lives
and is in God. Mrs. Eddy’s connection
with Dr. Quimby has been established on
the basis of her own reports, as pub-
lished in the Portland (Me.) Courier. At
the same time an examination of Mrs.
Eddy’s doctrines show that she was de-
pendent, not only upon Dr. Quimby’s
teaching, but also on the tenets of vari-
ous heathen religions and philosophical
systems, particularly Brahmanism, Bud-
dhism, Manicheism, Neoplatonism, Mys-
ticism, and Gnosticism. Christian Sci-
ence, in the last analysis, is nothing but
a revival of the ancient Gnostic ideas,
with the feature of metaphysical heal-
ing added for the sake of deceiving the
unwary. — Tenets. The fundamental prin-
ciples of Christian Science are given in
Science and Health in the following four
sentences: “1. God is all in all. 2. God
is good, God is mind. 3. God, Spirit,
being all, nothing is matter. 4. Life,
God, omnipotent Good, deny death, evil,
sin, disease. — Disease, sin, evil, death,
deny Good, omnipotent God, Life.” (p. 7.)
Since every thought or philosophy that
claims to be a religious system must be
tested by its idea of God, the sentences
given above will give a fairly accurate
idea of the confusion that existed in the
mind of the writer. Her system iB a
strange mixture of pantheism and Plato-
nism, borrowing from both and differing
from either. The following sentences,
taken from the official publications of
Mrs. Eddy, show the hopeless confusion
concerning the idea of God: “God is
divine principle. ... In Christian Sci-
ence we learn that God is infinitely in-
dividual and not personal. . . . God is
all-inclusive and is reflected by every-
thing, real and eternal. He fills all
space, and it is impossible to conceive of
such omnipresence and individuality ex-
cept as Mind. All is spirit and spiritual.
Life, Truth, and Love constitute the tri-
une God, or triply divine Principle.”
The system identifies the existence of
God with the existence of man as a
spiritual being. It says: “Man is co-
existent with God.” Mrs. Eddy, at the
same time, uses such a vague phraseology
that many of her sentences, taken by
themselves, seem to be acceptable to the
evangelical Christian as well as to the
atheist. But the personality of God is
denied by Mrs. Eddy, for the god of this
system has no existence apart from the
mind or life that thinks god. Christian
Science speaks of a trinity, but it is not
the Holy Trinity, the Triune God of the
Bible. Life, truth, and love are supposed
to represent the triune god, and of them
Science and Health states: “They repre-
sent a trinity in unity, three in one —
the same in essence, though multiform
in office: God the Father; Christ the
Christian Science
142
Chronology
type of sonship; Divine Science, or the
Holy Comforter. These three express the
threefold, essential nature of the Infi-
nite.” Every doctrine of the Christian
faith is flatly denied by Mrs. Eddy and
her system. Instead of accepting the
true human nature of Christ, the state-
ment is made: “Mary’s conception of
Him [Jesus Christ] was spiritual.”
Christ is identified with Christian Sci-
ence when it is said: “There is but one
way to heaven and harmony, and Christ,
Divine Science, shows us that way.”
Since there is no trinity in the Biblical
sense in Christian Science, the Holy
Ghost can, of course, not be a person
within the Godhead. Science and Health
states: “The theory of three persons in
one God suggests heathen gods, rather
than one present I Am.” The Third Per-
son of the Godhead is defined: “Holy
Ghost, Divine Science; the development
of eternal Life, Truth, and Love.” Mrs.
Eddy also denies the existence of sin,
declaring that “man is incapable of sin,
sickness, and death, inasmuch as he de-
rives his essence from God and does not
derive a single original or Underived
power. . . . Evil is but an illusion, and
error has no real basis; it is a false
belief. . . . Evil has no reality. It is
neither person [hence there is no devil,
the idea is pure delusion] nor place
[hence there is no hell] nor thing
[hence there is no accountability], but
it is simply belief, an illusion of mate-
rial self.” Of course, under such circum-
stances, Christian Science denies the
reality of the suffering of Christ, calling
His death “the great illusion.” The rec-
onciliation of man with God through the
expiatory work of Christ is weakened to
the inane statement that Jesus aided in
reconciling man to God “only by giving
man a true sense of love.” In short,
Christian Science is thoroughly and in
every way antichristian, the very antith-
esis of the Christian religion. And as
for the other part of its name: Science
is demonstrable knowledge, while Chris-
tian Science is unfathomable nonsense.
It belongs to the strong delusions of
which St. Paul writes. 2 Thess. 2, 11.
Therefore the words addressed by the
same apostle to his beloved disciple
Timothy may well be applied here :
“Avoiding profane and vain babblings
and oppositions of science falsely so
called.” 1 Tim. 6, 20. — The total num-
ber of Christian Science adherents, ac-
cording to the latest reports, is in excess
of 100,000.
Christian Union. This denomination
was organized on February 3, 1863, at
Columbus, O., under the leadership of
J. F. Given. However, its origin may be
traced back to the movement, in the first
half of the nineteenth century, for a
larger liberty in religious thought,
greater freedom from ecclesiastical domi-
nation, and a larger affiliation of men
and women of different creeds and lines
of belief. In 1864 a general convention
was held in Terre Haute, Ind., at which
a summary of principles was adopted.
After the Civil War, Eli P. Farmer, who
in 1857 had gathered seven congrega-
tions in Monroe County, Ind., under the
name of Evangelical Christian Union,
also joined the movement. — Doctrine.
The members of this denomination re-
quire no special creed and admit to
membership all those who make public
confession of Christ as their Savior and
state their acceptance of the Bible as
the revealed Word of God. While the
Lord’s Supper, Baptism, and, in rare
cases, foot -washing are observed, none of
these is required. The mode of baptism
is optional with a candidate who is ad-
mitted into the church. Each local con-
gregation is self-governing. The denomi-
nation carries on no missionary work
and maintains no denominational schools.
In 1921 the Christian Union numbered
350 ministers, 320 churches, and 16,800
communicants.
Christina of Sweden. Daughter of
the celebrated King Gustavus Adolphus.
B. 1626; d. at Rome, 1689; brought up
under Oxenstierna, became queen 1636,
abdicated her right in 1654 and joined
the Roman Church, remaining a member
till her death.
Christlieb, Theodor. B. at Bixken-
feld, Wuerttemberg, March 7, 1833; d. at
Bonn, August 15, 1889. Theologian of
unonistic tendencies ; founder of Evan-
gelistic Union, of a training-school for
evangelists, which later was removed to
Barmen, and, together with Warneck, of
the AUgemeine Hissionszeitschrift (1874).
Christology. That part of dogmatics
or doctrinal theology which treats of the
person of Jesus Christ as the God-man,
with the human nature and the divine
nature included in one person.
Christopher, St. One of the most
popular saints in both East and West;
probably a martyr of the third century.
He is the subject of many fantastic and
silly tales. A pretty legend refers his
name of Christopher ( Christ-bearer ) • to
his carrying of Jesus, in the form of
a child, over a swollen river.
Chronology, Biblical and Ecclesi-
astical. The special branch of church
history which pertains to the fixing of
dates and the chronological sequence of
Chrysostom, John
143
Church
events in sacred and ecclesiastical his-
tory.
Chrysostom, John. Patriarch of
Constantinople; b. 343 or 347; d. 407.
His name “Golden-mouthed” was not ap-
plied to him till after his death. Mem-
ber of a rich patrician family, he studied
rhetoric and philosophy, intended to fol-
low law, but turned to the Scriptures in-
stead, leading the life of a strict ascetic
in the first years after his baptism;
labored as priest in Antioch for twelve
years; became patriarch of Constanti-
nople in 398. He immediately inaugu-
rated certain needed reforms and laid
the foundation for systematic charitable
work. But his position became increas-
ingly insecure on account of the enemies
which he made by his rigorous rules and
by his fearless attacks on the luxury of
his day. Theophilus of Alexandria finally
succeeded in having a synod called under
tlie auspices of Empress Eudocia, the
Synod, ad Quercum, in 403, by which
Chrysostom was deposed and banished.
After his recall a second synod, held in
Constantinople, once more condemned
him, whereupon he, yielding only to
force, was banished to Asia Minor. The
hardships of the last journeys were too
great for him, and he died before reach-
ing his final destination, at Comana,
Asia Minor. — The writings of Chrysos-
tom cover a large field, but may be di-
vided chiefly into homilies, treatises, and
letters. He wrote six books On the
Priesthood, two On Penance, and several
on celibacy. His fame rests chiefly on
his sermons, in which he reached a height
of oratory unsurpassed in the early days
of Christianity. His position was un-
scriptural in a number of doctrines, not-
ably that of the Eucharist.
Church. The word “Church” is de-
rived from the Greek kyriahe, meaning
the Lord’s house or assembly. In the
Old Testament two words were used to
express the idea of assembly: edhah and
kahal. Lev. 4, 13. 14. In the New Testa-
ment the idea is designated by ekklesia,
from ekkalein, signifying the assembly
that has been summoned forth by an
authoritative call of the Leader. Matt.
16,18; 18,17; ICor. 10, 32; Eph. 1, 22;
5, 25. 27. The word, derived from a root
which means “to call,” would thus desig-
nate those who have been called together
by Christ, or the whole company of God’s
elect. Instead of ekklesia, Christ gen-
erally used the terms “kingdom of God,”
“kingdom of heaven,” or simply “king-
dom.” The term “church” is commonly
applied to the whole number of true be-
lievers, the communion of saints, the in-
visible Church of Christ; any particular
denomination of Christian people; par-
ticular congregations of any Christian
denomination; the religious establish-
ment of any particular nation or govern-
ment (Church of England); the sum
total of the various Christian denomina-
tions in a country (as, the Church in
Australia) ; and the houses of Christian
worship. — The Idea of the Church. The
characteristics of the members of the
Church as described in the New Testa-
ment are indicated by faith and its im-
mediate effect, or regeneration, justifica-
tion, and sanctification. Col. 1, 2; Epb.
2, 19; 1 Pet. 2, 9, The indispensable
requisite for membership in the Church
is regeneration through faith; hence
such terms as “the believers,” “the right-
eous," “the children of God,” etc., are
synonymous of the Church, expressing
the relation of its members to God. The
idea of union is expressed by such figura-
tive terms as “commonwealth,” “family,”
“flock.” The Church, then, may be de-
fined as the community, or' union, of
believers. The Church, therefore, is a
spiritual body, as our Lord said to the
Pharisees who were looking for a visible
advent of the kingdom of God. Luke 17,
20. 21. According to Christ’s clear words
His kingdom, or Church, does not come
perceptibly; hence it cannot be located
geographically. Although individual con-
gregations, or churches (that is, a num-
ber of those who profess the Chris-
tian faith and are gathered about God’s
Word at a certain place) can be locally
defined (“the church at Philippi,” Phil.
1, 1), yet the true Church of Christ can-
not be exhibited to the eye because “the
kingdom of God is within you.” Luke
17, 21. To the Lord, however, the Church
is always visible. 2 Tim. 2, 19. He knows
who are His, and they are built upon
the true doctrine of salvation, the foun-
dation of the apostles and prophets.
Eph. 2, 20. The relation of this Church
to Christ is figuratively described: a) It
is compared to a body, whose Head is
Christ. Eph. I, 22. 23. b) It is compared
to a temple, with Christ its Foundation
and Corner-stone. Eph. 2, 20 — 22. Christ
is the Head of the Church, since He is
the Author and Ruler of His spiritual
body, whose will the body readily obeys.
Christ is the Foundation of the Church;
first, because of His Word, or teaching,
secondly, because of His work of atone-
ment; thirdly, because of His example.
Thus the members of the Church, as liv-
ing stones, are built upon Him by faith,
which accepts His teaching, appropriates
His merits, and regards, and looks up
to, His life as a pattern of holiness.
Church
144 Church, Roman Catholic Doctrine
Being built upon Christ, the Church is
indestructible. Its foundation is sure,
having been laid by the merciful counsel
of God in eternity, 1 Pet. 2, 0 ; and built
upon a rock (Christ), which no enemy
shall subvert, John 10, 28; Matt. 28, 20.
Built upon Christ, its sole and glorious
purpose is to proclaim the saving mes-
sage of His work of redemption. 1 Pet.
2, 9. Opposed to this definition of the
word “church” is the Romanist view
(and also the Greek and High Anglican),
which assumes that the Church is a form
of organic life imposed upon Christian
society in a sort of outward way. This
Romanist view makes the outward form
of a church essential and regards the in-
ternal nature as derivative. Since faith
in Christ, wrought by the Holy Ghost
through the preaching of the Gospel,
determines the membership in Christ’s
Church, the Church, or the communion
of saints, properly speaking, will always
be invisible to man. Nevertheless we
may rightly speak of a visible Church,
or churches, by which are meant all those
who have and hear the Gospel, profess
faith in Christ Jesus, and are thus pro-
fessed believers. However, if we apply
to the entire visible organization of be-
lievers the name “church,” we do this
by a common figure of speech, naming
the whole for its chief and noblest part.
In this sense we speak of a universal
visible Church and of particular visible
churches (Gal. 1, 2), composed of true
Christians, or true believers, and also
hypocrites (Rev., chaps. 2. 3). — The
Marks of a Church. The invisible
Church, or the community of the regen-
erate, has' no existence except through
the means of grace by which regenera-
tion is effected through faith. These
means, the Gospel and the Sacraments,
are therefore the marks of the Church.
Mark 16, 15. 16; Matt. 28, 20. More-
over, these are the only marks of the
Church, not the unbroken succession of
believing bishops, nor any special illu-
minations, prophetic utterances, and the
manifestation of miraculous powers, nor
an organized and graded priesthood with
a vicegerent, or vicar, of Christ as its
head, since these do not effect justifying
and saving faith. — Orthodox Church.
The true and unfailing marks of the
Church are not exhibited with the same
degree of clearness and exactness in all
places and at all times. While the Gos-
pel and the Sacraments of Christ remain
the same always and everywhere, they
are not everywhere understood, inter-
preted, and publicly professed and ad-
ministered in the meaning which Christ
attached to them. Hence, only that
Church which wholly follows Christ’s
teaching and enacts His ordinances and
makes these things her aim; is the true,
or orthodox, church. Matt. 28, 20; John
8, 31. 32. — Rights of the Church;
Where Vested. The Church, the whole
number of believers, is compared by Paul
to a commonwealth and a household
(Eph. 2, 19), a community, a society,
governed by rules and ordinances. Ac-
cordingly, the Church possesses author-
ity. Matt. 16, 19; 18, 18; 1 Pet. 2, 9;
1 Cor. 3, 21 — 23. This authority was
transferred to the whole Church (Matt.
18, 18—20; 18, 19) by the Head of the
Church, Christ, who holds all power in
heaven and earth, Matt. 28, 18. This
grant constitutes the Church a sovereign
body, a royal priesthood. 1 Pet. 2, 9;
1 Cor. 3, 21 — 23. This authority is, how-
ever, entirely spiritual, extending only to
the consciences of men. — Special Rights
and Powers of the Church. The rights
and powers of the Church are those
which Christ exercises in His Kingdom
of Grace on earth. Accordingly, the first
and most general right of the Church is
to proclaim the Word of Christ, that is,
to preach the Gospel by word of mouth
and by pen. Matt. 28, 18 — 20; Mark 16,
15. 16. In connection with this right the
Church must also apply those ordinances
to which the command and promise of
Christ are attached, vim., the holy Sac-
raments. However, as the Church must
teach, so it must also warn. She has
therefore the right to try and condemn
heretics and offenders against the truth.
2 Thess. 3, 14 — 10 ; Rom. 16, 17 ; 2 Cor.
10, 4. 5. In general, the right of the
Church to preach the Gospel covers every
activity by which the proclamation of
the Word of Christ and the preservation
of its power and teachings is secured,
vim., the organization of congregations,
the founding of schools for equipping the
Church with able teachers; the appoint-
ing of pastors and all aids to the pas-
tors, the detailing of missionaries, the
publishing of religious literature, the
holding of meetings, conventions, etc.
Church, Homan Catholic Doctrine
of the. According to Roman teaching,
the Church is that visible society of bap-
tized Christians which submits to the
authority of the Pope. It includes among
its members both good and bad (Cate-
chismus Romanus, I, 10. 7 ) . For this
society exclusively are claimed the char-
acteristics of unity, holiness, catholicity
(universality), and apostolic authority.
It is declared that Christ founded this
Church and gave into its keeping the
revealed truth, the Sacraments, and all
His merit, bo that only through this
145
Church and State
Church and State
Church can any one gain part in the re-
demption of 'Christ and be saved. By
this well-known claim, that beyond its
pale there is no salvation, the Roman
Church does not, however, as is often
supposed, absolutely deny that any who
are not in visible communion with it can
be saved; for it admits that those who
stand aloof in good faith, but hold the
fundamentals of Christianity “may, by
virtue of their baptism and good will,
belong to the soul of the Church” and
be in a state of grace. A distinction is
made between the teaching church (ec-
clesia docens) and the Church that is
taught ( ecclesia discens). To the for-
mer, Christ is supposed to have com-
mitted the teaching and governing of
the latter. The teaching church consists
of the bishops, as successors of the apos-
tles, with the Pope, as successor of Peter,
at their head (see Primacy of Pope).
Parish priests and others teach under
authority delegated to them by the
bishops. The teaching Church is claimed
to be infallible, so that it cannot pos-
sibly err in its teachings on any point
of faith or morals. A good Romanist,
therefore, requires no proof from the
Scripture, but he takes for granted that
what he is taught is divine truth be-
cause the Roman Church teaches it; he
would be held to believe such teaching
divine even though he had thoroughly
searched the Scripture and had found no
trace of the doctrine. He must also be-
lieve that in such things as the canoni-
zation of saints and the prohibition of
books as heretical, the verdict of the
Church is infallible. This doctrine of
the infallibility of the Church consist-
ently includes that of its indefectibility,
namely, the doctrine that the church can
never become corrupt in faith and mor-
als. Indefectibility is not claimed for
each part of the church, it being ad-
mitted that parts of the church may fall
away, but it is asserted that to the See
of Rome indefectibility is guaranteed for
all time. According to this, the clearest
credential of the true Church is not that
it agrees with the Bible or teaches the
doctrine of Christ, but that it acknowl-
edges the Pope and submits to him. It
is obvious that when Rome has im-
planted in any one this doctrine of the
Church, it has made him a dutiful ser-
vant of the Pope, who will believe and
do what he is told and who is not likely
to be weaned away by anything the
Scripture may say.
Church and State. ( Lutheran po-
sition.) Civil government may be re-
garded in the abstract as an institution
or ordinance determined by laws and
Concordia Cyclopedia
serving a certain end, or it may be
viewed concretely in the person or per-
sons governing, who have become vested
with lawful authority. In either respect
civil government is a divine institution,
the author of which is the Triune God.
Rom. 13, 1 ; 1 Tim. 2, 2. The domain of
civil government is the present earthly
life with its temporal and physical in-
terests. Thus Christ distinctly separates
the things of Caesar and those of God
(Matt. 22, 21) and commands subjects
to render to each jurisdiction that which
properly belongs to it, neither less nor
more. Hence there is a domain to which
the authority of earthly government does
not extend and in which men must re-
fuse obedience. Civil government, ac-
cordingly, has no jurisdiction over a per-
son’s relation to God, his conscience, and
his spiritual interests. Acts 5, 29. In
accordance with the Scriptures the basic
confession of the Lutheran Church
states: “Seeing, then, that ecclesiastical
power concerneth things eternal and is
exercised only by the means of the Word,
it hindereth not the political government
any more than the art of singing hinders
political government; for the political
government is occupied about other mat-
ters than is the Gospel. The magistracy
defends not the minds, but the bodies and
bodily things against manifest intruders
and coerces men by the sword and cor-
poral punishment that it may uphold
civil justice and peace. Wherefore the
ecclesiastical and civil powers are not to
be confounded.” (Augs 6. Conf., Art. 28.)
The proper domain in which civil gov-
ernments are to exercise their authority
are all affairs of men which pertain to
the secular or temporal well-being of the
individual, the community, and the com-
monwealth. Governments are to secure
and maintain for their subjects, jointly
and severally, thd possibility of leading
a quiet and peaceable life in all god-
liness and honesty. 1 Tim, 2, 2. The in-
strument by which the government ac-
complishes all these things is law, and
the government has the authority to
make, apply, and enforce laws. Rom.
13, 1; Titus 3, 1. Subjects owe to their
government respect, obedience, the per-
sonal service of their limbs, and their
mental attainments for discharging some
governmental office, and, if need be, the
sacrifice of their lives whenever the gov-
ernment requires this for the suppression
of disturbances of the peace. 1 Pet. 2, 17 ;
Rom. 13, 1 ; Matt. 22, 21.
Separation of Church and State. The
ideal of strict separation of the Church
from the State, and vice verm, though
clearly taught in the Scriptures, has been
10
Ch Ill-ell and State
146
Church and State
realized only in extremely modern times.
As soon as the Christian Church was
persecuted by the pagan government of
Rome, the idea, of course, was of neces-
sity realized. The Christianization of
the Roman Empire, however, led to a
confusion of both Church and State, the
emperor retaining the insignia and the
name of Pontifex Maximus, although
prominent leaders of the Church (Am-
brose, Jerome, etc.) protested in ener-
getic language against the right claimed
by the emperor to decide church ques-
tions. From the time of Constantine to
that of Charlemagne the Church was
largely governed by the State, while
from Charlemagne to the Reformation
the State, or the civil government, was
largely under control of the Church, due
mainly to the assertions of Gregory VII,
Alexander III, Innocent III, etc., that
the Church, being of divine origin, is
higher than the State. (Cf. the Bull of
Boniface VIII XJnarn Sanctam.) Luther
and his colahorers were agreed in con-
demning the confusion of spiritual and
secular power and insisted on keeping
the two powers apart. However, owing
to prevailing conditions and due largely
also to the influence of Calvin and
Zwingli, state-clmrch ism was established
in practically all Lutheran and Reformed
countries. The growth of rationalism
and infidelity in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries accustomed princes
and statesmen to regard the churches as
a part of the state organism and just
as absolutely subject to the government
of every territory as the civil adminis-
tration. Thus arose the territorial sys-
tem, when the states, confused with the
Church, organically became universal
rulers of the Church. This system was
vitally changed through the French
Revolution of 1789, the Napoleonic reign,
and the conquerors of Vienna in 1815.
The relation of the Roman Catholic
Church in the various countries to the
Pope was regulated by concordats, con-
ventions which stipulated what right the
state government should allow the Pope
to exercise over against the Church of
a particular country and what influence
the state governments should exercise
upon the management of the Church.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies there arose at the same time in
the Protestant churches a consciousness
of the unworthy servitude into which
the Church had been forced, and the de-
mand grew stronger and stronger to
have at least a part of the self-govern-
ment of the churches restored to them.
Especially in England, where the Non-
conformists gained greater strength and
influence than any Dissenters on the con-
tinent of Europe, this movement gained
in power. In America, Church and State
were more or less united in most colonies
until after the Revolutionary War, and
it was only through the adoption of the
Constitution that the absolute separa-
tion of Church and State and the legal
equality of all forms of belief were es-
tablished. The rapid growth of the free
American churches had a decided in-
fluence upon opinion in the Old World,
where in most countries there arose a
strong demand for complete separation
of Church and State, which, however, has
been only partially realized, as, to some
extent, in France. Nevertheless, the
union of State and Church, even in those
countries where state-churchism exists,
has been loosened, and in some countries
of Europe the free churches have been
reorganized as independent organiza-
tions, enjoying the same protection as
the state churches. The late war has
contributed not a little to the crystalli-
zation of the idea of complete separation
of Church and State. — See also Civil
Government.
Church and State. ( Roman Catholic
position.) The history of the papacy
(q. v.) is the record of an agelong struggle
for supreme power, not only over the
Church, but also over the State. When
Constantine and his successors made
Christianity the established religion,
they inaugurated an unholy blending of
Church and State. Former emperors
had been high priests of the pagan cult,
and religion had been an affair of state.
The Christian emperors, transferring
these relations to the Christian Church,
considered it proper to employ their sec-
ular powers for the protection ?md ad-
vancement of Christianity and even to
watch over, and enforce, orthodoxy. The
bishops were given civil jurisdiction, pub-
lic moneys were lavished on the Church,
and all advancement in the administra-
tion and the army was made dependent
on the profession of Christianity. Thus
one of the fundamental principles of the
Church (John 18, 36) was subverted, and
it was not a coincidence, but a natural
consequence, that, as the Church rose to
worldly power, her spiritual strength
declined and a far-reaching decadence of
doctrine and life began. The taste of
power roused in the Church, particu-
larly in the bishops of Rome, a lust for
domination and initiated a struggle for
supremacy between Church and State,
which, with varying fortunes and to the
detriment of both, has lasted to the pres-
ent day. The early Christian emperors
assumed unwarranted authority over the
Church Advertising
Church and State 147
Church; tlie Roman bishop Gelasius
(494) claimed superiority over the secu-
lar powers. Charlemagne, though grant-
ing the Pope great privileges and in-
fluence, reserved supreme ecclesiastical
power for himself; under his weak suc-
cessors the Popes elevated their dignity
at the expense of the imperial. The
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals lent powerful
support to the papal pretensions in the
conflict with the German emperors. Greg-
ory VII, the most daring of the Popes
( 1073 — 85), advanced most exorbitant
claims. He asserted that the priesthood
was the only power instituted by God,
the power of the state being of human,
if not originally satanic, origin and de-
riving its legal sanction from the Church.
Christendom was to be a vast monarchy,
with the Pope at its head. His decisions
were to be binding on rulers and nations,
whether he humbled the people or de-
posed princes. When Gregory interdicted
Henry IV, he declared: “I absolve all
Christians from the oaths which they
have s worn or may swear to him and
forbid all obedience to him as king.”
Gregory’s successors developed his prin-
ciples and acted as lords of the earth.
They interfered in all political matters
and gave away kingdoms. Adrian IV
gave Ireland to England; Prussia was
delivered to the Teutonic Knights. The
kings of Bulgaria, Hungary, Bohemia,
Aragon, and England acknowledged them-
selves vassals of Innocent III and re-
ceived their countries from him as fiefs.
Innocent wrote : “God left to Peter not
only the Church Universal, but also the
whole world, to govern.” Boniface VIII
(1294 — 1303) reached the pinnacle of
papal presumption in the bull JJnam
Sanctum. He quoted Luke 22, 38 to
prove that “both are in the power of the
Church, namely, the spiritual sword and
the temporal. But the latter is, indeed,
to be wielded for the Church; the for-
mer, however, by the Church; the one
by the Pope, the other by the hand of
kings and soldiers, but by the license
and will of the Pope. Furthermore, I de-
clare that it is altogether necessary for
salvation for every human being to be
subject to the Roman Pontiff.” No won-
der that, at the jubilee of 1300, Boniface
exclaimed to the pilgrims, “I am Caesar ;
I am emperor.” The pontificate of Boni-
face marks the fullest revelation of the
“mystery of iniquity,” the perversion of
Christianity into its diametrical oppo-
site. It also marks the beginning of the
decline of papal power, which was to be
finally broken by the Reformation. But
Rome has never withdrawn its preten-
sions. It has not by that means tried
to depose any sovereigns since its fruit-
less efforts to stir England to rebellion
against Queen Elizabeth. Its unheeded
protests against the Peace of Westphalia
(1648), the creation of the kingdom of
Prussia (1701), and the Treaty of Vienna
(1815) have taught Rome that it cannot
exercise its ancient power; but all this
has not abated its desire to do so or
silenced its claim that such is its right.
Rome still tries by every means to re-
gain political power and considers itself
ill-used when it is denied a voice in the
councils of nations. It teaches that a
properly constituted state must profess
as such the Roman Catholic faith, prac-
tise Roman worship, protect and promote
that Church in all its interests, take all
requisite civil measures to forward its
purposes, recognize the Church’s right to
jurisdiction in all matters purely or
partly spiritual, and acknowledge the
right of the Church to determine what
matters come under its jurisdiction. It
is evident that under the last clause
Rome can claim not only control of all
education, but, as it has done in the
past, jurisdiction over all that relates
to marriage, to testaments, to alleged
breaches of contract, to offenses against
morals, in short, to everything that it
does not prefer to remain unburdened
with. The State becomes a mere append-
age to the Church. Where this “ideal”
condition does not exist, Rome tolerates
what it must, but makes it the duty of
its adherents to strive to materialize the
ideal ; for Rome chafes at being “re-
duced to the liberty of living according
to the law common to all citizens.” ( En-
cyclicals of Leo XIII; Benziger Bros.,
1903, p. 262.) Rome teaches its adher-
ents that they must “allow themselves to
he ruled and directed by the authority
and leadership of bishops, and, above all,
of the Apostolic See” (ibid., p. 194), whose
“charge is not only to rule the Church,
but generally to regulate the actions of
Christian citizens” (p. 202) ; therefore
“the faithful should imitate the practical
political wisdom of the ecclesiastical
authority” (ibid.) and “support men of
acknowledged worth, who pledge them-
selves to deserve well in the Catholic
cause” (p. 198), seeing that “in the pub-
lic order itself of states it is always
urgent, and indeed the main preoccupa-
tion, to take thought how heat to consult
the interests of Catholicism” (p. 197).
Church Advertising. In the article
on publicity (q. v.) the fact has been
established that the Church is called by
the Lord to use every legitimate means
for the purpose of publishing the glad
tidings of salvation. One way by which
148
Church Furniture
Church Building*
this can be done is so-called church ad-
vertising: inserting news items and paid
advertising in the daily press, issuing
cards and pulpit programs, placing pla-
cards and notices in public places, etc.
Such advertising should, of course con-
form to the dignity of the Church. A few
hints may prove helpful. For the writ-
ing of newspaper articles the following
rules should be observed: 1. Write news.
2. Write news in condensed form. 3. Put
the essential features into the first para-
graph, the “lead.” 4. Write the story
from the viewpoint of a reporter (other-
wise quote and mention the name of the
speaker). 5. Use the typewriter; write
only on one side of the paper; leave
space for head-lines (which are written
in the newspaper office) ; leave a double
space between lines and a wide margin;
make no corrections in the margin ;
never write crosswise on the margin;
paragraph; use no abbreviations which
are not to appear in print; use paper
of uniform size and do not fasten sheets
together (use clip) ; do not underscore
words; do not capitalize unnecessarily;
spell correctly (especially proper names) ;
be accurate; avoid “fine writing”; elim-
inate unnecessary or difficult words;
number the pages; finally, once more
carefully read your manuscript before
sending it to the printer. One who
writes for the newspaper ought to read
a book on journalism. Many a copy is
mutilated (or thrown into the waste-bas-
ket) because it has not been gotten up
well. — Advertising pays, but only con-
tinued and proper advertising will reach
the public and bring results. After only
one or two attempts a pastor or a con-
gregation should not expect that their
church will already be crowded to the
doors by strangers. Advertisements
should be carefully written and not
crowded; much so-called white space
will make the advertising matter stand
out. Church cards (giving the name of
the church and its location, time of ser-
vices and school, pastor’s name and resi-
dence, and perhaps a brief Bible-text)
and pulpit programs should be neatly
gotten up on fairly good stock. So-called
throw-around cards (containing pulpit
programs) may be distributed from
house to house. See Publicity.
Church Buildings. See Architecture.
Church Extension Fund. Such a
fund provides a “rotary system of financ-
ing building projects,” churches, schools,
and parsonages. The money paid to
this fund by congregations, through the
budget, by direct gifts, loans, or legacies
is lent without interest to needy congre-
gations, who, in turn, pay' back certain
sums annually until the Whole amount
has been paid. Church extension boards
should demand that a congregation de-
siring a loan be duly incorporated, have
a clear title to its property, give a first
mortgage as security, have such mort-
gage recorded and filed and accompanied
by a note or bond, making the mort-
gagors liable in case the mortgaged real
estate proves insufficient to pay the loan.
Besides the usual foreclosure, insurance,
tax, and assessment clauses, the mort-
gage should contain also the following
covenant: “Should the mortgagor [the,'
congregation] at any time or for any ,
reason or cause cease to be in religious
connection and affiliation with [the
Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri,
Ohio, and Other States], the whole sum '
of money hereby secured shall become
due and collectible at once, and this
mortgage may be foreclosed for the whole
of said money without further notice.” ;
In many cities a leave to mortgage must
be granted by the Supreme Court of the
State. When buildings are under con-
struction, mechanics’ liens and liabilities
should be guarded against. The insur-
ance policy should be held by the Church
Extension Board and contain the follow-
ing clause: “Loss, if any, is payable to
[the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Mis-
souri, Ohio, and Other States], as its in-
terests may appear.” Good legal advice
ought to be sought in such business
transactions. Every congregation re-
ceiving a loan ought to consider itself
under obligation to make its payments
promptly, in accordance with the agree-
ment.
Church. Furniture. In the furniture
of the chancel the altar stands first, not
because a special intrinsic value appends
to it, but because it is the place of
prayer, and because its very presence is
a confession of the real presence in the
Sacrament. The altar should have the
form of a table, not that of a coffin or a
hearth. It may be constructed of the
most costly stone, although in most
cases hardwood altars will prove fully
satisfactory. The mensa, or plate, of the
altar is reserved for the service books
and the Eucharistic vessels, a special
shelf serving to hold cross and cande-
labra. The reredos of the altar may be
as elaborate as circumstances will per-
mit, usually in triptych form. If there
is an altar painting or a statue, it should
be placed so high as not to interfere with
the cross. The pulpit will agree with
the altar in style, materials, and con-
struction, its usual form being octagonal.
The pulpit rises from a single shaft or
Church Furniture
149
Ch arch -Mem b ershlp
stem, which may. be decorated as richly
as circumstances will permit. The pan-
els of the railing, which should be solid,
may be carved in very rich effects or con-
structed in the form of niches, with
statues of the four evangelists or the
four major prophets. A sounding-board
will not be required where the acoustics
of the auditorium are good or where the
pulpit is set against the wall at the
junction of the apse and nave. The bap-
tismal font should have a definite, per-
manent position in the church, either in
a special baptismal chapel or at the en-
trance of the sanctuary, but not so as to
interfere with the movement of the com-
municants. So far as the material is
concerned from which the baptismal font
is to be constructed, metal and stone are
far preferable to wood, although there
are some beautifully carved wooden fonts
on the market. We also have accounts
of a number of beautiful fonts cast in
dinanderie. An indispensable require-
ment is that the font be monumental,
like the altar. Some beautiful fonts are
sculptured of marble, with a cover of
like material or of ebony-wood, with
ornament of dinanderie. The simplest
fonts consist of a pedestal and basin
holder, but the more elaborate ones are
not restricted in the matter of sculpture-
work beyond the requirement that the
font must agree in style with the other
pieces of furniture in the chancel. The
lectern, which takes the place of the an-
cient ambo for the reading of the lessons
in the chancel, should also harmonize in
material and workmanship with the
other pieces in the apse. Many lecterns
in the form of ordinary reading-desks
(not music-racks) are very effective on
account of their simplicity. Much more
appropriate, however, are such as are
carved from marble or cast in dinanderie,
the favorite form in this case being that
of an eagle, with wings partly extended,
the emblem of the evangelist John. The
furniture of the chancel does not include
a chair or a set of chairs for the clergy.
If the pastor does not care to retire to
the vestry during the pauses of his min-
istry, as a place for prayerful medita-
tion, sedilia may be provided at the en-
trance to the apse, so as not to interfere
during the distribution of the Holy Com-
munion. • — While the mensa of the altar
is reserved for the service books and the
Eucharistic vessels, the lowest shelf of
the reredos is specifically constructed
for the purpose of holding the cross or
crucifix and the candelabra. The cross
will be the choice of all such as advocate
the return to the purity of Canono-
Catholic times. And there is no denying
that a simple cross with appropriate en-
graving is very beautiful as it blazes out,
in unadorned glory, from the altar wall.
The corpus was hardly known before the
ninth century and even then was used
almost entirely for processional cruci-
fixes. In spite of the fact, therefore,
that the Lutheran Church has defended
the crucifix against iconoclastic tenden-
cies, the return to the plain cross may
well be advocated. The candelabra, with
one, three, five, or seven lights, should
agree in style, materials, and construc-
tion with the Cross or crucifix, as fine as
circumstances will warrant, so long as
the fixtures are tasteful and harmonize
with the other appointments. The same
is true of the three-light vesper candle-
sticks, which are used at every evening
service. — The Eucharistic vessels should
be selected with great care, since they
are subjected to frequent and often stren-
uous use. The Lutheran Church has not
abrogated the use of precious metals as
materials for Communion ware. The
pieces of a regular Communion set are
the chalice, or cup, for distributing the
wine, the flagon for receiving the wine
to be used during one celebration of the
Holy Supper, the paten, or plate, for the
wafers, and the ciborium, or receptacle,
for containing the wafers not in actual
use. These vessels must not be over-
elaborate in design or execution nor
fashioned after secular models. The
censer, or thurible, used for burning in-
cense during the celebration of mass in
a Catholic church has no place in Lu-
theran worship.
Church. Government. See Clergy.
Church or Ecclesiastical History. .
The orderly presentation of the facts
pertaining to the establishment, organi-
zation, growth, trials, and victories of
the Christian Church. The following
periods and epochs of church history are
now distinguished : the apostolic age,
comprising roughly the first century;
the subapostolic and postapostolic age,
up to 150 A. D.; the ante-NIeene period,
up to 325 A. D. ; the age of the ecumen-
ical councils, up to about 900 A. D. ; the
age of Charlemagne and Hildebrand, up
to about 1200 A. D.; the age of the Cru-
sades and the Dark Ages, up to 1500;
the age of the Reformation, up to 1650;
the age of Pietism and Rationalism, up
to 1800; the age of Enlightenment, up to
1900; the Lutheran Church in America.
Church-Membership. Church-mem-
bers are those who compose, or belong
to, the visible Church. As to the real
(invisible) Church, the true members of
it are such as come out of the world,
Chnrch Missionary Society
150
Chnrch- Year
2 Cor. 6, 17, are born again, 1 Pet. 1, 23,
are made new creatures, 2 Cor. 5, 17, and
whose faith works by love to God and
all mankind, Gal. 5, 6; Jas. 2, 14. 26.
Those who give evidence of earnestly
seeking this state of salvation and de-
sire to adhere to the truth of Scripture
as attested in the church creed, or con-
fession, are admitted to membership in
the visible church. Such membership is
a communion based upon an inner, spir-
itual agreement as to things believed and
confessed. The ends of this fellowship
are the maintenance and publication of
the confession of the Church regarding
the way of salvation, public worship,
and the celebration of the Sacraments,
church government and discipline, and
the promotion of personal holiness of
life. Through the association formed
through church -membership, brethren
bear each others’ burdens, Gal. 6, 1. 2,
endeavor to keep each other steadfast in
the faith, 1 Cor. 10, 23—33; Acts 2, 42,
and have the advantage of being under
the watchful eye of faithful pastors,
Heb. 13, 7. The grand charter for
church-membership is the adoption of
sons in Christ by which we are all made
brethren. See also Eph. 4, 3 — 16.
Church Missionary Society for Af-
rica and the East. Pounded at London,
April 12, 1799, within the Anglican
Church “for sending missionaries to the
continent of Africa and other parts of
the heathen world”; but not officially
recognized until 1819. In 1882 the med-
ical mission department was organized.
In 1895 the woman’s department was
fully organized. Fields: Asia: Japan,
China (9 provinces), India (15 states),
Ceylon, Persia, Palestine ; Africa : Egypt,
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, Sierra Leone, Ni-
geria, Tanganyika Territory, Kenya Col-
ony, Uganda.
Church Music. See Canticles;
Choral; Church Tunes.
Church Peace Union. Its purpose is
to promote international peace by means
of the churches.
Church Polity (or Cybernetics). That
branch of theological knowledge which
pertains to church government, or the
principles by which the Church is, or
should be, organized and governed.
Church Tunes ( Kirchentoene ). Melo-
dies composed in the early medieval
mode, four melodies, the Dorian, the
Phrygian, the Eolian, and the Mixo-
lydian, having been introduced by Am-
brose of Milan, modeled after the Greek
tunes, these being later extended and
perfected by Gregory the Great and
others to include the plagal modes, the
Hypophrygian, the Hypodorian, the Hy-
poeolian, the Hypomixolydian, and the
Hypolydian, all of which were a fourth
in pitch lower than the corresponding
Greek pure forms. Twelve modes were
finally recognized, each one with its own
peculiar character, the Dorian express-
ing gentle seriousness or dignified joy,
therefore appropriate for all occasions,
the Hypodorian denoting longing, suffer-
ing, mourning, the Phrygian bringing
out lively, strong emotion, eagerness, and
determination, the Hypophrygian indi-
cating gentle sensations, begging for
sympathy and compassion, the Lydian
expressing joy, jubilation, triumph, the
Hypolydian dignified joy, a peaceful,
quiet, devoted condition, humble devo-
tion, the Mixolydian signifying stately,
majestic gravity, a joy too deep for
levity, and the Hypomixolydian repre-
senting the various sensations of sweet-
ness, charm, and grace. The ancient
modes may be represented by the follow-
ing modern scales: the Dorian, in D;
the Hypodorian, in A; the Phrygian,
in E; the Hypophrygian, in B; the
Eolian, in F; the Hypoeolian, in C; the
Mixolydian, in G; the Hypomixolydian,
in D; the Lydian, in A; the Hypolydian,
in E; the Ionian, in C; the Ilypoionian,
in G. See Chant, Ambrosian; Gregorian
Chant.
Church-Year. The church-year may
be divided into the following cycles. It
opens with the season of Advent, the
period of preparation for the Christmas
Festival. The early part of this division
is devoted to the discussion of eschato-
logical subjects, not only in the lessons,
but also in the liturgy. In the latter
part of this season, especially on and
after the Fourth Sunday in Advent, the
Christmas theme is brought into the fore-
ground. The Christmas Festival is the
first of the primary festivals; it has
two and even three days of celebration.
The Feast of the Innocents falls within
the octave, or week, of Christmas, the
services of the octave, according to an-
cient custom, serving to echo the mes-
sage of the festival itself. In the case
of Christmas, its octave is the Festival
of the Circumcision, which concurs with
the New Year’s Day of the civil year.
The festival of Epiphany, on January 6,
ushers in the story of Christ in the glory
of His childhood and early ministry.
The season of Septuagesima, or pre-Lent,
follows after that of Epiphany. It is
devoted to the ministry of Christ in its
Sunday services and to the Old Testa-
ment story in its secondary services.
Quinquagesima Sunday opens the series
Ch.Tircli'' Y ear
151
Church-Y ear
of lessons treating of the later ministry
of Christ, including the last journey to
Jerusalem. The season of Lent, begin-
ning with Ash Wednesday, is otherwise
devoted to an intensive study of the Pas-
sion of Christ, this feature becoming un-
usually pronounced in Holy Week, with
the culmination in the great happening
of Good Friday, in the death and burial
of Christ. The Easter season is ushered
in with Easter Sunday, two or three days
being devoted to the contemplation of
the resurrection of the Lord, and the
period extending to Ascension Day. The
Easter season merges into that of Pente-
cost, Exaudi Sunday, however, serving
as a special day of preparation for this
third great festival of the Church, with
its two or even three festival days. In
the second part of the church-year, be-
ginning with Trinity or, more exactly,
the Sunday after Trinity, there are no
festivals of the first rank.
Most of the festivals referred to in
this brief description were celebrated in
the Christian Church from very early
times. The celebration of Easter extends
back to the time of the apostles, 1 Cor.
5, 8. So far as extant documents show,
there never was any question as to the
celebration, but only as to the date of
the celebration, the controversy concern-
ing this question being finally settled
by the Council of Nicea, in 325. Since
532 the Oriental mode of computing the
date of Easter is in force, according to
which the earliest date of Easter is
March 22, the latest April 25. From
very early days Easter was preceded by
a special period of preparation, called
the Lenten season. The custom of fast-
ing during this time was general at a
very early date, but the length of the
fast varied, eight days being customary
at first, but the time being extended to
forty days, after the analogy of the
period included in the Lord’s temptation.
Matt. 4, 2. Gregory II (715 — 731) is
said to have fixed the Wednesday now
known as Ash Wednesday (from the
custom of daubing the foreheads of the
worshipers on that day with the ashes of
last year’s palms, in token of mourning)
as the first day of Lent in order to secure
uniformity of observance throughout the
Church. The season of preparation for
Easter closed with the Great or Black
Week, also known as the Holy Week or
the Week of the Passion. The Thurs-
day of Holy Week commemorated the in-
stitution of the Holy Supper. Since the
Gospel of the day was John 13, 1 — 15,
the day was also known as the Day of
Foot-washing. Its present English name
of Maundy Thursday is derived either
from the words of the Gospel-lesson:
“Mandatum novum do vobis,” or from
the custom of carrying gifts to the poor
in maund(y) baskets on that day. Good
Friday, almost from the first, was the
Day of the Cross, a day of deepest
mourning, with a complete fast till 3 or
6 o’clock in the afternoon. In some
churches, no form of service was pre-
scribed, the faithful merely coming to-
gether for silent prayer. Within the
fifty days of rejoicing following Easter
came the Festival of the Ascension,
which is mentioned by Eusebius and may
have been celebrated at the end of the
third century. Pentecost may also be of
very ancient date, perhaps going back to
the time of the apostles and celebrated
as the birthday of the Church. Tertul-
lian calls the whole time from Easter to
Pentecost by the latter name and gives
to each day of the entire period the im-
portance and dignity of a Sunday. — In
the early Church less stress was laid
upon the birthday of the Lord than upon
the fact that the Son of God actually
became man. John 1, 14. Accordingly
we find a festival celebrating this fact
as early as the time of Clement of Al-
exandria, at the beginning of the third
century. The 6th of January was the
accepted date for this Festival of Epiph-
any, or the Manifestation of the Lord,
at the end of the third century. It com-
memorated not only the birth of Christ,
but also His baptism and, in some cases,
His first miracle, thus expressing very
well the general idea of the revelation
and manifestation of the divinity of
Christ in His humanity. The celebration
of Christmas as the birthday of our Lord
on December 25 goes back to the middle
of the fourth century. Tradition has it
that Pope Julius I (336 — 352) had the
imperial archives of Rome searched for
the exact date of the birth of Christ and
found that this was the correct day, ac-
cording to the tax lists. It has now been
established beyond a doubt that Pope
Liberius, in 354, fixed the celebration of
the Lord’s nativity for December 25.
There is a record from the year 360,
showing that it was celebrated at that
time. — Just as Easter had its special
season of preparation, so a similar period
was set aside before Christmas. The
length of the Advent season varied ac-
cording to the ancient Comites, Milan
observing five Sundays, Rome only four.
Finally the custom of having four Sun-
days was generally accepted, because this
agreed with the four milleniums pre-
ceding the birth of Christ. — After the
fifth century the number of festivals in
the Church increased very rapidly. With
Church.- Y ear
152
Church of the Brethren
the increasing veneration of Mary her
festivals gained ground. The Annuncia-
tion of Mary, celebrating the conception
of the Lord, ipas fixed for March 25, and
that of the Purification of Mary prop-
erly followed Christmas, on February 2.
Since the special ceremony of this day,
in Roman circles, is the benediction of
candles, their distribution to the people,
and the solemn procession with the
lighted tapers, the festival is known in
English as Candlemas, in German as
Liehtmess. — Naturally, the feasts of
apostles and evangelists were soon cele-
brated, especially those of Peter and
Paul, although those of John and James
were also favorites. With the rising tide
during the Middle Ages came the many
saints’ and martyrs’ days, beginning with
that of Stephen, but later including one
for all martyrs, as well as All Saints’
Day, November 1, when they were com-
memorated in one total sum, and All
Souls’ Day, November 2, when there was
a concentration of efforts in behalf of
the departed souls. Many of the Sun-
days of the church-year were known by
special names, usually after the first
words of their respective introits, the
names of the Sundays in Lent being:
Invocavit, Ps. 91, 15; Reminiscere, Ps.
25, 6; Oculi, Ps. 25, 15; Laetare, Is.
66, 1 ; and Judica, Ps. 43, 1. The name
Palm Sunday is derived not only from
the Gospel of the day, Matt. 21, 8, but
also from the fact that the blessing of
the palms formerly took place on that
day. The Sundays after Easter are:
Quasimodogeniti, or Dominica in Albis,
1 Pet. 2, 2; Misericordias Domini, Ps.
89, 2 ; Jubilate, Ps. 66, 1 ; Cantate, Ps.
98, 1 ; Rogate, Matt. 7, 7 ; and Exaudi,
Ps. 27, 7. — The reformers of the 16th
century, under the leadership of Luther,
retained the ancient festivals in honor
of Christ and the Triune God as a mat-
ter of course, preferring also to regard
Annunciation and Purification as Christ
festivals. As for the other festivals,
they were careful to keep all such as
had any value for the devotion and edi-
fication of the Christian congregation,
while they eliminated all festivals, or at
least all parts and references in the cele-
bration of all festivals, which savored of
Romish idolatry. The Festival of the
Reformation on October 31 was soon in-
troduced, not on account of any super-
stitious and idolatrous veneration for
the person of Martin Luther, but to com-
memorate the wonderful blessings which
came to the Church in consequence of
Luther’s courageous stand. In the Amer-
ican Lutheran Church Thanksgiving Day
is celebrated very generally, sometimes
in addition to, a Harvest Home Festival,
for which the church is appropriately
decorated and the virtue of Christian
charity is emphasized.
The church calendar, as in use in the
Lutheran Church to-day, may be said to
include the following festivals: A. Mov-
able Festivals. Septuagesima, Sexages-
ima, Quinquagesima (or Esto Mihi), Ash
Wednesday, Invocavit, Reminiscere, Oculi,
Laetare, Judica, Palmarum, Dies Viri-
dium (or Maundy Thursday), Good Fri-
day, Easter, Quasimodogeniti, Misericor-
dias Domini, Jubilate, Cantate, Rogate,
Ascension, Exaudi, Pentecost (or Whit-
sunday), Tryiity. B. Fixed Festivals.
Circumcision, January 1 ; Epiphany, Jan-
uary 6; Conversion of St. Paul, Jan-
uary 25; Purification, February 2; St.
Matthias, February 24; Annunciation,
March 25 ; SS. Philip and James, May 1 ;
Birth of John the Baptist, June 24;
SS. Peter and Paul, June 29; Visita-
tion of Mary, July 2; Mary Magdalene,
July 22; St. James the Elder, July 25;
St. Lawrence, August 10; St. Bartholo-
mew, August 24; St. Matthew, Septem-
ber 21; Michaelmas, September 29;
SS. Simon and Jude, October 28; All
Saints’, November 1 ; St. Andrew, No-
vember 30; St. Thomas, December 21;
Christmas, December 25; St. Stephen,
December 26; St. John the Evangelist,
December 27 ; Innocents’ Day, Decem-
ber 28. If the observance of these fes-
tivals is untainted by high-churchism
and if they are always celebrated in a
strictly evangelical spirit, it will surely
redound to the glory of God and the
Church.
Churching of Women. The custom
of offering a special prayer of thanks-
giving (with or without the mention of
names) for women able to .attend divine
worship again after childbirth. The cus-
tom is probably based upon the Old Tes-
tament rite of purification, which de-
clared a woman unclean for forty days
in the case of a son and eighty in the
case of a daughter and required a special
offering of atonement before the woman
was admitted to public worship again.
Lev. 12.
Church of the Brethren ( Conserva-
tive Dunkers; formerly, German Baptist
Brethren Church, Conservative). The
origin of this body dates back to the
Pietist movement in Germany, of which
Philip Jacob Spener and August Her-
man Francke were the exponents, the
latter superintending the mission, indus-
trial, and orphan school at Halle. One
of the students of the Halle School,
Ernst Christoph Hochmann, after vary-
Church of the Brethren
153
Churches of Christ
ing experiences of arrest and expulsion,
retired to Schwarzenau, where he en-
tered intimate associations with Alexan-
der Mack, with whom he went on various
preaching tours, organizing in 1708 a
new congregation, after Hochmann and
Mack, together with six others, had been
rebaptized by immersion in the River
Eder. This congregation became the
basis of the Taeufer, Tunkers, or Dun-
kers, Dompelaars, German Baptist Breth-
ren, or Church of the Brethren. In spite
of much persecution the new church in-
creased in number, spreading over Ger-
many and thence into Holland and
Switzerland. In 1719 the first Brethren,
under the leadership of Peter Becker,
left Crefeld, Germany and, sailing to
America, settled in Germantown, Pa. In
1729, 59 families, or 126 souls, crossed
the Atlantic, landing in Philadelphia on
September 15. From Pennsylvania the
Brethren gradually spread over New Jer-
sey, Maryland, Virginia, the Carolinas,
Kentucky, and later to the Ohio and Mis-
sissippi valleys. Keeping to themselves
and mingling little with the world, they
took little part in the general movements
of the times, in consequence of which
there was a wide-spread feeling against
them, they being looked upon as op-
posing the Revolution. As conditions
changed, the Brethren developed differ-
ent practises, which resulted in the for-
mation of separate communities. In
1728 John Conrad Beissel withdrew and
founded the monastic community at
Ephrata, Pa. Other separations oc-
curred at various times, chiefly because
the seceders objected to the form of
government which had gradually devel-
oped within the larger body. In recent
times efforts have been made to unite
the various bodies, in some localities the
union being all but effected. In doctrine
the Brethren may be classed as orthodox
Trinitarian. Baptism is by trine for-
ward immersion, the person baptized
being confirmed while kneeling in the
water. Holy Communion, or the Eucha-
rist, is preceded by the rite of foot-wash-
ing and the love feast, or agape, the
whole service being observed in the even-
ing. During prayer and especially at
Communion services, the sisters are ex-
pected to be “veiled.” Anointing with
oil in the name of the Lord is adminis-
tered in cases of illness. All communi-
cants are asked to be non-combatants,
non-resistance being taught. There is
also insistence upon total abstinence, and
plain attire, excluding jewelry, is ad-
vocated. In polity the Brethren hold to
the presbyterian form. Appointed by
the congregation, the minister exercises
all duties of the ministry, excepting
those that are specially assigned to the
bishop. He himself is in due time or-
dained to the bishopric. The local con-
gregations send delegates, lay and cler-
ical, to the state district meetings, in
connection with which also “elders’ meet-
ings,” composed of the bishops of the re-
spective congregations, are held. Above
the state district meeting is the General
Conference of the entire brotherhood,
composed of bishops and lay delegates,
which holds administrative power. The
regular missionary endeavor in both
home and foreign fields dates back to
1885. The General Mission Board has
its headquarters at Elgin, 111. In the
foreign field, work is carried on in In-
dia, China, Sweden, and Denmark. Their
young people’s organization, the “Chris-
tian Workers,” reported, in 1916, 533 so-
cieties, with a membership of 17,135. In
1921 the body had 3,551 ministers, 1,014
churches, 108,963 communicants. — Ger-
man Baptist Brethren ( Dunkers ). This
organization is divided into three sepa-
rate bodies, called “The Church of the
Brethren” (Conservative Dunkers), “Old
Order German Baptist Brethren” and
“The Brethren Church” (Progressive
Dunkers). To these may be added “The
German Seventh-day Baptists” and “The
Church of God” (New Dunkers). Ac-
cording to the statistics of the Churches
in 1921 the three first-named bodies re-
ported 4,057 ministers, 1,280 churches,
and 137,142 communicants. The various
bodies will be discussed under the sev-
eral heads.
Churches of Christ. This denomina-
tion separated from the Campbellites, or
Disciples of Christ, in 1900, mainly in
opposition to the use of instrumental
music in the services and the establish-
ing of a “money basis” and a delegated
membership in the church. In doctrine
and polity the Churches of Christ are,
in some respects, in accord with the Dis-
ciples of Christ. They reject all hu-
man creeds and confessions, consider the
Scriptures a sufficient rule of faith and
practise, emphasize the “divine sonship
of Jesus” and the “divine personality of
the Holy Ghost,” and regard the Lord’s
Supper as a memorial service rather
than as a Sacrament, to be observed each
Lord’s Day. Each local church is inde-
pendent. Foreign missionary work is
done in Armenia and Persia, Japan, In-
dia, and Africa. The denomination main-
tains six Bible, or Christian, colleges, an
orphan school, and three orphanages.
These institutions are located in Ten-
nessee, Texas, Kentucky, Alabama, and
Oklahoma. In 1916 the denomination
Church of God
154 Churches of God In North America
maintained 5,570 organizations with
317,937 members.
Church of God. See Come-Outists.
Church of God ( Adventist ). This
branch of the Seventh-day Adventists
seceded in 1866 because its members de-
nied that Mrs. Ellen Gould White was
an inspired prophetess. In that year the
dissenters organized at Marion, Iowa,
assuming the name “Church of God.”
While the fundamental doctrines and
practises of the Church of God are the
same as those of the Seventh-day Ad-
ventists, the two denominations are at
variance in their views of prophecy and
its application. In particular the Church
of God repudiates the doctrine held by
the Seventh-day Adventists that the
sanctuary to be cleansed at the end of
the 2,300 days (Dan. 8, 14) was the
heavenly sanctuary, as well as the appli-
cation of the third angel’s message (Rev.
14,9 — 12) to the Seventh-day Adventists.
Their main organ is the Bible Advocate
published at Stanberry, Mo. In 1921
the Church of God had 74 ministers,
40 churches, and 1,272 communicants.
Churches of God in Christ Jesus.
In November, 1888, representatives of
various churches, such as the Church of
the Blessed Hope, Brethren of the Abra-
hamic Faith, Restitutionists, Restitution
Church, Church of God, and Age-to-
Come Adventists, met in Philadelphia
and organized the association known as
“Churches of God in Christ Jesus,” a
branch of Adventists, which is in general
accord with the Adventist bodies and is
classed with them, although the term
“Adventist” does not appear in its title.
They believe that Christ will come again
personally to establish the kingdom of
God on earth, which, with its capital
city at Jerusalem, will be gradually ex-
tended until all nations and races have
been brought under His sovereignty;
that He will restore to its ancient her-
itage the Israelitish nation, which will
then be the most favored nation in His
kingdom; that He will give immortal
life to those who have been faithful,
raising the dead and changing the liv-
ing; that He will punish the wicked, who,
in the second death, will be blotted out
of existence; and that the immortal
saints, as joint heirs with Christ, will be
given positions of honor and trust, being
rulers with Christ in the kingdom of God,
eternal life being through Christ alone.
In polity the churches are congrega-
tional. The majority of the churches
meet regularly on the first day of each
week to celebrate the Lord’s Supper, and
the general attitude toward other de-
nominations is liberal. In 1921 there
were 50 ministers, 93 churches, and
3,490 communicant members.
Churches of God, General Assem-
bly. (Holiness Church.) The first organ-
ization of this body was formed in
August, 1886, in Monroe County, Tenn.,
under the name “Christian Union.” In
1902 there was a reorganization under
the name “Holiness Church,” and in
January, 1907, a third meeting at Union
Grove, Bradley Co., Tenn., adopted the
name “Church of God” with a member-
ship of 150, representing five local
churches in North Carolina, Georgia,
and Tennessee. — - Doctrine. In doctrine
this body is Arminian and in accord
with the Methodist bodies. It recog-
nizes no creed as authoritative, but re-
lies upon the Bible as the final court of
appeals. It emphasizes sanctification as
a second divine experience following re-
generation. Conditions of membership
are: “Profession of faith in Christ, the
experience of being ‘born again,’ bearing
the fruits of a Christian life, and the
recognition of the obligation to accept
and practise all the teachings of the
Church.” The sacraments observed are:
the Lord’s Supper, foot-washing, and
baptism by immersion. - — Polity. The
ecclesiastical organization is a blending
of congregational and episcopal, ending
in theocratical, by which is meant that
every question is to be decided by God’s
Word. The officers of the Church are
bishops, deacons, and evangelists. The
General Assembly, composed of repre-
sentatives from all States, provinces, and
countries, is recognized as a supreme
council and meets annually. In 1921 the
denomination had 763 ministers, 553 or-
ganizations, and 18,248 communicants.
Churches of God in North America
( Winebrennerians ) . This body was or-
ganized in 1830 by John Winebrenner,
former pastor of the German Reformed
Church in Harrisburg, Pa., who in 1828
was expelled from the German Reformed
Church on account of doctrinal differ-
ences. At the meeting held in October,
1830, an “eldership,” consisting of an
equal number of teaching and ruling
elders, was organized, which, to distin-
guish it from the local church eldership,
was called “General Eldership of the
Church of God.” On May 26, 1845,
delegates from three elderships met at
Pittsburgh, Pa., and organized the “Gen-
eral Eldership of the Church of Go.d in
North America,” which name was changed
in 1896 to the “General Eldership of
the Churches of God in North America.”
In doctrine the Churches of God are
Churches of the Living God 155 Church of United Brethren in Christ
Arminian rather than Calvinistic. They
hold as distinctive views that sectari-
anism is antiscriptural; that each local
church is a church of God and should
be so called; that, in general, Bible
things, as church offices and customs,
should be known by Bible names; that
there are three ordinances: Baptism,
the Lord’s Supper, and the religious
washing of the saints’ feet. The only
mode of baptism recognized is the im-
mersion of believers. They have no writ-
ten creed, but accept the Word of God
as their only rule of faith. Their doc-
trines are set forth in Declaration of
Views of the Church of God. — The de-
nomination is principally represented in
Pennsylvania. The polity of the Church
is presbyterian. Foreign work is car-
ried on in India through the Woman’s
General Missionary Society. They have
a publishing house and bookstore in Har-
risburg, Pa., a college in Findlay, O., and
one at Fort Scott, Kans. The number
of young people’s societies in 1916 was
213, with 8,469 members. In 1921 the
denomination had 421 ministers, 525
churches, and 28,672 members.
Churches of the Living God (Col-
ored). Three bodies of Negro Churches,
similar in type, though differing in de-
tails, are comprised under this head:
the Church of the Living God, organized
in Texas about 1908, in protest against
the wrong subservience of the regular
denominations to class and race preju-
dice; the Church of the Living God,
Christian Workers for Fellowship, or-
ganized at Wrightsville, Ark., in 1889,
by Rev. William Christian, with the fol-
lowing distinctive characteristics: be-
lievers’ baptism by immersion, the wash-
ing of the saints’ feet, and the use of
water and unleavened bread in the Lord’s
Supper; and the Church of the Living
God, General Assembly, formerly, Church
of the Living God, Apostolic Church,
which in 1902 withdrew from the Chris-
tian Workers for Fellowship and in doc-
trine and general organization closely
corresponds to the Methodist churches.
In 1921 the three bodies reported 200
ministers, 165 churches, and 11,000 com-
municants.
Church of God and Saints of Christ.
This body was organized in 1896 by Wil-
liam S. Crowdy, a Negro cook on the
Santa FS Railroad, who claimed to have
had a vision from God calling him to
lead his people to the true religion and
endowing him with the gifts of prophecy.
The first church was founded in 1896 at
Lawrence, Kans. When the numbers in-
creased, the headquarters were removed
to Philadelphia. There Crowdy was ap-
pointed bishop together with two white
men who were associated with him. Be-
lieving that the Negro race is descended
from the ten lost tribes of Israel, the
prophet taught that the Ten Command-
ments and a literal adherence to the
teachings of the Bible are man’s positive
guides to salvation. In the pamphlet
Seven Keys, Bible references give the
authority for the various customs and
orders of the Church. In 1916, 94 or-
ganizations, 3,311 members, and 1,526
Sunday-school pupils were reported.
Church Triumphant. See Commu-
nistic Societies.
Church of the United Brethren in
Christ. The founder of this denomina-
tion was Philip William Otterbein. B. in
Nassau, Germany, 1726. In company
with five others he arrived in New York
in July, 1752, where he found a field of
labor with a congregation at Lancaster,
Pa., at that time second in importance
among the German Reformed churches
in the colonies. Later he came into
personal relations with Martin Boehm,
a member of the Mennonite community,
who had passed through a similar reli-
gious ex-perience, and together they con-
ducted evangelistic work among the scat-
tered settlers in Pennsylvania. They
were joined by men of every creed —
Lutherans, Reformed, Mennonites, Dun-
kers, etc. As Otterbein had offended his
fellow-ministers to such a degree as to
arouse opposition, he, in 1774, accepted
a call to Baltimore, Md., where he served
the congregation on an independent basis.
For the next fifteen years he continued
his evangelistic labors among the Ger-
man-speaking communities. In 1789 a
meeting of these revivalist preachers was
held in Baltimore, and a confession of
faith and rules of discipline were
adopted, based upon the rules adopted
four years before for the government of
Otterbein’s independent church in Balti-
more. During the following decade simi-
lar councils were called at irregular in-
tervals, and these culminated, at the con-
ference held in Frederick County, Md.,
in 1800, in the formation of a distinctly
ecclesiastical body under the name of
“United Brethren in Christ.” Thirteen
preachers were in attendance, and Otter-
bein and Boehm were elected bishops, in
which office they both remained until
their death (Boehm d. in 1812, Otter-
bein in 1813). Bishop Otterbein came
into close relations with Bishop Asbury
of the Methodist Church. However, as
the Methodist Church was unwilling to
accede to the wishes of the German-
Church of United Brethren In Christ 156
Cistercians
speaking communities and encouraged
German-speaking churches, the two bodies
remained distinct. During the first years
of the 19th century the movement con-
tinued to grow, and preaching-places
were established in Ohio, Indiana, and
Kentucky. However, the center of
greatest activity was the Miami Valley
in Ohio. The first General Conference
was held in 1815, four conferences being
represented by fourteen delegates. This
conference arranged and adopted a book
of discipline, accepting in general the
system agreed upon in the conference of
1789. This same conference was also
significant for its recognition of a change
that had taken place in the churches re-
garding the use of the English language.
This change was recognized by the con-
ference held in 1817, which ordered the
confession of faith and the book of dis-
cipline to be printed in both German and
English. As the churches came into con-
tact with other religious bodies, a desire
developed for certain changes in the con-
stitution. The general conference of
1885 created a commission to revise the
confession of faith and the constitution.
The report of the commission, made to
the conference in 1889, was adopted by
a vote of 111 to 21. Against this adop-
tion Bishop Milton Wright and 11 dele-
gates entered into formal protest and
with about 20,000 members organized
a separate conference, which, they in-
sisted, was the legal body known as the
United Brethren in Christ. The result
was considerable litigation in regard to
property, and cases came up before the
courts in 1889; they were finally decided
by the United States Court of Appeals.
For many years the controversy which
arose in consequence of the adoption was
carried on with much bitterness on both
sides. Those who maintained, or adhered
to, the old confession and constitution
were called Radicals, while those who
were in favor of the revision and change
were called Liberals. The decade from
1906 to 1916 has been characterized by
the development of departments of church
activity, such as education, home and
foreign missions, church erection, budget
and finance. — Doctrine. The doctrine of
the church is Arminian, following closely
the doctrinal standards of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. Its confession of
faith consists of thirteen brief articles,
which are but modifications of the
Methodist Confessions. Concerning the
Sacraments the United Brethren in
Christ hold that Baptism and the Lord’s
Supper should be observed by all Chris-
tians, but that the manner of celebrating
the Lord’s Supper, the mode of baptism,
and the practise of foot-washing should
be left to the judgment of each individ-
ual. The question of baptizing children
is left to the parents’ choice. These and
other doctrines are more extensively set
forth in their confessions of faith:
Origin, Doctrine, Constitution, and Dis-
cipline of the United Brethren in Christ
and Handbook of the United Brethren
in Christ, by E. L. Shuey. — Polity.
The polity of the United Brethren in
Christ is similar to that of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church. The pastoral
term of service is unlimited since 1893;
and since that time a preacher may be
reassigned annually to the same church
for a number of years. — Work. The
home missionary work of the Church
is carried on through the home mission-
ary society of the Church of the United
Brethren in Christ, the Church Erection
Society, and the annual conferences. Its
special object is to establish United
Brethren churches in districts which are
not supplied. The foreign missionary
work of the Church is carried on through
the foreign missionary society and the
Women’s Missionary Association. The
educational institutions of the Church in
the United States are: The Bonebrake
Theological Seminary, at Dayton, O. ;
Otterbein College, Westville, 0., and
9 other colleges and academies, in which
2,759 students were enrolled in 1916.
Besides these educational institutions
the Church has three homes: at Quincy,
Pa., Baker, Cal., and Lebanon, O. The
publishing plant of the denomination,
valued at more than $1,650,000, is lo-
cated in Dayton, O., where the Church
has its national headquarters, and where
26 publications are issued and many
books printed. The Young People’s Chris-
tian Endeavor Society reports 2,590
organizations, with a membership of
105,966. — Statistics, 1921: 1,756 minis-
ters, 3,293 churches, 355,896 communi-
cants.
Chytraeus (Kochhafe) David. Born
1531; Luther’s pupil; lectured in 1548;
went to Rostock in 1551 ; pillar of the
university. Commentaries on most books
of the Bible; theological oracle of his
time; influential in Austria, Sweden, etc. ;
one of the authors of the Formula of
Concord. The last of the “Fathers of
the Lutheran Church.” D. 1600.
Cincture. See Vestments, R. C.
Cistercians. This monastic order
was founded by a certain Robert, in 1098,
at Citeaux, in Burgundy, to counteract
the laxity which had overtaken the
Cluniac reform. It represented a return
to a strict observance of the Benedictine
Civil Government
157
and Church and State
Rule and insisted on simplicity, even
poverty, of life. In 1112 the great Ber-
nard of Clairvaux, with thirty young
noblemen, entered the order, and under
his influence and prestige it enjoyed a
remarkable development. He was so
closely identified with it that Cistercians
are often called Bernardines. The Cis-
tercians exemplified the Benedictine pol-
icy of work by colonizing Northeastern
Germany and other waste districts.
They took pride in agriculture and
cattle-raising; but their industry made
them too wealthy for their own good.
“Religion brought forth riches; riches
destroyed religion.” The decline was
aided by internal dissensions. The most
important of various reform movements
was the Trappist reform. (See Trap-
pista.) There now are about 100 Cis-
tercian monasteries, with 5,000 members.
Civil Government and the Relation
between Church and State. The term
“government” is commonly applied to an
empire, kingdom, state, municipality, or
other independent political community
in its respective relations to those
under its jurisdiction, especially in
the restraint, regulation, supervision,
and control exercised over and upon the
individual members of an organized so-
ciety by those invested with supreme
political authority, for the good and wel-
fare of the body politic; also the act of
exercising supreme political power or
control. The term “church” in this con-
nection signifies the external society or
organization of people holding some pe-
culiar tenets of doctrine and united un-
der one form of government by the pro-
fession of this faith and the observance
of the same ritual and ceremonies. In
the wider sense the term denotes all the
adherents, particularly the communi-
cants, connected with some established
organization, while in the narrower sense
the word “church” is applied to all the
members of a church organization living
in one community, worshiping in one
place, and subject to the same ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction. Or, as a legal defini-
tion puts it: “A congregational church
is a voluntary association of Christians
united for discipline and worship, con-
nected with, and forming a part of, some
religious society, having a legal exist-
ence.” So far as the term civil govern-
ment is concerned, it is here used in the
sense of a free political community and
relating to the policy and government
of the citizens and subjects of a state;
civil being incidentally distinguished
from ecclesiastical and military. — The
fundamental principle regarding the
proper relation as it ought to obtain be-
tween Church and State has been laid
down in the clearest and most unmistak-
able manner by Christ in His noted say-
ing: “Render unto Caesar the things
which are Caesar’s and unto God the
things that are God’s.” Matt. 22, 21.
The two duties are plainly set side by
side. They need not and should not con-
flict, and they should be kept separate
and distinct, the province of either re-
maining clearly defined and not being
mingled in any manner. The Church
should not interfere, or mingle, with the
business of the State, and the State
should not presume to lord it over
people’s consciences in any matter per-
taining to religion or religious observ-
ances, unless such observances interfere
with the police power and with the peace
of the community and the state. This
principle has ever been held by the
Church with great emphasis. Jesus made
His statement during the reign of Tibe-
rius Caesar, but evidently without any
reference to the Roman emperor or to
the procurator of Judea, at that time
Pontius Pilate. Likewise the Apostle
Paul also, by inspiration of the Holy
Spirit, admonishes the Christians to be
subject to the higher powers, Rom. 13,
1 ff., to make supplication for “kings and
for all that are in authority,” 1 Tim. 2, 2,
and to “be subject to principalities and
powers, to obey magistrates, and to be
ready to every good work,” Titus 3, 1 ;
and it does not make any difference to
him whether he writes in the early part
of Nero’s reign, or when the latter’s
bloodthirstiness had already become pro-
verbial. In like manner the Apostle
Peter admonishes the Christians, about
the middle of the sixth decade of the
first century: “Submit yourselves to
every ordinance of man for the Lord’s
sake, whether it be to the king, as su-
preme, or unto governors, as unto them
that are sent by Him for the punishment
of evil-doers and for the praise of them
that do well.” 1 Pet. 2, 13. 14. There is
only one exception noted in Scriptures,
stated by the apostles when they were
arraigned before the council of the Jews:
“We ought to obey God rather than
men.” Acts 5, 29. That is: The obedi-
ence which Christians owe to God takes
precedence of that which is due the civil
government, namely, when the latter sees
fit to make laws requiring the Chris-
tians to do something contrary to the
Word of God, including such regulations
as completely hinder the exercise of their
religious duties. Christians might, un-
der circumstances, yield to a law which
restricts the free exercise of their reli-
Civil Government, etc.
158
Clarke, Samuel
gion, but they could not obey a restric-
tion which would aim to abolish wor-
ship entirely. If restrictive legislation
has been passed, Christians may use
their rights as citizens of a country in
endeavoring to secure the repeal of the
objectionable law, but they cannot en-
tirely give up their religious exercises
without denying their faith.
Certain facts from the history of the
Church shed some interesting light upon
the question of the relation which ought
to obtain between Church and State.
Frequently both parties were at fault,
and there was seldom a period when the
one or the other did not consciously or
unconsciously try to dominate. As early
as 313, the Edict of Milan issued by
Constantine, which gave the Christians
the free exercise of their religion, opened
the way for legislation which made
Christianity the state religion, thereby
tending to externalize religion and to
hamper its effectiveness. The Pseudo-
Isidorian Decretals (q.v.) show just to
what extent the Roman See made use of
the power which it gained in consequence
of the recognition of the Church. Mat-
ters became still worse with the found-
ing of the Holy Roman Empire and the
investiture of the emperor by the Pope.
( See Charlemagne. ) One of the peculiar
excrescences of this movement was the
Papal State and the claim of the Pope
to a temporal rule. The situation be-
came unusually severe at the end of the
eleventh century, when Pope Gregory VII
(see Popes), 1073 — 85, expressed his be-
lief in Papocaesarism, that is, the theory
that the Church, specifically the Pope,
has supreme authority with regard to
the civil government everywhere, that
even the emperor derives his power from
the Pope as the moon derives her light
from the sun. The same principle has
been pronounced by Calvinism and by
practically all denominations which have
been influenced by the doctrines of Cal-
vin {q. u.). According to their claims
the Bible, as interpreted by their Re-
formed theologians, should be the fun-
damental law in every state, and every
citizen of the state should be obliged to
conform to their particular species of
Christianity in doctrine and in ethics.
Many of the reforms advocated by them
might be acceptable from the standpoint
of practical expediency, but they should
not be made religious issues, nor should
the members of the clergy as such take
such a prominent part in issues which
are not in line with the separation of
Church and State. This attitude results
in a form of Caesaropapism, the theory
that the civil government has supreme
authority in matters of the Church.
This theory is, unfortunately, held in
many European states, also in many of
the countries of the German Republic, if
not in the old form of an official state
church, yet in a modification which ac-
tually designates one or more church-
bodies as officially recognized and refuses
recognition to others. The Lutheran at-
titude is clearly set forth in the Confes-
sions of the Lutheran Church, in which
the position of the civil government iB
defined with great exactness, especially
with regard to its functions commonly
included in the police powers. In Ar-
ticle XVI of the Augsburg Confession,
“Of Civil Affairs,” we read: “Of civil
affairs they [the Lutherans] teach that
lawful civil ordinances are good works
of God, and that it is right for Chris-
tians to bear civil office, to sit as judges,
to judge matters by the imperial and
other existing laws, to award just pun-
ishments, to engage in just wars, to serve
as soldiers, to make legal contracts, to
hold property, to make oath when re-
quired by the magistrates, to marry a
wife, to be given in marriage. . . . The
Gospel does not destroy the state or
the family, but very much requires that
they be preserved as ordinances of God,
and that charity be practised in such
ordinances. Therefore, Christians are
necessarily bound to obey their own
magistrates and laws, save only when
commanded to sin; for then they ought
to obey God rather than men. Acts
5,29.” (Cone. Trigl., 51.) Compare also
the Apology of the Augsburg Confession,
Article XVI. See also Church and State.
Clandestinity. See Impediments of
Marriage.
Clare, Huns of St. ( Poor Clares.)
This female branch of the Franciscan
order was founded by Clare of Assisi,
about 1213. Its members are dedicated
to a life of penance and contemplation.
In U. S. (1921): 11 monasteries; 175
members.
Clarke, Adam (ca. 1762 — 1832). Eng-
lish Methodist. B. in Ireland; studied
in England; Methodist 1778; sent out
as preacher 1782; traveled throughout
Great Britain; for a time denied “the
eternal sonship” of Christ; thrice presi-
dent of British Conference; scholar of
comprehensive attainments ; d. in Lon-
don. Assisted in preparing Arabic Bible;
published Commentary on the Bible
(8 vols.) ; etc.
Clarke, Samuel. A well-known Eng-
lish divine and metaphysician; b. at
Norwich, October 11, 1675; d. suddenly,
May, 1729, His principal work, trans-
Clarke, Samuel Childs
159
Clementines
lated into German by Semler, prepared
the way for German rationalism. Among
other things, he published a Paraphrase
on the Four Gospels. The Lower House
of Convocation, in 1714, complained to
the bishops of the heterodox and dan-
gerous tendencies of the Arian tenets ad-
vanced by Clarke.
Clarke, Samuel Childs, 1821 — 4903.
Educated at Oxford; held a number of
positions in the Anglican Church, also
in connection with educational work;
known for songs for children; among
his hymns: “Gracious Lord of All
Creation.”
Class-Meeting. A distinctive feature
of Methodism, introduced by Wesley in
London about 1742. The congregation
is divided into classes, over each of
which the pastor appoints a class-leader,
whose duties are as follows: 1) to see
each person in his class at the appointed
meeting-place in order to inquire con-
cerning his soul’s welfare and to advise,
reprove, comfort, or exhort, as may be
necessary; also to receive contributions
toward the relief of the preachers, the
church, and the poor; 2) to meet the
ministers and the stewards once a week
in order to inform the minister of any
that are sick, or of disorderly members
who will not be reproved, and to pay the
stewards the contributions which they
have received from the classes each week.
Claude, Jean, 1619 — 87. Leader of
French Reformed Church. B. in South-
western France; pastor at Nimes, Mon-
tauban, Paris; controversialist; d. at
The Hague. Wrote: On Composition of
a Sermon ; etc.
Claudius of Turin. Statesman-bishop
under Charlemagne and Louis the Pious ;
b. latter half of eighth century; d. be-
fore 832; rendered much service against
the Mohammedan Moors; wrote a num-
ber of commentaries ; opposed the Church
in a number of views, notably that of
the power of Peter, and showed icono-
clastic tendencies.
Claudius, Matthias; b. 1740, d. 1815;
layman, sincere believer in, and defender
of, Bible faith in the age of Rationalism ;
also hymn -writer ; editor of the W ands-
becker Bote.
Clausen, Claus Lauritz. B. in Den-
mark, November 3, 1820; teacher, lay
preacher; to Norway 1841; to America
1843, to work among the Norwegians;
ordained 1843; pastor in Wisconsin and
Iowa ; member of Iowa Legislature ;
Commissioner of Immigration; army
chaplain; pastor. One of three pastors
who 1851 organized “The Norwegian
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Amer-
ica”; its president. One of the organ-
izers of “The Norwegian Synod,” 1853
(its vice-president), and of “The Norwe-
gian -Danish Conference,” 1870 (its pres-
ident) . Editor and author. D. Febru-
ary 20, 1892.
Clausnitzer, Tobias, 1618 — 84. Chap-
lain of a Swedish regiment; later pas-
tor and inspector at Weiden; wrote:
“Jesu, dein betruebtes Leiden”; “Lieb-
ster Jesu, wir sind hier”; “Wir glauben
all an einen Gott, Vater.”
Clavis. See Grimm, Wilke, Thayer.
Clay, A. T. Prominent archeologist
and Orientalist; b. 1866 at Hanover,
Pa. ; educated at Franklin Marshall Col-
lege and Philadelphia Seminary; entered
ministry 1892; instructor in Hebrew in
University of Pennsylvania; professor
of Old Testament theology in Chicago
Lutheran Seminary; since 1899 curator
and professor in University of Pennsyl-
vania. Foremost among his works on
Oriental subjects is Light on the Old
Testament from Babel.
Clement of Alexandria, ca. 150 — 220,
founder of the Alexandrian Christian
philosophy. Reared a heathen, thor-
oughly conversant with Greek philos-
ophy, converted probably by Pantaenus,
whom he succeeded as president of the
catechetical school (189); later labored
in Jerusalem (209). It is not known
whether he returned to Alexandria.
Works: Exhortation to the Greeks;
The Tutor (Christ) ; Stromata.
Clement of Some. A disciple of
Peter and Paul and one of the foremost
of the Apostolic Fathers; bishop of
Rome from 92 to 101 (Eusebius). A man
of vast influence and authority, almost
a pope, as Renan says, but there is no
trace of hierarchical arrogance in his
writings. His Epistle to the Corinthians,
in which, like Paul, he rebukes their
factious and contentious spirit and ex-
horts them to harmony and brotherly
love, was publicly read in the Corinthian
and other churches down to the fourth
century and even incorporated into the
Alexandrian Bible Codex. Combined
with great familiarity with the Scrip-
tures, Clement shows, perhaps more than
any other of the Apostolic Fathers, a
true insight into the nature of grace and
the Pauline doctrine of justification
by faith.
Clementines, a series of literary for-
geries foisted upon the celebrated name
of Clement of Rome, such as the Clemen-
tine Homilies and others. For details
see Schaff.
Clergy
160
Colenso, John 'William
Clergy. The term applied to those
separated to the work of the Christian
ministry. The Apostolic Church knew
of no ranks in the clergy. See Acts
20, 17 : “elders” identified with “bish-
ops” (overseers), v. 28. From the time
of Cyprian (d. 258), the father of the
hierarchical system, the distinction of
clergy (from laity) as an order in the
Church and of ranks within the clergy
became universal. In the Roman Church
the clergy became not only a separate
order of Christians, but were regarded
as a priesthood with the office of media-
torship between God and men. To the
distinction of presbyters (elders) and
bishops, as differentiated in rank, was
added, in course of time, the distinction
of various classes of the (sacerdotal)
clergy — the higher (subdeacon, deacon,
priest, bishop, metropolitan, patriarch,
pope) and the lower (doorkeepers, read-
ers, exorcists, acolytes) clergy. In the
later Middle Ages the regular clergy
were the members of monastic orders
( those under a regula ) , and the term
“secular clergy” was applied to those
who had charge of parishes. “Benefit”
of clergy was the privilege by which
clergymen were exempted from trial in
the civil courts and by which consecrated
places gave asylum against criminal
arrest.
Cloeter, 0. E. B. in Baireuth, Bava-
ria, April 25, 1825; studied in Erlangen
and Leipzig; one of Loehe’s missioners;
pastor in Saginaw, Mich., 1849 — 1856;
Indian missionary in Minnesota at Mille
Lac. His mission-station was laid waste
during the Indian War of 1862. After
the war he was missionary at Crow
Wing; 1868 pastor in Afton, Minn.;
d. March 17, 1897.
Closed Season ( Tempus Clausum , ) .
The entire Lenten season, beginning with
Ash Wednesday and closing with the
Great Sabbath, as well as the Advent
season, beginning with the First Sunday
in Advent and ending with Christmas
Eve, comes under this heading ; the word
“closed” having reference to the fact
that all open and noisy festivities, in-
cluding public wedding celebrations, were
not permitted during these two periods
of the year. The custom is not obliga-
tory in the Lutheran Church, though
still observed and to be recommended,
Cluniac Monks. The Cluniacs were
not properly a distinct order, but were
Benedictines remodeled by the great re-
form movement issuing from the abbey
of Cluny, in France, during the 10th
century. This reform purposed to re-
store the original strictness of Benedict’s
rule, but it also introduced the connec-
tional principle into monasticism. Till
then each monastery was an independent
unit; the houses affiliated with Cluny,
however, were absolutely subject to its
abbot. The famous Pope Gregory VII
used the Cluniac movement in forcing cel-
ibacy on the clergy and in his struggles
against the secular rulers. By the 12th
century, the Cluniac movement was spent
and was itself in need of reforms, which
the Cistercians sought to apply.
Clutz, Jacob A. B. 1848, active in
promoting the “Merger,” 1918; profes-
sor in Atchison, Kans., 1889- — 1904;
president of General Synod, 1891; pro-
fessor at Gettysburg since 1909; editor
of Lutheran Quarterly.
Coadjutor. An assistant to a cleric,
especially a bishop, who is unable to
perform his official duties because of old
age, blindness, insanity, etc.
Cobham, Lord (Sir John Oldcastle).
English reformer of fourteenth century;
strong adherent of Wyclif, whose works
he collected, transcribed, and distributed
among the people; condemned as heretic
and committed to Tower; escaped, but
was retaken and burned alive, December,
1417.
Cocceius (Koch), Johannes, 1603 to
1669. Dutch Reformed. B. at Bremen;
professor of theology at Franeker 1643;
at Leyden 1650 (d. there). Founder of
federal theology (covenant of works be-
fore man’s Fall, of grace after man’s
Fall, latter subdivided into the antelegal,
the legal, and the postlegal dispensa-
tion) ; allegorizing and mysteriting ex-
egete; author of first tolerably com-
plete Hebrew dictionary.
Cochlaeus, Johannes (Dobneck, Wen-
delstinus). Catholic controversialist;
b. 1479, d. 1552; studied at Cologne and
in Italy ; friend of Miltitz and Aleander ;
wrote bitter polemical tracts against Lu-
ther and the Reformation; found little
recognition, even in his- own circles.
Coen a Domini, In, Bull. See In
Coena Domini, Bull.
Cogito, ergo sum, “I think, therefore
I am.” Highest principle in the phi-
losophy of Descartes ( q . v.), who, pro-
ceeding from doubt, found the fact of
“thinking” the surest element of knowl-
edge. Even though everything is subject
to doubt, the fact that he doubted, or
thought, could not be doubted. Using
this as basis, he proceeded to the knowl-
edge of God and the world.
Colenso, John William, 1814 — 83.
Anglican prelate. B. at Cornwall; rec-
tor; bishop of Natal South Africa; de-
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor
161
Colleges
nied inspiration of Old Testament; was
deposed; deposition not sustained by
home government ; new see being erected
in place of Natal, Colenso was thereafter
a schismatic; d. at Durban. Wrote
commentaries, etc.; translated New Tes-
tament into Zulu.
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor. English
poet, critic, philosopher; b. near Exeter,
1772; d. in London, 1834. Passed
through stages of rationalism, Unitarian-
ism, pantheism. Rejected Christ’s vicari-
ous atonement and objective redemption.
Emphasized ethical side of Christianity.
Cave impetus to liberal movement in
Anglican Church (Broad Church).
Colet, John. English theologian.
B. ca. 1406; d. in London, 1519; studied
at Oxford, met Erasmus there, becoming
his intimate friend; dean of St. Paul’s
in 1504; founded St. Paul’s School;
wrote a devotional book, Right Fruitful
Admonition.
Coligny, Gaspard de, 1617 — 72. Cel-
ebrated French general. Adopted Re-
formed faith before 1559; became trusted
and consistent champion of Huguenots;
made several attempts (through Ribault
1562, Laudonni&re 1564) to plant colo-
nies in America as an asylum for his
coreligionists; fell first victim of the
Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s.
Collections in Churches. Collec-
tions refer to the moneys which are col-
lected either during the church services,
or at other times, for the support of the
Church. Giving on the part of the
Christian is an act of worship enjoined
by the Lord. It is, therefore, quite
proper that the giving of money be also
made part of the regular worship at the
services in the church. In the Old Tes-
tament the Lord’s injunction read:
“They shall not appear before the Lord
empty; every man shall give as he is
able, according to the blessing of the
Lord, thy God, which He hath given
thee.” Deut. 16, 16. 17. In the New Tes-
tament the apostle says: “Upon the first
day of the week let every one of you lay
by him in store as God hath prospered
him, that there be no gatherings when
I come.” 1 Cor. 16, 2.
Colleges. In general, institutions of
learning of a higher rank than high
schools and academies. The name, from
the Latin collegium, originally meaning
any kind of organization, is applied to
a great number of educational institu-
tions, especially in France, England, and
the United States. The word “college”
became a technical term about the middle
of the thirteenth century, when students
Concordia Cyclopedia
who lived in the so-called university
towns often came into collision with the
citizens, so that the encounters fre-
quently ended in brawls. In order to
secure and maintain the public peace,
as well as to keep the students in check,
special lodging-houses were provided, in
which the students were placed in the
care of some official of the school. These
houses were called collegia, and the name
was afterward applied to academic in-
stitutions of a certain grade, whether
organically connected with a university
or not. (See Universities.) In the
United States, the term college is ap-
plied particularly to a school for the in-
struction in the liberal arts, the course
of study being partly fixed, partly elec-
tive. The following courses are usually
found in a typical college: English,
Latin (Greek), German, French (Span-
ish), mathematics, philosophy and logic,
psychology, ethics, physics, chemistry,
and other departments of the natural
sciences, and physical education. There
is a tendency at the present time to give
a wider latitude to the teaching of the
regular colleges, so that some prelimi-
nary work tending toward specific pro-
fessions is included. But there is also a
movement to establish the classical or
the liberal arts college once more and
to have all professional work confined to
the professional schools. The regular
course of a liberal arts college leads to
the degree of Bachelor of Arts (B. A.) ;
institutions which offer full scientific
courses grant the degree of Bachelor of
Science ( B. Sc. ) . A number of colleges
have graduate departments, offering at
least one year of postgraduate work lead-
ing to the degree of Master of Arts
( M. A. ) . Institutions of the same rank
differ widely in their mode of organiza-
tion, especially in America, where com-
plete standardization has not yet been
effected. Thus some of the more con-
servative colleges have fixed standards
of admission and a curriculum strictly
prescribed, while others have practically
no definite course of study, the work of
their schools being so arranged as to
enable the student to select his studies
at will, as long as he has the necessary
amount of credits for graduation. The
work is often divided into major and
minor courses, the former denoting the
more important subjects for a given ob-
jective, the latter those which are auxil-
iary or secondary with regard to the ob-
ject in view. Thus, a student majoring
in English may have minors in English
History, in European History, in the
History of Art during the Middle Ages,
and in other related subjects. — So far
11
Colleges
162
Colleges
as the organization of a college in the
strict sense of the word is concerned, its
head is known in Europe as master, rec-
tor, principal, provost, or warden, while
in America the term president is used
almost exclusively. Next in dignity to
the principal, in England, come the fel-
lows of the college and the scholars of
the college. The teaching is in the hands
of tutors, who appoint lecturers with the
sanction of the head of the college. In
America the entire administration of a
college is usually in the hands of a board
of control or a board of regents, of which
body the president of the institution is
ex officio a member. The faculty usually
consists of professors or professorial lec-
turers, associate professors, assistant
professors, instructors, and assistants,
the rank being in the order named. All
members of the faculty above the rank
of instructors have equal rights on the
staff of instruction, with the president
commonly acting as the chairman of the
faculty. — Entrance to a liberal arts col-
lege is usually given to all those who are
graduates of a regular high school or
have taken work equivalent to that of
a four -year high school course. The reg-
ular college course includes four years of
work in any given department, especially
in ancient and modern languages and in
mathematics and sciences. There is a
tendency to abandon the regular time
schedule and to permit the student to
finish his work as rapidly as possible,
also by means of extra study during
summer sessions, credit being freely ex-
changed by schools of the same standing,
especially those belonging to one of the
great associations of American colleges
and universities. Among the best Amer-
ican colleges of the standard type, with-
out denominational affiliation or with
such affiliation not strongly marked, are
the following, their location and the
year of their founding being indicated:
Adelphi College, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1896;
Amherst College, Amherst, Mass., 1821;
Bates College, Lewiston, Me., 1863; Be-
loit College, Beloit, Wis., 1846; Berea
College, Berea, Ky., 1855; Bowdoin Col-
lege, Brunswick, Me., 1794; Butler Col-
lege, Indianapolis, Ind., 1850; Carleton
College, Northfield, Minn., 1866; Clark
College, Worcester, Mass., 1902; Coe
College, Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1881; Col-
lege of the City of New York, 1847;
Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo.,
1874; Dartmouth College, Hanover,
N. H., 1769; Drury College, Springfield,
Mo., 1873; Grinnell College, Grinnell,
Iowa, 1847 ; Grove City College, Grove
City, Pa., 1876; Hiram College, Hiram,
O. , 1850; Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y.,
1825; Knox College, Galesburg, 111 .,
1837; Lawrence College, Appleton, Wis.,
1847 ; Louisiana State College, Baton
Rouge, La., 1860; Marietta College,
Marietta, 0., 1835; Middlebury College,
Middlebury, Vt., 1807; Oberlin College,
Oberlin, O., 1833; Pennsylvania State
College, State College, Pa., 1855; Pied-
mont College, Demorest, Ga., 1897 ; Po-
mona College, Claremont, Cal., 1888;
Ripon College, Ripon, Wis., 1851; Rut-
gers College, New Brunswick, N. J,,
1766; Stanford College, Stanford, Ky.,
1907; Syracuse University, Syracuse,
N. Y., 1851; Transylvania University,
Lexington, Ky., 1798; Trinity College,
Hartford, Conn., 1823; Valparaiso Uni-
versity, Valparaiso, Ind., 1873; Vin-
cennes University, Vincennes, Ind., 1806;
Wheaton College, Wheaton, 111., 1860;
Whitman College, Walla Walla, Wash.,
1859; William and Mary College, Wil-
liamsburg, Va., 1693; Williams College,
Williamstown, Mass., 1793.
In many instances, the denominational
affiliation is no longer so strongly marked
as formerly, since some institutions wish
to have the benefit of the Carnegie Pen-
sion Fund. But the following colleges
are still reported with denominational
control : Adrian College, Adrian, Mich.,
1859; Albion College, Albion, Mich.,
1861; Albright College, Myerstown, Pa.,
1881; Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa.,
1815; Alma College, Alma, Mich., 1886;
Arkansas Cumberland College, Clarks-
ville, Ark., 1892; Ashland College, Ash-
land, O., 1876; Austin College, Sherman,
Tex., 1849; Baker University, Baldwin,
Kans., 1858; Baldwin University, Berea,
O. , 1846; Baylor University, Waco, Tex.,
1 845 ; Bethany College, Bethany, W. Va.,
1840; Boston College, Boston, Mass.,
1869; Buehtel College, Akron, 0., 1870;
Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pa.,
1846; Campbell College, Holton, Kans.,
1903; Canisius College, Buffalo, N. Y.,
1870; Central College, Fayette, Mo.,
1857 ; Central Wesleyan College, War-
renton, Mo., 1864; Charles City College,
Charles City, Iowa, 1891; Chattanooga
University, Chattanooga, Tenn., 1867;
Christian Brothers College, St. Louis,
Mo., 1851; Christian Brothers College,
Memphis, Tenn., 1871; Claflin Univer-
sity, Orangeburg, S. C., 1869; Clark Uni-
versity, S. Atlanta, Ga., 1870; Colby Col-
lege, Waterville, Me., 1813; College of
Emporia, Emporia, Kans., 1883; Cornell
College, Mount Vernon, Iowa, 1853; Cot-
ner University, Bethany, Nebr., 1889;
Creighton University, Omaha, Nebr.,
1879; Cumberland University, Lebanon,
Tenn., 1842; Dakota Wesleyan Univer-
sity, Mitchell, S. Dak., 1885; Davidson
Colleges
103
Colleges
College, Davidson, N. C., 1837 ; Defiance
College, Defiance, 0., 1885; Denison Uni-
versity, Granville, 0., 1831 ; De Paul
University, Chicago, 111., 1897 ; De Pauw
University, Greencastle, Ind., 1837; Des
Moines College, Des Moines, Iowa, 1865;
Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., 1783;
Drury College, Springfield, Mo., 1873;
Earlham College, Richmond, Ind., 1859;
Elon College, Elon College, N. C., 1889;
Emory College, Oxford, Ga., 1836; Em-
ory and Henry College, Emory, Va,,
1837 ; Emporia College, Emporia, Kans.,
1882; Eureka College, Eureka, 111., 1885;
Ewing College, Ewing, 111., 1867; Fair-
mount College, Wichita, Kans., 1895;
Fargo College, Fargo, N. Dak., 1887 ;
Findlay College, Findlay, 0., 1882; Fisk
University, Nashville, Tenn., 1866 ; Ford-
ham University, Fordhain, N. Y., 1841 ;
Fort Worth University, Fort Worth,
Tex., 1881; Franklin and Marshall Col-
lege, Lancaster, Pa., 1787 ; Friends Uni-
versity, Wichita, Kans., 1898; Furman
University, Greenville, S. C., 1851; Gale
College, Galesville, Wis., 1854; Geneva
College, Beaver Falls, Pa., 1849; George-
town College, Georgetown, Ky., 1829;
Wallace College, Berea, 0., 1863; Gon-
zaga College, Spokane, Wash., 1887;
Grand Island College, Grand Island,
Nebr., 1892; Greenville College, Green-
ville, 111., 1892; Guilford College, Guil-
ford College, N. C., 1837 ; Hanover Col-
lege, Hanover, Ind., 1828; Hastings
College, Hastings, Nebr., 1882; Heidel-
berg University, Tiffin, 0., 1850; Hender-
son College, Arkadelphia, Ark., 1889;
Hillsdale College, Hillsdale, Mich., 1855;
Holy Cross College, Worcester, Mass.,
1843; Hope College, Holland, Mich.,
1866; Howard Payne College, Browns-
wood, Tex., 1889; Huron College, Huron,
S. Dak., 1883; Illinois College, Jackson-
ville, 111,, 1829; Illinois Wesleyan Uni-
versity, Bloomington, 111., 1850; Iowa
Wesleyan University, Mount Pleasant,
Iowa, 1844; James Millikin University,
Decatur, 111., 1901 ; Juniata College,
Huntingdon, Pa., 1876; Kansas Wes-
leyan University, Salina, Kans., 1886;
Knoxville College, Knoxville, Tenn.,
1875; Lafayette College, Easton, Pa.,
1832; Lake Forest College, Lake Forest,
111., 1857 ; Leander Clark College, To-
ledo, Iowa, 1856; Lebanon Valley Col-
lege, Annville, Pa., 1866; Lenox Col-
lege, Hopkinton, Iowa, 1856; Lombard
College, Galesburg, III., 1851 ; Loyola
College, Baltimore, Md., 1852; Macales-
ter College, St. Paul, Minn., 1884; Man-
hattan College, New York, N. Y., 1863;
Maryville College, Maryville, Tenn,,
1879; McKendree College, Lebanon, 111.,
1828; McMinnville College, McMinnville,
Oreg., 1857; McPherson College, Mc-
Pherson, Kans., 1888; Mercer Univer-
sity, Macon, Ga., 1838; Milligan Col-
lege, Milligan, Tenn., 1882; Millsaps
College, JackBon, Miss., 1892; Missis-
sippi College, Clinton, Miss., 1826; Mis-
souri Valley College, Marshall, Mo.,
1880; Monmouth College, Monmouth,
111., 1858; Moores Hill College, Moores
Hill, Ind., 1854; Morgan College, Balti-
more, Md., 1867 ; Morningside College,
Sioux City, Iowa, 1894; Mount St.
Mary’s College, Emmitsburg, Md., 1808;
Mount Union College, Alliance, 0., 1858;
Muskingum College, New Concord, 0.,
1837; Nebraska Wesleyan College, Uni-
versity Place, Nebr., 1888; New Orleans
University, New Orleans, La., 1874; Ni-
agara University, Niagara Falls, N. Y.,
1856; Northwestern College, Naperville,
111., 1861; Oakland City College, Oak-
land City, Ind., 1891 ; Occidental Col-
lege, Los Angeles, Cal., 1888; Ohio
Northern University, Ada, 0., 1871;
Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, 0.,
1844; Otterbein University, Westerville,
O., 1847; Ouachita College, Arkadephia,
Ark., 1886; Pacific University, Forest
Grove, Oreg., 1849; Parker College, Win-
nebago City, Minn., 1887; Paul Quinn
College, Waco, Tex., 1881; Penn College,
Oskaloosa, Iowa, 1873; Philander Smith
College, Little Rock, Ark., 1877 ; Rich-
mond College, Richmond, Va., 1832;
Rust University, Holly Springs, Miss.,
1 867 ; Sacred Heart College, Prairie du
Chien, Wis., 1880; St. Benedict’s Col-
lege, Atchison, Wis., 1858; St. Bonaven-
ture’s College, St. Bonaventure, N. Y.,
1859; St. Francis College, Brooklyn,
N. Y., 1859; St. Francis Xavier, New
York, N.Y., 1847; St. Ignatius College,
Cleveland, O., 1886; St. John’s College,
New York, N. Y., 1841; St. John’s Col-
lege, Brooklyn, N. Y., 1868; St. John’s
University, Collegeville, Minn., 1867 ;
St. Joseph’s College, Dubuqe, Iowa, 1872;
St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y.,
1856; St. Mary’s College, St. Marys,
Kans., 1848; St. Peter’s College, Jersey
City, N. J„ 1878; St. Vincent’s College,
Los Angeles, Cal., 1865; St. Xavier Col-
lege, Cincinnati, O., 1831; Santa Clara
College, Santa Clara, Cal., 1851 ; Shaw
University, Raleigh, N. C., 1865; Shorter
College, Rome, Ga., 1873; Simmons Col-
lege, Abilene, Tex., 1892; Simpson Col-
lege, Indianola, Iowa, 1868; Southwest-
ern Kansas College, Winfield, Kans.,
1885; Southwestern University, George-
town, Tex., 1873; Straight University,
New Orleans, La., 1869; Swarthmore
College, Swarthmore, Pa., 1869; Tarkio
College, Tarkio, Mo., 1883; Taylor Uni-
versity, Upland; Ind., 1890; Texas Chris-
Colleges
164
Colored Free-Will Baptists
tian University, Fort Worth, Tex., 1873;
Trinity College, Durham, N. C., 1852;
Trinity University, Waxahaehie, Tex.,
1869; Tufts College, Medford, Mass.,
1852; Union College, Barbourville, Ky.,
1887; Union College, College View,
Nebr., 1891; University of the Pacific,
San Jose, Cal., 1851 ; University of
Wooster, Wooster, 0., 1868; Upper Iowa
University, Fayette, Iowa, 1857 ; Ursinus
College, Collegeville, Pa., 1869; Villa-
nova College, Villanova, Pa., 1842; Wa-
bash College, Crawfordsville, Ind., 1832;
Wake Forest College, Wake Forest, N. C.,
1888; Walden University, Nashville,
Tenn., 1866; Washburn College, Topeka,
Kans., 1865; Washington and Jefferson
College, Washington, Pa., 1802; Waynes-
burg College, Waynesburg, Pa., 1852;
Wesley College, Grand Forks, N. Dak.,
1891; Wesleyan University, Middletown,
Conn., 1831; Westminster College, New
Wilmington, Pa., 1852; West Virginia
Wesleyan, Buckhannon, W. Va., 1890;
Wiley University, Marshall, Tex., 1873;
Willamette University, Salem, Oreg.,
1844; William Jewel .College, Liberty,
Mo., 1849; Wofford College, Spartan-
burg, S. C., 1854; Yankton College,
Yankton, S. Dak., 1882; York College,
York, Nebr., 1890.
The most important Lutheran colleges
of America are the following: Gettys-
burg College, Gettysburg, Pa., 1832; Sus-
quehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa.,
1858; Muhlenberg College, Allentown,
Pa., 1867; Thiel College, Greenville, Pa.,
1870; Roanoke College, Salem, Va.,
1853; Lenoir College, Hickory, N. C.,
1891; Newberry College, Newberry, S. C.,
1859; Wittenberg College, Springfield,
O., 1845; Carthage College, Carthage,
111., 1870; Midland College, Fremont,
Nebr., 1870; Capital University, Colum-
bus, O., 1887 ; Wartburg College, Clin-
ton, Iowa, 1868; Upsala College, Kenil-
worth, N. J., 1893; Augustana College,
Rock Island, 111., 1860; Gustavus Adol-
phus College, St. Peter, Minn., 1862;
Bethany College, Lindsborg, Kans., 1881;
Luther College, Decorah, Iowa, 1861;
St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minn., 1874;
Concordia College, Moorhead, Minn.,
1891; Augsburg College, Minneapolis,
Minn., 1869; Dana College, Blair, Nebr.,
1898; Northwestern College, Watertown,
Wis., 1865. In addition, there is a num-
ber of Lutheran institutions bearing the
name college or collegiate institute whose
courses are strictly or predominantly
pretheological, although they are now
gradually being modified to meet the
standards of liberal arts colleges. The
following institutions are, according to
American standards, junior colleges, that
is, high schools or academies with two
years of college work: Wagner College,
Staten Island, N. Y., 1883; Weidner In-
stitute, Mulberry, Ind., 1903; Waldorf
College, Forest City, Iowa, 1903; Con-
cordia Collegiate Institute, Bronxville,
N. Y., 1881 ; Concordia College, Conover,
N. C., 1881; Concordia College, Fort
Wayne, Ind., 1839; Concordia College,
Milwaukee, Wis., 1881 ; Concordia Col-
lege, St. Paul, Minn., 1893; St. Paul’s
College, Concordia, Mo., 1884; St.John’s
College, Winfield, Kans., 1893; Califor-
nia Concordia College, Oakland, Cal.,
1906. (For statistics, see the Lutheran
World Almanac.)
Collegiate System. A term describ-
ing the relation of Church and State as
understood in some parts of Protestant-
ism during the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries. The churches were re-
garded as legal corporations ( collegia
licita), concerning which the state had
a double power: that of superintendence
and patronage ( jus circa sacra), and also
certain rights in the internal affairs of
the church ( jus in sacris), transferred
to the secular government as the repre-
sentative of the congregations. Espe-
cially during the period of rationalism,
princes and statesmen regarded the
.churches as part of the state organism,
absolutely subject to the government.
The system led to violation of elemen-
tary rights of conscience, and only in the
nineteenth century gave way to views of
State and Church which concede to the
latter a greater opportunity to manage
its own affairs.
Collyer, William Bengo, 1782 — 1854,
educated at Homerton College ; held sev-
eral charges as Methodist divine; elo-
quent preacher; among his numerous
hymns: “Great God, What Do I See and
Hear.”
Colombia. See South America.
Colored Free-Will Baptists. This
organization, formerly known as the
United Free Will Baptists, while eccle-
siastically distinct, is in close relation
with the white Free Will Baptist churches
of the Southern States and traces its
origin to the early Arminian Baptist
movement in New England. The body
was organized in 1901 and is doctrinally
in substantial agreement with the white
churches of the same faith, as also in
church polity, the denomination having
a system of quarterly, annual, and gen-
eral conferences, with a graded authority
to regulate doctrinal questions and super-
vise denominational activities, such as
missions, education, Sabbath-school work,
Colored Missions
165
Commentaries, Biblical
and general movements for temperance,
moral reform, and Sabbath observance.
In 1921 the denomination had 320 min-
isters, 200 churches, and 13,800 commu-
nicants.
Colored Missions. See Synodical Con-
ference.
Colors, Liturgical. On account of
the many references, in the Book of
Revelation, to the saints dressed in white,
this color was in general use in the
Church from the earliest times. So far
as other colors are concerned, compara-
tively little is known of their use, al-
though veils, tapestries, and coverings
are mentioned at an early date. In the
twelfth century, Innocentius III author-
ized the use of four colors: black, scar-
let, white, and green; in a very short
time, however, the fifth color, violet, was
added. William Durandus, in his Ra-
tionale Divinorum Officiorum, discusses
the liturgical colors at length, and the
Missale Romanum has regulations agree-
ing almost exactly with his. The colors
have been retained in the Anglican and
in the Lutheran Church, both on account
of their significance and because they
serve to emphasize the course of the
church-year.
Colportage. The free distribution or
the sale (usually at low rates) of Bibles
and other religious publications to the
general public, especially in heathen
lands, by colporters (colporteurs), -for
the purpose of spreading the Gospel, is
known as colportage. Such work ought
to be encouraged and carried on more
extensively. Not only could the Bible in
this way be put into the hands of many
who otherwise would not see and read it,
but much good religious literature, which
now remains on the shelves of church
publication houses, could be placed where
it would serve the purpose for which it
was printed. Every home congregation
ought to have its book agent, who makes
it his business to place the religious
papers and the many books and other
literature published by the synodical or-
ganization into the homes of the people.
Columba (521 — 96). An Irish mission-
ary who undertook the evangelization of
Scotland, crossing the Irish Channel with
twelve companions in 563 and settling on
the island of Iona, which became the seat
of one of the most noted mission-schools
in history, its members bringing the Gos-
pel to North Scotland, the Hebrides, the
Orkney, and the Shetland Islands.
Columbanus (559 — 615). A scholarly
Irish monk, who preached in Burgundy
and subsequently in what is now Switzer-
land, along the upper Rhine. His last
years were spent in Northern Italy,
where he founded the monastery of
Bobbio.
Comenius (Komensky), John Amos.
B. 1592 at Nivnitz, was pastor in the
Moravian Church at Fulneck, then at
Lissa, d. 1670 at Amsterdam. The pio-
neer of modern educational science, his
ideas have been put into practise in
every schoolroom. His influence is ex-
pressed in broadening the conception of
education beyond the narrow literary and
linguistic confines until it included the
whole realm of knowledge, in organizing
and sytematizing its subject-matter, in
introducing improved methods of instruc-
tion. “Do not teach mere words, but
things.” His Great Didactic is strik-
ingly modern, and may even now be
studied with greater immediate profit to
teachers than many contemporary edu-
cational writings.
Come-Outists, name of the “Church
of God,” with headquarters at Anderson,
Ind., outgrowth of holiness movement of
last century, and founded by Daniel S.
Warner about 1880. Have no denomi-
national organization, as they consider
all organized denominations “man-made
sects,” and call all “true Christians” out
of them. Other tenets are faith-healing,
rejection of medical treatment, perfec-
tionism. Are pronounced legalists, do
not participate in war, observe rites of
immersion and foot-washing. Denounce
secret orders. While they believe in
Trinity, inspiration and inerrancy of
Scripture, deity and atonement of Christ,
hold view that redemption is wrought by
two works of grace, conversion and entire
sanctification. Claim, 1923, to have
1,500 pastors and Gospel -workers, and
88,000 English-speaking adherents, and
churches and missionaries in many old-
world countries. Official organ, The Gos-
pel Trumpet.
Comes (Liturgical). An epistolary or
lectionary fixing the readings for all the
Sundays of the church-year, as well as
for the festivals and ferial services, the
earliest one probably being by Jerome.
See also Pericope.
Commentaries, Biblical. A commen-
tary is an exposition of the Bible or of
any book or part of the Bible, the fun-
damental requirements for sound exeget-
ical work being the agreement with all
parts of Scripture, a sound philological
and grammatical exposition, a proper
consideration of the historical (archeo-
logical, economic) background, and an
understanding of the purpose of the writ-
ing concerned. Critical commentaries
are such as are not only based upon, but
Commentaries, Biblical
166 United Commercial Travelers
directly employ, the original Hebrew
(Aramaic) and Greek text. Popular
commentaries are those which present in
ninteehnical phraseology the results of
'scholarly research into grammar, idiom,
;and history. Homiletical commentaries
:are those that particularly aim to sup-
$pBy material for sermon-making.
There is space in our work only for
;a catalog of the commentaries to-day
'available for the student; and of these
we shall mention only those of positive
value, because written with a background
of faith in the Bible as divinely in-
spired.
The exegetical work of Luther is para-
TOouMSt. Not only his Genesis and his
two expositions of Galatians, but also
Ms other exegetical work deserves dili-
gent study.
•John Calvin, Commentarii (Engl, transl.
®2 vols.). Acute, but by no means exeget-
Seally sound; warped by the author’s
"doctrinal prepossessions.
Poole’s (Poli) Synopsis Griticorum
i(1669). The annotations of a great num-
iber of exegetes collected and condensed.
'Uncritical, but valuable as an immense
'collection of opinions.
•Starch’s Synopsis. Although by no
means profound and exhaustive, the ex-
positions of this orthodox theologian
have much to recommend them.
Matthew Henry, Exposition (1704).
-Little exposition, but a great deal of
'Sermonizing. Prolix. Generally termed
“orthodox,” from the Reformed stand-
point.
Adam Clarke, Commentary (1810).
.Methodist. Varied, but not always ac-
curate learning. Quotes much from an-
cients and the Orientals.
Heinrich Olshausen, Biblischer Com-
■mentar (1837), continued by Ebrard, tr.
into English in Clark’s Library, Edin-
burgh. An example of German learning
and astuteness still in great part free
from Higher Criticism.
Hengstenberg. The commentaries of
this great German scholar are funda-
mental in modern exegetical work of the
conservative type. The places in which
allegory and fancy are prominent will
readily be discovered by the careful
reader.
A. Barnes, Notes on the New Testa-
ment (1850). Simple, lucid, practical,
and singularly happy in striking the
dominant note of evangelical passages.
Bengel, Gnomon of the New Testament.
A series of analytical, philological and
expository notes, illuminating the text
“in flashes.” The basis of
Henry Alford’s Greek Testament with
Critical Apparatus and Notes, which has
again been brought up to date in
The Expositor’s Greek Testament, in
5 volumes. The Greek text, with com-
mentary and textual criticism in foot-
notes. Its introductory material infected
with the New Theology, but the notes
generally excellent in their treatment of
grammatical and syntactical points.
II. A. W. Meyer, Kritisch-exegetischer
Kommentar sum Newen 'Testament.
Touches a high-water mark in penetra-
tion, grammatical mastery, and cohesion.
The later editions almost complete re-
workings of Meyer’s handbooks, and com-
pletely under the influence of the Higher
Criticism. The American revision of the
English translation is the best edition of
Meyer.
Daechsel’s Bibelwerk. A German pop-
ular commentary of the entire Bible
which, though brief, offers much excel-
lent material for quick orientation.
J. P. Lange, IHbelwerk. Summarizes
much of the older scholarship and con-
tains much homiletical and devotional
material. Published in English transla-
tion by Clark, Edinburgh, and consider-
ably reworked in Schaff-Lange, Com-
mentary.
Keil-Delitzsch, Kommentar sum Alten
Testament. The greatest exposition of
the Old Testament books ever published.
Tr. in the Clark Library, Edinburgh.
Although Delitzseh later modified some
sections of his work (notably psalms)
in the interest of a more liberal inter-
pretation, Keil’s work has remained
throughout a monument of evangelical
scholarship. Not even on the philolog-
ical side are the commentaries by Strack-
Zoeckler and Sellin to' be preferred to
the work of Keil. The German editions
should be consulted by all means.
Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown, One-
Volume Commentary on the Bible. In
some respects the best one-volume com-
mentary.
Commentary Wholly Biblical. An
exposition in the very words of Scrip-
ture. It was the result of long and ar-
duous labor in which many have been
engaged; it originated in the conviction
that the Bible itself under the guidance
of the Spirit of God is its own efficient
interpreter. The text of the Bible is
printed out, and under it other Bible-
passages which throw light upon the text
are printed in small type. No other
comment is given.
Commercial Travelers, Order of
United, of America. A secret fraternal
beneficiary association founded in 1888,
Commistlo
167
Commnnist Manifesto
nt Columbus, 0., and organized on the
plan of a supreme body, known as grand
councils, and local or subordinate bodies,
known as subordinate councils. At pres-
ent the order lias 29 grand councils,
covering the entire United States and
Canada; 583 subordinate councils, and
a membership of 189,430. At the na-
tional convention, held at Natchez, Miss.,
in May, 1913, a souvenir was published,
which offers the following information
on the order: “The Order of United
Commercial Travelers of America is the
only secret society in the world composed
exclusively of members of one craft.”
“It has been referred to as the commer-
cial travelers’ Masonry.” (p. 9.) “Meet-
ings of subordinate councils are held once
or twice a month for conferring the se-
cret work.” (p. 11.) The U. C . T. has
an inner circle, called “Ancient Mystic
Order of Bagmen of Bagdad,” founded in
Cincinnati, in 1892, with “subordinate
guilds, reporting to the Imperial Guild
at Cincinnati.” The order has also a
ritual (p. 15), and on festive occasions
the members wear uniforms resembling
those of Turkish soldiers. Headquarters:
(138 N. Park St,, Columbus, 0.
Commistio (or Commixtio). The
placing of a portion of the host into the
chalice during the celebration of the Ro-
man mass. It probably symbolizes re-
union of Christ’s body and blood at His
resurrection. It is connected with the
Roman denial of the cup to the laity.
Committee of Reference and Coun-
sel. See Foreign Missions Conference of
North America.
Common Prayer, Book of. Sec Boo k
of Common 1‘rayer.
Common Service, Order of. See Or-
der of Worship.
Communion Service. The chief ser-
vice of the day, usually held in the morn-
ing, so called because the celebration of
Holy Communion is properly connected
with it; it follows the sermon as the
second great sacramental act.
Communion Tokens. Small disks of
metal or pieces of paper given to mem-
bers of a church entitled to partake of
Holy Communion, a custom dating back
to the early Christian centuries, to pro-
tect the faithful from traitors and in-
formers and to serve as testimonials to
their good standing. The custom of giv-
ing them has now generally fallen into
disuse.
Communism. A theory or system
which concerns, not so much the produc-
tion of goods as socialism does (q. v.) ,
but their distribution and consumption.
It deals with the use and enjoyment of
the goods which are produced rather
than with the manner in which they are
gained. As a theory, then, it is even
more selfish than socialism, for, in the
final analysis, it stands for a maximum
of profit with a minimum of labor, for
a maximum of enjoyment with a mini-
mum of exertion. The notion held by
the communist is this, that the individ-
ual should be regarded as an employee
and at the same time as a ward of the
state, and that he should have a right
only to such commodities as are appor-
tioned to him from the common store,,
the supposition being that he thereby re-
ceives a remuneration # for his contribu-
tion to the common work. It is fondly-
believed, by the advocates of the theory,,
that production would regulate itself
automatically, that there would be no>
more crises caused bv overproduction,
and that peace and harmony would pre-
vail. The communist dreams of the time;
when the whole social and economic:
world is supposed to be unified, when
there is to be only one government, and!
that by the people. — There is no basis
for such a dream in the Bible, for, while
Christ teaches the relative worthless-
ness of earthly things as compared with
the spiritual and eternal, while Raul
also bids all Christians set their affec-
tions on things that arp above, yet the
same apostle declares remunerative work
necessary for every Christian, bidding
them not to indulge in idleness, which
breeds busybodies. • The Bible teaches
self-denial, selflessness, and service of
others, but it does not enjoin commu-
nism. Cp. Bph. 4, 28; 1 Thess. 4, 11. 12;
2 Thess. 3, 10 — 12. livery one should
work with quietness and eat his own
bread. Nor is communism to be found
in the manner in which the Christians
of Jerusalem shared their goods, for,
while it is stated that they had all things
in common, Acts 2, 44; 4, 32, the con-
text plainly shows that the support was
gained from a treasury maintained by
voluntary contributions and that no one
was compelled to dispose of his goods-,
unless he so chose and that even when,,
he had sold his property, the proceed^;
were in his own hands to do with as Re-
thought best, Acts 5, 3. 4. If all Chris-
tians will practise the love which an,
outgrowth and a fruit of faitlfe. all;
dreams of communism will vanish, so,
far as the Christian Church is concerned..
See also Communistic Societies.
Communist Manifesto. See Manc^
Karl. <•
Communistic Societies
168
Concordat
Communistic Societies. While Europe
lias always been fertile soil for commu-
nistic theories, few practical experi-
ments have been carried out there. The
most noted of these in modern times are
the attempts of Babeuf in France during
the Revolution, and of Owen (q. v.) in
England. America, however, has seen
more than 200 such experiments, some
being primarily religious, others only
social and economic. Most of the largest
and most successful were of German
origin. Though a few existed for over
a century, communism has been found
impracticable. Failure to solve the prob-
lem of family life, the injunction of
celibacy, secession of the young, lack of
personal liberty, ^killing of individual
initiative and endeavor, repression of de-
sire for culture, are the most common
causes of their final dissolution. Interest
in socialistic and cooperative schemes
has now replaced interest in communis-
tic experiments. The more important
American societies are the following:
Amana Society, House of David, Oneida
Society, Rappists (Harmony Society),
Shakers, for which see separate articles.
The Eplirata Community, near Reading,
Pa., founded by John Conrad Beissel of
Eberbaeh, Germany, 1733, dissolved 1814,
the remaining members incorporating as
German Seventh-day Baptists, still ex-
tant. Icaria, founded by French settlers,
Texas, 1848, later removed to Illinois,
then to Iowa, of short duration, and its
offshoot, New Icaria, dissolved 1895.
The Zoar Separatists, founded in Wuert-
temberg, Germany, by dissenters from
Lutheran State Church, moved to Ohio,
1817, dissolved, 1898. The Bethel and
Aurora Communities, founded in Mis-
souri by William Keil of Nordhausen,
Germany, 1844 and 1855, dissolved, 1877
and 1881, respectively. The many ex-
periments resulting from, or influenced
by, the schemes of Charles Fourier,
French socialist (1772 — 1837), of which
the best known are Brook Farm, near
West Roxbury, Mass. (1841 — 47), noted
for its literary associations (Emerson,
Hawthorne, Horace Greeley, and others);
the North American Phalanx in New
Jersey (1843 — 54); the Altruist Com-
munity, near St. Louis. The Adventist
Adonai Shomo Community, organized,
1876, in Massachusetts, dissolved, 1896.
The Church Triumphant or Koreshanity,
organized, 1886, Chicago, removed to
Estero, Florida, 1903.
Comnena, Anna. Daughter of Alexius
Comnenus I, Byzantine emperor, b. 1083,
d. 1148; endeavored to secure the suc-
cession of the empire to her husband,
Nicepliorus Briennius, but failed; de-
voted herself to writing, her history of
her father’s reign, Alexias, being the
principal source for the history of By-
zantium in the epoch of the first crusade.
Compostella, Order of. A Spanish
military order, with mild Augustinian
rule, founded in 1161. It assisted in ex-
pelling the Moslems and became extinct
in 1835.
Comte, Auguste. See Positivism.
Concentus. The portion of the church
service in the ancient and medieval
Church sung by the whole choir, charac-
terized by more melodious chanting than
that of the Accentus, and eventually
leading to the harmonious setting of the
Canticles.
Conclave. The place where the car-
dinals assemble for the election of a new
Pope (see Pope), also, the assembly it-
self. After a Pope’s death, a large part
of the Vatican is walled off and divided,
by wooden partitions, into cells for the
cardinals, two or three to each. Here
the cardinals gather on the tenth day,
and all entrances are closed, except one,
not to be opened till an election is made.
Each cardinal may take with him a sec-
retary and a servant (conclavists), sworn
to secrecy. The food supply is restricted
after three days.
Concordat. An agreement, or a
treaty, made between the Pope and the
civil government of a country to regu-
late the affairs of the Roman Church in
that country, to settle disagreements, or
to prevent future difficulties. Bishops
formerly made concordats, but the power
is now reserved to the Pope. Concordats
deal with such matters as the appoint-
ment of bishops, public education, mar-
riage, taxation of church property, finan-
cial support of the Church by the State,
and the legal status of the Church.
Romanists deplore these treaties as un-
avoidable evils because they hold that
the Pope should authoritatively regulate
all such matters according to his good
pleasure instead of being compelled, by
the fear of greater evils, to haggle and
compromise with civil authorities (see
Church and State). Concordats, on pub-
lication, become part of the canon law
and of the civil law of the respective
state. There are three theories regard-
ing the nature of concordats: 1. The
legal theory, holding that by concordats
the State, as the superior of the Church,
grants it certain privileges which are,
like other laws, revocable at will; 2. the
compact theory, holding that concordats
are compacts between equals and can,
Concordances
169
Confession, Auricular
therefore, be broken only by mutual con-
sent; 3. the privilege theory, holding
that in concordats the state acknowledges
duties already incumbent on it and is
granted concessions and indults by the
Pope on other duties, such indults being
revocable. The first concordat was that
of Worms (1122), made between Pope
Calixtus II and Emperor Henry V to
terminate the investiture quarrel. Con-
cordats became more frequent during the
eighteenth century, and still more so
during the nineteenth. The most famous
concordat is that of 1801, made between
Pius VII and Napoleon, then First Con-
sul. By it Catholicism, proscribed dur-
ing the Revolution, was reestablished in
France, not, however, as the state reli-
gion, but as “the religion of the great
majority of Frenchmen.” It provided for
maintenance of the clergy by the state
and for relinquishment by Rome of
church property sold during the Revolu-
tion. This concordat remained in force
until December 9, 1905, when it was
abrogated by the French government
through its law on the separation of
Church and State. Most other concor-
dats are now abrogated, but several are
still in force.
Concordances. Books containing the
words of Holy Scripture, in alphabetical
order, with their context (usually a line
of type) and reference by chapter and
verse. As soon as editions of the Scrip-
tures in regular divisions of the text
were published, the importance of alpha-
betical indexes or of concordances was
felt. The first Hebrew concordance was
that of Rabbi Isaac Nathan (1445), the
first Greek, that of Betulius (Birck), in
1546. The first New Testament concord-
ance of any value was the Tameion of
Erasmus Schmid, 1638. The most useful
German concordance to the entire Bible
is that of Lanckisch (1677), the fore-
runner of several others in more conven-
ient format, all based upon Lanckisch.
All earlier English concordances (Gyb-
son, 1540; Marbeck, 1550; Lynne, 1550)
were superseded by the more correct
work of Alexander Cruden (1737, many
later editions) and Walker. Among
more recent English concordances the
best are Strong (first published 1849)
and Young.
Concordia. See Book of Concord and
Symbolical Books.
Concordia Synod of Pennsylvania
and Other States. Organized June 7,
1882, by 14 pastors, 6 lay delegates, and
1 teacher, who had withdrawn from the
Ohio Synod because of its. stand in tbe
controversy on election and conversion.
Rev. P. Brand of Pittsburgh was made
president, the Lutheran Witness and the
Lutherancr the official organs. The synod
became a member of the Synodical Con-
ference at the next meeting of that body.
The church at Coyner’s Store, Va., Rev.
F. Kuegele, pastor, which already in 1884
had suggested the founding of an Eng-
lish synod within the bounds of the
Synodical Conference, joined the English
Missouri Synod in 1888; the other mem-
bers joined the Missouri Synod.
Concordia Synod of Virginia, founded
1865 by former members of the Tennessee
Synod, G. Schmucker, J. E. Seneker, and
H. Wetzel, afterwards (1877) became the
Concordia District of the Joint Synod of
Ohio, bringing in seventeen congrega-
tions. Since 1876 it figured as one of
the synods belonging to the Synodical
Conference. In 1920 it was merged into
the Eastern District of the Joint Synod
of Ohio.
Concordia Synod of the West,
formed about 1862 by Pastors L. F. E.
Krause, Winona, Minn. ( Senior Minis-
tcrii) ; D. J. Warns, Bethalto, 111., F. W.
Wier, Washington, Minn.; C. F. Jungk,
New Oregon, Iowa. It seems to have had
a short existence.
Conder, Josiah, 1789—1855, widely
known as author, editor, and publisher;
published numerous prose and some poet-
ical works; ranks high as hymn-writer;
wrote: “Lord, ’tis Not that I Did Choose
Thee,” and others.
Confession, Auricular. Literally, a
confession told in the ear. As such, it
is a prescribed part of the Roman Sacra-
ment of Penance ( q. v. ) and is declared
by the Church of Rome to be “of divine
right necessary for all who have fallen
after baptism.” (Council of Trent, Sess.
XIV, ch. 5.) The Bible clearly enjoins
confession of sin to God, 1 John 1, 8. 9,
and to brethren who have been sinned
against, Jas. 5, 16. The early Church
also required a public confession and
penance for grave sins, especially when
they had given general offense ( see
Penitential Discipline). Private confes-
sion to pastors, with private absolution,
was recommended as desirable, but by no
means insisted on as obligatory. The
custom of private confession, however,
became more and more common, espe-
cially among monastics, and eventually
the question was canvassed whether it
were not a necessary part of Christian
life. The Council of Chalons, in 813
(canon 33), took a position of neutrality;
as late as the twelfth century, the ques-
tion was open. But the Fourth Lateran
Council ( 1225 ) decreed that every Chris-
Confession, A II r I ml II r
iro
Confirmation
tian must confess to the priest at least
once a year. This definitely established
auricular confession, which, thereupon,
was fully developed and was defined by
the Council of Trent. The basic idea is
that, in confession, the sinner, forced
by his conscience, accuses himself, and
the priest acts as a judge, in Christ’s
stead. “Christ . . . left priests his own
vicars, as presidents and judges, unto
whom all the mortal crimes, into which
the faithful of Christ may have fallen,
should be carried, in order that . . . they
may pronounce the sentence of forgive-
ness or retention of sins.” (Council of
Trent, Sess. XIV, ch. 5. ) That the priest
may judge accurately and properly as-
sess the satisfaction required (see Pen-
ance), every mortal sin (q.v.) must be
separately confessed with its circum-
stances. Venial sins usually are, but
need not be, confessed. A mortal sin
deliberately held back is unforgiven and
vitiates the absolution for all the other
sins at that confession, so that a new
confession and absolution is required.
Sins overlooked, in spite of careful self-
examination, are forgiven, but must be
mentioned at a later confession if re-
called. The priest, who has been care-
fully trained in the grading and classifi-
cation of sins, assists the penitent with
questions. He is forbidden, under the
severest penalties, to reveal anything
confided to him in the confessional.
Every member of the Church who has
arrived at years of discretion, is bound
to confess at least once a year, during
Lent. The age of discretion, for this
purpose, is held to be about seven years.
After the confession is completed, the
priest, if he judges the confession and
the penitent’s state of mind satisfactory,
imposes works of satisfaction on the pen-
itent and pronounces absolution (q.v.).
For some sins, accounted especially
grave, an ordinary priest cannot give ab-
solution, but they must be absolved by
the bishop or even the Pope (see Re-
served Gases). In this manner, the
power of absolution, which Jesus gave
to His Church, that through it the com-
fort of His Gospel might be applied to
terrified sinners, is turned into a burden-
some mechanism. Instead of the minis-
ter of Christ, dispensing the free grace
of God in Jesus to those who trust in
Him, sits the priest of Rome, a solemn
judge, who imposes punishments and
penance in the same breath \v i tb the ab-
solution and makes that absolution de-
pendent on the fulfilment of his com-
mands. Faith in the atoning sacrifice
of Christ is expressly ruled out of the
sacrament: “Faith can in no way be
rightly called a part of penance.” ( Gate -
chismus Romamus, II, 5. 5.) It is only
stipulated as a necessary antecedent to
the necessary sorrow of contrition which
leads to confession and satisfaction.
Here, as in the other sacraments, the
efficacy is said to be ex opere operato
( see Opus Operatum ) .
Confession (liturgical). This specif-
ically Lutheran service is held either on
Saturday evening, when it is known as
Ileichtvespcr, or on Sunday morning just
before morning worship, its purpose
being to prepare the communicants of
the day for a worthy reception of the
Eucharist. Private confession, as prac-
tised for several centuries, is still in use
in some congregations and is not to be
confounded with auricular confession as
practised in the Roman Church. The
•order of worship in the Beichtvesper,
connected with private confession, was
the following: singing of a penitential
song, reading of a penitential psalm,
singing of a hymn of absolution, the pen-
itential collect, Aaronie blessing, con-
cluding stanza, the admonition, Lord’s
Prayer, invitation, hearing of the in-
dividual confession at or near the altar,
but in full view of the assembly. Where
only the general confession is in use,
the service is still more simple in char-
acter. It is opened with a hymn of con-
fession or repentance. Then follows a
versicle or an appropriate prayer, in
some cases also the Minor Litany,
chanted, or a prayer ex corcle by the
pastor. The address to the communi-
cants is strictly pastoral in character,
the thoughts of repentance, of the need
of faith, of the glory of the Eucharist
being chiefly brought out. Then follows
the General Confession, including the
direct question to the communicants,
with the Absolution pronounced upon the
entire assembly, the service closing with
a hymn or stanza expressing the faith
of the congregation in the mercy of the
Lord.
Confessional Lutheranism, Awak-
ening 1 of. See Awakening of Confes-
sional Lutheranism.
Confirmation. In the Lutheran
Church, the rite by which baptized per-
sons publicly and by their own lips re-
new and confirm the vow given by their
sponsors at baptism and confess their
adherence to the teachings of the Lu-
theran Church. The rite is preliminary
to the admission to the Lord’s Table and
as such signifies the entrance of the
catechumen into communicant member-
ship in the Lutheran Church. Its edu-
cational value lies chiefly in the course
Confirmation
171
Confucianism
of instruction preceding confirmation and
in the vow made to continue in the faith.
Confirmation is considered a sacra-
ment in the Roman and Greek Catholic
churches. In the Greek Church it is ad-
ministered at the same time with, or as
soon as possible after, baptism, oven in
the ease of infants. For the Roman
Church, the Council of Trent appointed
the age of seven to twelve as the age of
confirmation (Firmclung, Ger.). in the
Anglican (Protestant Episcopal) Church,
it is a formal rite administered by the
bishop, the High Church party looking
upon it as something like a sacramental
rite conveying the gift of the Holy Ghost,
while the Low Church regards it as being
essentially a personal renewal of the
promises made in the name of the sub-
ject by others in baptism. In conformity
with their Romanizing tendency, the
High Church Anglicans urge an earlier
(five or six years) and the Low Church
a later age (fourteen to sixteen) for the
performance of confirmation.
Confirmation (Roman Catholic posi-
tion). The Council of Trent calls con-
firmation “a true and proper sacrament”
(Hess. VIJ, can. 1), and the Catechismus
Romanus says: “It must be explained by
the pastors that Christ the Lord was not
only its author, but that He also, as the
Holy Roman Pope Fabian testifies, or-
dered the use of holy oil and the words
which the Catholic Church uses in its
administration” (II, 3. 6). Ordinarily,
only the bishop can confirm. He lays
his hands on the candidates, traces the
sign of the cross on their foreheads with
chrism, or holy oil ( q . v.) , and says,
“I sign thee with the sign of the cross
and confirm thee with the chrism of sal-
vation, in the name of the Father,” etc.
He then gives them a light blow on the
cheek as a sign that they roust be ready
to suffer for Christ. Rome teaches that
by confirmation the new life implanted
in baptism is fortified, that particularly
the grace to confess the faith is con-
ferred ( Catechismus Romanus, II, 3. 5),
and that a seal is set on the soul (see
Character Indelebilis) . — All this lacks
foundation in Scripture, for Jesus neither
instituted such a rite nor supplied it
with any promise of grace, Pope Fabian
to the contrary notwithstanding.
Confirmation (liturgical). To Luther,
confirmation was at first an abomination,
because it was declared to be a sacra-
ment by the Romanists. His opposition
to it, as voiced in his book Of the Baby-
lonian Captivity of the Church, influ-
enced also his coworkers and is found in
the Lutheran Confessions. Luther, there-
fore, did not compile a formula for con-
firmation, and most of the early church-
orders omit the rite entirely. At the
Ratisbon Colloquium, Melanchthon, Bu-
eer, and Pistorius proposed the rite as
a good observance. In the General Ar-
ticles for Electoral Saxony only the
thorough indoctrination of the children
is urged before admitting them to the
Eucharist. The Wittenberg Reformation
of 1545 advocated an evangelical use of
the ceremony, mentioning the following
parts: 1. Indoctrination ; 2. admonition,
renunciation, and confession of faith ;
.'i. personal profession of doctrine of faith
by eateehnmens ; 4. thorough examina-
tion ; 5. admonition that this implies
dissent from all false teaching; (i. ex-
hortation to persevere; 7. public prayer.
The Lutheran Chimcli lias adhered to
these principles, dividing the act of con-
firmation into three parts: L Examina-
tion; 2. profession and vow; 3. prayer
with imposition of hands.
Confraternity (or Sodality). An as-
sociation among Roman Catholics, usu-
ally the laity, for the promotion of defi-
nite works of charity or devotion. There
have been such associations since the
ninth century, but their greatest devel-
opment has come in recent times. Eachi
local association is under the guidance,
of a priest. The regulations prescribe:
devotional practises and frequent attend-
ance at mass and Communion. Each:
member receives a blessed medal and 1
liberal indulgences. The most ancient,
confraternity is that of the Children of
Mary. Others are the archconfraterni-
ties of the Holy Family, of the Immacu-
late Heart of Mary, of the Scapular, and
of the Assumption. Confraternities are
closely related to pious associations,
such as tiie League of the Sacred Heart
(see Sacred Heart of Jesus), and have
many points of contact with third orders
(see Tertiaries) . The membership of
these various societies aggregates tens
of millions.
Confucianism, the ancient state reli-
gion of China, consisting of the old
animistic, polydemonistie beliefs and
cults upon which were grafted the moral,
social, and political teachings of Confu-
cius (Latinized from K’ung-fu-tse, “Mas-
ter K’ung”), famous Chinese sage, b. 551
B. C. in the ancient kingdom of Lu, now
part of Shantung, d. 478 B. C. ibid. The
sacred books upon which the state reli-
gion is based are five in number, called
King, via., Book of History, Book of
Songs, Book of Changes, Spring and
Autumn, Book of Rites. The first four
were compiled by Confucius. To these.
Confucianism
172
Congo
are added four books called Shu, com-
piled by the disciples of Confucius, in-
cluding the works of Mencius, his
greatest disciple and expounder. As the
modern, so the ancient Chinese believed
in the existence of innumerable spirits
(see Animism) that fill the world in
great swarms and inhabit the air and
all material objects. These spirits, partly
good, partly evil, have their origin in the
Yang and the Yin, the two world-souls
or breaths which are at the basis of the
whole universe. The Yang represents the
male part of the world, also heat and
light, and is divided into innumerable
shen, or good spirits, to which sacrifices
are made and which make their abode
in natural objects, such as sun, moon,
stars, rivers, mountains, lakes, rocks, the
earth, fire, clouds, rain. The Yin repre-
sents the female part of the world, also
cold and darkness, and is divided into
innumerable kioei, or evil spirits, which
harass men, but may be driven off by
lighted torches, gongs, and drums. In
addition to the shen, the souls of the
dead, especially of one’s ancestors, are
worshiped. At the head of all the spirits
is T’ien, Heaven, also called Shang-ti.
Until the fall of the empire, 1912, the
emperor, who was believed to be a son of
Heaven, was the religious head of the
people, and the welfare of the nation de-
pended upon his properly observing the
religious rites, especially the worship of
Heaven and Earth at the winter and
summer solstices, respectively, at the
great altars situated on the south and
north of Peking. At these occasions the
emperor also sacrificed to the tablets of
his ancestors and to the sun, moon, stars,
winds, rain, clouds, thunder. Other gods
in the pantheon of the state religion are
the corn spirits, various mountains and
streams throughout China, the four seas,
famous men and women of antiquity, as
Confucius and his disciples, the emperor
who taught his people agriculture, the
first breeder of silk worms, and the
planet Jupiter. These gods were wor-
shiped by the emperor or his proxy and
since 1915 by the president or his rep-
resentative. Still other gods are wor-
shiped by the Mandarins and the author-
ities in the provinces, as the physicians
of ancient times, a star which is re-
garded as the patron of classical studies,
the gods and goddesses of walls and
moats, cannons, water, rain, architecture,
kilns, storehouses, and others. These
gods have numerous temples throughout
the empire, and although there is no
priesthood, the religious observances are
thoroughly ritualistic and attended by
great pomp. The sacrifices consist of
swine, cattle, goats, and silks. To sum
up, the state religion consists of nature
and ancestor worship. The common
people were at first permitted to wor-
ship only their ancestors (for which see
Ancestor Worship), but in the course of
time their worship was extended to many
of the Confucian deities above mentioned,
and everywhere in China there are tem-
ples and shrines with innumerable idols
and tablets, before which offerings are
made. The influence of Confucius upon
the ancient religion was conservative
rather than reformatory. He looked
toward the golden past, endeavoring to
preserve the good traditions of antiquity.
His highest goal was the welfare of the
state, and he believed that this could be
obtained, if the sacredness of the five
primary relationships, ruler and sub-
ject, father and son, husband and wife,
elder and younger brother, friend and
friend, be kept inviolate. He further-
more stressed the virtues of sincerity,
benevolence, and filial love and gave ex-
pression to what is called the negative
form of the Golden Rule: “Ho not to
others what you do not want done to
yourself.” However, he produced neither
a philosophical nor a theological system.
In fact, his teachings were entirely of
an ethical nature, and he refrained from
speaking of the deity and of immortality.
He does not dwell on the subject of sin,
nor does he have any remedy for it.
Punishment for wrong-doing is confined
to this world, and salvation comes by
effort. His teachings met little success
during his lifetime, and in the third cen-
tury B. C. a systematic attempt was
made by a hostile emperor to eradicate
Confucianism. After that, however, it
gained in influence, and Confucius rose
higher and higher in the estimation of
the Chinese, until he was raised to the
highest rank of worship. Since 57 A. D.
sacrifices have been offered to him. See
Taoism and Buddhism for the other two
of the three great religions in China.
As most Chinese profess and practise all
three religions, it is impossible to give
statistics regarding the adherents of each.
Congo, or Kongo, also Belgian Congo,
formerly Congo Free State, in Central
Africa, annexed by Belgium, 1907. Area,
estimated, 909,654 sq. mi.; population,
of Bantu origin, 11,000,000. Religion
of natives, gross fetishism. Missions:
Various American, British, and Scandi-
navian societies are working in the field.
Foreign staff, 653; Protestant Christian
Community, 108,190; communicants,
58,639.
Congregational Churches
173
Congregational Churches
Congregational Churches. The Ref-
ormation in England developed along
three lines : Anglicanism, Puritanism,
and Separatism. Of these, the Separa-
tists held that the whole system of the
Established Church was an antichristian
imitation of the true Church and could
not be reformed and that the only proper
thing for a Christian to do was to with-
draw himself from it. These sentiments,
however, were not tolerated in that age,
especially after the Act of Uniformity,
passed in 1559, the year after the acces-
sion of Queen Elizabeth to the throne,
and church after church professing them
was broken up. In 1581 Robert Browne,
a Separatist minister, with his congrega-
tion, emigrated to Holland, where he is-
sued pamphlets exceedingly bitter in
their attack upon the ecclesiastical gov-
ernment of the realm. Two men dis-
tributing them were hanged, while the
books were burned. The movement, how-
ever, could not be suppressed, and in
1004, the first year of the reign of
James I, John Robinson, an ordained
minister of the Church of England, hav-
ing become acquainted with Browne’s
writings, accepted their principles. Soon
after this, he, with a number of friends
and followers, emigrated, first to Amster-
dam and then to Leyden, Holland. Here
they were kindly received, but, after a
few years they decided to remove to
America, where they could practise their
religion unmolested. After many dis-
couragements, the first band of Pilgrim
Separatists, 102 persons, under the
leadership of Brewster, Bradford, and
Winslow, landed at Plymouth, Mass., in
1620, and there founded the first Congre-
gational church on American soil, Rob-
inson remaining in Leyden. After a few
years the Pilgrim Separatists were fol-
lowed by the Puritans of Massachusetts
Bay. After their arrival in America the
points of doctrinal differences were no
longer accentuated, and in the course of
time the essential elements of both Sepa-
ratism and Puritanism were combined
in Congregationalism. This, however,
was not accomplished at once, religious
bigotry prevailing for a time and reveal-
ing itself in the expulsion of such “non-
conformists” as did not agree with the
confessions. During the decade from
1630 to 1640 the Puritan immigration
increased rapidly. By 1640 there were
33 churches in New England, all but two
being of pronounced Congregational type.
Congregationalism soon became practi-
cally a state religion. In two colonies,
Massachusetts Bay and New Haven, the
franchise was limited to church-members,
and throughout the older congregational
colonies of New England, sooner or later,
the salaries of pastors were secured by
public taxation until the nineteenth cen-
tury. Any action affecting the general
religious as well as the social or civil
life of the community was taken by the
civil legislature, such as the calling of
the Cambridge Synod, in 1646, to draw
up a plan of ecclesiastical polity, and
the expulsion of the Salem “non-con-
formists” and of Roger Williams. The
withdrawal of the Massachusetts charter
in 1684 replaced Congregationalism by
Episcopacy, but a new charter in 1691
restored the former conditions to a con-
siderable degree. With the beginning of
the eighteenth century other forms of
church-life developed in New England.
Episcopalians, Baptists, and Quakers
protested against being taxed for the
support of Congregational churches, and
little by little there ceased to be a state
church.
The Congregationalists took the ini-
tiative in the remarkable revival known
as the “Great Awakening” (q.v.), which
was started in 1734 by the preaching of
Jonathan Edwards and was developed
under the eloquence of Whitefield. They
had a prominent share in the political
discussions preceding the Revolution, in
its inception and conduct, and in the
subsequent national development, send-
ing such men as John Hancock and the
Adamses to take part in the councils of
the new nation, although they were not
considered as representing the Congrega-
tional churches as a religious body.
After the Revolutionary War, the his-
tory of Congregationalism during a cen-
tury centered about certain movements,
viz., a plan of union with the Presbyte-
rians, the rise of missionary enterprise,
the Unitarian separation, the organiza-
tion of a national council, missionary
endeavors, and efforts to secure some
harmonious, if not uniform, statement
of Congregational belief. As the Con-
gregationalists of New England gradu-
ally extended westward, they came into
intimate relations with the Presbyte-
rians of the Middle States, and these
relations were all ' the more intimate be-
cause of the doctrinal affinity between
the teaching of the Edwardses, father
and son, and the type of theology rep-
resented by Princeton College, of which
Jonathan Edwards, Sr., was president.
These relations were still further strength-
ened by the call of Jonathan Edwards,
Jr., to the presidency of Union College,
and his taking a seat in the Presbyte-
rian General Assembly.
From the very beginning of the Plym-
outh Colony missionary work among the
Congregational Churches
174
Congregational Churches
Indians was emphasized, and John Eliot,
the Mayhews, the younger Edwards, and
David Brainerd accomplished much, al-
though there was no general missionary
movement among the churches. With
the increase of westward migration dur-
ing the first years of the nineteenth cen-
tury missionary interest in the home
field developed. The General Association
of Connecticut, as early as 1774, voted
to send missionaries to New York and
Vermont. In 1810 the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions
was organized, through which also the
Presbyterians and other religious bodies
carried on their entire foreign mission-
ary work. In 1826 the American Home
Missionary Society was formed on much
the same interdenominational basis as
the American Board. In 1846 the Amer-
ican Missionary Association was organ-
ized and was at first as much a foreign
as a home society, although more espe-
cially interested in Negro fugitives and
American Indians. In 1853 there was
formed the American Congregational
Union, subsequently known as the Con-
gregational Church Building Society.
The influences that resulted in the sepa-
ration between the Trinitarian and Uni-
tarian wings of the Congregational body
became manifest early in the eighteenth
century, with a development of opposi-
tion to, and dissatisfaction with, the
sterner tenets of Calvinism. The ex-
cesses connected with the Great Awaken-
ing, and the rigid theology of the Ed-
wardses and their successors, Hopkins
and Emmons, contributed to this diver-
gence. When in 1805 Henry Ware, a
Liberal, became Professor of Divinity in
Harvard College, the lines between the
two parties were drawn more clearly, as
the college was now classed as distinc-
tively Unitarian. In 1819 William Ellery
Clianning, of Baltimore, set forth the
Unitarian doctrine so forcibly that sepa-
ration became inevitable. From this re-
sulted a period of confusion and of legal
strife, which lasted until about 1840,
when the line of demarcation became
complete. For many years the bitterness
of the conflict continued, but of late
years, owing to the steady increase of
liberal thoughts and ideas throughout
the Congregational denomination, it has
gradually diminished. In 1852, a coun-
cil or convention met at Albany, N. Y.,
which was the first gathering represen-
tative of Congregationalism since the
Cambridge Synod of 1648. At this coun-
cil 463 pastors and messengers from
seventeen States considered the general
situation, their deliberations resulting in
the progression of a “Plan of Union,”
hearty endorsement of the missionary
work, and the inauguration of a denomi-
national literature. In 1865 a national
council was convened at Boston, where
a statement as to “the system of truths
which is commonly known among us as
Calvinism” was drawn up. In 1871
there was called in Oberlin, O., the first
of the National Councils, first triennial
now biennial, which have done so much
to consolidate denominational life. Of
these councils the one held at Kansas
City, Mo., in 1913, was particularly im-
portant as marking the recognition of
the Congregational churches as an or-
ganized religious body with specific pur-
pose and definite methods. At this con-
vention the Congregational platform was
set forth, including a preamble and state-
ments of faith, polity, and wider fellow-
ship; modifying, however, the essential
autonomy of the individual churches in
their expression of faith or in their
method of action. The Congregational-
ists have since been prominent in the
organization and development of the
Federal Council of the Churches of Christ
in America, have cooperated most ener-
getically and effectively in the prepara-
tions for a World Conference on Ques-
tions of Faith and Order, and have
entered likewise upon Red Cross and
Y. M. C. A. work.
Doctrine. The principle of autonomy
in the Congregational churches involves
the right of each church to frame its
own statement of doctrinal belief ; the
principle of fellowship of the churches
presupposes that a general consensus of
such beliefs is possible and essential to
mutual cooperation in such works as
belong to the churches as a body. As
a result, while there is no authoritative
congregational creed, acceptance of which
is a condition of ecclesiastical fellow-
ship, there have been several statements
of this consensus, which, though receiv-
ing no formal ecclesiastical endorsement,
have been widely accepted as fair pres-
entations of the doctrinal position of the
Congregational churches. The first of
these, called the “Cambridge Platform,”
drawn up by a Synod summoned by the
Massachusetts Legislature, simply regis-
tered general approval of the Westmin-
ster Confession. Certain phraseology in
that confession, however, proved unac-
ceptable to many churches, and the Mas-
sachusetts revision, in 1680, of the Savoy
Confession and the Saybrook Platform
of 1708 embodied the most necessary
modifications, yet approving the general
doctrinal features of the Westminster
Confession. In 1880, the National Coun-
cil appointed a commission to prepare
Con x rt'wt t limit I Churches
175
CoiiKFcmitioual Churches
a formula that “shall state in precise
terms in our living tongue the doctrines
that we hold to-day.” This commission,
composed of twenty-five representative
men, finished its work in 1883. Their
statement, or creed, however, was never
formally adopted, though it furnished
the doctrinal basis for a great many of
the churches and in the main represented
their general belief. This statement,
called the “Creed of 1883,” or “Commis-
sion Creed,” contained twelve articles,
in which the general doctrines held by
evangelical churches are set forth. In
1013, a new platform was adopted by the
National Council and has been accepter!
with practical unanimity by the denomi-
nation. All the confessions of the Con-
gregational churches arc contained in
The Creeds and Platforms of Congrega-
tionalism, by Williston Walker. In gen-
eral the belief in the freedom and re-
sponsibility of the individual soul and
the right of private judgment has led to
a general spread of rationalism, modern-
ism, and indifference, as regards doctrine
and faith.
Polity. Congregational churches hold
to the “Autonomy of the local church
and its independence of all ecclesiastical
control.” For fellowship and mutual as-
sistance the churches gather in local
associations or conferences and in state
conferences in which each church is rep-
resented by pastor and lay delegates.
Membership in the National Council in-
cludes ministerial and lay delegates
elected by state conferences and the dis-
trict associations. No association or
conference or National Council, however,
has any ecclesiastical authority, for that
is vested solely in the council called by
the local church for a specific case.
Doctrinal tests are less rigidly applied
now than in the past, practical Christian
fellowship being emphasized rather than
creed subscription. Admission to church-
membership is usually conditioned on the
declared and evident purpose to lead a
Christian life, rather than on the ac-
ceptance of particular doctrine, and par-
ticipation in the Lord’s Supper is offered
to all followers of Christ. Infant bap-
tism is customary, and the form is op-
tional, although sprinkling is the form
commonly used.
Work. The home missionary work is
carried on chiefly by four societies: The
Congregational Home Missionary So-
ciety, the American Missionary Associa-
tion, the Congregational Church Build-
ing Society, and the Congregational
Sunday-school Publishing Society. The
Congregational Home Missionary Society
is charged with the missionary work
among the white races of continental
United States. The American Mission-
ary Association carries on work among
the Negroes, Indians, Chinese, Japanese,
Hindus, the Eskimos in Alaska, and va-
rious races in Porto Rico and Hawaii.
The interest of the Congregational
churches in educational matters is shown
by the fact that Harvard, founded in
1638, Yale in 1701, were established as
Congregational colleges; so also Wil-
liams, Dartmouth, Bowdoin and Amherst
in the East; and Oberlin, Iowa, Beloit,
Carleton, Drury, and others in the West.
At present more than forty colleges in
the United States owe their origin to
Congregationalists. There were also nine
theological seminaries, of which Andover
Seminary is the oldest. The Congrega-
tional Education Society, the successor of
the American Education Society, with
which two kindred societies, organized for
the establishment of Christian schools in
Utah and New Mexico, were afterwards
incorporated, includes in its present work
assistance to colleges and academies, the
support of mission-schools, student aid,
and promotion of Christian work in col-
leges and universities. It also aids At-
lanta Theological Seminary, where min-
isters for Congregational churches in the
south are trained; a training-school for
women in Chicago; the Schauffler Mis-
sionary Training-school in Cleveland, 0.,
which prepares young women to aid the
churches in work among the immigrants ;
and institutes in Chicago, 111., and Red-
field, S. Dak., for training ministers for
work among the Danish, Norwegian,
Swedish, Finnish, and German peoples
in the United States. _ In 1853 the
American Congregational Association
was organized in Boston for the purpose
of collecting such literature as might
serve to illustrate Congregational his-
tory and of promoting the general in-
terests of Congregational churches. It
owns a building in Boston which is re-
garded as the denominational head-
quarters and has a library of great
value.
The modern movement for the organi-
zation of young people for Christian
work was started by Rev. Francis E.
Clark, who formed the first Christian
Endeavor society in Portland, Me., in
1881. Similar societies were soon estab-
lished in other churches, and in 1885 a
general interdenominational organization
was effected under the name, “United
Society of Christian Endeavor.” In 1916
there were in the Congregational churches
of the United States 3,201 Christian En-
deavor societies with 134,258 members.
The Congregational publishing interests
Congregational Methodist Church 176
Congregation, Powers of
liave chiefly been heretofore in the care
of the Congregational Sunday-school and
Publishing Society. Since the Sunday-
school work is to be taken over by an-
other organization, this society will
change its name, probably taking the
name, “Congregational Publishing So-
ciety,” and as such and through its
trade name, “The Pilgrim Press,” will
continue the publication of Sunday-school
literature and of other periodicals and
books, mainly of a religious nature. It
also issues the leading denominational
paper, the Congregationalist and Ad-
vance, formed by merging the Gongrega-
tionalist and Christian World and the
Advance. The different missionary so-
cieties publish their monthlies, includ-
ing especially the Missionary Herald,
representing the foreign work, and the
American Missionary, representing the
combined home work.
For the better coordination of the
various lines of denominational activity
there has been established a number of
commissions of the National Council,
whose duty it is to advise the various
societies as to organization, methods, and
policies, and to recommend to the Coun-
cil such action as commends itself to
their judgment. These commissions are
nine in number, on missions, home and
foreign; on social service; on evangel-
ism; on religious and moral education;
on federation, comity and unity, and del-
egates to the Federal Council; national
service commissions, having special ref-
erence to war work; commission on or-
ganization, having special reference to
state and district organization and the
local church; Pilgrim Fund Commission
for raising a fund of $5,000,000 for pen-
sions of Congregational ministers; and
on Temperance and Public Worship. In
1920 the Congregational churches re-
ported 5,665 ministers, 5,924 churches,
819,225 members.
Congregational Methodist Church.
After the organization of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South, there arose in
Georgia considerable objection to certain
features of the episcopacy and itinerancy,
and a numbeT of ministers and boards
withdrew in order to secure a more
democratic form of church government.
A conference was held at Forsyth, Mon-
roe County, Ga., in May, 1852, which
adhered strictly to the doctrine of Meth-
odism, but adopted the congregational
form of government. The name chosen
w'as “Congregational Methodist Church.”
The denomination suffered a considerable
loss in 1887 — 88, when nearly one-third
of its members joined the Congregation-
alists. — Doctrine and Polity. The doc-
trinal position of the Church is dis-
tinctively Methodistie, and its polity is
similar to that of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church of to-day. The local
church, however, has large powers and
calls its own pastor, while every minister
is free to accept or reject the call ex-
tended to him. The internal affairs of
the churches are controlled by the church
conference, which includes class leaders,
stewards, deacons, and a secretary, and
over which the pastor presides. The
District Conference is subordinate to the
Annual Conference and, this, in turn, to
the General Conference. The General
Conference meets quadrennially. — Work.
The missionary work of the denomina-
tion is carried on through the General
Missionary Union, composed of annual
or state unions, which, in turn, are com-
posed of local societies. There is a mis-
sion board which has immediate super-
vision of all work done. Most of the
work has been done in India. The de-
nomination has a churchpapcr called
the Messenger, published at Ellisville,
Miss. Statistics, 1916: 500 ministers,
352 churches, 21,000 communicants. The
New Congregational Methodist Church,
which separated from the Congregational
Methodist Church in 1881, had, in 1916,
27 ministers, 24 churches, and 1,256 com-
municants. The special features of its
system of doctrine and polity are: The
parity of the ministry; the right of the
local church to elect its own officers an-
nually; the rejection of the principle of
assessment, all offerings to be absolutely
free-will; and freedom for those who de-
sire it to observe the ceremony of foot-
washing in connection with the adminis-
tration of the Lord’s Supper.
Congregation, Powers of the Chris-
tian. According to Lutheran teaching,
the local congregation of believers has
all spiritual powers, the powers summed
up under the term Office of the Keys. Its
sphere, as a church, is exclusively spir-
itual, being concerned solely with the
building of Christ’s kingdom on earth,
and its governing principle is the Word
of God. Accordingly, the government of
the Lutheran Church is not hierarchical,
as in the Roman Church, nor is it vested
in an episcopate, as in the Anglican
(Protestant Episcopal ) and Methodist
Episcopal churches, nor in an assembly
of elders, as in the Presbyterian Church,
nor in synods, or other more or less rep-
resentative gatherings. Synodical reso-
lutions within the Lutheran Church have
no binding force in the administration
of those affairs of the local congregation
Conrad, Fred. Win.
177
Consecration of Elements
which are properly termed internal. The
individual congregation is autonomous,
has and discharges the supreme external
authority, even as the Word of God is
the only internal authority, in all mat-
ters of church life and work. See Office
of the Keys.
Conrad, Fred. Wm., 1816 — 1898,
“prominent in all the work of the Gen-
eral Synod,” professor of Wittenberg
College, Springfield, O., 1850 — 55; as
pastor of various churches he was an
ardent revivalist; editor of the Lu-
theran Observer, 1866 — 98; contributor
to Evangelical Review and Lutheran
Quarterly; author of Lutheran Manual
and Guide.
Conscience. That faculty of the hu-
man soul which makes a person con-
scious of God as the one who reveals
Himself in the Moral Law as holy in
His own essence and as the one who de-
mands holiness of all men. Or, accord-
ing to another definition, it is the con-
sciousness of the obligation laid upon
men by the Law of God, no matter what
idea is associated with the essence of
God. The Scripture-passages here con-
cerned arc Rom. 2, 14. 15 compared with
Rom. 1, 19. 20. For the apostle here
makes three statements which are clearly
coordinated: 1. that the Law is written
in the hearts of men; 2. that conscience
testifies to the consciousness of men ;
3. that there are thoughts in the hearts
of men that excuse and accuse one an-
other. “Conscience is the natural fac-
ulty of man which enables him to apply
a rule concerning right and wrong which
he acknowledges as binding to his con-
scious desire and doing. Its declaration
is a simple approbation or denial of the
rectitude of the desire or action which
awaits its judgment.” (Dr. A. L. Graeb-
ner.) Conscience, then, is found in all
men, whether civilized or uncivilized,
cultured or uncultured, for it appears
in the consciousness of man over against
the holy God, recognizing the sum of the
Moral Law as the Law of this God and
acknowledging His demands as valid, so
that the excusing and accusing thoughts
are put in motion by the process. If con-
science were nothing but a knowledge of
the Law, and thus only of a moral
nature, the apostle would not speak of
it as of a proof for the fact that the
Gentiles have a knowledge of God. In
the Old Testament the word conscience
does not occur, but its functions are re-
ferred to in a number of ways, as in the
case of Adam after his sin, of Cain both
before and after his murder of Abel, of
the brethren of Joseph after their crime,
Concordia Cyclopedia
of David after his double transgression.
Cp.Ps.6,2; 32,1—5; 38,2—11; 51,19;
1 Sam. 24, 11 ; 2 Sam. 24, 10; Job 27, 6.
In the New Testament the word occurs
m a number of instances and with vari-
ous shadings of meaning, all of them,
however, agreeing with the definitions
advanced above. Cp. Rom. 9, 1. 2; 2 Cor.
1, 12; 1 Pet. 3, 16. 21; 2 Tim. 1, 3;
1 Tim. 3, 9; Heb. 13, 18; Acts 23, 1;
24, 16; Heb. 10, 22. — It is clear from
the various passages of the Bible that
the conscience of man, as long as it is
not directed in its consciousness by faith
in Jesus Christ, is an evil conscience,
Heb. 10, 2, causing the sinner to feel the
guilt of his sins as a debt and guilt
which cannot be paid. It is only through
faith that the evil conscience of man is
changed to a good conscience. 1 Pet. 2, 19 ;
3, 21. For practical purposes we dis-
tinguish between various attributes of
conscience. A right or true conscience
is one in which the previous judgment
or the subsequent criticism of conscience
is in agreement with the Moral Law ac-
cording to its true content. It is re-
quired of every Christian that his whole
life conform to the norm of the will of
God as revealed in the Bible. An erring
conscience is found wherever this con-
formity is missing. Rom. 14, 5. 6; 1 Cor.
8, 7. There may be an erring conscience
even when a person protests that his
conscience is pure, as in the case of Paul,
2 Tim. 1, 3; 1 Tim. 1, 13, whence it fol-
lows that every child of God ought to
search the Scriptures most diligently
also with regard to ethical or moral
standards. An approving conscience is
found whenever a person’s conscience
declares a certain act to be more ad-
visable than another, this being the case
especially where the relative ethical
value of an act is concerned. — A doubt-
ing conscience is one which cannot come
to a definite conclusion with regard to
some undertaking or act. This may hold
with regard to all doctrines which are
not fundamental for salvation and with
respect to all matters in themselves in-
different, that is, neither commanded nor
prohibited in themselves, where the su-
preme law of love ought to be the de-
ciding factor, as in the question broached
in Rom. 14. A person whose conscience
is in doubt regarding any point at issue
is bound to abstain from that particular
act; for unless he rests upon a certainty
in agreement with the Bible and the full
demands of brotherly love, he will sin in
acting while in doubt. Rom. 14, 23.
Consecration of Elements (Liturgi-
cal). See Eucharist.
12
Concilia Evau^vlk'u
178
Constantine
Consilia Evangelica. The Roman
Church teaches that the New Testament,
in addition to the rules of life and con-
duct which it makes binding on all
Christians, contains certain evangelical
■counsels, or counsels of perfection, for
those who wish to do more than is
strictly necessary and want to travel the
shortest road to heaven. As the three
evangelical counsels, Rome names volun-
tary poverty, celibacy, and obedience,
■claiming that Matt. 19, 21 and l Cor.
7, 8 are intended to convey a permanent
■counsel and to indicate to Christians the
“surest and quickest way to obtain ever-
lasting life.” It is evident that these
three “counsels” coincide with the three
monastic vows. The idea of doing more
than God really demands (see Luke
17, 10) underlies monasticism and the
doctrine of opera supererogationis ( q . v.).
Here also the pagan doctrine of the
merit of works (see Works, Merit of) is
most strongly entrenched. Article 27 of
the Apology of the Augsburg Confession
enters on this matter at length.
Consistory. The assemblage of the
cardinals in council, usually under the
presidency of the Pope, to deliberate on,
and transact, important ecclesiastical
business. Since the institution of the
Roman Congregations (q. v.), consisto-
ries have diminished in importance and
are held less frequently. They may be
public, semipubiic, or secret. In many
Lutheran bodies of Germany the Con-
sistory is an administrative board con-
sisting of members of the higher clergy.
A similar arrangement is found in some
Reformed bodies.
Constance, Council of. The second
of three councils of the fifteenth century
which were intended to bring about a
reformation of the Church, held under
Pope John XXIII and Emperor Sigis-
mund, 1414 — 1418. Tile council was un-
usually well attended, the lowest esti-
mate of strangers in Constance being
given at 50,000. The most influential
members of the session were Pierre
d’Ailly and Jean Gerson (qq.v.). Three
objects awaited the action of the council.
With re.gard to the great papal schism,
the matter was settled by deposing
John XXIII and Benedict XIII, while
Gregory XII voluntarily abdicated. A new
Pope, Martin V, was elected, thus con-
cluding the chapter of the schism. The
matter of Johann Huss ( q . v.) and his
adherents was treated with great thor-
oughness. He was induced to attend by
a promise of safe-conduct, but the em-
peror’s word proved unreliable, and so
he was burned on July 6, 1415. His
friend Jerome of Prague followed him in
a martyr’s death on May 30, 1416. The
final business before the council was that
of certain reforms in the Church, which
were loudly urged by a dissatisfied mi-
nority, consisting chiefly of the lower
clergy, the monks, the doctors and pro-
fessors, led by d’Ailly and Gerson. But
these were unable to reach a full agree-
ment among themselves, and so the agi-
tation, in the end, practically came to
naught, especially since the abuses con-
cerned such matters as papal procedures,
tlie administration and income of vacant
positions in the Church, simony, indul-
gences, and dispensations, from which
the Pope received much of his income.
Constantine (surnamed the Great,
Roman emperor, 312 — 337, son of Con-
stantius Chlorus and Helena, born 274
at Naissus in Moesia, died near Nico-
media, in Asia Minor, 337) holds a com-
manding position as the director of af-
fairs in one of the most important epochs
of history. It was his special mission
to raise Christianity from the state of
a proscribed and persecuted sect to that
of a legally recognized religion and thus
to inaugurate a new era in the history
of mankind. Though he merely gave
Christianity a legal status alongside of
heathenism and did not, as is so com-
monly believed, make it the state reli-
gion, his wise and tolerant policy natu-
rally and inevitably led to this result.
Once allied with the state, — and the
idea of a separate free church was for-
eign to men’s minds, — the Church was
bound to crowd out its decadent rival
outwardly, as it had long since overcome
it inwardly. As a matter of fact the
orthodox emperor Theodosius, before the
end of the fourth century, prohibited
pagan worship on pain of death. Thus,
while Constantine freed the Church from
heathen oppression and persecution, he,
on the other hand, initiated the fateful
policy of the union of Church and State,
which proved a source of untold mischief
for many centuries to come. — From
these general remarks we turn to the
leading events of his life and reign.
After the abdication of Diocletian (305)
tlie rule of the western half of the em-
pire fell to Constantins Chlorus, tlie
father of Constantine. At the death of
Constantius in the following year, Con-
stantine was proclaimed emperor at
York (Eboracum) in Britain. When the
heathen usurper Maxentius assumed the
title of Augustus and seized the govern-
ment of Italy and Africa, Constantine
crossed the Alps at the head of a large
army and inflicted upon his rival a
Constantine
179
Constantine
crushing defeat at the MiJvian Bridge
near Rome (1112) . Constantine attrib-
uted tli in decisive victory to the sign of
the cross with the Greek monogram of
Christ, which in obedience to the famil-
iar vision in the sky lie wrought into
the Roman standard, the labarum. The
vision itself — the appearance of a lumi-
nous cross just above the afternoon sun,
witli the inscription, Tovny vtxa (By
this [sign] conquer) — has been the sub-
ject of much controversy. For a full
discussion of the matter we must refer
the reader to SchafT, Vh. Hist., Ill, or
Uhlliorn, Conflict of Christianity with
Heathenism. VVe shall only pause to
say that the occasion was certainly
worthy of a divine intervention. The
battle at the Milvian Bridge decided the
fate of heathenism. In the following
year Constantine, in conjunction with
Licinius, his Kastcrn colleague, published
at Milan the famous Edict of Toleration,
which lifted the ban from the lung per-
secuted church and granted freedom of
worship to Christian and heathen alike.
The triumph of Christianity was com-
plete when in 1124 Constantine defeated
Eicinius, who in the mean time had
espoused the cause of the heathen party,
at Adrianople and Chalcodon. In the
year 325 Constantine, now sole ruler,
summoned the famous Council of Nieea
to preserve the unity of the Church,
which was threatened with disruption by
the Arian heresy. (See Council of Nicea,
Arianism.) One of the most important
nets of his reign was tiie transference of
tile seat of government from Rome to
Byzantium, which lie rebuilt with great
magnificence and which henceforth was
known as Constantinople, “the City of
Constantine.” The new capital, in con-
trast with the city on the Tiber, wore
a predominantly Christian aspect, al-
though policy forbade the emperor to in-
stitute any measures which might offend
the heathen part of the population, and
side by side with Christian symbols,
crucifixes, and representations of Bibli-
cal scenes the images of pagan deities,
gathered from every quarter, contributed
to the splendor of the new metropolis.
It is significant, however, that no new
temples were erected to the moribund
deities of paganism. Though openly
favoring Christianity, Constantine to
the end remained true to the principle
of toleration expressed in the Edict of
Milan. By a strange inconsistency, due
doubtless to superstitious fears, the first
Christian emperor postponed his baptism
until lie felt the approach of death. In
the year 337 he was baptized by the
Semi-Arian bishop Eusebius of Nico-
media and died a few days after. The
Eastern Church soon enrolled him among
the saints and to this day declares him
the “equal of the apostles” ( Isapostolos ),
while the Western Church, with a more
sober appreciation of liis services to
Christianity, honors him with the title
of “the Great.”' — On Constantine’s per-
sonal relations to Christianity and the
motives that governed his imperial policy
the most diverse opinions have been held.
The one extreme is represented by the
Greek Church, referred to above, the
other sees in Constantine nothing but a
shrewd, calculating politician, who al-
lied himself with the new religion in
order to realize his imperial ambitions.
That his conduct upon the whole was
determined rather by policy than by
principle is unquestionable. That his
tolerant attitude toward paganism was
not merely the result of calculating ex-
pediency, but, to some degree, of sym-
pathy with the old faith (at least until
quite late in life) seems equally assured.
On the other hand, there can he no doubt
that his preference of Christianity was
not merely a prudential, but, in part
at least, a real personal matter. And
though the life of Constantine is stained
with foul crimes even subsequent to his
conversion, the softening and humaniz-
ing eifects of Christianity are plainly
seen in his legislation. His concern for
the unity of the Church, threatened with
division through Arianism, was probably
subordinate to the higher concern for
the unity of the empire. Abundance of
evidence can be produced in illustration
of both sides of his conduct, such as the
equivocal use of the. word “deity” (di-
vinitas), the vague “Quidquid ilhul est
divinum a c eoeleste numen" (practically
an “unknown God”) of the Edict of
Milan; the injunction, as late as 321,
to consult the soothsayers in times of
public calamity; the retention of the
title Pontifex Maximus to the end of his
life, etc., etc. On the other hand, he
ascribes his victory over Maxentius to
the “saving sign” of the cross (the
triumphal arch erected three years later
contains the ambiguous instinctu Divini-
tatis, attributing the victory to the “im-
pulse of the Deity,” a vague and indefi-
nite expression, which both pagans and
Christians could interpret in their own
wav) ; he exempted the clergy from
military and municipal duties; he abol-
ished rites offensive to public morality;
he prohibited infanticide and the exposure
of children; he mitigated the slave laws ;
he issued rigorous laws against adultery
and placed strong restrictions on the
facility of divorce, etc., etc. “Now let
Constantine, Donation of
180 Controversy of the Three Chapters
ns cast away all duplicity,” said Con-
stantine, when on his deathbed he re-
ceived Christian baptism, honestly ad-
mitting that in his private and public
life he had been swayed by two conflict-
ing motives — a character, as Stanley
says, “not to be imitated or admired,
but much to be remembered and deeply
to be studied.”
Constantine, Donation of. A fiction
found in the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals,
a collection of forged decrees purporting
to go hack to Clement, third bishop of
Rome. According to this account, Con-
stantine had generously given to Syl-
vester I (314 — 355) the provinces of the
Occidental Roman Empire, together with
the imperial insignia. The spurious
character of the documents escaped de-
tection for centuries, and for that length
of time the decretals had full standing.
See also Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals.
Constantinople, Second Ecumenical
Council of. Called by Emperor Theo-
dosius I in 381, chiefly to confirm the
Is ieene Creed and to take Up other mat-
ters relating to the Arian Controversy
and to the succession of bishops in the
see of Constantinople. Meletius of An-
tioch, Gregory Nazianzen, and Nectarius
successively presided at the meetings of
the council. Gregory Nazianzen was
made Patriarch of Constantinople, but
was forced to resign, Nectarius being put
in his place. When it became apparent
that the acceptance of the Nicene faith
was an issue at the Council, the thirty-
six Macedonian representatives with-
drew. Their opinion concerning the in-
ferior position of the Holy Ghost in the
Trinity was condemned by the Council,
likewise the teaching of Apollinaris con-
cerning the nature of Christ. The Coun-
cil enacted seven canons, four doctrinal,
of which only the first three are of gen-
eral application and three disciplinary.
The Nicene faith was declared to be
dominant, and all heretics were anath-
ematized; the bishops were ordered to
remain within their own dioceses in their
jurisdiction, unless they were invited to
officiate elsewhere; the Bishop of Con-
stantinople was given the prerogative of
honor after the Bishop of Rome. The
Council also addressed a letter to the
emperor, which illustrates the relation
of the councils to the imperial authority,
the ratification of the emperor being re-
quested by the ecclesiastical authorities.
Constantinople, Fifth Ecumenical
Council of. Called in 553 by Justinian I
to condemn the so-called three chapters.
The council can hardly be said to have
been more than an episode in this con-
troversy. See Controversy of the Three
Chapters.
Consubstantiation. The term com-
monly employed by Reformed theologians
when describing the Lutheran doctrine of
the Lord’s Supper. For instance, M’Clin-
tock and Strong, Cyclopedia, s. v. “Con-
substantiation”: “The doctrine that in
the Lord’s Supper the bread remains
bread and the wine remains wine, but
that with and by means of the conse-
crated elements the true natural body
and blood of Christ are communicated to
the recipients.” The term is offensive to
Lutherans because.it conveys the impres-
sion that the body and blood of Christ
are present in the same way and received
in the same way as the bread and wine.
Lutheran theologians have never repre-
sented the bread and the body of Christ
as being of the same substance or the
body as being present, like the bread, in
a natural manner. See Lord’s Supper.
Contributions, Congregational and
Synodical. The average contribution
of Christians for church purposes varies
very much in different denominations,
synods, and congregations. Congrega-
tional contributions are such as are given
for the support of the home congrega-
tion; synodical contributions, such as
are given for the support of the larger
church organization, the synod. — • In re-
cent years the contributions of Lutheran
churches have greatly increased. This
has been due to a better understanding
of the duty of Christian giving, to an
increased interest in church-work, and to
better, systematic efforts of collecting
moneys.
Controversy of tbe Three Chapters.
A political move of Emperor Justinian I,
which was intended to keep the power-
ful Monop hysite (q.v.) party with the
Church by certain concessions or resolu-
tions approaching compromises. Since
the school of Antioch had been particu-
larly emphatic in opposing Monojjhysit-
ism, it was necessary, in Justinian's
opinion, to neutralize the effect of its
standpoint in the matter. About 544
Justinian issued an edict in which he
condemned the so-called three chapters,
that is, the statements of Theodore of
Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, and
Ibas of Edessa concerning the doctrine
at issue, namely, whether there is one
or whether there are two natures in the
person of Christ. At a synod held at
Constantinople in 548 the bishops were
prevailed upon to give written verdicts
for the condemnation of the three chap-
ters. In order to avoid the appearance
of opposing the resolutions of the Coun-
Conversion
181
Conversion
cil of Clialcedon, it was said that only
individual members of that council, and
not the entire body, had approved of
the strong anti-Monophysitic statements
passed in 381. The result was that the
Fifth Ecumenic Council, assembled at
Constantinople in 553, resolved to
“anathematize the three chapters before,
mentioned, that is, the impious Theodore
of Mopsuestia with his execrable writ-
ings, and those things which Theodoret
impiously wrote, and the impious letter
which is said to be by Ibas, together
with their defenders and those who have
written, and do write, in defense of them,
or who dare to say that they are cor-
rect, and who have defended, or do at-
tempt to defend, their impiety with the
names of the holy Fathers or of the holy
Council of Chaleedon.”
Conversion. In the stricter sense,
conversion is regeneration, the procrea-
tion of true and saving faith, hence the
instantaneous act by which God trans-
fers man through the Gospel from a
state of sin and spiritual death into a
state of spiritual life. Being wholly and
exclusively the work of God, the person
being regenerated, or converted, cannot
concur or cooperate in any sense, but is
merely the passive subject, without, how-
ever, losing his identity as a rational
being. In a wider sense, conversion is
“the process whereby man, being by the
grace and power of God transferred from
his carnal state of sin and wrath into a
spiritual state of faith and grace, enters
upon, and, under the continued influence
of the Holy Spirit, continues in, a state
of faith and spiritual life.” (A. L. Graeb-
ner.) Hence, in conversion it is the one
essential thing that the sinner under-
stands that Jesus Christ is the promised
Redeemer, is his Redeemer. There is no
condition to he fulfilled; if a man be-
lieves in Jesus as the Mediator, whose
blood has saved the world, he is con-
verted. And this belief, or faith, is en-
kindled through the Word of God, read
or spoken. See Acts 8, 26—39. Accord-
ing to Acts 26, 18 conversion is an “open-
ing of the eyes,” a “turning from dark-
ness to light.” 2 Cor. 4, 6: “God . . .
hath shined in our hearts to give the
light of the knowledge of the glory of
God in the face of Jesus Christ.” The
conviction is born in the heart that Jesus
is the Redeemer, the Christ, who has suf-
fered and died for the remission of sins,
of my sins. 1 John 5, 1: “Whosoever be-
lieveth that Jesus is the Christ is born
of God.” To impart this knowledge,
without which there is no faith and
hence no conversion, God has given the
Scriptures and has instituted Christian
preaching. Rom. 10, 17: “Faith cometh
by hearing and hearing by the Word of
God.” Operating through the Word, the
Holy Spirit brings men to faith, — and
this is conversion. — The heart which
thus lays hold upon the merits of Jesus
Christ has undergone the fundamental
change called repentance. Acts 3, 19. By
working recognition of guilt and remorse
for sin, the Holy Spirit leads men to
repentance, so that they cry, “What must
I do to be saved?” And the answer is
that of Paul to the jailer: “Believe on
the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be
saved.” Acts 16, 30. 31. Upon this prom-
ise faith lays hold, and man is converted.
The change which has taken place in
conversion is “a turning from darkness
to light and from the power of Satan
unto God.” Acts 26, 18. In other words,
the relation of the sinner to God has
been radically changed. Unconverted
man is under sin. “There is none that
doeth good, no, not one.” Ps. 14, 3.
“Turn ye from your evil ways!” is the
cull to repentance. Ezek. 33, 11. But
man is unable to turn himself. He is
“dead in sins.” Eph. 2, 5; Col. 2, 13. By
nature man is an enemy of God, he hates
God. Rom. 8, 7. Hence man is utterly
unable to save himself; nor does he di-
sire to be saved. This is the natural
condition of man; nor can it be other-
wise, since “that which is born of the
flesh is flesh.” John 3, 6. It cannot even
be conceded that unconverted man has
the power of choice when the Gospel is
preached to him. The power of choice
would imply that man has a free will,
capable of inclining to good or to evil,
as he may elect. But man is not only
unable to receive the things which per-
tain to salvation, being void of under-
standing and knowledge, 1 Cor. 2, 14, but
he is so depraved and corrupt that his
will is opposed to the will of God and
prone to evil, every faculty being en-
slaved in the service of sin. Hence man
cannot in any way cooperate in his con-
version, even as dead Lazarus could not
cooperate in raising himself back to life.
It is clear that, if any change for the
better is to take place in man’s under-
standing and will, that change must
come by the operation of God. This is
the teaching of Scripture. Every repent-
ant heart cries out with the ancient
prophet: “Turn Thou me, and I shall be
turned; for Thou art the Lord, my God.”
Jer. 31, 18. And every Christian knows
the truth of the Savior’s words: “This
is the work of God, that ye believe on
Him whom He hath sent.” John 6, 20. —
Conversion is a work of divine grace and
Coll vi'f.sioil of Franks, etc. 18i2
Conversion of Franks, etc.
power. Of divine grace, because out of
pure mercy God lias kindled faitli in the
hearts of those who were utterly un-
worthy of salvation; of divine power,
because only “by the working of His
mighty power,” Eph. 1, 19, was it pos-
sible that those who by nature are ene-
mies of God were so transformed in their
nature that they are now children of
God, “sitting together in heavenly places
in Christ Jesus,” Eph. 2, 0. So funda-
mental is this change that Scripture very
frequently calls converted man a “new
creature.” 2 Cor. 5, 17. A new life is
generated in man; he is reborn, born
again, regenerated. Jas. 1, 18; 1 Pet.
1, 23; John 3, 5. His new will desires
that which is good; the love of God is
shed abroad in his heart; his affections
are purified. All this is a new creation.
And in precisely this sense, because they
have been “born again by the Word of
God,” “begotten through the Gospel,”
yes, “horn of God,” 1 John 3, 9, the con 1
verted (and only these) are termed chil-
dren of God.
Conversion does not imply the elimina-
tion, but the suppression, of that which
Scripture calls the carnal nature in man.
As long as a Christian is in this body,
his mind will receive promptings to sin,
and these promptings will find a response
in the heart and will even lead to sinful
acts. Hence it is necessary that we daily
hear or read the Word of God to be re-
minded of our sin and guilt, daily re-
pent of sin and wrong-doing, daily seek
refuge in the wounds of Christ, daily
“renew the inward man,” 2 Cor. 4, Hi,
daily “cleanse ourselves of all filthiness
of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holi-
ness in the fear of God.” 2 Cor. 7, 1.
Thus we are, by a process which lasts
till life’s end, “transformed by the re-
newing of our mind.” Horn. 12,2. It is
a bitter struggle, the struggle between
spirit and flesh, but we are upheld by
the promise: “Whatsoever is born of God
overcometh the world; and this i» the
victory that overcometh the world, even
our faith.” 1 John 5, 4. “I can do all
things through Christ, which strength-
ened me.” Phil. 4, 13. “By grace are ye
saved, through faith; and that not of
yourselves, it is the gift of God; not of
works, lest any man should boast.” Eph.
2, 8.' 9.
Conversion of the Franks, Saxons,
and other Germanic Nations. Chris-
tianity may have been brought to Gaul,
the present France, as early as the latter
mlf of the first century, but there is no
lefinite record of its establishment there
mtil the second century. Noted men
like Irenaeus of Lugdunum (Lyons), Po-
tliinus, and Bonignus, friends and dis-
ciples of Polycarp, who, in turn, bad
been a disciple of John, spread the Gos-
pel fairly well along the valley of the
.Rhone and into the interior. Somewhat
later (31b — 400) came Martin, Bishop
of Tours. Ilis character, steeled by his
experience as a soldier under Constan-
tine, and his work were such that he
succeeded in establishing Christianity
among many of the Frankish tribes, also
of Northern and Northwestern France,
where it had hitherto been but imper-
fectly known and received. He was after-
ward made the patron saint of France,
and St. Martin’s Day was observed in
other countries us well. In early days
bis tomb was a shrine, and his motto,
Non recuso laborem (I will not draw
back from the work), became a watch-
word for missionaries in all Western
Europe. — Mission-work in what is now
Southern and Western Germany was be-
gun in tile sixth century, when Fridolin,
a missionary from Ireland, who had been
in France, preached along the upper
Rhine. Oolumban, also of Ireland, la-
bored first in the valleys of the Vosges
Mountains. When lie became older, he
moved still farther south and southeast,
into Switzerland. Ho died at the mon-
astery of Bobbio, in Italy, in 015. His
work was continued by bis disciple Gal-
ius, who founded the village of St. Gall
with its monastery and church. Willi -
brod, known as the Apostle of Frisia,
was a native of England, but he also
studied in Ireland and started out from
there to do his work. He labored in the
extreme northwestern part of Germany
and Holland. He died in 739. About
Kilian, the Apostle of Wurttemberg, very
little is known outside of the fact that
he came from Ireland to preach the Gos-
pel in Southwestern Germany. This was
in the eighth century. He died a mar-
tyr's death. Winfried (Winifred) or
Boniface, often designated the Apostle of
Germany, did his work between 716 and
755, chiefly in Thuringia, Hessia, and
Franconia. His influence was very great,
but, unfortunately, it rested largely upon
the authority of the Pope, whom he vis-
ited several times. — The story of the
conversion of Saxony is not altogether
pleasant reading, for these people stub-
bornly resisted the invasion of the Chris-
tian religion, and Charlemagne (q. v.)
felt constrained to use force to subdue
them, their king, Wittekind, finally ac-
cepting the Gospel. But their real con-
version did not take place until they had
received the poetical version of the New
Testament, the so-called Heliand , by
Conversion of Jews
183
Cornelius, Peter
which the Gospel-story was sung into
their hearts. (See also Germany.)
Conversion of the Jews as a Na-
tion. The conversion of the Jews as a
nation has been taught in connection
with millenarian hopes. The claim is
based upon Rom. 11, 15 — 29, where, as
the advocates of this theory declare,
Paul both asserts and proves from the
Old Testament prophecies that a final
and universal conversion of the Jews to
Christianity will take place. They main-
tain that such Old Testament prophecies
as Is. 11, 11. 12; 59, 20; Jer. 3, 17; 16,
14.15; 31,31; Ezek. 20, 40— 44; Hos.
3, 4.-5; Amos 9, 11 — 15; Zech. 10, 6 — 10;
12, 10; 14, 1—20; Joel 3, 1—17, must
bo taken in a literal sense. Moreover,
they assert that the entire territory
promised by God to Abraham has never
been fully possessed by his descendants;
hence the prophecies in Gen. 15, 18 — 21;
Nnm. 34, 6 — 12; Ezek. 47, 1 — 23, must
refer to the millennial reign of Christ,
in which the Jews will occupy the land
described in these prophecies. Lastly
they claim that- the Jews, though scat-
tered among the nations, have been pre-
served as a separate people for the very
purpose of constituting a distinct people
during the Savior’s personal reign on
earth.
The opponents of this theory assert
that the literal interpretation of the Old
Testament prophecies is untenable, since
such an interpretation, in order to be
consistent, must be literal in all its
parts. This would imply that David
himself, in person, will reign in Jeru-
salem, Ezek. 37, 24; that the Levitical
priesthood will be restored and bloody
sacrifices offered to God, Jer. 17, 25. 26;
that Jerusalem must then be the center
of government, and all worshipers must
come monthly and from Sabbath to Sab-
bath, from the ends of the earth, to wor-
ship at the Holy City, Is. 2, 3; Zech.
14, 16 — 21. Thus the literal interpreta-
tion leads to the revival of the entire
ritual system of the Jews, which was
abrogated by Christ, and which is op-
posed to the clear teaching of the New
Testament, which plainly teaches that in
Christ all distinctions between Jew and
Gentile have been abolished. Their main
contention, however, is that both Isaiah
and Paul, when speaking of the conver-
sion of the Jews (Rom. 9, 27. 28; Is. 10,
22. 23; Rom. 11, 5) refer to the elect
saints in Israel, the Israel according to
the spirit (Rom. 11, 3 — 8. 25 — 32), the
spiritual Israel. Their contention, based
on Rom. 11, 1 — 7, is that as in Israel,
even in the time of the Old Testament,
only those were saved who had been
called by grace, so in New Testament
times, while many are called, only few arc
chosen, and that these chosen ones will be
brought in through the preaching of the
Gospel (Rom. 11, 5); hence such New Tes-
tament expressions as “Abraham’s seed,”
Gal. 3, 29; “Israelites,” Gal. 6, 16; Eph.
2, 12 — 19; “citizens of the heavenly Je-
rusalm,” Gal. 4, 26, etc., apply to all be-
lievers in Christ who have been gathered
through the preaching of the Word, and
not to reconverted Jews only.
Cooke, Henry, 1788 — 1868; educated
at University of Glasgow; held a num-
ber of pastorates in the Presbyterian
Church, last at Belfast; wrote: “Jesus,
Shepherd of the Sheep.”
Cook Islands, New Zealand, a Poly-
nesian island group within the British
Empire. Area, 280 sq. mi. Population,
12,700. Discovered by James Cook,
1773 — 77; annexed to New Zealand,
1901. John Williams was pioneer mis-
sionary in Rarotonga. Missions through-
out the group by the L. M. S. Many con-
verts have been zealous as evangelists,
oven as far as the Loyalty Islands (South
Pacific Ocean ) . The Roman Catholic
Church has established counter missions.
Cooper, Edward, 1770 — 1838; edu-
cated at Oxford; held two positions as
clergyman; assisted Stubbs in compiling
the Staffordshire Hymn -hooks; among
his hymns: “Rather of Heaven, Whoso
Love Profound.”
Cope. See Vestments, R. G.
Copts. See Monophy sites.
Cordes, Johann Heinrich Karl;
b. March 21, 1813, at Betzendorf, near
Lueneburg; entered Dresden Lutheran
Mission Seminary, 1837 ; missionary to
India, 1840; Tranquebar, 1841; instru-
mental in securing the former Danish-
Halle Mission remnants and property for
the Leipzig Mission; Senior of Mission-
ary Council, 1858 ; member of Mission
Board, Leipzig, 1872; retired, 1887;
d. near the end of the century.
Corea. See Korea.
Cornelius a Lapide (van don Steen).
Exegete of Roman Church; b. in Bel-
gium, 1567 ; d. at Rome, 1637 ; became
Jesuit in 1597; lecturer on the Bible
and Hebrew at Louvain, 1596 to 1616,
after that at college of Rome ; used prin-
ciple of fourfold exegesis — allegorical,
symbolical, typological, and true.
Cornelius, Peter, 1783 — 1867 ; painter,
idealist of the new German school; did
his chief work under the direction of
Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria in
Corner-Stone
184
Counter-Reformation
Munich: The Creation, The Redemption
through Christ, The Last Judgment;
spent several years in Berlin ; planned
and made sketches for a series, the so-
called Campo Santo pictures, to set forth
sin and grace; a master of style, inter-
preter of his age.
Corner-Stone. The stone placed in
the most prominent corner of a building,
uniting and supporting two of its walls,
usually with a cavity containing docu-
ments of historic interest and current
coins.
Corpus Christi. A festival of the
Roman Catholic Church, in honor of the
local presence of Christ in the host,
celebrated on Thursday after Trinity
Sunday. The nun Juliana (ca. 1230), in
a vision, saw the church as a full moon
with one dark spot — the lack of such a
festival. At her request. Urban IV es-
tablished the festival with indulgences.
John XXII (1316 — 34) added a proces-
sion in which the host, in a monstrance,
a special vessel containing the host,
was carried through the streets. Other
Popes increased the indulgences. The
processions soon became sumptuous ex-
hibitions of ecclesiastical pomp and
worldly splendor. Miracle plays and
mysteries were given after the proces-
sion. Luther considered this the most
harmful of medieval festivals, while the
Council of Trent gloried in it as a “tri-
umph over heresy.” Since the Reforma-
tion, Corpus Christi processions have
been forbidden in various countries, in-
cluding some where Romanism prepon-
derates.
Corpus Iuris Canonici. See Canon
Law.
Corregio, Antonio Allegri da, 1494
to 1534; Italian painter of the Renais-
sance; master of delicacy and of light
and shadows; Ecce Homo, dome-frescoes
at Parma, and Holy Night are charac-
teristic of his art.
Corvinus (Rabe) Antonius, b. 1501;*
chased out of his cloister for his Lu-
theranism in 1522; preacher in Hessen
in 1538; reformed in Goettingen, Nord-
heim, Hildesheim, Calenberg; opposed
the Interim; imprisoned in damp cell
1549 — 52; d. April 5, 1553, a true and
faithful Lutheran Christian. His ser-
mons on the Gospels and Epistles became
popular.
Cosmology. That part of dogmatics,
Qr doctrinal theology, which deals with
the creation and preservation of the
world and of all the creatures of the uni-
verse, especially in their relation to man.
Costa Rica. See Central America.
Cotta. See Vestments, R. C.
Cotterill, Thomas, 1779 — 1823; edu-
cated at Cambridge; held positions as
clergyman, last at Sheffield; published
Family Prayers; wrote: “Before Thy
Throne of Grace, 0 Lord,” and others.
Cotton, John, 1585 — 1652; patriarch
of New England. B. at Derby; pastor
of Puritan tendencies, Boston, England;
fled to America 1633; “teacher” of First
Church, Boston (d. there). Published
fifty volumes.
Counter-Reformation. A movement
inaugurated by the leaders of the Roman
Catholic Church, especially under the
leadership of the Jesuits (q.v.) , consist-
ing of a complex of causes and results by
which the progress of the Reformation
was checked, especially in Southern Ger-
many, Austria, France, Italy, Switzer-
land, and Spain. The reason for the
growth of this movement is to be sought
partly in the factions which rent the
Protestant Church due to the attitude of
the Swiss reformers and their followers,
partly in the outward reform and revival
in the Roman Church which was caused
by the work of Luther and his colaborers.
The reformation of the Church, as under-
stood by the theologians of the Counter-
Reformation, included a measure of secu-
lar control, a revival and enforcement of
all canonical laws framed to purify the
morals of the clergy, a certain accommo-
dation to the ideals of the Humanists,
a steady adherence to the main doctrines
of the scholastic theology, the preserva-
tion of the hierarchical system in its
entirety, the retention of the rites and
usages of the Medieval Church, and a
ruthless suppression of heresy from the
standpoint of the Roman Church. In
Spain the reorganization of the Catho-
lic sect began under Cardinal Ximenes
(q.v.) , who reestablished monastic dis-
cipline in its most rigid form, put the
morals of the secular clergy to a rigid
test, and otherwise instituted an out-
ward reform, which some three decades
later stood the forces of Catholicism in
good stead when the representatives of
the empire met at Worms, in 1521, and
at Augsburg, in 1530. It was chiefly due
to this activity of Ximenes that the anti-
Lutheran movement so rapidly checked
the advance of the Reformation on the
Iberian Peninsula. In Italy it was
chiefly a small society of pious laymen
and prelates, who met in the little
church of Santi Silvestro et Dorotea in
the Trastevere (a section of the city west
of the Tiber) in Rome, who counteracted
the moral rottenness of the Church to
such an extent as to prepare the way for
Cousin, Victor
185
Covenanters
the Counter-Reformation. Among the
men at the head of the Italian movement
were Contarini, Caraffa, and Cortese.
Among the women who worked along
similar lines may be mentioned RenSe
of Ferrara and Vittoria Colonna. The
result of all this external glossing over
and patching became evident in the work
of the Council of Trent, 1545 — 63 (see
Trent, Council of), which indeed took
steps to bring about an external refor-
mation of the clergy, but at the same
time fixed the false Roman doctrines in
the decrees which have definitely estab-
lished the Roman Church as a sect.
Cousin, Victor. French philosopher;
b. 1792 at Paris; d. 1867 at Cannes.
Opposed materialism of eighteenth cen-
tury. Founded school of eclectic phi-
losophy, with position between Scotch
(Hume, Hamilton) and German (Sehel-
ling, Hegel) schools.
Councils, or Synods. Ecclesiastical
assemblies convened for the joint discus-
sion and settlement of questions affect-
ing the faith and discipline of the
Church. They appear first about the
middle of the second century, occasioned
by the Montanistic movement. Councils
are to bo distinguished as follows: The
diocesan council, embracing the clergy
and bishop of a diocese (in the ordinary
sense of the term) ; the provincial coun-
cil, consisting of the metropolitan and
the bishops of his province; the patri-
archal council, including all the bishops
of a patriarchal district (diocese in the
old sense; see Patriarch) ; the national
council, representing either the entire
Greek or the entire Latin Church ;
finally, the ecumenical council, represent-
ing the entire Christian world. Follow-
ing the apostolic precedent (cf. Acts 15,
22. 23 ) , the Church at first admitted lay-
men to these assemblies, but after the
Council of Nicea the bishops alone had
a voice, and they appear not as the rep-
resentatives of the churches, but as suc-
cessors of the apostles, a fact which
clearly marks the growth of the hier-
archical spirit. The union of Church
and State gave to ecumenical councils
(in some cases also to provincial synods)
a strongly political character. The em-
peror convened them, with few excep-
tions presided at the sessions, and gave
legal validity to their decrees. The lat-
ter were called dogmata, or symbola, if
they concerned matters of faith ; canones,
if touching matters of discipline. The
authority of the council was final and
absolute, the usual formula for a decree
being : Visum est Spiritui Sancto et
nobis. Evangelical Protestantism, fol-
lowing the precedent of Luther (Leipzig
Debate), justly subordinates decrees of
councils to the test of Scripture.
Courts Spiritual (or Ecclesiastical).
Since the Roman Church claims the right
of legislating for its “subjects,” it con-
sistently claims also the judicial powers
necessary to enforce the laws and to
exact penalties from transgressors. These
powers are exercised through spiritual
courts. The blending of Church and
State, inaugurated by Constantine, de-
veloped Buch courts and enabled them
gradually to enlarge their jurisdiction.
Eventually, not only all matters with
even a remote bearing on the Church or
religion were taken from the civil courts,
but clerics of every degree were exempted
from civil jurisdiction, and all cases to
which a cleric was a party were tried in
spiritual courts, for “it would be utterly
unbecoming for persons of superior dig-
nity [clerics] to submit themselves to
their inferiors [laymen] for judgment”
(Catholic Encyclopedia). Spiritual courts
formerly inflicted also such temporal
punishments as scourging and imprison-
ment. Three courts of judgment are
recognized: that of the bishop or his
vicar-general, that of the metropolitan
(archbishop), and that of the Pope. Ap-
peal may be taken from the lower courts
to the higher. Some cases, however, are
in the first instance reserved to the Pope
or the various Roman Congregations.
Ecclesiastical courts have, in recent
times, been shorn of their powers, even
in Roman Catholic countries, and with
their jurisdiction, their importance has
dwindled. (See also Church and State.)
Covenanters. A name given to Scotch
Presbyterians in the sixteenth century
because of the solemn agreements by
which they bound themselves for reli-
gious and political purposes, since they
believed that the religious views and the
political settlement which they advocated
were in danger of being crushed. The
First Covenant was signed at Edinburgh
on December 3, 1557, for the purpose of
carrying out the Protestant Reformation
in the face of all resistance which might
be offered to it by the Church of Rome.
With a similar end in view, the Second
Covenant was subscribed at Perth on
May 31, 1659. The National Covenant
was signed on February 28, 1638, at
Edinburgh by the people, the great
majority of whom were Presbyterians,
who had by vote and resolution rid them-
selves the year before of the episcopacy
and believed that the only hope of ulti-
mate success lay in union. The Solemn
League and Covenant written by the
Coverdnle, Miles
188
Cmeiner, Friedrich Angus!
Uev. Alexander Henderson, was accepted
by tlie Scottish General Assembly on
August 17, 1(513, and subsequently by
the Convention of Estates. On Septem-
ber 25 of the same year it was sub-
scribed to by the English Parliament
and the Westminster Assembly of di-
vines. It was designed to be a league
between England and Scotland, under
the revolutionary leaders then dominant,
and to establish in England no less than
in Scotland the Presbyterian instead of
the Episcopal Church. When Scotland
declared for Charles II against Oliver
Cromwell, the young king, previous to
landing in 1650, subscribed to the Cove-
nant. In 1661 the Scottish Parliament
passed an act absolving the lieges from
the obligation and prohibiting its re-
newal without a special warrant and ap-
probation.
Cover dale, Miles, 1488 — 1560; edu-
cated at Cambridge; associated with
Tyndale and various continental re-
formers; his translation of the Bible
published in 1535 and the second version
of tlie New Testament in 1538; later,
in 1545, pastor of a Lutheran congrega-
tion at Bergzabern in Germany; notable
work in hymnody is his Goostly Psalmea,
which contained 41 Lutheran hymns,
22 by Luther, done into metrical verse.
Covetousness. A vice which is con-
nected with both the Ninth and the
Seventh Commandment, being directed
against the neighbor’s possessions. It is
essentially the eager desire to gain some
possession on which the heart is set, to
the neighbor’s impoverishment. It is
distinguished from avarice in this, that
the latter is bent upon an undue reten-
tion of possessions already gained, while
covetousness deals only with personal
property and other possessions of the
neighbor in so far as the covetous per-
son unduly desires them, bending ins
efforts toward getting them by a show
of right or by false and sinful means
directly applied. Even obtaining other
people’s property by legal means may be
an act of covetousness, namely, when it
is done with the idea of enriching one-
self at the expense of the neighbor or
of heaping up riches and possessions in
order to have a great deal of property.
The warnings of Scripture with regard
to this sin are found throughout the
books of the Bible, their substance being
found in the admonition to hate covet-
ousness, Ex. 18, 21, not to incline the
heart to covetousness, Ps. 119, 36, not to
he given to covetousness, Jer. 6, 13, to
beware of covetousness, Luke 12, 15, not
to let covetousness be named, Eph. 5, 3,
to mortify covetousness, Col. 3, 5, to let
the entire conduct be without covetous-
ness, lleb. 13, 5. In addition, tlie Bible
describes some warning examples of cov-
etousness, as when Allah desired tlie
vineyard of Naboth, 1 Kings 21, and
committed murder through the hands of
bis wife, Jezebel, vlum Jesus calls down
the punishment of God upon the scribes
and Pharisees in one of His terrible cries
of woe upon them, Matt. 23, 14, and
when the prophet, in a similar strain,
describes those who join house to house
and lay field to field, till there he no
plane left, tlmt they may be placed alone
in the midst of tlie earth, Is. 5, 8. Cov-
etousness, together with the love of
money shown in avarice, is truly one of
the roots of all evil and an enemy of
faith. 1 Tim. 0, 10.
Cowper, William, 1731 — 1800; edu-
cated at Westminster; admitted to the
bar in 1754; lived iu Huntingdon, at 01-
nejq at Weston, finally at East Dereham ;
a sedentary invalid during the greater
part of his life; very shy and sensitive;
had two attacks of madness; weakened
by tension of long religious exercises and
nervous excitement of leading at prayer-
meetings; wrote some exquisitely tender
hymns, among which “There Is a Foun-
tain Filled with Blood.”
Cox, Frances Elizabeth; b. at Ox-
ford ; known as a very successful trans-
lator of hymns from the German ; her
book in two editions; two of her best:
“Jesus Lives! No Longer Now”; “Who
Are These Like Stars Appearing.”
Coxe, Arthur Cleveland, 1818 — 96;
educated at University of New York;
held a number of positions in the Epis-
copal Church; last, bishop of the West-
ern Diocese of New York; wrote “Savior,
Sprinkle Many Nations.”
Craemer, Friedrich August; b. in
Klein-Langheim, Bavaria, May 26, 1812;
studied theology in Erlangen, 1830 — 32;
member of a Patriotic Students’ Society
( Ikirschenschaft ) , he was sentenced to
imprisonment following the Frankfurt
Insurrection of 183.3; proved innocent in
1839, but remained under police surveil-
lance; studied Old and Modern Greek,
Ancient and Medieval German, French,
and English; in Munich, later, again
theology, particularly the Formula of
Concord; 1841 tutor to the son of Count
Carl von Einsiedel; after two years
tutor of the children of Lord and Lady
Lovelace in England, the latter a daugh-
ter of Lord Byron; tutor of German
language and literature at Oxford. The
university being dominated by the Trac-
tarians, he severed his connection with it.
Ornimfh, Lhciin
187
< 'r<-ji lion, Work of
The Nolruf of Wyneken took liiiu to
Pastor Loehe, who found liim to he the
man needed as leader of the men he was
on the point of sending to America to
found a mission colony there. He trav-
eled through Northern Germany in the
interest of this work; was ordained by
Dr. Kliefoth in the cathedral of Schwe-
rin, April 4, 1845. Founded the mission-
colony at Frankenmutli, Mich., labored
for five years as pastor and Indian mis-
sionary; upon the advice of Loehe he
identified himself with the founders of
the -Missouri Synod. On the death of
Prof. A. Wolter he became president and
professor of the Practical Seminary at
Fort Wayne, most of whose twenty
pupils had been sent over by Loehe.
When the seminary was combined with
the Theoretical Seminary at St. Louis, in
1861, Prof. Walther and he, for a while,
constituted the whole faculty. For the
sake of the large number of Norwegian
students enrolled he took up the study
of their language. In 1875 he went with
the Practical Seminary to Springfield,
111., as president and chief instructor.
(Jrucmer was an indefatigable worker;
enjoyed giving twenty-three lectures a
week besides performing the duties con-
nected with the presidency and director-
ate; during the vacation months he fre-
quently managed to put in his time
preparing emergency classes; and be-
sides assisting the local pastors, lie took
charge of missions — while in Fort
Wayne, at Cedar Creek; in St. Louis, at
Minerstown ; in .Springfield, at Chatham.
His labors of forty-one years in the
seminary were highly successful, for he
knew how to instil, by word and ex-
ample, his burning zeal into the large
classes that sat at his feet. D. May 3,
1891.
Cranach, Lucas, 1473 — 1553; court
painter of the Elector Frederick the
Wise in Wittenberg; “painter of the
Reformation”; extremely productive;
during the earlier period of his life a
somewhat romantic strain, during later
period dogmatico-symbolical representa-
tions; painted several pictures of Lu-
ther and his coworkers, also of Catharina
of Bora and of Luther’s daughter Mag-
dalena.
Cranmer, Thomas, 1489 — 1556; first
Protestant Primate of All England;
b. at Nottingham; obtained the favor of
Henry VIII by advising him to refer his
divorce ease to the universities, 1529;
repeived appointment to Canterbury see
and promptly declared Henry’s marriage
to Anne Boleyn valid, 1533; acquiesced
in the same year in the burning of Frith,
who had denied transubstantiation and
purgatory; opposed the enactment of
the Six Articles (Bloody Bill) and pro-
moted the circulation of the Bible
(Great), 1539; was the chief author of
the first Prayer-Book of Edward, 1549,
and of the Forty-two Articles of Reli-
gion, 1553; vainly signed seven “recan-
tations” on being thrown into prison by
Bloody Mary and suffered martyrdom at
Oxford. Thrusting his hand into the
flames, he repeatedly cried, “That un-
worthy hand ! ” alternating, as he breathed
his last, this exclamation with the prayer :
“Lord Jeans, receive my spirit.” Thus
heroically and Cliristianly did Macau-
lay’s “coward and time-server” retrieve
the weakness shown when the fierce tor-
tures of death by fire first loomed up.
Crasselius, Bartholomaeus, 1667 to
1724; pastor at Nidda and at Duessel-
dorf; hymns full of force and beauty;
wrote; “Dir, dir, Jehovah, will ich
singen”; “Erwaeli’, o Mcnsch, erwache!”
Creation, the Work of (Tlexaemeron).
The; divine act by which all objects were
brought into being. The objective world,
or universe, tlie things animate and in-
animate, which have their existence by
virtue of this act, are called “heaven and
earth” in the Old and usually in the New
Testament, which latter also uses the
terms kosmos and aion. God alone has
brought all things into being. Heb. 1,
2. 11; 9, 3; 3, 4; Acts 17, 24; 14, 15;
Ps. 33, 6, according to the mode and
process of a divine fiat as described in
the Genesis record of the “six days’
work,” or hcxacmeron. It was by the
Logos, or Word, the Second Person of
tlie Trinity, that all things were made.
John 1, 3. And it was an act of almighty
power by which the Father, as Creator,
called into existence that which was non-
existent. Rom. 4, 17. The wisdom of God
is discernible in all His works. Jer.
10, 12. All that was done in the crea-
tion of the world was done by God’s voli-
tion alone, and not by virtue of any blind
necessity. Rev. 4, 11. — The term used
for “create” in the Genesis account, bara,
does not denote the conformation, elabo-
ration, or ordering of a thing, but a new
production, as a glance at the texts re-
ferred to under bara in Gesenius proves.
Tlie opening clause of this account sets
forth the world as first created out of
nothing, and this in a rude, “chaotic”
state, while the remainder of the chapter
exhibits the elaboration, by successive
divine acts, of the recently created mass.
— The creation of the world was not by
external necessity, but by an interior im-
pulse of the divine nature to manifest
Creationism
188
Creeds
itself. Nor was the aim of God, in fash-
ioning the universe, exclusively His own
glory; He was impelled by eternal love,
desiring the good of His creatures. Their
nature is so constituted that they are
permeated by God’s goodness. Ps. 33, 5.
Creation reached its culmination in the
beings endowed with spirit — the angels
and man. — The time occupied by the
creative acts is in Genesis called six
days, the work of each day being stated
separately. While it is true that the
word “day” is sometimes used in Scrip-
ture for an indefinite period, — “the day
of vengeance,” “the night is far spent,
the day is at hand,” — it is arbitrary to
import this meaning into Gen. 1. The
several demiurgic days are consecutively
numbered, making an exact and ob-
viously literal week, and the alterna-
tions of light and darkness are distinctly
called “night” and “day.” This points,
together with the “evening” and “morn-
ing” of the text, to a period of six natu-
ral days of twenty-four hours each.
While there is progress and order in
the acts recorded Gen. 1, the narrative
excludes evolution as the method by
which things took their present form.
The higher forms of life were not evolved
out of the lower forms, but were created
by a divine fiat for each group of beings.
These, moreover, were created as species;
for the repeated phrase “after his kind”
can be understood in no other way.
From this we conclude that the great
orders of animal and plant life stood out
as separate beings on the third, fifth,
and sixth days of the hexaemeron. More-
over, man was not created as a species
of animal, but in the image of God. The
idea of an evolution of living forms is
therefore excluded by the Biblical ac-
count. The universe as we see it has not
come into being by the action of forces
resident in eternal matter, but the very
matter of which it is made and the
forces with which matter is endowed are
products of a sovereign Will and Intelli-
gence, of a personal Power, Jer. 10, 12,
in which God needed no assistance of
means or modes, but by which He was
able to create what He desired. Ps, 115, 3;
135, 6. See also Evolution.
Creationism. A theory concerning the
origin of the human soul. Creationism
assumes that not only the soul of Adam,
but every human soul, is to be derived
from a direct creative act of God. For
criticism of this view see Traducianism.
Credner, Karl August; b. 1797 ; d. as
professor of church history and exegesis
at the University of Giessen, 1857 ;
rationalistic New Testament scholar. His
chief work is Einleitung in das Neue Tes-
tament, not finished.
Creeds. Objections are sometimes
raised against creeds and confessions on
the ground that they infringe upon
Christian liberty, that they supersede
the Scriptures, are liable to be misused,
and tempt men to hypocrisy. However,
these objections are evidently based on
several misconceptions regarding the na-
ture and purpose of creeds. Aside from
their great value for purposes of in-
doctrination, creeds set forth to the
world what are the convictions of par-
ticular churches. Furthermore, if em-
ployed as norma normata (the rule which
is governed, namely, by Holy Scripture),
ever to be judged by comparison with the
norma normans, Holy Scripture (the rule
which governs, namely, the Bible itself),
they cannot be said to impose an author-
ity which supersedes that of Scripture.
Creeds are a practical application of “the
form of doctrine,” mentioned Rom. 6, 17,
of “the form of sound words,” 2 Tim.
1, 13. If all creeds were expressed in the
words of Scripture, this would set aside
all exposition and interpretation and
would destroy all means of distinguishing
the sentiments of one man from those of
another. The Scriptures are, indeed, the
ultimate appeal of every believer’s con-
science; the creed is the interpretation
of that appeal by a collective body of
Christians. Subscription to creeds is
compliance with a request of the Church
that the candidate for the office declare
his interpretation of Scripture in har-
mony with that of the Church. If he
cannot answer in the affirmative, it is
clear that he must exercise his ministry
elsewhere. Thus creeds supply a test of
agreement in doctrine, a sign of recog-
nition among the brethren, a bulwark
against the invasion of man-made opin-
ion. The experience of the Church from
her earliest days attests the value of
creeds as standards of doctrine. Churches
without creeds — the Quakers, for in-
stance, and many American sects of
more recent origin — - have been torn
by doctrinal dissensions quite as thor-
oughly as those which have adopted con-
fessions. Under the stress of the fun-
damentalist-modernist controversy, many
individual congregations of creedless
churches adopted confessional paragraphs
on the controverted points which in
every sense correspond to a creed as de-
fined above. When we inquire what is
the truth of revelation, we resort to the
Scriptures alone; when we inquire what
a given Church teaches, we call for a
creed or confession by which its attitude
to revealed Truth may be established.
Creed of Pina IV
189
Criticism, Biblical
Creed of Pius IV. See Profession of
Faith.
Creed (Liturgical), The Apostolic
Creed, which grew out of the Roman
baptismal formula, was originally the
confession of faith at baptism and is in-
cluded in all formulas for the perform-
ance of that rite. It should not be used
as the Creed spoken or chanted by the
congregation in the chief service, but
only in the minor services. The proper
Creed for the chief service is the Nicene
Creed, whose use for this purpose may
be traced back to 488 or even 476 A. D.,
when Peter the Fuller, Patriarch of An-
tioch, introduced it. It was used in
Rome under Benedict VIII, in 1014.
Luther retained its use for the chief
service and transcribed it into verse-form
for the German order of 1526: “Wir
glauben all’ an einen Gott.” The Atha-
nasian Creed, or the Symbolum Quicun-
que, is not ordinarily used in church
worship, except on Trinity Sunday, when
it is read or chanted before or with the
congregation. — The chanting or singing
of the Creed should be retained by all
means; nor should there be too much
striving for variety, with the plea that
the recital of the Creed tends to become
monotonous; for that argument would
also tend to remove the Lord’s Prayer
from Christian worship.
Cremation. The practise of burning
corpses, cither in such a way as to pre-
serve the bones and the ashes of the
flesh, as was the heathen custom, or of
having the bones consumed with the
flesh, as is the modern custom. Crema-
tion was practised extensively among the
Greeks and Romans. In India it is in
use to a limited extent, but only among
the Hindus, since the Parsees and Mo-
hammedans are opposed to the practise.
An attempt was made to introduce the
custom in England in 1873, but there
was so much opposition to it that it
made little progress there. During the
last three of four decades, however, pub-
lic sentiment has turned in favor of
cremation, and there are now crematories
in practically every large city of Europe,
both in England and on the Continent.
The first crematory in the United States
was established in Washington, Pa., in
1S76, and the first person for whom it
was used was the Baron de Palm, in
December of that year. The movement
has spread more or less rapidly through-
out the country, most of the larger cities
having one or more crematories, as De-
troit, St. Louis, Los Angeles, San Fran-
cisco, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati,
Buffalo, Chicago, together with many
smaller cities. — The attitude of the
Church with regard to cremation has
not, on the whole, been favorable. The
Roman Catholic Church has been very
strict in its prohibition of cremation.
Most of the Protestant churches have
taken no definite stand, although senti-
ment among the more conservative bodies
is still very strong against the custom.
The chief objections consist in this, that
cremation was originally a heathen cus-
tom, that it is not in line with Bible
custom, especially with the burial of
Jesus, and that it savors of the unbelief
which denies the resurrection of the
body. Of the two reasons advanced in
its favor, namely, that cremation is more
sanitary than burial and is less costly
than the modern mode of interment, the
former has not much weight, while the
latter may be a factor to be considered.
See also Burial.
Cremer, August Hermann; b. 1834,
d. at Greifswald, 1903; pastor in 1859;
professor at Greifswald in 1870; con-
servative Lutheran theologian and pro-
lific author; his best-known work, Bi-
blisch-theologisches Woerterbuch der new-
testamentliohen Graezitact, has passed
through many editions.
Criticism, Biblical. Biblical Criti-
cism is the term applied to two distinct
sciences connected with, or related to,
Biblical study. The Higher, or Literary,
Criticism is occupied with the origin,
authorship, authenticity, and integrity of
the Biblical writings. When exercised
merely for the purpose of establishing
the literary data regarding each of the
sacred books, the Higher Criticism is not
necessarily antagonistic to evangelical
theology. Indeed, theology has long ago
accorded to Biblical Introduction, or
Isagogics, a legitimate place in the cur-
riculum of studies preparatory to the
ministerial office. However, in its newer
phase the Higher Criticism has assumed
a negative form or attitude of denial
over against the traditional acceptance
of the Biblical writings and has by a
system of conjectures, based chiefly upon
the evolutionary hypothesis, sought to dis-
sect and redistribute the contents of the
books of Scripture, with a view to as-
signing them to other, unknown authors.
The negative, or destructive, criticism
assumes as major premise that the Bible
is merely a record of religious experi-
ences and beliefs, like any other writing
of religious or moral content, ancient or
modern. The workers in this field un-
warrantably assume that the beliefs and
institutions characteristic of the Bible
are the result, instead of the cause, of
Cromwell, Oliver
190
Cross
long ages of culture and usage, thus re-
versing the normal and natural order of
events. Passages which do not fit into
this view of religion as a development
are repudiated as interpolations from
some extraneous source or from a later
age. Miraculous interventions are ac-
counted for on purely naturalistic prin-
ciples. Through the entire system there
runs a repugnance to the supernatural.
Hence also “naturalistic criticism.”
The Lower, or Textual, Criticism is
concerned with the establishment of the
original text of the sacred writings. Tt
is therefore occupied with those prin-
ciples and operations which enable the
reader to detect and remove corruptions,
to decide upon the genuineness of dis-
puted readings, and to obtain as nearly
as possible the original words of inspira-
tion. It works with three sources: The
Bible manuscripts, ancient translations
into various languages, and the writings
of ancient ecclesiastical writers, Jewish
or Christian, who have quoted, or com-
mented upon, the Old and New Testa-
ment Scriptures. In rare cases, where
these sources fail to supply the needed
information, critical conjecture, used
with caution and discretion, is used to
restore the text in passages evidently
corrupted by the error of a transcriber.
The operations of Biblical Criticism
have established the genuineness of the
Old and New Testament texts in every
matter of importance. All the doctrines
and precepts of the Christian religion
remain unaffected by its investigations.
The most recent investigation, as laid
down, for instance, in the Expositor’s
New Testament, has proved that there is
no material corruption in the inspired
records. The text is substantially in the
same condition in which it was found
eighteen hundred years ago. The Re-
ceived Text from which our translations
were made is substantially the same text
which men of the greatest learning by
the most unwearied diligence have elic-
ited from an immense heap of documents.
To a most surprising degree of purity
the very words which the inspired
authors penned have been preserved to
us through the ages. See also Biblical
Criticism ; also Higher Criticism and
Textual Criticism.
Cromwell, Oliver, 1599 — 1658. Early
distinguished himself as an austere Puri-
tan and lover of justice and liberty;
joined Parliamentary army and com-
manded the “Ironsides,” all God-fearing
men; was one of the judges who con-
demned Charles I to death; controlled
affairs in the Commonwealth 1649 ; ap-
pointed Lord Protector 1653; gave to
England a vigorous, but tolerant rule. On
his death-bed he asked one of the attend-
ing ministers : “Tell me, is it possible to
fall from grace?” Receiving a negative
answer, he declared: “Then I am safe;
for I know that I was once in grace, — ”
a striking instance of applying the un-
biblical “Once in grace, always in grace”
theory.
Cronenwett, Emanuel. Lutheran
pastor; educated at Capital University,
Columbus, O. ; pastor at Butler, Pa. ;
contributor to Ohio Synod Hymnal ;
translations and original hymns, among
which: “We Have a Sure, Prophetic
Word.”
Cross, Adoration of. In Roman
Churches, Good Friday is marked by the
“adoration of the cross.” The worshipers
approach with deep genuflections and
kiss the feet of the crucifix, clerics re-
moving their shoes before they perform
the ceremony. In old England, custom
required “creeping to the cross.” Thomas
Aquinas taught that the cross is to he
adored with lalria (q. v.), and that is
still the common opinion among Ro-
manists.
Cross ( Liturgical ). The practise of
making the sign of the cross may bo
traced back at least to the time of Ter-
tul Iran, who writes of it as being a habit
of the Christians everywhere, to remind
them of the crucified Savior upon all
occasions of their life. At a later day a
most extravagant and superstitious use
was made of the sign of the cross, super-
natural powers being ascribed to it dur-
ing the Middle Ages. The Lutheran
Church condemned the superstitious
abuse of the symbolic act, but retained
it in its proper use, as a mere gesture
of remembrance, in various parts of pub-
lic worship — in baptism, in the con-
secration of the elements in the Holy
Communion, and at the benediction. Lu-
ther, in his Small Catechism, recom-
mends the ancient use of the sign of the
cross in connection with the morning and
evening prayer of the individual believer.
— The cross is also found in Christian
art, as the most significant and eloquent
symbol of Christianity. In some church-
bodies it lies flat on the altar or is sus-
pended from the ceiling of the apse. In
the Lutheran Church it stands on the
special shelf provided for that purpose
just above the mensa of the altar. It
may also be used as an ornament in va-
rious other pieces of furniture and over
the gables of the church-building, in fact
anywhere where it will be central in the
CroTvtlier, Samuel Atljal
191
Crusades
decoration. Tin; Greek cross has equal
arms; the Latin cross has the lower arm
extended to twice the length of the
others; the Celtic cross is a Latin cross
with a ring surrounding the center.
Crowther, Samuel Adjai, the first
native Bishop of Africa; b. about 1810;
d. 1891. A one-time slave, Crowtlier be-
came a student at Bathurst, Sierra Leone ;
later the first enrolled student at Fourah
Bay College; ordained in 1843, conse-
crated bishop of the Niger Country, 1864,
in Canterbury Cathedral; made several
journeys into the Niger Territory (1859,
1872). The history of his work shows
that the colored race was not sufficiently
advanced to take over mission-work in-
dependently of foreign supervision.
Crucifix. A cross with the figure, or
corpus, of the Savior attached to it,
usually in an attitude of deepest suffer-
ing. This form of the cross is found
•since the seventh century, but came into
general use about the ninth century,
when it was carried about in the many
processions which wore then in general
favor, the purpose of which were partly
hcnedietional, partly devotional, although
there was also a large amount of super-
stition connected with the crucifix dur-
ing the Middle Ages.
Cruciger, Caspar; b. 1504, professor
at Wittenberg 1528 ; helped Luther trans-
late the Bible; “the Stenographer of the
Reformation”; helped reform Leipzig;
leaned towards Melanchtlion; wavered
on the Interim; published many sermons
of Luther and, with Roerer, edited the
first volumes of the Wittenberg edition
of Luther’s works; d. 1548.
Cruciger, Elisabeth, nee von Mese-
ritz ; married to Caspar Cruciger in
1524, d. 1535; wrote: “Herr Christ, der
cinig’ Gott’s Solin,” rugged, but sublime,
in the style of the great Reformer.
Crueger, Johannes, 1598 — 1662; re-
ceived thorough musical training at Ra-
tisbon under Paulus Homburger ; for
forty years organist of the St. Nicolai
Church in Berlin; wrote many fine
chorals, such as “Jesus, meine Zuver-
sicht,” “Nun danket alle Gott,” set a
large number of Paul Gerhardt’s hymns
to music, published a number of hymn
collections, including Geistliche Lieder
und Psalmen, and issued some valuable
theoretical works.
Crull, August, 1845 — 1923; b. at Ro-
stock, Germany; studied at the Gymna-
sium of his home town and, after his
emigration to America, at Concordia Col-
lege and Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo., graduating in 1865; assistant pas-
tor in Milwaukee; then director of a
high school; pastor of the Lutheran con-
gregation in Grand Rapids, Mich., called
to Concordia College, Fort Wayne, Ind.,
as professor of the German language and
literature; distinguished in liymnology,
translations of some of the best German
hymns appearing in the Hymn-Book of
Decorah, in Hymns of the Lutheran
Church, and in Evangelical Lutheran
Hymn-Book ; published also a collection
of lyrics, Gott segue dich, followed by
Gott troeste dich; an able theologian
and preacher; edited Das walle Gott,
a hook of daily devotions from C. F. W.
Waltlicr’s sermons; an excellent teacher,
whose Lchrbuch der deutschen Bprache
und G estenlehre were standards for many
years, arid his lectures on German litera-
ture most instructive' and stimulating;
lived in Milwaukee after his retirement.
Crusades. A number of military ex-
peditions against heathen, Mohammedans,
and heretics under the auspices of the
Church. As first instituted, they were
a part of the thousand years’ conflict
between Christianity and Islam, and they
came at a time when the first violent ag-
gression of the Mohammedan leaders had
given way to a rather quiet pursuit of
worldly interests. During tire latter half
of the eleventh century, Gregory VII
(</. v.) had planned a war against the
infidels, but his ideas did not mature on
account of his difficulties with the em-
peror. At tiie end of the century, how-
ever, under Urban II, the time seemed
more propitious, and so, in 1095, he
preached the crusade against the Moham-
medans, his appeal stirring the multi-
tudes assembled for the Council of Cler-
mont to a frenzy of enthusiasm, which
was further fanned by the fanaticism of
Peter the Hermit (Peter of Amiens).
“The number of those who assumed the
crusader’s cross increased daily, and the
movement, soon passing beyond papal re-
straint, seized upon the lower classes.
Tiie peasant exchanged liis plow for arms
and was joined by the dissatisfied, the
oppressed, and the outcast; members of
tiie lower clergy, runaway monks, women,
children gave to this advance-guard of
the crusading army tiie character of a
mob, recognizing no leadership but that
of God.” When the crusading armies set
out, in 1096, they included the brothers
Godfrey, Eustace, and Baldwin of Bouil-
lon with the men of Lorraine, Robert of
Normandy with the men of Northern
France, Raymond of Toulouse with the
men of the Provence, Bohemund and Tan-
ered with the Normans of Italy. Al-
though the crusading armies suffered
Crusades
Crusades
m
somewhat from lack of unanimity, the
expedition was, on the whole, successful.
Nicea, in Northwestern Asia Minor, was
taken, the Sultan of Iconium was de-
feated shortly afterwards ; Antioch of
Syria was captured and held against the
enemy in June, 1098; and on July 15,
1099, the city of Jerusalem fell into the
hands of the Christian invaders. God-
frey of Bouillon was made Protector of
the Sepulcher. He died the next year,
and his successors were, in turn, Bald-
win I (d. 1118), Baldwin II (d. 1131),
and Fulk, (d. 1143). Meanwhile the in-
creasing prosperity of the armies of occu-
pation and of the merchants who settled
in the Syrian ports led to a weakening
and to internal strife, which had disas-
trous consequences. The frontier fortress
of Edessa was captured by the Moham-
medan Emir of Mosul on Christmas Day,
1144, and the spirit of battle and con-
quest was decidedly quenched. — A sec-
ond crusade was organized in 1147, the
leaders in this instance being Louis VII
of France and Conrad III of Germany;
but the spirit of enthusiasm, in spite of
the entreaties of Bernhard of Clairvaux,
did not rise to the white heat of the first
crusade. The lack of harmony among the
leaders also became evident very soon.
The German army, while on its marcli
through Asia Minor during the winter of
1147 — 48, was almost totally destroyed,
and the other army shared its fate, partly
due to the climate and similar factors.
Baldwin III of Jerusalem, in 1153, seized
Askalon, thereby bringing Egypt into the
conflict. When the great champion Sala-
din, in 1169, became ruler of that coun-
try, he made it the object of his life to
drive the Christian power out of Pales-
tine. He succeeded, in 1187, in taking
the Holy City, and the Christian power
was restricted to Antioch, Tripoli, Tyre,
and Margat. The news of the fall of
Jerusalem caused the greatest conster-
nation in the West, and a third crusade
was immediately organized, with Fred-
erick Barbarossa of Germany, Richard I
of England, and Philip Augustus of
France as the leaders. But Frederick
was accidentally drowned in a small
river at Salef in Pisidia, in 1190, and,
after Acre was taken by Richard and
Philip, the two kings quarreled, the re-
sult being that Philip retired, Richard
retiring soon after (in 1192), having
gained only this much, that pilgrims
might visit the Holy Sepulcher in small
bands and unarmed. The crusade was
emphatically a failure.
The real crusading spirit was now
dead, and the remaining expeditions were
more in the nature of papal efforts to
divert the rising secular power into chan-
nels where it would not harm the papacy.
The fourth crusade occurred between
1202 and 1204. It had been the chief
aim of Pope Innocent Ill’s reign to col-
lect a strong army ; but the astute Vene-
tians, under the leadership of their doge,
Enrico Dandalo, succeeded in turning the
crusade to their own purpose, namely,
the conquest of Zara, a town which had
been taken from them by the King of
Hungary. Later, Constantinople was
taken and sacked, the empire being ap-
portioned between Venice and the Chris-
tian leaders. Shortly afterward, in 1212,
an outburst of fanatical enthusiasm led
to the Children’s Crusade, a foolhardy
undertaking, which brought destruction
upon thousands of children. During the
next years sporadic attempts were made
to rouse the former spirit; however,
nothing came of it but defeat and igno-
miny. The last crusades took place be-
tween 1228 and 1270. In the former
year Emperor Frederick II sailed for
Syria, and his diplomacy achieved unex-
pected success. The cities of Jerusalem,
Bethlehem, and Nazareth were delivered
to the Christians for a period of ten
years. The episode closed in 1244, when
the Mohammedans stormed Jerusalem.
The last efforts of Christian monarchs to
gain control of the Holy Land are seen
in the expeditions sent out by Louis IX
of France, the first one against Cyprus,
Egypt, and Syria, 1248 — 54, and the sec-
ond against Tunis, in 1270. Shortly
afterwards the cities of Antioch, Tripoli,
and Acre were retaken by the Moham-
medans, and the Christian occupation of
the Orient ceased.
Some of the most unfortunate results
of the crusades were the increase of
papal power, on account of the leading
role played by the Popes in inaugurating
these expeditions, and the spirit of in-
tolerance which manifested itself. It
was this spirit which afterward appeared
in the inquisition and in the crusades
against heretics in the West. The Fourth
Lateran Council, in 1215, especially
charged the bishops with the duty of
ferreting out and punishing heretics. In
1229 the Council of Toulouse organized
this episcopal inquisition along even
stricter lines. In 1232 and the following
year the work was entrusted to monks
of the Dominican order. The crusades
which were subsequently organized were
directed against the Utraquists, or Calix-
tines, and the Taborites in Bohemia, and
against the Albigenses, the Catharists,
and the Bogomiles ( qq. v . ) in other parts
of Europe. The force of the crusader
spirit in connection with inquisitorial
Crus! us, Christian August
193 Cryptist-Kenotist Controversy
measures abated only gradually and may
not yet be said to have spent itself.
Crusius, Christian August; b. 1715;
d. 1775 as professor at Leipzig; worked
in the spirit of Bengel; opponent of
Wolff’s philosophy; sought to prove
that positive revelation harmonizes with
reason.
Cruziger. See Gruoiger.
Crypt. Originally a vault beneath the
apse and the high altar of a church, con-
taining the bones of the martyr after
whom the church was named ; at present
the burial vault of some parish churches
and cathedrals.
Crypto-Calvinistie Controversy. It
was called forth by Melanchthon’s un-
happy departure from the true doctrine
regarding the Lord’s Supper and the per-
son of Christ. His disciples would dis-
place Luther and on the basis of Melanch-
thon’s errors unite with the Calvinists
while all the time masquerading as good
Lutherans. G. Major, P. Eber, P. Crell,
and others at Wittenberg ( 1 ) were as-
sisted by Caspar Peucer, Melanchthon’s
son-in-law and physician of the Elector
August. Joachim Westphal, of Ham-
burg, saw the menace and sounded the
alarm in his Farrago of 1552. He was
helped by John Timann, of Bremen,
Schnepf, Gallus, Flacius, Brenz, Andreae,
Chemnitz, and others. The Elector
August was hoodwinked, and he filled
all positions with Philippists. He gave
legal authority to a collection of Me-
lanchthon’s writings, the Corpus Doc-
irinae, or Misnicum, or Philippicum, in
1560, which contained the altered Augs-
burg Confession, the altered Apology, the
new Loci of Melanchthon. All loyal Lu-
theran pastors refusing subscription were
deposed, jailed, or banished — Tettelbach,
Herbst, Graf, Schade, et al. In 1573
Duke John William died, and August
took hold of the government of Ducal
Saxony and promptly deposed such Lu-
theran champions as Wigand and Hess-
husius and banished more than a hun-
dred true' Lutheran pastors. The em-
boldened Philippists in the same year
published the anonymous Exegesis Per-
spicua with its bald Calvinism. The
Elector had his eyes opened to the fact
that he, too, was to be drawn into the
Calvinistic camp, and as a result the
Philippists were driven from power and
their leaders jailed and then banished,
and true Lutheranism was restored by
the Brief Confession and Articles, or
Torgau Confession, of 1574. These be-
came the basis *of the Formula of Con-
cord (q. v.). — Second stage. On the
Concordia Cyclopedia
death of August, in 1586, Christian I
made Nicholas Crell chancellor in 1589,
who put Calvinists into places of power.
No religious books could be published
without his placet, which meant the
suppression of Lutheran books; but a
new Catechism was Calvinistic, and ex-
orcism was abolished in 1591 on pain
of deposition. Shining lights like Sel-
neccer and Leyser were persecuted, and
many pastors were jailed or banished.
On the death of Christian I, in 1591, the
administrator, Duke Frederick William,
suppressed Calvinism and reestablished
true Lutheranism by the Visitation Ar-
ticles of 1593, written by Aegidius Hun-
nius, Martin Mirus, and George Mylius.
Under the eyes of the Catholic Kaiser at
Prague imperial judges condemned Crell
for political crimes, and on October 9,
1601, he was beheaded. During this con-
troversy Bremen and the Palatinate were
lost to the Lutheran Church.
Cryptist-Kenotist Controversy, 1619
to 1627. Mentzer of Giessen, writing
against the Reformed, made the state-
ment that omnipresence was not “simple
nearness, presence,” but always “opera-
tive presence,” and that consequently
omnipresence was not to be predicated of
the human nature of Christ in the State
of Humiliation. M. Hafenreffer, of Tue-
bingen, appealed to by Mentzer, disap-
proved of his position, and soon Tue-
bingen and Giessen were engaged in
a public controversy. The question at
issue was on the use made by Christ in
His human nature of the divine majesty
communicated to it in the personal union.
The theologians of Giessen (Mentzer and
J. Feuerborn) asserted, as also did the
Saxon theologians in their Decisio, that
the human nature of Christ in the State
of Humiliation was not present with all
creatures, and they were inclined to ex-
clude it from the work of preservation
and government of the universe, Christ
having thus emptied Himself, Phil. 2, 7,
as to His human nature of this much of
the divine majesty. Hence they were
called Kenotists. (They did not hold
with the modern Kenotists that Christ
emptied Himself of, renounced, the pos-
session of certain divine attributes.}
Their position is not tenable in the face
of John 5, 17. They did not, however, go
so far as to teach an absolute renuncia-
tion of the use of the divine majesty, but
freely admitted this use in the case of
the miracles of Christ. The Tuebingen
theologians (L. Osiander, M. Nicolai, Th.
Thummius) ascribed to the human na-
ture of Christ, in the State of Humilia-
tion, the sitting at the right hand of the
13
Cuba
104
Cynicism
Father, Christ having thus made the full
use, in this respect, of the divine majesty,
though in a hidden way ( krypsis — hence
called Kryptists). Their position is un-
tenable in the light of the Scripture-
passages which ascribe the sitting at the
right hand of God to the State of Exal-
tation. They did admit, however, that
Christ, in His sacerdotal office, in His
suffering and dying, renounced the full
use of the divine majesty communicated
to His human nature. During the tur-
bulent times of the Thirty Years’ War
the controversy soon subsided. For a
full discussion of the controversy see
Dr. Pieper’s Dogmatik, II, 337 ff.
Cuba, Catholic Church in. See Cen-
tral America and the West Indies.
Cuba, Missions in. Cuba is the largest
and most fertile island of the Antilles,
directly south of Florida. Area, 45,896
sq. mi.; population, 2,890,000. It is
autonomous. Cuba was discovered by
Columbus, October 28, 1492. The large
native Indian population was gradually
exterminated by the Spaniards and Negro
slavery introduced, which in 1880 was
finally abolished. Since the occupancy
of the island by the Spaniards the Ro-
man Catholic Church has been intolerant
of all other churches, practically pro-
hibiting all missionary efforts. In 1871
Bishop Whipple was instrumental in
bringing an American clergyman to Ha-
vanna. Since then quite a number of
churches have been active, including the
Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri,
Ohio, and Other States. Protestant
Christian community, 15,942; commu-
nicants, 9,849.
Cudworth, Ralph, 1617 — 88; the
Christian Plato ; b. at Somersetshire,
England; professor at Cambridge; rec-
tor at Ashwell; prebendary of Glouces-
ter; advanced a Platonizing doctrine of
philosophy; d. at Cambridge. Author.
Culdees. (Probably an abbreviation
and corruption of the Latin word cultus,
worshiper, or from gille De, servants of
God, or from euildich, a secluded corner.)
This name seems originally to have been
given to certain Christians who in the
early centuries fled from persecution in
those districts of Scotland which were
beyond the limits of the Roman Empire.
One of their number, Columba, who is
said to have been from Ireland and of
royal extraction, founded the monastery,
or abbey, of Iona, C. A., A. D. 563. They
also founded other semimonastic houses
at Dunkeld, Abernathy, Arbroath, Bree-
hin, St. Andrews, etc., each establishment
having twelve monks with a president.
In the time of keeping Easter they fol-
lowed the Eastern and not the Western
Church until the Synod of Whitby, A. D.
662, when the Culdees, in essential mat-
ters, conformed to the Church of Rome.
In 1176 the Culdees placed themselves
under the Roman Pontiff. Even after
Romanism had become established, Cul-
deeism, with its simple and powerful
Gospel influence, continued to live in the
hearts of the people long after its form
and public administrations had been
buried beneath the finery of triumphant
Romanism.
Cultus. See Worship.
Curia, Roman. The collective name
for the various departments of the papal
administration at Rome. They are the
Roman Congregations ( q . v.), three tribu-
nals ( Penitentiaria, Rota, Segnatura),
and five curial offices (Chancery, Data-
ria, Camera, Secretariate of State, Secre-
tariate of Briefs). Roughly speaking,
the Congregations exercise administra-
tive, the tribunals judicial, the offices
executive, powers. The Penitentiaria has
jurisdiction in matters of conscience and
grants absolutions, dispensations, re-
leases from vows, and the like. The
Rota, formerly the supreme ecclesiastical
court, now tries cases that are brought
to the judgment of the Pope and decides
appeals from lower courts (see Courts
Spiritual ) . The Segnatura ( six cardi-
nals) acts as a court of appeal from the
decisions of the Rota and judges officials
of the Rota. The Chancery drafts and
expedites bulls. The Dataria adminis-
ters the benefices reserved to the Pope.
The Camera, formerly the central board
of finance, has little to do except to ad-
minister the papal property during a
vacancy. The Secretariate of State has
charge of the political affairs of the
papacy; it deals with secular govern-
ments, directs the activities of legates,
and grants papal orders and patents of
nobility. The cardinal Secretary of
State is the Pope’s confidential assistant.
The Secretariate of Briefs prepares allo-
cutions, encyclicals, and apostolic letters.
Cynicism. The philosophy of the
Cynics, so called from Cynosarges, the
gymnasium in Athens where Antisthenes,
the founder of the school, taught, though
the name was soon associated with the
unconventional, “doglike” habits of the
adherents of the sect. Diogenes, the most
familiar representative, proudly called
himself o xvcov, “the dog.” Cynicism is
a “caricature of the ascetic and uncon-
ventional side of Socrates.” It teaches
as follows: Virtue is the supreme good.
It consists in the renunciation of all
pleasures and the suppression of desires.
Cyprian
195
Cxecbo-Slovalcla
The wise man is sufficient unto himself.
Pharisaic pride and a snarling contempt
for all the amenities and, sometimes,
even the decencies of life were marked
characteristics of the Cynics.
Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, b. circa
200, became a teacher of rhetoric; con-
verted to Christianity ca. 246; raised by
popular acclamation to the bishopric of
Carthage (248); fled during the Decian
persecution to escape the fury of the mob
(“Cyprianum ad leones!’’) ; condemned
and beheaded under the Emperor Vale-
rian (258). Cyprian is the great High
Churchman of the ante-Nicene period:
The bishops are the successors of the
apostles and, like them, specially en-
dowed with the Holy Spirit. They rule
the laid, or the plebs, by divine author-
ity. The episcopate is a unity, each in-
dividual bishop representing in himself
the whole office. From the unity of the
episcopate springs the unity of the
Church, by which Cyprian means an
empirical, outward organization. Out-
side of this there is no salvation. Cyp-
rian’s conception of the Church makes
every schismatic also a heretic. Regard-
ing the papacy, Cyprian recognized the
primacy of Peter, not, however, of
authority and jurisdiction, but merely
as representing the unity of the Church.
The Roman bishops are indeed the suc-
cessors of Peter, but Cyprian addresses
the Pope as “brother” and “colleague.”
Cyprian, Ernst Salomon; b. 1673,
d. 1745; was director and professor of
theology at the Casimir College at Co-
burg and member of the consistory;
staunchly opposed and frustrated the
plan of uniting the Lutheran and Re-
formed Churches advocated by Friedrich
Wilhelm I of Prussia. Wrote the His-
tory of the Augsburg Confession, etc.
Cyril of Alexandria. Prominent the-
ologian of early Eastern Church; b. last
half of fourth century, d. at Alexandria
444; successor of his uncle Theophilus
as archbishop of Alexandria, 403, at the
time when this see was at the height of
its power and influence; strong opponent
of Nestorius, whose deposition he brought
about; prolific writer in dogmatic and
exegetical field, especially on the Trinity
and on the Christological controversies;
his exegesis in the books On Worship in
Spirit and Truth and in Elegant Exposi-
tions is strongly allegorical; the final
formulation of the doctrine of the Trin-
ity was his work. See Nestorian Con-
troversies.
Cyril of Jerusalem. Prominent theo-
logian of the early Church; b. 315 (?),
d. 386; bishop of Jerusalem, but deposed
and even exiled on two occasions; famous
for his twenty-three catechetical lectures
on Christian faith and practise. See also
Catechetics.
Cyrillus and Methodius. The apos-
tles to the Slavs in the ninth century,
the former dying in 869, the latter in
885; sons of Drungarius, a military
officer at Thessalonica. Cyril began his
public life as secretary to the patriarch
of Constantinople, Methodius as abbot of
the famous monastery of Polychron. An
independent Slavonic principality under
Rotislav having been established, Chris-
tian teachers were sought at Constanti-
nople, and the task of evangelizing* the
Slavs was entrusted to Cyril and Metho-
dius. Cyril is said to have invented the
Slavonic script, which was first used in
Bulgaria. Both brothers also translated
large parts of the Bible for the use of
the people among whom they labored.
Having established their work, they put
it under the auspices of the Roman
Pontiff. Cyril died shortly afterward.
Methodius carried on the work alone,
chiefly in Pannonia, becoming archbishop
of Sirmium a few years later. There was
some trouble with the bishop of Salz-
burg, who contested the right of Metho-
dius, and the latter was kept a prisoner
in Germany for over two years. Return-
ing to Moravia, Methodius labored for
a number of years with good success, his
work on the Slavonic liturgy being espe-
cially notable in this period.
Czecho-Slovakia (Bohemia). A re-
public embracing within its boundaries
the northern part of the former empire
of Austria-Hungary, from Carpathian
Russia (Ruthenia) on the east to ancient
Bohemia in the west, with Moravia and
a part of Silesia included in Slovakia.
There are approximately 7,000,000 Czechs
in the northern and western part, and
about 3,000,000 Slovaks, these two being
branches of the West Slav nation. The
religious history of the country, properly
speaking, begins with Cyrillus and Me-
thodius ( qq. v.), at the end of the ninth
century. The entire country was under
the jurisdiction of the Roman Pope, but
in the fifteenth century, after the time
of Huss ( q . v.) the Bohemian Brethren
( q. v. ) gained almost the entire western
part of the .present republic for their
views. Luther was in friendly communi-
cation with them for a while, but their
tendency to remain aloof caused him to
withdraw from them in 1524. There
were subsequent periods when the Lu-
theran element in their midst became
strong enough to assume leadership. The
Daeli, Simon
166
Dance
battle of Weissenberg, at the beginning
of the Thirty Years’ War, destroyed
Protestantism in Bohemia and Moravia
for more than 150 years. At present
there are only a few scanty remnants of
the sixteenth century Protestants. —
Meanwhile the Roman Catholic Church
regained its ancient strength throughout
the present territory of Czecho.-Slovakia.
As a result of the World War, however,
with its arousing of the ancient nation-
alistic feeling, approximately thirty per
cent, of the clergy of the country decided
to withdraw from the jurisdiction of the
Pope and to found a national church.
The chief differences between this new
church and the Roman Catholic body
from which it has seceded, according to
the Statesman's Year-Book, lie in the
fact that the National Church permits
its clergy to marry and stipulates that
all the services must be conducted in the
national tongue, and not in the Latin,
upon which Rome insists. The move-
ment seems a repristination of Bohemian
history, even to this extent, that a con-
nection between the Czech Church and
the Free Church of Scotland seems to
be contemplated. For the present, the
Czecho-Slovak Church has abandoned
Mary -worship, rejected transubstantia-
tion, and accepts the Bible as the only
book for religious instruction in schools.
It seems that the constitution of the
new church is essentially Protestant, al-
though the leaders have received episco-
pal ordination from the Serbian Ortho-
dox Church. Nearly all their priests are
married and are gathering large, cor-
dially devoted congregations about them.
A close and cordial relation exists be-
tween them and the newly revived
Church of the Bohemian Brethren. The
Bible is being read widely, also in the
homes. As the situation stands now, the
evangelical movement in Czecho-Slovakia
seems to embody pietistic elements.
Moreover it is strongly nationalistic, for
the government will recognize only that
church which it is decreeing for the en-
tire country. Any church organization
that means to be independent of the
state and unaffiliated with the state
church is frowned upon by the author-
ities. In the mean time the Roman
Church has succeeded in holding more
than half of the population of the re-
public.
D
Dach, Simon, 1605—59; private tu-
tor at Koenigsberg, assistant, conrector,
professor, dean, and rector of the uni-
versity; invalid; leader in Poetical
Union of Koenigsberg; hymns, personal
and subjective, profound and elegant;
wrote: “Ieh bin ja, Herr, in deiner
Macht” ; “0 wie selig seid ihr doch,
ihr Frommen”; “Wenn Gott von allem
Boesen.”
Daechsel, August. Wrote a com-
mentary on the whole Bible. Bible-text
printed in heavy type, followed by ex-
tensive exegetical material compiled from
well-known exegetes. One of the best
German Lutheran commentaries for the
sermonizer. 7 vols.
D’Ailly, Pierre, 1350 — 1420, profes-
sor and chancellor of University of
Paris, bishop, cardinal; prime mover in
the “Reformation in the head and mem-
bers,” setting the Bible above the canon
law and the Ecumenical Council above
the Pope. See Council of Constance.
D’Allemand, Louis, French Roman
Catholic cardinal; 1380 — 1450; promi-
nent member of the councils of Con-
stance and of Basel, at the latter of
which he opposed Pope Eugenius IV;
driven from office, but later restored to
dignity and honor; beatified in 1527.
Dalmatic. See Vestments, R. C.;
Tunic.
Dallmann, W. See Roster at end of
book.
Damiani, Peter, 1007 — 72; revered
for his monkish holiness (self-flagella-
tion) ; at one time cardinal-bishop of
Ostia, he zealously supported the reform
party of Cluny (his IAber Oomorrhia-
nus describing the indescribable immo-
ralities of the clergy) and the policies
of Hildebrand.
Dance. In the widest use of the
word, a springing or leaping in evidence
of great emotion, as of joy or elation,
or symbolic of stern determination, as in
certain war-dances. It is in this sense
that the word is used in the Bible of
women and of children who leaped in
joyful steps. Judg. 11, 34; 21, 21. 23;
Job 21, 11; Matt. 11, 17. It is in this
meaning, also, that we are told that there
is a time to dance, Eccl. 3, 4, that is,
a time for showing one’s joy in measured
steps expressive of the inward elation.
The Bible also speaks of a formal danc-
ing before the Lord, in token of a reli-
gious fervor and ecstasy, the rhythmic
movements being made in honor of Jeho-
vah. 2 Sam. 6, 14. On the other hand,
Holy Scripture tells about a most im-
Dance
197
Dante Alighieri
proper, highly suggestive, and lascivious
dance, namely, that which was danced by
the daughter of Herodias when she, after
the manner of the Oriental dancing girls,
whirled before the assembled guests of
King Herod, so inflaming their passions
and delighting the king that he made a
rash promise, which resulted in the death
of the faithful witness John the Baptist.
Mark 6, 22. A dance such as this, even
though performed by an individual per-
son, man or woman, with any suggestive-
ness due to scanty or improper clothing
or any indecency of posture or gesture,
is clearly to be condemned. — In order
to have the proper conception of dancing,
as indulged in by a number of people,
either of one sox alone or of both sexes
together, we must distinguish very care-
fully. One can very well conceive of cer-
tain rhythmical movements, as in some
folk-dances, where the element of the im-
pure and indecent is in itself not present,
where no improprieties are included in
the dance. The May-day ceremony of
many schools, with its May -pole dance in
various intricate figures, belongs to this
class, especially if there are only girls
in decent garments included in the move-
ments. Thus it may also be said of
many of the old-fashioned square dances,
in which only rhythmic movements were
the object and any improper advances
were excluded from the outset, that the
stately marching and doubling was in
itself not to be condemned. — But the
matter is different when we take the
modern dance into consideration, the
dance as it is now universally known
and practised, not only in ball-rooms of
a more or less public nature, but also
in private homes and clubs of various
kinds. It is not the public or private
nature of the affair which is our chief
consideration here, but the essential fea-
ture of the act, the embrace, which forms
the basis of modern dancing. Whenever
a man places his arm about a woman
in a more or less close embrace, whether
this be done upon the occasion of auto
or buggy rides, on boat trips, in parks,
in the parlor, in public or in private, he
is indulging in a familiarity which is
not permissible 'outside the boundaries of
holy wedlock (which includes the status
of a valid betrothal) and close relation-
ship. The embracing of the bosom of
a stranger, one with whom a man is not
united in an estate sanctioned by God
Himself, is an act impure in itself, Prov.
5, 20, and cannot be indulged in by con-
sistent Christians without serious injury
to their consciences and probable lasting
harm to their souls. To this must be
added the fact that the ultramodern
dances, from the waltz down to the latest
jungle movement, add to the embrace
gestures and acts of indecency which
tend to inflame the passions. Moreover,
the music which has been invented to
accompany the modern dances is of a
nature to stir up the passions to the
highest pitch. And finally, those who
indulge in modern dances are continually
giving offense, not only to such as wit-
ness their shameless behavior in itself,
but also to their partners in the dance,
who are ever in danger of becoming
heated in their lusts and to sin in de-
sires and thoughts, if not in glances,
words, and deeds. Christians will always
heed the warning words of the apostle:
“Flee also youthful lusts.” 2 Tim. 2, 22.
Daniel, Herman Adelbert, 1812 — 71;
most of his life professor and inspector
at Halle; author of geographical text-
books; very prominent hymnologist and
liturgiologist ; his chief works in this
field: Thesaurus Ilymnologicus, in five
volumes, and Codex Liturgicus, offering
texts with introductions chiefly from
Greek Catholic, Roman Catholic, Lu-
theran, and Reformed sources.
Danish Free Church. See Saxon
Free Church.
Danish-Halle Mission, the first of
all Lutheran and Protestant foreign mis-
sions, initiated by King Frederick IV
of Denmark, advised by Dr. Luetkens, the
court preacher, in 1705, in cooperation
with August Hermann Francke of Halle,
sent out to India Bartholomaeus Ziegen-
balg and Heinrich Pluetschau. The en-
terprise was fostered by the English So-
ciety for the Propagation of Christian
Knowledge (founded 1698.). After the
death of Christian Friedrich Schwartz,
possibly the most outstanding mission-
ary of this society (b. 1726; d. 1798),
interest began to decline, and the work
in India suffered. In 1847 the buildings
and the remaining interests were handed
over to the Leipzig Missionary Society.
Dannhauer, Johann Conrad; born
1603; d. at Strassburg, 1666; 1633, pro-
fessor of theology, pastor of the cathe-
dral, and president of the ecclesiastical
assembly at Strassburg. He was one of
the foremost Lutheran theologians of his
age and strictly orthodox; teacher of
Spener. His principal work is Eodo-
sophia Christiana, a doctrinal theology.
Dante Alighieri; b. 1265 in Florence;
banished in consequence of his antipapal
politics; d. in Ravenna, 1321. He was
Italy’s greatest poet, “the theologian
among the poets, the poet of theology” —
medieval theology. In the Divina Com-
Danzig
198
Death, Temporal
media he demands thorough reformation,
lashing the moral degeneracy of the time
and the corruption of the Church and
the papal see.
Danzig. Free State since 1919. The
Gospel preached there 997 by Adalbert
of Prag, the apostle of the Prussians;
the Reformation gained entrance since
1529; checked by the rulers of Poland.
Annexed to Prussia 1793. Population
(1919), 351,380; 200,000 Evangelicals
in the capital, Danzig; the majority of
the remainder Catholics.
Darbyites. (See Brethren, Plymouth.)
The followers of Mr. John Nelson Darby
(b. November 18, 1800; d. at Bourne-
mouth, April 29, 1882). The name
Darbyites has never been acknowledged
by the Plymouth Brethren themselves.
Darwin, Charles Robert, English
naturalist; b. 1809 at Shrewsbury; died
1882 at Kent. As young man believer in
Christianity, later agnostic. Epoch-mak-
ing work, The Origin of Species, 1859,
caused complete revolution and new
methods and aims in natural history.
Substituted mechanical (natural) for
Biblical (supernatural) explanation of
origin of varied forms of life. Every
species produces many young that do not
grow to maturity, those surviving are
preserved because of individual differ-
ences, which protect them and give them
greater ability to obtain food and propa-
gate their kind (“struggle for exist-
ence” ) . The others are annihilated
( “survival of the fittest” ) . These favor-
able variations are transmitted and in-
tensified from generation to generation
by this natural selective process until
maximum utility results (“natural selec-
tion”). Extended hypothesis also to man
in The Descent of Man, 1871. Contra-
dicting revelation, his hypothesis caused
a storm of protest. Cf. Evolution.
Dataria. See Curia, Roman.
Dau, W. H. T. See Roster at end of
book.
Dayman, Edward Arthur, 1807 — 90;
educated at Oxford; held a number of
positions in the Established Church;
worked in Latin hymnology, contributed
hymns, among which: “Almighty Father,
Heav’n and Earth.”
Deacons. Officers of the Church, par-
ticularly of the local congregation, who,
according to apostolic example and pre-
cept (Acts 6; 1 Tim. 3, 8 — -13), have
charge of certain administrative work,
notably that of assisting the servants of
the Word in the government of the
church, in taking care of its charitable
endeavors, and otherwise occupying a
leading position of service in the congre-
gation.
Deaconesses. The female counter-
part of deacons, but without the corre-
sponding executive authority (cp. Rom.
16, 1; 1 Tim. 3, 11 — Greek text!), now
commonly divided into parish deacon-
esses, in charge of various charitable en-
deavors of a local congregation ; dea-
coness nurses, trained to have charge of
a full nurse’s work in connection with the
charitable untertakings of the Church;
social workers, in general inner mission
work; Bible women, especially in foreign
mission work (zenana mission) .
Deaconess Homes. The Mary J.
Drexel Home in Philadelphia was founded
in 1884 and opened in 1888 by Dr. Lan-
kenau, of the German Lutheran Hospital
at Philadelphia, as a memorial to his
wife. The Milwaukee Deaconess Home
was established in 1891. Other deacon-
ess homes connected with the Lutheran
Church are located at Baltimore, Omaha
(Swedish), Brooklyn, Minneapolis, Chi-
cago, Buffalo, St. Paul, and Fort Wayne
(Missouri Synod). Well-known deacon-
ess homes in Europe are those at Kai-
serswerth, Neuendottelsau, and Flens-
burg. See Diaconate.
Dean. See Academic Degrees.
Death, Temporal. The cessation of
natural life; in man, due to the separa-
tion of the soul from the body. 2 Pet. 1,
13. 14. It is the effect of sin, Rom. 5, 12;
and the instrument for bringing it into
the world was Satan, Heb. 2, 14; John
8, 44. Death is but once, Heb. 9, 27, and
is certain, Job 14, 1. 2. The fear of death
is a source of anxiety and alarm to a
guilty conscience; but Jesus has taken
away the sting of death, 1 Cor. 15, 56,
and has given to His own the assurance
that death leads to a state of endless
felicity, 2 Cor. 5, 8. — That man was not
destined for a life which would end in
death is clear from the penalty which
was to follow transgression. Gen. 2, 17.
This implies the promise of deathless
and incorruptible life so long as the
covenant should stand. Man’s was the
possibility of not sinning, hence of not
dying, the posse non peccare, which, ac-
cording to theological statement, based
on the analogy of the angels confirmed in
holiness, might have led to the non posse
peccare, the inability to fall into sin,
hence also the absolute state of death-
lessness. In terms as clear as those of
the original covenant of life is the en-
trance of death and its dominion over
man ascribed to the transgression of the
Law. Rom. 5, 12. As distinguished from
spiritual death, the separation of the
Decalog;
199
Dedication
soul from God, it is called temporal, as
superadding exclusion from the things
of earth and time to the loss of the life
in God. As such it is distinguished from
eternal death, or the second death, the
complete and final issue of the death-
process, when the unjust, impenitent,
and unbelieving shall awake to the res-
urrection of damnation. On the other
hand, the Scriptures speak of those who
have acquired the new spiritual life so
that death has no claim on them, but
must surrender them on the Last Day to
a life glorious and incorruptible.
Decalog. The fundamental Moral Law
of Jews and Christians. Originally writ-
ten in the heart of man (Rom. 2, 14. 15,
Natural Law), but largely effaced by Bin,
it was solemnly reenacted at Sinai, God
Himself writing the “ten words” on two
tables of stone, Ex. 32, 16. 17 ; 34, 1,
which were called the “tables of testi-
mony” or of “the covenant,” Ex. 31, 18;
Deut. 9, 9. The first set of these stone
slabs Moses broke when he beheld the
idolatry of the Israelites, Ex. 32, 19; the
second became part of the contents of the
Ark of the Covenant, Deut. 19, 4. 5, which
was placed in the Holy of Holies of the
Temple, 1 Kings 8, 6—9, and probably
lost when the Temple was destroyed by
Nebuchadnezzar, 2 Kings 25. However,
we have two inspired records of the
Decalog, Ex. 29, 2 — -17, and Deut. 5,
6 — 21, which vary slightly in their word-
ing. While we know that the Decalog
was divided into ten words, we find in
the Bible no basis for a certain system
of numbering the commandments or of
determining their respective position;
cp. Matt. 29, 18. 19 and Mark 19, 19. The
Greek and the Reformed churches make
Ex. 20, 2 the First, verses 4 — 6 the Sec-
ond, v. 17 the Tenth Commandment. The
so-called Augustinian division, retained
in Lutheran and Catholic churches, takes
v. 3 (vv. 3 — 6) as the First Command-
ment, v. 7 as the Second, and divides
v. 17 into the Ninth and the Tenth. Thus
the Fourth Commandment of the Lu-
theran Catechism is the Fifth in the Re-
formed. — Not the numbering, but the
keeping of the Law is important. We
cannot ascertain how many and which
commandments were written on either
table. But as the sum of all command-
ments is love of God and our neighbor,
Matt. 22, 37. 39, we divide them so that
all commandments which pertain to God
and the worship due Him, the first three,
make up the First Table, while the last
seven, which enjoin love of our neighbor,
constitute the Second Table.
Decius, Nikolaus, a native of Hof,
Upper Franconia, d. 1541; at first
monk; joined Reformation movement;
schoolteacher in Brunswick; pastor at
St. Nicholas’s, Stettin ; popular preacher,
good musician ; zealous in introducing
the Reformation in Pomerania; wrote:
“Allein Gott in der Hoeh’ sei Ehr’ ” ;
“O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig.”
Decoration, Church. The art of or-
namenting church walls, both in fresco
work and in oils; subject chiefly to two
principles: The general color scheme
must depend upon the lighting of the
building, both day and night; the char-
acter of the colors must receive proper
consideration, rich and warm tones al-
ways having the preference over cold
colors.
Decrees of God. The eternal decrees
of Creation, Redemption, and Predesti-
nation, or essential internal acts of God.
In other words, they are expressions of
such essential attributes of God as termi-
nate within the Godhead, but in which
the three persons of the Trinity concur.
God decreed to create the world; but,
foreseeing that part of the world, pos-
sessing a rational nature, would fall
from its first estate of innocence, He
furthermore decreed to send a Savior to
redeem mankind. Again, He decreed to
save from sin and the power of Satan
and to preserve unto eternal life a cer-
tain number of certain men through
Christ, ordained to be the salvation of
all sinners. A decree of God is distin-
guished from other acts of the divine
will in that it is the divine counsel and
performance of the thing decreed. The
decrees of God cannot be frustrated. The
work of creation cannot be frustrated.
There was no power to frustrate the de-
cree of Redemption. And no one can
pluck Christ’s elect out of the Father’s
hand. See Creation, Election, Redemp-
tion.
Decretum Gratiani. See Canon Law.
Dedekennus, Georg, Lutheran; born
1564; d. 1628 as pastor in Hamburg;
author of a number of theological works,
chief of which is Thesaurus Consiliorum
et Detisiefkum, in three folio volumes, a
work in casuistics.
Dedication. The Lutheran Church
attaches no superstitious meaning to any
of the ceremonies connected with the
dedication of churches, schools, organs,
bells, altars, and other church furniture,
as well as cemeteries, parish houses, par-
sonages, etc. The services held upon such
occasions, elaborate as they are and
much as they include, are not held with
the idea of exorcising evil spirits or im-
parting an essential sanctity to the
structure or place under consideration.
Defectives, Institutions for 200
Decrees, Prohibited, of Marriage
The principle which governs every form
of dedication is rather this, that the use
of Scripture in readings, sermons, hymns,
and prayers consecrates and hallows all
acts of this kind, and that every form
of superstition and false doctrine must
be kept away from things which are in-
tended for the use of worship in the
churches. The words of Holy Writ, 1 Cor.
14, 26. 40; 1 Tim. 4, 5, must govern all
these acts, so that their proper execution
may redound to the glory of God and the
edification of the Church.
Defectives, Institutions for. In all
civilized countries, institutions are now
provided for such defectives as deaf-
mutes, blind, crippled, epileptics, idiots,
incurables, and the aged and infirm.
Most of these institutions have been es-
tablished by the Christian churches and
are under their control. Provision is
made for both the relief and the educa-
tion of such unfortunates, so that, if
possible, they may in some measure be
useful members of human society, and
know the way of salvation.
“Definite Platform, Doctrinal and
Disciplinarian, for Ev. Luth. District
Synods, Constructed in Accordance with
the Principles of the General Synod,” is
the name of an excrescence of “Ameri-
can Lutheranism” ( q . v.), published anon-
ymously in September, 1855, later ac-
knowledged by S. S. Schmucker as his
work. According to Schmucker it pur-
ported to be the “American Recension
of the Augsburg Confession.” Its chief
object was to obviate the influence of
confessional Lutheranism coming from
the West, notably from the Missouri
Synod. The Definite Platform charges
the Augsburg Confession with the follow-
ing errors: approval of the ceremonies
of the Mass, private confession and ab-
solution, denial of the divine obligation
of Sunday, baptismal regeneration, the
real presence of the body and blood of
Christ in the Eucharist. The descent
into hell is omitted from the Creed. The
Athanasian Creed is eliminated. The
rest of the Lutheran symbols are re-
jected on account of their length and
alleged errors. — The Definite Platform
was to be adopted by the district synods
without alterations. It was championed
by B. Kurtz and Sam. Sprecher and op-
posed by J. A. Brown, F. W. Conrad, the
Krauths, and W. J. Mann (in his “Plea
for the Augsburg Confession”) ; but
even the most conservative men in the
General Synod were inclined to tolera-
tion of the “Platform” theology, and it
was actually adopted by six district
synods, 1855- — 56. The larger synods of
the East rejected it, and the General
Synod as such never committed itself to
the Definite Platform as such, but di-
rectly and indirectly approved its the-
ology.
Degrees. See Academic Degrees.
Degrees, Prohibited, of Marriage.
In accordance with God’s will and ar-
rangement all nations of men were to be
made and to descend from one blood.
Acts 17, 26. For this reason, Eve was
taken from Adam, and in the family
which they raised full brothers and sis-
ters were permitted to marry, this solv-
ing the question regarding the wife of
Cain. Gen. 4, 17. Even at the time im-
mediately following the Flood, people
who were closely related to each other
were permitted to marry, as in the case
of Abraham, who married his half-sister.
Gen. 20, 12. But when the number of
people on earth had so increased that it
was no longer necessary for close rela-
tives to marry, the Lord laid down some
definite rules regarding the prohibited
degrees of marriage. These rules are
found in Lev. 18, 1 — 18 and 20, 10 — 21.
The fundamental principle is stated in
Lev. 18, 6, literally: “Every man shall
not approach to all flesh of his flesh to
uncover nakedness.” That is, marriages
may not take place within this degree
of kinship, that one marries within the
second degree of such relationship. The
specific cases mentioned are those affect-
ing a son and his father’s sister, a son
and his mother’s sister, a man and his
stepmother, a father and his daughter-
in-law, a brother and his brother’s wife,
a widower and his wife’s daughter or
granddaughter. That this specification
is not intended to be exhaustive, and
that the omission of a case is not a
license, appears from the fact that the
marriage with one’s mother-in-law, which
is not specified in Leviticus, is named
and forbidden with other incestuous un-
ions in Deuteronomy (chap. 27, 23), and
in view of the silence of all Scripture
concerning the prohibition of a father’s
marriage with his daughter, which no
sane man will consider exempt from the
law of prohibited degrees. The funda-
mental rule simply states the relation
of equidistant kinships. Whenever two
people are so closely related that the
expression “flesh of one’s flesh” is ap-
licable, then marriage should not take
place. The so-called Levirate marriage
described in Scripture (Deut. 25, 5 — 10)
is a special case of dispensation, and it
is neither safe nor advisable to gener-
alize from this exception. That the
principle applies to all men is clear from
Decrees, Prohibited, of Marriage 201
Deism
the introductory words of the Lord, who
says that His people should not become
guilty of the abominations of Egypt and
of Canaan and repeats His warning at
the close of the list in Lev. 18 : “Defile
not ye yourselves in any of these things;
for in all these are the nations defiled
which I cast out before you, and the
land is defiled; therefore I do visit the
iniquity thereof upon it, and the land
itself vomiteth out her inhabitants.”
Vv. 24. 25. Likewise in 1 Cor. 5, 1 the
marriage of a man with his stepmother
is spoken of as a fornication which is
unknown even among the Gentiles. It
follows, therefore, that God intended the
law with regard to the prohibited de-
grees for all men of all times. It makes
no difference, in this connection, whether
we speak of degrees of consanguinity or
of affinity. “Consanguinity is the rela-
tionship which results from a common
ancestry; affinity is relationship through
marriage, or through carnal knowledge,
whereby a man and a woman become one
flesh.” Lineal consanguinity is the kin-
ship of persons one of whom is the an-
cestor or descendant of the other, as
between father and son, mother and son,
father and daughter, mother and daugh-
ter, grandfather and grandson or grand-
daughter, grandmother and grandson or
granddaughter. Collateral consanguinity
is the relationship of persons descended
from a common ancestor, but not from
one another, as brothers and sisters,
uncle and niece, aunt and nephew, cousin
and cousin. These kinships are the
same, whether they be of the full blood
or of the half blood, i. e., whether the
persons be descended from the same
father and mother, or only from the same
father, or only from the same mother.
And consanguinity is the same, whether
it have arisen in wedlock or out of wed-
lock. But no consanguinity exists be-
tween children with no common ancestor.
Affinity is the kinship arising from the
carnal knowledge of a man and a woman,
whereby they become one flesh, either in
or out of wedlock. Gen. 2, 24; Matt.
19, 5. That is, if a man have at any
time cohabited with a woman, even in
unlawful intercourse, he may not matry
her daughter. — The entire matter of
prohibited degrees is fairly easily regu-
lated and controlled if one simply fol-
lows the principle of Lev. 18, 6, which
clearly includes the marriage of a man
to his deceased wife’s sister and of a
woman to her deceased husband’s brother
( Schwagerehe ). The situation is further
simplified by the fact that most States
now have marriage laws which specify
the same prohibited degrees as those of
the Bible, many States even going be-
yond the limit fixed by the Lord and in-
cluding relationships of the third degree.
Christians will in any event follow the
rule of Scripture with regard to pro-
hibited degrees, and if the rule of the
State goes beyond this limit, it is self-
evident that they are governed accord-
ingly.
Deindoerfer, Dr. Johannes, 1828 to
1907; an emissary of Loehe; came to
Michigan (Frankenhilf ) , 1851; went
with Grossmann to Iowa, 1853; a founder
of the Iowa Synod and vice-president
from 1854, succeeding Grossmann as
president in 1892. Prominent in the
opposition of his synod to “Missouri.”
Author of Geschichte der Iowasynode
and three Denkschriften.
Deism. A system of belief based upon
rational understanding and the results
of scientific investigation rather than
upon supernatural revelation. Since it
does not employ philosophic speculation
as the basis of its tenets, it places it-
self in opposition to pantheism and simi-
lar philosophic systems; and since it
recognizes the presence of a supernatural
being on the basis of “natural religion,”
it is antagonistic also to atheism. But,
on the other hand, it will not recognize
any form of theism, not even that of
revelation, as' long as theism is not in
agreement with rational investigation.
Therefore deism, although representing
an effort to find a standard of religious
truth by which the conflicting claims
of the various creeds might be tested,
together with an attempt to find a com-
mon basis for a universal creed, really
resulted in another attack on the truth
of revelation and hindered the progress
of Christianity, in part to an alarming
extent. It reduced Christianity to a
species of naturalized ethics. — History.
Deism may be said to go back to Lord
Herbert of Cherbury (d. 1648), who was
a friend of Grotius (q.v.) and other ra-
tionalistic investigators. He laid down
his theories in several writings, in which
he discussed the causes of errors in be-
lief, basing his theory of knowledge upon
the recognition of innate universal char-
acteristics concerning any particular ob-
ject and opposing all knowledge based
upon a supernatural origin. He was the
author of the so-called five essentials, or
“Five Articles,” of the English deists,
namely, a belief in the existence of a
deity, the obligation to reverence such
a power as rationally determined, the
identification of worship with practical
morality, the obligation to repent of sin
as not in harmony with the best develop-
Deism
202
Delitzsch, Franz
ment of man and to abandon it, and,
finally, divine recompense in this world
and the next. Although Herbert did not
have a large direct following, his tenets
influenced the position of even a large
part of the clergy, at least to the ex-
tent of emphasizing the subjective atti-
tude and the preeminence of a mere out-
ward morality in the field of religion.
The ideas of the “natural theology” were
expanded still further by Thomas Hobbes
(d. 1679), who was influenced largely by
the teachings of the new mathematical
and natural sciences. He explained the
different religions as the result of human
fear, as it interprets natural phenomena
according to a gross anthropomorphic
understanding. According to Hobbes,
positive religion is the creation of the
state ; the sovereign, in consequence,
possesses unconditional power to enforce
its tenets. His system shows the entire
apparatus of rationalism, modified only
in its application. At this time the
teachings of deism were beginning to
be influenced by the science of compara-
tive religions. Hobbes was followed by
Charles Blount (d. 1693), who tried to
find a standard for adjustment by fusing
Herbert’s theory of universal character-
istics of all religions with Hobbes’s
theory of the state’s supremacy. Like
Hobbes and Spinoza (q.v.), he took up
certain problems of Biblical criticism,
thereby helping to pave the way for the
vagaries of Higher Criticism. Blount
became guilty of a strange contradiction
in asserting the supernatural character
of Christianity on the basis of the mir-
acles recorded in Scripture, after he had
cast doubt on their essential features,
by drawing a parallel between them and
non-Christian miracles. Next in order
is John Locke (d. 1704), whose Letters
on Toleration and Essay Concerning Hu-
man Understanding contain his chief
theories. He argued chiefly from the
fact that everything in nature seems to
have a definite end and object (teleolog-
ical government), for the existence of a
chief supernatural agency or power, but
maintained, at the same time, that only
reasonable demonstration, and not mere
assertion, can establish the certainty of
revelation. He insisted upon strict proof
for the formal side of revelation, de-
manding that the tradition which asks
belief on the part of men be fully ac-
credited by both external (historical)
and internal evidence; in short, he was
definitely opposed to any kind of me-
chanical assent to traditional religion,
thereby, of course, setting aside the
claims of the Bible for its own truth.
Still Locke clung to the reasonableness
of the Christian revelation, while, at the
same time, he permitted his reason to
make a choice of doctrines acceptable to
him, thereby setting aside the divinity
of the Bible altogether. Among other
deists of England may be mentioned
John Toland, who wrote Christianity
Not Mysterious, Anthony Collins, who
wrote Discourse of Freethinking , and
Thomas Woolston, who wrote Discourses
on the Miracles of Our Savior. Among
the later deists the name of Matthew
Tindal stands out, who wrote a dialog
Christianity as Old as Creation, or The
Oospel a Republication of the Religion
of Nature (1730), whose condemnation
is contained in its own proposition.
Some of the men who were at least in
part influenced by deism, although they
maintained certain agnostic theories as
well, are Shaftesbury (d. 1713), Mande-
ville (d. 1732), and Bolingbroke (d. 1751).
David Hume (d. 1776) tried to elevate
deism to the level of a science, chiefly
by eliminating a reasonable deity and by
setting aside the interpretation of his-
tory. Just how badly the fundamental
deistic theories deviated from the estab-
lished truth as revealed in the Bible is
seen from the fact that the great French
writer Voltaire (q.v.), one of the most
blasphemous atheists that ever lived, ac-
cepted their teachings, and that Rous-
seau ( q . v.) likewise made them his
starting-point for a naturalistic theory
of education, which has wrought untold
harm in the field of pedagogy from his
day to ours.
Deissmann, Gustav Adolf; b. 1866;
professor of New Testament Exegesis at
Heidelberg, now at Berlin; liberal theo-
logian; prolific author; wrote: Bibel-
studien and Licht vom Osten (also Eng-
lish), showing the value of the papyri
for New Testament Greek.
Delitzsch, Franz; b. 1813 at Leipzig,
d. there 1890; one of the foremost Lu-
theran theologians of the Erlangen
School; Privatdozent (lecturer) at Leip-
zig, 1842; professor at Rostock, at Er-
langen, at Leipzig, his special Held being
Exegesis. In earlier life he was inti-
mately associated with the founders of
the Missouri Synod and an enthusiastic
Lutheran ; later on, influenced by modern
scientific theology, opposed to the idea
“of fencing theology off with the letter
of the Formula of Concord.” Foremost
among his numerous writings are his
commentaries on Old Testament books
in connection with Keil, especially on
Isaiah. He translated the New Testa-
ment into Hebrew (1877; 11th edition,
1890). Habakkuk and others are De-
litzsch’s own work.
Deiitzscii, Friedrich
203
Demoniacal PoaseMton
Delitzsch, Friedrich, German Assyr-
iologist; b. 1850 at Erlangen, son of
Franz Delitzsch; d. 1922 at Langen-
schwalbach; professor at Berlin since
1899. His lectures Babel und Bibel,
1902 — 3, caused noted controversy. Main-
tained that Old Testament religious
ideas originated in Babylonia. His op-
ponents proved that, though Israelitish
and Babylonian civilizations had points
of contact, Old Testament monotheism,
sacrifices, and prophetic religion had in-
dependent origin. Wrote Assyrisohe
Orammatik, Assyrisches Handwoerter-
buch.
Delk, E. H.; b. 1859 in Norfolk, Va. ;
prominent member of General Synod;
advocate of rationalism and evolutionism
in religion. In The Need of a Restate-
ment of Theology (1917) he demanded
that the teachings of the Lutheran
Church be brought into harmony with
modern evolutionistic science and phi-
losophy.
Demme, C. B., 1795 — 1863; leader in
Pennsylvania Ministerium (q.v.)i edu-
cated at Halle and Goettingen; came
to America 1818; pastor of Zion and
St. Michael’s in Philadelphia; coeditor
of the Pennsylvania Hymnal of 1849 and
Agenda of 1855.
Demoniacal Possession. The state
of being under the direct influence of
evil spirits, demons, devils, to the ex-
clusion, if not extinction, of personal
volition. This influence, which is exerted
both over the souls and spirits of living
men, is in the examples recorded in
Scripture distinguished from epilepsy or
mental diseases, though in some of its
symptoms similar to these. The distin-
guishing feature of possession is the
complete or incomplete loss of the suf-
ferer’s reason or power of will, together
with manifestations of supernatural in-
telligence and malignant, Satanic urg-
ings to blasphemy. His actions, words,
and even thoughts are mastered by the
evil spirit, Mark 1, 24; 5,7; Acts 19, 15,
till his personality seems to be de-
stroyed, or at least so overmastered as
to produce the consciousness of a two-
fold will within him. — It was but natu-
ral that the power of evil should show
itself in more open and direct hostility
than before or after, in the age of our
Lord and His apostles. Satan knew that
his time was short, and the brutality
and godlessness of the age had prepared
the way for such material control of in-
dividuals by the Power that was ruling
humanity. Nor was it less natural that
it should have died away gradually be-
fore the advent of Christ’s kingdom. The
early Fathers still allude to the exist-
ence of demoniacal possession as a com-
mon thing. By degrees the mention is
less and less frequent. The paucity of
Old Testament references to demoniacal
possession is explained by Franz Delitzsch
(Biblische Psycliologie) by a reference to
the control which Satan exercised over
the souls of men through idolatry. Only
after Israel had been cured of its idol-
atry through the Babylonian Captivity,
did the powers of darkness exercise
themselves through bodily possession,
and these forms of diabolical activity be-
came more intense at the time of Jesus
Christ, when the kingdom of darkness
employed all its powers in order to op-
pose the divine Conqueror of Satan. In
our own day, demon possession is a phe-
nomenon not infrequently connected with
spiritism (mediumism). It is then self-
induced, through the avenue of the
trance-state. It sometimes, though rarely,
comes under the observation of Christian
ministers, well-authenticated cases being
on record even among members of Chris-
tian congregations. In heathen countries
it is a common phenomenon to the pres-
ent day. Many cases have been observed
particularly in China. The standard
work on demon possession among the
heathen is the book by Dr. John L.
Nevius, Demon Possession and Allied
Themes (Revell Company). The facts
established are summarized as follows
by the author: “1. Certain abnormal
physical and mental phenomena, such as
have been witnessed in all ages and
among all nations and attributed to pos-
session by demons, are of frequent occur-
rence in China and other nations and
have been generally referred to the same
cause. 2. The supposed demoniac at the
time of ‘possession’ passes into an ab-
normal state, the character of which
varies indefinitely, being marked by de-
pression and melancholy, or vacancy and
stupidity, amounting sometimes almost
to idiocy; or it may be that he becomes
ecstatic, or ferocious and malignant.
3. During transition from the normal to
the abnormal state the subject is often
thrown into paroxysms, more or less
violent, during which he sometimes falls
on the ground senseless or foams at the
mouth, presenting symptoms similar to
those of epilepsy or hysteria. 4. The
intervals between these attacks vary in-
definitely from hours to months, and
during these intervals the physical and
mental condition of the subject may be
in every respect healthy and normal.
The duration of the abnormal states
varies from a few minutes to several
days. The attacks are sometimes mild
Denial Week
204
Dennmt’k
and sometimes violent. If frequent and
violent, the physical health suffers.
5. During the transition period the sub-
ject often retains more or less of his
normal consciousness. The violence of
the paroxysms is increased if the subject
struggles against, and endeavors to re-
press, the abnormal symptoms. When
he yields himself to them, the violence
of the paroxysms abates or ceases alto-
gether. 6. When normal consciousness is
restored after one of these attacks, the
subject is entirely ignorant of every-
thing which has passed during that
state. 7. The most striking character-
istic of these cases is that the subject
evidences another personality, and the
normal personality for the time being is
partially or wholly dormant. 8. The
new personality presents traits of char-
acter utterly different from those which
really belong to the subject in his nor-
mal state, and this change of character
is with rare exceptions in the direction
of moral obliquity and impurity. 9. Many
persons while ‘demon-possessed’ give evi-
dence of knowledge which cannot be ac-
counted for in ordinary ways. They
often appear to know of the Lord Jesus
Christ as a divine Person and show an
aversion to and fear of Him. They
sometimes converse in foreign languages
of which in their normal states they are
entirely ignorant. 10. Many cases of
‘demon possession’ have been cured by
prayer to Christ or His name, some very
readily, some with difficulty. So far as
we have been able to discover, this
method of cure has not failed in any
case, however stubborn and long-con-
tinued, in which it has been tried. And
in no instance, so far as appears, has
the malady returned if the subject has
become a Christian and continued to
lead a Christian life.”
Denial Week. One week in the year,
usually the first of the civil year or
Holy Week, set apart by certain reli-
gious denominations for certain sacri-
fices, when they deny themselves luxuries
to which they have become accustomed
and which they ordinarily use. The
practise is in line with that of the Ro-
man Church in forbidding the eating of
meat on Friday and during Lent.
Denicke, David, 1603 — 80; native of
Zittau, Saxony; tutor at Koenigsberg,
later at court of Duke George of Bruns-
wick -Lueneburg ; member of the consis-
tory at Hannover; edited Hannoverian
hymn-books, 1646 — 59, together with
Justus Gesenius; hymns simple, warm,
flowing, in good taste; wrote: “O Herr,
dein seligmaehend Wort”; “Wir Men-
schen sind zu dem, o Gott”; “Kommt,
lasst euch den Herren lehren.”
Denmark. King Harald professed
Christianity in 826, but became an apos-
tate in 841. Kaiser Otto I forced Harald
Bluetooth to profess Christianity, and
the dioceses of Schleswig, Ripen and
Aarhus were founded; Archbishop Unni
of Hamburg became the leader. Under
Knut the Great, about 1020, Christianity
ruled all Denmark. About 1150 the
archdiocese of Lund was erected, and the
Church became independent of Germany.
In 1479 the University of Copenhagen
was founded. The introduction of the
Reformation was aided by the immoral-
ity of the clergy and Arcimboldi’s ped-
dling of the indulgences in 1517. In 1520
King Christian II asked Luther for a
man “to purify religion and turn the
clergy from politics to the service of the
Church”; but owing to the opposition of
the University of Copenhagen the efforts
of Martin Reinhard, Carlstadt, and Gab-
ler were futile. In 1523 Frederick, Duke
of Holstein, became king and in 1526
declared for Lutheranism, and in 1530
the diet at Copenhagen adopted a Lu-
theran confession. Christian III, king
since 1534, called Bugenhagen in 1537 to
introduce the new Church order accord-
ing to “God’s pure Word, which is the
Law and the Gospel,” without reference
to any confession of faith. In the order
of Frederick II in 1574 and in the “Dan-
ish Law” of Christian V, the three Gen-
eral Creeds, the Augsburg Confession,
and Luther’s Small Catechism were
added as binding. The Formula of Con-
cord of 1580 was not adopted. — The
lower clergy elect the forty-one provosts ;
the king appoints the seven bishops; he
of Zealand (Seeland) at Copenhagen
may be styled Metropolitan, ordaining
the others and consecrating the king
the head of the Church. — Pietism was
imported from Germany, Rationalism
from France rather than from Germany.
Then came the “Awakening”; at its head
was N. F. S. Grundtvig. His and his
friend’s, Soeren Kirkegaard’s, errors were
combated by H. L. Martensen, bishop of
Zealand, and Rudelbach (qq. v.; also
C. Harms, the Bornholmers, and C. O.
Rosenius). Indifferentism marks the po-
sition of the theological faculty of Copen-
hagen and of the Church government.
The established religion is the Lutheran;
since 1849 there is complete religious
toleration. — In 1921 Denmark, includ-
ing Danish Northern Schleswig, had a
population of 3,268,807. Lutherans,
3,200,372; in 1911, Catholics, 9,821;
Baptists, Methodists, Jews and those of
Dens, Peter
205
Devil
other or no confession, 14,463. , See
Saxon Free Church.
Dens, Peter. Prominent Roman
Catholic theologian of Belgium, 1690 to
1775; at time of his death archpriest
of St. Rombold’s Cathedral, Mechlin;
wrote Theologia Moralis et Dogmatica,
widely used as text-book in Roman
Catholic seminaries.
Dependent Children. See Children,
Dependent, Care and Training of.
Derschau, Bernhard von, 1591 to
1639; professor of theology and pastor
at Koenigsberg; fluent writer; wrote:
“Herr Jesu, dir sei Preis und Dank.”
Dervish (Persian, “beggar,” corre-
sponding to Arabian “fakir,” q. v.), name
of member of Mohammedan religious
orders, whose religious practises consist
mainly in dances and ascetic self-casti-
gation. There are many orders, some of
which are housed in monasteries, while
the members of others go about ordinary
occupations and carry on the practises
of their order only on special occasions.
The dancing and the howling dervishes
are most widely known.
Descartes, Rene' ( Renatus Cartesius),
French philosopher; b. 1596 at Lahaye;
since 1629 in Holland; since 1649 in
Sweden; d. 1650 at Stockholm. Pro-
fessedly Roman Catholic. Called “Fa-
ther of Modern Philosophy,” breaking
the sway of Scholasticism. Held that
all knowledge is open to doubt, except
reality of self, which he expressed in the
famous “Cogito, ergo sum” ( q. v. ) .
Paved way for rationalistic theology.
Main works: M editationes, Principia
Philosophiae.
Descent into Hell, Christ’s. A phrase,
taken from the Apostles’ Creed, by which
the Scriptural teaching Col. 2, 16, Eph.
4, 9, and particularly 1 Pet. 3, 18 — 20 is
summarized. The passage in First Peter
is the sedes of this doctrine. It can
teach us nothing less than that Jesus
went into hell, the place of the damned.
It was Christ, the whole Person, with
body and soul, the same who (v. 22) “is
gone into heaven and is on the right
hand of God,” that appeared in the
prison-house. He had already been
“quickened by the Spirit,” had been
made alive by virtue of His divine
nature. Body and soul were reunited.
He appeared in the prison-house after
His quickening and before His resurrec-
tion, before His rising from the tomb.
In this prison there were men like those
who were disobedient in Noah’s days,
who would not listen to this preacher
of righteousness. It was the place where
lost and condemned spirits are. To them
Christ preached. He could not have
preached the Gospel of repentance to
those lost spirits ; for everywhere the
Scriptures teach us that death ends the
probation period of man. It was, then,
the Law, the preaching of Judgment and
eternal doom, that Christ proclaimed in
hell. The preaching of Christ in hell
was a triumphant proclamation of His
victory over hell, over Satan, and over
death. Cp. Col. 2, 15. There is good
ground for the Lutheran emphasis on
the fact that Christ’s descent into hell
occurred after He had returned to life,
body and soul again being united. If
Christ had made the descent while His
body was in the power of death, it could
not have been a triumphant descent.
But being made after His soul had re-
turned to His body, His descent into hell
proclaimed that the grave would not be
able to hold Him, that He was the One
who had the keys of death and hell and
was alive forevermore.
Desertion. See Divorce.
Deszler, Wolfgang Christoph, 1660
to 1722; studied theology; amanuensis
at Nuernberg; conrector of School of
the Holy Ghost; hymns full of depth
and fervor; wrote: “Wie wohl ist mir,
o Freund der Seelen”; “Ich lass’ dich
nicht, du musst mein Jesus bleiben.”
Determinism. The theory regarding
the human will according to which man
in his actions is absolutely determined
by psychological or other conditions;
opposed to indeterminism, which declared
man’s will to be free. There are various
forms of determinism — the theological,
as in Calvinism, the mechanical of mate-
rialism, which regards man merely as
a machine, the fatalistic (see Fatalism) ,
and others.
Deuterocanonical Books. A term
used by some theologians to designate
the New Testament books which were
not universally accepted from the outset.
The term is not to be commended, on
account of its ambiguity. (See Anti-
legomena, Apocryphal.
Devay, Matthias Biro'. Came to
Wittenberg in 1529 and was given free
board and lodging by Luther; furthered
the Reformation in Hungary; impris-
oned twice; wrote the first Hungarian
book, a grammar; finally turned Cal-
vinist; d. about 1547.
Devil. A term literally meaning the
accuser, 1 Pet. 5, 8 ; in Scripture usually
a descriptive name of Satan, also used in
the plural for the fallen angels (demons,
evil spirits, unclean spirits ) , the chief of
Devil's Advocate
266
Diaz, Juan
whom, Matt. 12, 24, is called Satan by
way of eminence.' Satan himself, for
whose subjugation Christ came, is the
originator of all wickedness, Eph. 2, 2,
an opponent of the kingdom of God. He
is the tempter of the faithful, 1 Pet.
5, 8 ff., who led Eve into sin and so be-
came the originator and king of death,
Heb. 2, 14. Originally created good, the
evil spirits, through their own fault, fell,
2 Pet. 2, 4, and are destined to a future
fearful sentence. — That the devil is a
personal being is clear from the teaching
of the epistles and no less from the
gospels, being the express teaching of
Jesus Christ. Satan enters the heart of
Judas. His malign power is evident in
many examples of possession. Matt.
12, 28, and often. Such texts cannot be
explained away on the principle of ac-
commodation. Never did Jesus cast sus-
picion upon this part of the Jewish doc-
trine. He accepted it without question.
Matt. 13; Mark 4, 15; Luke 22, 31.
Again, Jesus sets the seal of His author-
ity upon the doctrine in question by
expressly stating that the everlasting
punishment to which the unfaithful are
condemned was originally “prepared for
the devil and his angels.” Matt. 25, 41.
Finally, He speaks of Satan as the
Prince of the World and announces as
the aim and the certain result of His
own work thy Judgment and the casting
out of Satan and his kingdom. John
12, 31.
Devil’s Advocate. See Advocatus
Diaboli.
Dexter, Henry Martyn, 1821 — 90;
educated at Yale and Andover; Congre-
gational pastor at Manchester and Bos-
ton; known as the translator of the
beautiful hymn: “Shepherd of Tender
Youth.”
Deyling, Salomo; Lutheran; b. 1677
at Weida, Saxony; d. 1755 at Leipzig as
professor and senior of the university;
known for his Instit-utiones Prudentiae
Pastoralis, still very valuable.
Diaconate. Deacons and deaconesses
are spoken of in the New Testament:
1 Tim. 3, 8 — 13; Phil. 1,1; Rom. 16, 1. 2.
The duties of the deacons resembled
those of the bishops or pastors, but they
had charge of the business end of the
congregation, although they did not neg-
lect the service of the Word when oppor-
tunity offered. The deaconesses were
consecrated women, who devoted their
time to the care of the poor, the sick,
and the needy and gave such other as-
sistance as they could to the church and
its pastor. Both the deacons and the
deaconesses were mature men and women
of special qualifications, as the Scrip-
ture-passages referred to indicate. In
the Middle Ages, women flocked to the
convents, and deaconesses almost disap-
peared. The restoration of the office is
largely due to the Rev. Theodore Flied-
ner, a Lutheran pastor at Kaiserswerth
on the Rhine, in Westphalia. His dea-
conesses were of three kinds : nurses,
teachers, parochial workers (assisting
the pastor in visiting the poor, caring
for orphans, and attending the sick).
They had to be unmarried or widows,
between the ages of sixteen and forty,
and dedicate themselves to the work for
at least a period of five years. They
wore a habit of a plain and becoming
style. Deaconesses are being employed
also in Lutheran churches of our day
(Lutheran Motherhouse and Deaconess
School, 2916 Fairfield Ave., Fort Wayne,
Ind. ; Lutheran Deaconess Hospital, Bea-
ver Dam, Wis. ; Lutheran Deaconess Hos-
pital, Hot Springs, S. Dak.; Bethesda
Training-school, Watertown, Wis.; Mary
J. Drexel Home, Philadelphia ; Lutheran
Deaconess Motherhouse, Milwaukee ; Nor-
wegian Lutheran, Minneapolis ; etc. )
The duties of deaconesses, in general, are
to assist the pastor in performing such
labors of love and mercy as will pro-
mote the temporal comfort and the spir-
itual interests of mankind. In large
congregations, deaconesses are almost a
necessity. The office of deacons is now
filled by the officers which are some-
times called by that name, but are usu-
ally known 1 as the members of the church
board or the church council, elders,
( Vorsteher , Aelteste) . One of these, an
almoner (Armenpfleger) , is sometimes
specially designated to care for the poor.
See Deaconess Motherhouses, Fliedner.
Diaconics. That branch of theolog-
ical knowledge which treats of the his-
tory and of the theory of home missions
and inner missions, the former dealing
with scattered Christians, the latter with
the poor, neglected, and wretched, and
with criminals.
Diaconus, Paulus. See Paulus Dia-
conus.
Diaspora. Denotes, first, the Jews
living outside of the borders of the Holy
Land; later it was used to designate
the scattered Christians. Latterly it is
applied to Lutherans living among other
religionists, chiefly in Roman Catholic
countries. The Moravians employed the
term to designate the results of their
missionary activity among the members
of the state churches in Europe.
Diaz, Juan. Prominent Spanish re-
former of the sixteenth century; studied
Didache
207
Diocese
theology at Paris for thirteen years;
was brought to the knowledge of the
evangelical truth by Jaime Enzinas;
was with Calvin at Geneva and with
Bucer at Regensburg; assassinated in
1540 at the instigation of his brother
Alfonso.
Didache. See Teaching of the Twelve
.Apostles.
Dieckhoff, August Wilhelm; born
1823, d. 1894; leading confessional Lu-
theran theologian; since 1800 professor
at Rostock ; wrote against von Hofmann,
also against Ritschl; in the controversy
on election and conversion he sided with
the opponents of the Synodical Con-
ference.
Diedrich, Julius; b. 1819, d. 1899;
in 1847 he seceded from the Prussian
Union to join the Breslau Synod; there
ihe opposed hierarchical tendencies; 1860
he and six other pastors withdrew from
the Breslau Synod and in 1862 formed
.the Immanuel Synod.
Dieflenbach, Georg Christian, 1822
to 1901; teacher in Schlitz and then in
Darmstadt; in 1855 assistant pastor in
Schlitz and in 1873 chief pastor; very
fruitful in literary labors, especially in
liturgical and devotional books, among
which are his Bvangelisches Brevier (for
pastors) and Mvangelische Handagende
.( for family worship ) .
Dies Irae. One of the grandest se-
quences, or hymns, of the Middle Ages,
its author being Thomas of Celano,
a. pupil of Francis of Assisi, the guiding
thought of the poem being taken from
Zeph. 1, 15 (Vulgate version), but con-
taining the fundamental thought con-
cerning redemption through the atone-
ment of Christ, especially in stanza 10;
more than 150 translations.
Diesterweg, Friedrich Adolf Wil-
helm, b. at Siegen, Westphalia, 1790;
d. 1866; one of the foremost German
educators of the nineteenth century; was
teacher of the model school at Frank-
furt, director of the teachers’ seminary
at Moers, then of that in Berlin, where
through his practise school he revolu-
tionized the methods in the Berlin ele-
mentary schools. A practical teacher of
rare ability, he reduced Pestalozzi’s
theories to workable methods for the
classroom. He was a teacher of teachers.
The best systematic exposition of his
ideas is found in his Wegweiser fuer
deutsche Lehrer.
Diet. Originally the yearly spring
meeting of the free Frank warriors. In
time the leaders in Church and State
arrogated powers to themselves and
finally became the whole assembly, or
Diet. Later on only three ecclesiastical
and four lay princes elected the Kaiser,
and they enlarged their powers by the
Capitulations of Election, conditions be-
fore election, first sworn to by Karl V.
At this time the Diet, or Reichstag, con-
sisted of the electors, the princes and
nobles, and the representatives of cities.
Dieterich, Konrad; born January 9,
1575, at Gemuende, Hessen-Cassel ; died
March 22, 1639; subdiaconus at Mar-
burg; deposed and exiled by the Re-
formed government for his staunch Lu-
theranism ; professor and director at
Giessen; superintendent at Ulm, Wuert-
temberg, and director of the Gymnasium;
wrote a large exposition of Luther’s
Small Catechism (translated into Ger-
man by Dr. F. W. A. Notz) and a small
one for the schools; the latter, trans-
lated and edited by authority of the Mis-
souri Synod, has been in use in that
synod for many years.
Dietrich, Veit; b. 1506; Luther’s con-
fidential secretary in 1527 ; with him at
Marburg and the Coburg; preacher in
Nuernberg; got out an agenda, Luther’s
House Postil, and devotional writings,
the Summaries of the Old and the New
Testament. When Nuernberg bowed to
the Augsburg Interim, he wished to leave
town; d. 1549.
Dilherr, Johann Michael, 1604 — 69;
professor at Jena, director of the Gym-
nasium, and later pastor at Nuernberg;
one of the most learned men and the
greatest preacher of his time; in the-
ology collaborator in the Weimar Bibel-
werk; deeply interested in poetry; wrote
some sixty hymns, among them: “Er-
muntre dich, Herz, Mut und Sinn.”
Ding an sich, thing-in-itself, a term,
used by Kant (q.v.) to denote the real
objects which underlie the phenomena
and exist outside of our consciousness,
in distinction from the phenomena, or
appearance, by which they become per-
ceptible to the senses.
Dinter, Gustav Friedrich; b. 1760
at Borna, d. 1831; a distinguished Ger-
man clergyman and educator; pastor
near Borna ; principal of the normal
school at Dresden; inspector of schools
in the province of Prussia; exerted
great influence on the development of
German elementary schools, where he
first introduced the ideas of the philan-
thropinists (q. v.) and of Pestalozzi;
wrote: Bible for Schoolmasters; Chief
Rules of Pedagogy.
Diocese. The territory administered
by a bishop. The diocese of an arch-
Diodati, Giovanni
208
Disciples of Christ
bishop is called an archdiocese. The
bishop is the ruler of the diocese, but in
his administration is bound by the rules
of the Church. He divides his diocese
into parishes and assigns the clergy.
Where there are no canons (see Chap-
ter), distinguished members of the dioce-
san clergy act as consultors, the bishop
being held to consult them in important
matters. The church where the bishop
has his throne ( cathedra ) is the cathe-
dral. After the bishop the principal
authority in the diocese is the vicar-
general ( q . v . ) . The fiscal procurator
attends to the interests of the diocese in
court. A chancellor may be appointed to
keep the records; deans, to supervise
the clergy of a portion of the diocese.
The creation and modification of dioceses
is reserved to the Pope. There are
(1921) 87 dioceses in the United States.
Diodati, Giovanni, 1576 — 1649; Ge-
nevan of noble Italian family; professor
of theology at Geneva; pastor at Nimes;
attended Synod of Dort; translated Bible
into Italian, 1607; revised French ver-
sion.
Diodorus, bishop of Tarsus, Cilicia,
378, d. before 394; vigorous defender of
orthodoxy against Arianism and a leader
at the Council of Constantinople, 381;
a founder of the School of Antioch
(q. v .) ; after his death his Christological
treatises were condemned as smacking of
Nestorianism.
Diognetus, Epistle to (possibly iden-
tical with the tutor of Marcus Aurelius),
written in answer to inquiries of the
addressee concerning the nature of Chris-
tianity, is a brilliant vindication of the
Christian religion and one of the choicest
literary memorials of early Christianity.
Its authorship is unknown.
Dionysius Exiguus, a monk of the
sixth century (d. before 544), who spent
much time in computing the probable
dates of great events in the history of
the world, especially that of the birth of
Christ, which he placed on December 25,
754 a. u. o. (after the founding of Rome),
this being between five and seven years
from the correct date. But his computa-
tion is the basis of our present chrono-
logical reckoning.
Dionysius of Alexandria, born of
heathen parents (ca. 190), converted to
Christianity by Origen, became the lat-
ter’s assistant in the catechetical school
(233), bishop of Alexandria (248), d. 265.
He took a leading part in the contro-
versies of the age. Mild and concilia-
tory, he was always consistent. One of
the most orthodox of the Ante-Nicene
Fathers.
Diplomatics. That part of arche-
ology which deals with ancient writings,
literary and public documents, letters,
charters, decrees, etc., especially with re-
gard to their decipherment and dating.
Disciples of Christ (Campbellites,
Christian Church). This denomination
traces its origin to the revival move-
ment of the early part of the nineteenth
century, when a number of leaders arose
who pleaded for the Bible alone, without
human addition in the form of creeds
and formulas. At first they emphasized
particularly the independence of the
local church with reference to any eccle-
siastical system. Somewhat later an
element was added which sought to re-
store the union of the churches through
a “return in doctrine, ordinance, and
life to the religion divinely outlined” in
the New Testament.
In 1807 Rev. Thomas Campbell, a mem-
ber of the Secession branch of the Pres-
byterian Church in Ireland, came to the
United States and began to labor among
the churchless families of Western Penn-
sylvania and those which belonged to
other presbyteries, but for a long time
had not enjoyed the Communion service.
For this he was censured, whereupon lie
formally withdrew from the synod. In
1809 his son, Alexander Campbell, with
the rest of the family, joined him, and
an organization called “Christian Asso-
ciation of Washington, Pa.,” was formed.
From this association was issued a “Dec-
laration and Address,” which became
historic. In this statement all articles
of faith or terms of communion were re-
jected, and only that which “is expressly
taught and enjoined in the Word of God”
was accepted as “the perfect constitution
for the worship, discipline, and govern-
ment of the New Testament Church,”
since “no human authority has power to
impose new commands and ordinations
upon the Church.” Division among
Christians is characterized as “a horrid
evil” and “productive of confusion and
every evil work.” Ministers are “to in-
culcate none other things than those
articles of faith and holiness expressly
revealed and enjoined in the Word of
God” and in administration are to ob-
serve “the example of the Primitive
Church without any additions whatso-
ever of human opinions or inventions of
men.” The publication of this declara-
tion did not meet with much response.
However, in 1810, the Campbells and
their associates organized “the First
Church of the Christian Association of
Washington,” meeting at Cross Roads
and Brush Run, Washington County, Pa.
After a few years of confusion and con-
Disciples of Christ
209
Discipline in General
flict a partial union was effected at Lex-
ington, Ky., in the early part of 1832
between Alexander Campbell and Barton
W. Stone for the purpose of cooperating
in evangelistic work. When the question
arose as to the name to be adopted, Stone
favored “Christians” as the name given
in the beginning by divine authority.
Campbell and his friends, however, pre-
ferred the name “Disciples” as less offen-
sive to good people and quite as Scrip-
tural. The result was that no definite
action was taken, and both names were
used, the local congregation being gen-
erally known as “the Christian Church,”
“the Church of Christ,” occasionally,
however, as “the Church of Disciples” or
“the Disciples’ Church.” In recent years
the year-book published by the Mission-
ary Society has used the name “Churches
of. Christ (Disciples).” Recently the
International Convention has adopted
the name “Disciples of Christ,” and this
has helped to establish that as the title
of the denomination.
The growth of the new organization
was rapid, especially in the Middle West.
Numerous congregations were gathered
throughout Ohio, Tennessee, and Mis-
souri. The period since the Civil War
especially has been one of rapid expan-
sion. Soon, however, objections were
voiced especially to any semblance of
ecclesiastical organization and to the
use of instrumental music in the
churches, and as a result two parties de-
veloped, generally termed “Progressives”
and “Conservatives.” The line of de-
marcation between the two bodies, how-
ever, is not always clear. — The doc-
trines of the “Disciples of Christ” are
contained in the following statements:
“Our Position: A Brief Statement of the
Plea for a Return to the Gospel. . . .
Urged by the people known as Disciples
of Christ,” and “First Principles, or the
Elements of the Gospel,” both by Isaac
Errett. “The Christian System,” by
Alexander Campbell. “Why I Am a Dis-
ciple,” by A. J. Hobbs. The denomina-
tion rejects all creeds and professes to
acknowledge only the Bible as the rule
of faith. While it professes, and adheres
to, the general doctrines of evangelical
churches, the doctrinal position of the
Disciples is largely Pelagianistic, ration-
alistic, and Unitarian. While they do
not wish to deny the divinity of Christ,
they deny that the Holy Spirit is a
person of the Godhead and very and
eternal God, and they reject all such
ecclesiastical expressions as “Trinity,”
“Person,” etc. — Polity. In polity the
churches of the Disciples are congrega-
tional. Each local church elects its own
Concordia Cyclopedia
officers, calls its own ministers, and con-
ducts its own affairs, with no super-
vision by any outside ecclesiastical
authority. The officers of the church are
the pastor, elders, and deacons. The
elders have special care of the spiritual
interests of the congregation and the
deacons of its financial affairs and be-
nevolences. Applicants for the ministry
are ordained by authority of the local
church. Ministerial associations are
formed, but they are simply advisory,
the authority resting with the local
church, of which the minister is a mem-
ber. There is no national ecclesiastical
organization of the churches. For mu-
tual conference in regard to their gen-
eral affairs the churches unite in dis-
trict and state conventions; but these
conventions have no ecclesiastical au-
thority. — Work. The general activities
of the Disciples of Christ are carried on
through a number of societies, which in
their organization are independent of
ecclesiastical control. A general con-
vention, called “The International Con-
vention of the Disciples of Christ,” meets
annually in October. The home mission-
ary work is under the care of the Amer-
ican Christian Missionary Society, the
Christian Woman’s Board of Missions,
the Board of Church Extension, and
45 state societies, besides various district
and city societies. The foreign mission-
ary work is carried on chiefly through
two societies, the Foreign Christiah
Missionary Society and the Christian
Woman’s Board of Missions. The edu-
cational work of the denomination in the
United States is represented by 44 col-
leges and schools of higher grade. In
young people’s work, under the National
Board of Christian Endeavor, the Dis-
ciples, in 1910, had 7,500 senior socie-
ties with a membership of 225,000.
Statistics, 1921: 5,702 ministers, 8,831
churches, and 1,201,778 communicants.
Discipline, Church. See Keys, Office
of the.
Discipline in General. In its eccle-
siastical sense this term denotes actions
partly of a penal and partly of a refor-
matory nature directed against one who
has offended against morality or the
church law. Discipline existed in the
Church in early and medieval times. At
the beginning of Lent those convicted of
notorious sins were put to open penance
for their spiritual benefit as a warning
to others. When the papacy was at its
height, excommunication was a weapon
so formidable that even powerful kings
quailed at the thought that it might be
directed against them. In the Church
14
Dispensations
210
Divination
of England, excommunication has given
place to the commination service on Ash
Wednesday. In Presbyterian churches
discipline is exercised by the session, an
appeal being allowed to the Presbytery
and thence to Synod and the General As-
sembly. In the constitutions of the Re-
formed churches of America ( German
and Dutch) the principles and rules of
discipline laid down are very similar to
those of the Presbyterian Church. In
the Lutheran Church discipline is ad-
ministered by the local congregation on
the basis of the Word of God. In the
Methodist Episcopal Church an accused
member is brought to trial before a com-
mittee of not less than five, who must
not be members of the Quarterly Con-
ference. Appeals are allowed to the
Quarterly and Annual Conferences.
Dispensations. Special relaxations
of law in particular cases; usually,
licenses granted by Pope or bishop to in-
dividuals, suspending for their benefit
some law of the Church or relieving
them from the normal consequences of
transgressing such a law. The supreme
dispensing power in the Roman Church
is vested in the Pope, and its use is abso-
lutely at his discretion. It is held that
he can dispense from all ecclesiastical
laws, but not from the divine Law,
though, indeed, from obligations to God
incurred by a man of his own free will,
i v e., by oath or vow. Any limitation,
however, must be self-imposed, since the
Pope, by virtue of his teaching author-
ity, defines the limits of his own dis-
pensing power. Only the Pope can dis-
pense from universal laws or laws issued
by Popes and councils. Bishops can dis-
pense from their own statutes and those
of predecessors and are granted addi-
tional powers by the Pope. Priests can
dispense parishioners from fasting, absti-
nence, and the like. A large proportion
of dispensations are matrimonial dispen-
sations, by which impediments arc re-
moved that ordinarily would prohibit or
annul a marriage. Such dispensations
are granted either to permit an intended
marriage or to legitimize one already
contracted. If an impediment is admit-
tedly of divine origin, no dispensation
can be granted. A bishop can dispense
for lighter (prohibitory) impediments;
only the Pope, or those empowered by
him; for the more serious (diriment)
ones. (See Impediments of Marriage.)
Dispensations which were productive of
much revenue in the Middle Ages are
now supposed to be gratuitous. The
chanceries of bishops are permitted to
levy only a single tax. When, however,
a request for dispensation must be car-
ried to the Roman Curia, the expenses
are considerable. They fall under four
heads: expenses of that particular pro-
ceeding; a tax for the general adminis-
tration of dispensations; the componen-
dum, a fine paid to the officials and
“applied by them to pious uses” (Catholic
Encyclopedia) ; alms distributed by the
petitioners. Thus papal indulgences,
though gratuitous, still produce some
little revenue for application “to pious
uses.”
Decrees and Decretals. A decree, in
general, is an authoritative order, or de-
cision. In the Roman Church, therefore,
tKe word is used to denote the enact-
ments of those in authority, e. g., of
councils and of the Roman Congrega-
tions. All papal bulls (q.v.), briefs, or
apostolic letters issued on the Pope’s
own initiative (motu propria ) are also
known as decrees, since they are always
legislative acts. Papal enactments, how-
ever, which are given in answer to an
appeal, or when advice has been sought
on a matter of discipline, are called
decretals. These do not necessarily be-
come general laws of the Roman Church,
some of them having application only to
individual cases. When reference is
made simply to the decretals, certain
collections of laws and decisions are
meant that consist largely of papal de-
cretals and constitute the second part
of the Corpus Iuris Ganonici (see Canon
Law ) .
Disselhoff, Julius. Since 1855 pas-
tor at Kaiserswerth and since 1864 the
successor of Th. Fliedner (q.v.). For
the fiftieth anniversary of the Deaconess
Home at Kaiserswerth he wrote, in 1880,
a memorial tract, Jubilate.
Dissenter. A term usually applied to
those who agree with the Established
Church on the most essential doctrines,
but differ in some minor points, or on
questions of church government, relation
to the State, rites, etc., as, in England,
the Presbyterians, Independents, Bap-
tists, etc.
Divination. An occult art, practised
extensively by heathen, both ancient and
modern, claiming for itself the ability
to discover the will of the gods, to fore-
cast the future from certain indications
and auguries, and to decide from phe-
nomena of an alleged supernatural kind
the correct course of action to be fol-
lowed in a given instance. The power of
divination was often ascribed to persons
in an abnormal state of mind, either in
a condition of ecstasy or of demoniac
possession; but it was usually associated
with the office of the priests, who mad§
Divine Ofllce
Divorce
211
ubo of various objects, sucli as the waves
of the sea, twigs of trees, the intestines
of animals, the flames of a fire, the mo-
tions of stars and planets, the move-
ments of fishes, the casting of lots, and
many other things with a strong element
of chance associated with them, in order
to make known to their followers what
they declared to be the will of the gods
and the exact unfolding of the future.
Divine Office. See Breviary.
Divorce. The dissolution of a valid
marriage by a decree of the state. The
Church, however, accepts such action
with respect to its members only to the
extent in which the Bible clearly ac-
knowledges reasons for such a dissolu-
tion. According to the decision of the
law courts a total divorce dissolves the
marriage-tie and releases the parties
wholly from their matrimonial obliga-
tions, while in a general sense it is “the
legal separation of man and wife, ef-
fected, for cause, by the judgment of a
court and either totally dissolving the
marriage relation or suspending its
effects so far as concerns the cohabita-
tion of the parties.” (Black.) The fact
and the effect are the same whether one
considers the matter from the standpoint
of the State or of the Church, but the
reasons for a divorce granted by the
State are in most cases not identical
with those accepted by the Church. Ac-
cording to the precepts of the Mosaic
legislation the Lord, on account of the
hardness of the Jews’ hearts, permitted
them to give a bill of divorcement and
to dismiss a wife. Deut. 24, 1. 3; Jer.
3, 8. The original idea connected with
such a writing of divorcement seems to
have been to shield the woman at' least
to some extent and to prevent the pro-
miscuous intercourse which was com-
mon in heathen lands. The formality of
the statement required of the husband,
since it placed the necessity of stating
reasons for his action upon him, served
to curb, to some extent, the arbitrariness
with which women had ever been
treated. But the privilege was never-
theless seriously abused, and therefore
Jesus, in answering the question and
the implied challenge of the Jews,
frankly tells them that this permission
was given only on account of the hard-
ness of their hearts. Mark 10, 5. And
then He proceeds to discuss the principle
involved in holy marriage and to name
the one reason for which a divorce is
actually permissible. If either spouse
leaves the other to marry another per-
son, the act is, in the eyes of God, adul-
tery. The statement of Jesus is unmis-
takable: “Whosoever shall put away his
wife, except it be for fornication, and
shall marry another, committeth adul-
tery.” Matt. 19, 9. This is true of
either party to the marriage relation.
]f the one or the other spouse disregards
the loyalty and faithfulness due the
other in the union whose essential fea-
ture is the “being one flesh” and cohabits
with another person, either married or
unmarried, this spouse has broken the
marriage-tie. The husband shall cleave
to his wife, and the wife shall cleave to
her husband, and a transgression of this
fundamental principle by adultery is
equal to a deliberate severing of the
hand of holy wedlock. In such a case
the innocent party lias God’s permission
to make a public declaration of the
transgression committed by the other
and to receive from the state courts a
decree declaring that the divorce from
the former spouse actually exists. In
this ease the marriage-tie is severed as
if the guilty party had died, Rom. 7,
1 — 3, and the innocent party is free to
marry another person, subject only to
the laws of God and the state control-
ing the act of marriage. It is not said
that the innocent party is compelled to
seek a divorce; for, as Luther says, if
there is true repentance on the part of
the guilty one, it may be highly com-
mendable, from the Christian stand-
point, to resume marital relations. (See
Adultery .)- — But while unfaithfulness
is the only reason acknowledged in
Scripture which actually sets the inno-
cent party free and permits such a
spouse to take the initiative in having
the marriage declared dissolved, there is
another ease mentioned in the Bible in
which a spouse may be said to suffer
the disruption of the marriage bond.
The exact words of the Lord with regard
to this case are: “Let not the wife de-
part from her husband; but and if she
depart, let her remain unmarried or be
reconciled to her husband; and let not
the husband put away his wife.” 1 Cor.
7, 10. 11. That is the statement of prin-
ciple. Its special application to a par-
ticular condition is given by the apostle
thus: “If any brother hath a wife that
believeth not and she be pleased to
dwell with him, let him not put her
away. And the woman which hath a
husband that believeth not, and if he be
pleased to dwell with her, let her not
leave him. . . . But if the unbelieving
depart, let him depart. A brother or
a sister is not under bondage in such
cases.” Vv. 12. 13. 15. These words de-
scribe what is generally known as “ma-
licious desertion.” Strictly speaking, it
can take place only in the ease of an un-
Divorce
212
Dominic, St.
believer; for as long as a person is a
Christian and is governed by the pre-
cepts of the Lord regarding marriage,
such a desertion will not take place. If
one spouse has left the other, either by
removing his or her presence and declar-
ing from the outset that he or she will
under no circumstances return, or by re-
fusing to return after an absence which
was at first agreed to on both sides, or
simply by staying away an unreasonable
length of time and deliberately refrain-
ing from giving any sign of life, al-
though there is a possibility of commu-
nicating with the other spouse, then the
fact of a malicious desertion, by which
the remaining spouse suffers the disrup-
tion of the marriage bond, may be estab-
lished. The same thing is true, as Lu-
ther notes, if the one or the other spouse
consistently and unreasonably refuses
the marital duty, remaining stubborn in
spite of all attempts to change this at-
titude, or if cohabitation is rendered im-
possible by such acts of either spouse as
disrupt the marriage bond and there is
no reasonable indication that circum-
stances can be changed. (This does not
include sickness and impotence after
marriage has been contracted, or either
condition if the facts were known to both
parties before the marriage covenant was
entered upon by a rightful marriage.)
The usual procedure in such a case as
comes under the bead of malicious de-
sertion is the following. The believing
spouse, the one suffering the disruption,
brings notice of that fact to the congre-
gation, in the usual manner. Matt. 18.
If the guilty person is a member of the
congregation and the latter has ex-
hausted all possibilities of bringing the
person to reason, it will declare him or
her an unbeliever and permit the inno-
cent spouse to secure a divorce from the
courts. If the guilty person is not a
member of the congregation, but of some
denomination regarded as Christian, it
is possible to give advice only on the
basis of the facts as they appear, the
final outcome agreeing with the permis-
sion given in 1 Cor. 7. If the guilty per-
son is an unbeliever, then notice of the
facts in the case should be given before
proceeding with measures which will re-
sult in a decree of divorce. In no case,
however, should the matter be dealt with
lightly or with a disregard of the warn-
ing of the Lord: “What God hath joined
together let not man put asunder.”
Mark 10, 9. After the union of bodies
in holy wedlock has once been consum-
mated, the dissolution of the marriage-
tie cannot be undertaken without leav-
ing deep, almost ineradicable scars.
Dix, William Chatterton, 1837- — 98;
had only a grammar-school education;
contributions to hymnody numerous and
very valuable; among his hymns:
“Come unto Me, Ye Weary”; “As with
Gladness Men of Old.”
Doane, George Washington, 1799
to 1859, educated at Union College, Sche-
nectady; held a number of charges in
the Episcopal Church, last bishop of
New Jersey; wrote: “Softly Now the
Light of Lay”; “Thou Art the Way.”
Docetism. A heretical doctrine found
in connection with various sects, al-
though a sect by the name Docetae is
mentioned by Clement of Alexandria.
The fundamental principle of the heresy
is that Christ was only seemingly a
human being, and not in reality.
Doctrinal Theology. See Dogmatics.
Doddridge, Philip, 1702 — 51, studied
in the non-conformist seminary at Kib-
worth; minister at Ivibworth, later at
Northampton, where he was preceptor;
noted for wide range of learning; pub-
lished the Family Expositor ; among his
hymns: “Hark! the Glad Sound, the
Savior Comes.”
Doellinger, Johann Josef Ignaz
von. Church historian and leader of
the Old Catholic movement (q. v.) \
b. Bamberg, 1799, d. at Munich, where
he was professor beginning with 1820,
in 1890; beginning of break with Rome
on account of the doctrine of the im-
maculate conception of the Virgin Mary,
the actual break occurring when the in-
fallibility of the Pope was proclaimed
(Vatican Council, 1870), when he was
formally excommunicated by the Pope;
amoilg his writings: Der Papst und das
Konzil von Janus (pen-name), in col-
laboration with Friedrich.
Dogmatics. That part of theological
knowledge which presents the doctrines
of the Bible in their logical connection
and mutual relation; sound exegetical
work is the basis of doctrinal theology.
Confessional dogmatics setB forth the
special viewpoint of a church-body and
is intensely practical; speculative dog-
matics is merely theoretical and purely
scientific, with the emphasis placed on
Christian consciousness or with a strong
philosophical tendency; this form of
dogmatics is dangerous and therefore
not to be followed.
Dominic, St. The founder of the
Order of Preachers, or Dominicans;
b. in Spain ca. 1170; d. 1221. Dominic
received an excellent education and be-
came noted for his gravity and austerity.
At Toulouse, in 1203, he came in contact
Dominican*
213
Donne, John
with the Albigensos, whose growth he
tried to cheek by preaching and by
establishing convents. Since the indo-
lence and worldliness of the secular
clergy favored the development of “her-
etical” movements, he conceived the idea
of an order of unselfish preachers to
teach the people and especially to con-
vert heretics. For these purposes he
founded his order in 1215 (see Domini-
cans), becoming its first general. When
he died in Bologna, on a bed of ashes,
the order already numbered 00 houses.
Dominicans (Ordo Praedicatorum ;
Order of Preachers) . At the beginning
of the thirteenth century the Spaniard
Domingo, or Dominic (see Dominic, St.) ,
while engaged in efforts to convert the
Albigenses of Southern France, conceived
the idea of an order of monks living in
apostolic poverty, who should combat
heresy by preaching. His order was
based on the so-called Augustinian Rule
and early adopted the mendicant char-
acter (see M indicant Monks). Domi-
nic’s dying curse on those who should
bring temporal possessions into the order
was soon disregarded. The order grew
rapidly, showed a preference for popu-
lous cities, and developed a many-sided
activity. Its members preached to the
faithful and became missionaries to the
heathen, but especially defended the ac-
cepted teaching against dissenters (here-
tics, pagans) by word and book. When
gentler arguments failed, they employed
those of the Inquisition, which was in
their charge. They preached crusades
against Saracens and heretical Chris-
tians, earned the eulogies of Popes by
supporting the papacy in every way,
and even collected papal funds (Tetzell).
Matthew of Paris says in 1250: “Armed
with powers of every kind, they turn all
to the profit of the Pope.” They like-
wise fostered learning and produced
many eminent scholars. Albertus Mag-
nus and his pupil, Thomas Aquinas, the
favorite Roman theologian, were Domin-
icans. The order, in the course of time,
developed an aristocratic tendency and
had frequent quarrels with other orders,
especially the Jesuits. At present it
numbers about 3,000 members, 339 of
whom are in the United States.
Donatello, 1386 — 1460, Italian artist
in bronze, after the style of Brunelles-
chi; his Evangelist John on the facade
of the Dome of Florence and his St.
George (or San Michele) are his best
statues.
Donatist Schism, The. Substantially
of the same character as the Novatian;
grew out of the conflict of views as to
the discipline called for in the case of
the lapsed, now particularly the tradi-
lores (who had surrendered the sacred
books to the persecutors ) . When on the
death of Mensurius, bishop of Carthage
(311), who had frowned upon voluntary
martyrdom, the moderate party hastily
elected his archdeacon bishop, the rigor-
istic-fanatical party excommunicated
him on the plea that one of the conse-
crating bishops was a traditor and set
up a rival bishop, who, in 313, was
succeeded by Donatus the Great. Under
his energetic leadership the movement
spread through all of North Africa.
Tlie Donatists held that the Sacraments
administered by one deserving excom-
munication were invalid, that the Cath-
olic Church, failing to excommunicate
such, had ceased to be the true church,
that even its baptism was invalid, and
that they alone, because of their strict
discipline and the absolute purity of
their members and clergy, were the true
bride of Christ. ( C'p. Art. 8, Augsb. Conf.
and Apology.) When ecclesiastical com-
missioners and a synod decided against
the Donatists, they were subjected to
persecution, their churches closed, and
their bishops exiled. Since persecution
was regarded as a mark of the true
Church, their fanaticism only increased,
and death met at the hands of the mili-
tary sent to suppress the revolt to which
the Oircumcelliones, fanatical ascetics
allied with the Donatists, had incited
the peasants, was regarded as martyr-
dom. Under Julian the Apostate, who
permitted them to take violent revenge
upon the Catholics, they flourished, hav-
ing at that time 400 bishops. Later
severe laws were again passed against
them. Inner decay now began to set in,
the ostentatious exclusiveness of the ex-
tremists caused a schism within the
schism, and the twenty years’ labor of
Augustine won back many of them. At
a conference in 411 between 286 Cath-
olic and 279 Donatist bishops the im-
perial commissioner decided against the
Donatists, and they were forhidden to
assemble, under pain of death. Augus-
tine justified these coercive measures,
appealing, wrongly, to Luke 14, 23. The
Vandals (429) persecuted Catholics and
Donatists alike, and the schism ended
in the seventh century with the destruc-
tion of the African Church by the Sara-
cens.
Donne, John, 1573 — 1631. Anglican;
Londoner; was brought up a Catholic;
turned Protestant; ordained 1615;
dean of St. Paul’s 1021 ; famous poet
and preacher.
Do until Saperadditam
214
Dowleltes
Donum Superadditum. A designa-
tion of the scholastic doctrine of ‘‘super-
added grace” given to Adam, in addi-
tion to his natural powers, and lost by
him through the Fall. Man lived in
moral communion with God by virtue of
an original righteousness, which exalted
him above merely human nature and
hence is termed a supernatural ^ift of
grace, superadded to the endowments of
nature. The Roman Church teaches
that this supernatural presence or like-
ness of God is restored by baptism, so
that a baptized person stands in the re-
lation of Adam before the Fall.
Dorn, L. W. ; b. October 15, 1803, in
Boeuf Creek, Mo.;, graduated from Con-
cordia Seminary, St. Louis, 1885; as-
sistant pastor to his father in Pleasant
Ridge, 111.; pastor at Rockford and later
at Belleville, 111.; 1900 Professor of
Mathematics and Natural Sciences, later
of German and History, in Fort Wayne;
editor of the Kinder- mid Jugendhlalt
for twenty -two years; contributor to
Homilelisches Magazin and Lutheranerj
d. April 4, 1918.
Dorner, Isaak August, b. 1809,
d. 1884; mediating theologian, inllu-
enced by Schleiermacher; professor at
various places, at last in Berlin, 1802 to
1884; wrote Die Lehre von der Person
Christi.
Dort, Synod of. See Synod of Dort. •
Doukhobors (Russian “spirit-wres-
tlers”), Russian sect which in recent
years adopted the name of “Christians
of the Universal Brotherhood.” Origi-
nated in various parts of Russia and
first heard from about the middle of the
eighteenth century because of their op-
position to the Russian government and
the Orthodox Church. The government
used repressive measures, but early in
the nineteenth century permitted them
to congregate in their settlement near
the Sea of Azof. Because of crimes
committed in their colony they were
banished to Transcaucasia, 1841. Con-
tinued persecution, due to their refusal
to bear arms, internal strife, exile of
tlieir leader, Peter Verigin, 1887,
prompted the majority, with the assist-
ance of Count Tolstoy ( q . v.) and English
Quakers, to emigrate to Canada, 1889,
followed by Verigin, 1902. Established
settlements in Saskatchewan and Brit-
ish Columbia, with sprinkling in other
provinces. They numbered 12,658 in
1921. They are known to be industrious,
abstemious, hospitable, but in dealings
with the Canadian government secretive
and mendacious. They came into con-
flict with the authorities through re-
fusal to swear allegiance and obey police
regulations and the school laws. As to
their religion, they are anti-'I'rinitarians.
Christ was a mere man. They reject all
church organization, priesthood, sacra-
ments, confession, worship of icons, (q. v.)
marriage ceremony; have no use for the
Bible except the Ten Commandments and
certain “useful” passages; believe that
the Holy Spirit dwells in man’s soul and
guides him directly. Other tenets are
vegetarianism, refusal to kill animals
for food or clothing, non-resistance.
Their colonies are communistic; all
money earned is paid into the central
treasury. Recently large numbers sepa-
rated from the main body, refused alle-
giance to Verigin, and formed a subsect.
Dowieites. Followers of John Alex-
ander Dowie. Dowie was born 1847 at
Edinburgh, Scotland; ordained pastor in
the Congregational Church, Australia,
1871; established independent church in
Melbourne 1882, where he began to prac-
tise faith-healing; came to America
1888, first to Pacific coast, then to
Evanston, 111., 1890; built Zion Taber-
nacle in Chicago 1893 and organized his
numerous followers into the “Christian
Catholic Church in Zion,” 189(1, sup-
posedly on the plan of the early Apos-
tolic Church. In 1899 he bought 0,500
acres on Lake Michigan, forty-two miles
north of Chicago, and established there
a partly religious, partly industrial com-
munity, called Zion City, of whose finan-
cial and ecclesiastical affairs he had
complete control. He established schools
and a college and many industries, es-
pecially the lace industry, transported
bodily from Nottingham, England. He
had extraordinary success both as busi-
ness manager and religious leader, as-
suming, 1901, the title “Elijah the Re-
storer” and in 1904 “First Apostle.”
While he demanded of his followers re-
pentance of sins and faith in Christ, the
most prominent religious tenet was that
of faith -healing, he himself claiming to
possess remarkable powers. All diseases
are produced by the devil, and as Christ
came to destroy the works of the devil,
so this power is still bestowed to-day.
See Organization of the Christian Cath-
olic Church and the periodical Leaves
of Healing. Other tenets were baptism
by immersion, millenarianism, absti-
nence from pork, tobacco, and intoxi-
cating liquors. In Zion City Dowie was
“General Overseer,” and under him were
overseers, elders, evangelists, deacons
and the “seventies.” He established
branches in other States and sent mis-
sionaries to Old World countries; but
a missionary campaign in New York
Down ton, Henry
215
Drntlimar, Christian
City and several visits to England
proved failures. In 1900 this movement
had 17 organizations in the United
States, 35 ministers, and 5,805 members,
of whom 4,880 were in Illinois, the rest
in nine other States. After his New York
failure considerable unrest developed in
Zion City. Dowie ' was accused of im-
morality and of mismanaging the Zion
City property, valued at $10,000,000.
Ho was deposed 1900 and died 1907, and
Wilbur tllenn Voliva, born 1870 in In-
diana, formerly minister of the Chris-
tian Church, became his successor. Un-
der Voliva’s management, Zion City
continued to develop industrially for a
time, while the religious element was
less stressed, but soon factions arose,
which hurt the organization to such an
extent that in 1910 some of the factories
had to be sold.
Downton, Henry, 1818 — 85, edu-
cated at Cambridge; held a number of
positions as clergyman, the last being
rector of Hopton; noted as translator;
among bis hymns: “For Thy Mercy and
Thy Grace.”
Doxology. A stately and exultant
hymn of praise, addressed to the Triune
God or to a single person of the God-
head, as in many parts of Paul’s let-*
ters; in particular, the Greater Dox-
ology ( Gloria in Exec! sis ) . the Lesser
Doxology (Gloria Patri) , and the long-
meter tioxology.
Draeseke, Johann Heinrich Bern-
hard, b. 1774, d. 1849 at Potsdam; bril-
liant pulpit orator, moderate rational-
ist, and a defender of th<f Prussian
Union ; 1832 general superintendent at
Magdeburg.
Dragonades (see Huguenots). This
word is derived from the French term
dragon. Dragoons were employed in
carrying out the fierce persecutions of
the Protestants in France during the
reign of Louis XIV.
Drese, Adam, 1020 — 1701, musician
at the court of Duke Wilhelm of Saxe-
Weimar; mayor of Jena; Kapellmeister
at Arnstadt; strong pietistic tendency;
wrote: “Seelenbraeutigam, Jesu, Gottes
Lamm.”
Driver, Samuel Holies, 1846 — 1914;
Anglican; Bible critic; b. at Southamp-
ton, d. at Oxford; successor of Pusey as
professor of Hebrew and canon of Christ
Church, Oxford, 1883; member of Old
Testament Revision Company. Commen-
taries; Leviticus in the Polychrome
Bible; joint author of Hebrew and En-
glish Lexicon Old Testament ; joint edi-
tor of Hastings’s Dictionary of the Bible;
an Old Testament Introduction; etc.
Druids. Priests of the Celtic popu-
lation of ancient Gaul, Britain, and Ire-
land. Their learning, which was trans-
mitted orally, consisted of a mixture of
religion, natural science, medicine, etc.
The oak and mistletoe were objects of
veneration. They also were prominent
politically and socially, but were un-
able to withstand the advance of Roman
civilization in Gaul and Southern
Britain, while in Northern Britain and
Ireland they later succumbed to the in-
fluence of Christianity.
Druids, United Ancient Order of.
A fraternal and benevolent society,
founded in London, in 1781, as a par-
allel to the United or Loyal Order of
Odd-Fellows, rather than to the Free-
masons, since its purpose was to relieve
sickness and distress among its members
by means of stated contributions. It
“promptly took on the character of a
secret order.” Its ritual is founded on
the precepts and traditions of the an-
cient Druidic priesthood, and the lodges
use altars after the manner of the
Druidic “cromlech” or “dolmen.” The
forms of initiation and the degrees are
declared to be “recitals and reminders
of the integrity, simplicity, and morality
of the ancient [pagan] Druids.” The
order was transferred to the United
States in 1830. In 1839 George Wash-
ington Lodge No. 1 was established in
New York. The lodges are now called
“Groves” and are governed by a “Grand
Grove.”' The form of government closely
resembles that of the various orders of
Odd-Fellows and Foresters. The presid-
ing officer of a Grand Grove bears the
title “Noble Grand Arch.” To promote
the prosperity of the order, “Druidic
Chapters” have been organized, to which
all members in good standing are eli-
gible who have attained the third de-
gree. Women relatives are received
into “Circles,” which also have male
members. The American membership is
35,000; the total membership, 300,000.
Druses. A people and a religious
sect in the Lebanon, Anti-Lebanon, and
Hauran, racially of mixed Aramaic and
Arabic stock, speaking Arabic, and num-
bering more than 150,000. Their re-
ligious system, which had its beginning
in the eleventh century, is a mixture of
Shiite Mohammedan, Christian, and
other elements. They believe in the
unity of God, calling themselves Uni-
tarians. In 1860 their fanaticism led to
a massacre of the Christian Maronites.
Druthmar, Christian (Grammati-
cus ) . Benedictine monk of Corvey, at
the beginning of the ninth century, dis-
' Dschagga
216
Duff, Alexander
tinguished for his linguistic learning;
in 840 Bible expositor at Stablo, near
LiSge; his Expositio in Evangelium 8.
Matthaei issued in printed form in six-
teenth century ; emphasized literal
sense.
Dschagga, an African native tribe
near the Kilimanjaro. Mission-work
was begun by the C. M. S., which in
1893 was taken over by Lutheran Leip-
zig Mission; since 1922 under the Lu-
theran Augustana Synod.
Dualism, in theology, the assumption
of two mutually hostile superior beings,
one representing everything morally
good and beneficial to man, the other
the source of all sin and evil, as in
Zoroastrianism ( q . v.) and its modern
form, the religion of the Parsees ( q. v . ) ,
and in Gnosticism (q.v.). In philos-
ophy the view that in the world there
are two principles, or substances, which
are wholly independent and totally dif-
ferent from one another, the spiritual
and the corporeal, mind and matter, op-
posed to monism (q.v.), which assumes
only one primal cause. Theistic (Bibli-
cal) dualism, which asserts the essen-
tial difference between the Creator and
creation, is opposed to pantheism (q.v.) .
Dubois, Theodore, 1837 — , taught
music at Rheims, later studied at Paris
and Rome, held posts as professor of
harmony and composition; many secu-
lar works, among his oratorios : The
Seven Last Words of Christ.
Dubourg, Anna, b. 1520 (?), LL. D.
University of Orleans, Protestant 1559;
in Parliament pleaded for persecuted
Protestants; imprisoned; wrote confes-
sion of faith; hanged and burned at
Paris, December 23, 1559.
Duck River Baptists (and kindred
associations). The Duck River Baptists
separated themselves from the Elk River
Association, which had been founded in
1808 in the mountain regions of Ten-
nessee, Kentucky, Georgia, and Alabama.
With the growth of the revival move-
ment and the introduction of Metho-
dism a stricter theology and a more
rigid rule in the Church were demanded,
which manifested itself in the growth
of the Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit Predesti-
nariau Baptists. Holding to a milder
form of doctrine, the Duck River Asso-
ciation was organized, thus furnishing
the nucleus for a number of churches
holding essentially the same general doc-
trines as the Separate Baptists, but not
identifying themselves with them be-
cause of local conditions. In doctrine
the Duck River Baptists are Calvinistic,
though liberal, believing that “Christ
tasted death for every man,” thus mak-
ing it possible for God to have mercy
upon all who come unto Him on Gospel
terms. They believe that sinners are
justified by faith; that the saints will
“persevere,” and that baptism of be-
lievers by immersion, the Lord’s Sup-
per, and foot-washing, are Gospel insti-
tutions, which should be observed until
the second coming of Christ. In polity
they arc congregational. The only form
of discipline is withdrawal of fellowship
on evidence of difference of views or of
conduct unbecoming a member of the
church. In 1916 they had 105 organiza-
tions, 6,872 members, and 51 church edi-
fices.
Duerer, Albrecht, 1471 — 1528, most
prominent German painter of the six-
teenth century and one of the greatest
masters of all times in combining poetry
with the art of painting, whose ideas
were freely disseminated among the
people of liis time, also by means of
woodcuts and copper -plate work; stud-
ied under Michael Wohlgemut, made ex-
tended study trips through Germany
and to Italy; issued a number of series,
that of the Life of Mary, in which the
Plight into Egypt and the Rest in Egypt
possess great charm, and the series on
the Passion of the Lord, one of twelve
and one of sixteen scenes. Of his larger
pictures the Adoration of the Three
Kings and the Four Apostles are most
notable, the latter picture also express-
ing the artist’s position with regard to
the Reformation, of which he was an ad-
herent.
Duemling 1 , H. Educator and writer;
b. in Germany, 1845; professor at
Teachers’ Seminary, Addison, 111., 1872
to 74; at Concordia College, Fort Wayne,
Ind., 1874 — 99; editor of the Abend-
schule for many years; of the Germania
in Milwaukee, 1899 — 1913; member of
Board of Control of Concordia College
of that city; wrote several books on
natural history and a series of arithme-
tics; d. March 11, 1913.
Duemling, Herman A. Surgeon;
b. September 18, 1871, at Addison, HI.;
studied at Concordia College, Fort
Wayne, Ind., Missouri Medical School,
St. Louis, Mo., Frederick Wilhelm Uni-
versity, Berlin, Germany; President of
American Luther League.
Duff, Alexander, b. April 26, 1806,
at Perthshire, Scotland; d. February 12,
1878, at Edinburgh; the first mission-
ary of the Church of Scotland to the
heathen in India, landing there in 1830.
With the assistance of Ram Mohon Roy,
Duffield, Samuel Willoughby 217
Eagles, Fraternal Order of
the founder of the Brahma Samaj, he
founded a school in Calcutta for the
higher castes, which at once was success-
ful and exercised a fur-reaching influ-
ence. Upon the division in the Church
of Scotland he went with the Free
Church, reorganizing his whole work.
Because of ill health he returned to Scot-
land in 1864, continuing to work for
foreign missions until his death.
Duffield, Samuel Willoughby, 1843
to 87, educated at Yale College; pastor
of Presbyterian denomination at Bloom-
field, N. J.; interested in hymnology;
published a Book of Verse; Laudcs Do-
mini; English Hymns, Their Authors
and History.
Dukhobors. See Doukliobors.
Dulia. See Lairia.
Dunkers, Progressive. See' Brethren
Church.
Dupin (Du Pin), Louis Ellies.
French Roman Catholic historian; 1057
to 1719; received thorough education,
becoming a Doctor of the Sorbonne in
1084; voluminous writer; accused of
rationalistic tendencies; wrote a trea-
tise on ancient church discipline and
edited a library of church authors.
Du Plessis-Mornay, b. 1549; earnest
Protestant Christian, Henry of Navarre’s
pen and conscience, till Henry turned
Catholic; founded the Protestant Uni-
versity of Saumur; “Pope of the Hu-
guenots”; made possible the Edict of
Nantes; d. 1023.
Dutch Guiana. See South America.
Dwight, John Sullivan, 1813 — 93,
educated at Harvard and at Cambridge;
after six years of ministerial work en-
tered literary field; recast the hymn
“God Bless Our Native Land.”
Dwight, Timothy, 1752 — 1817 ; edu-
cated at Yale College; after holding sev-
eral pastorates, president of Yale Col-
lege; a very important figure in early
American hymnology; wrote: “I Love
Thy Zion, Lord,” and others.
Dwight, Timothy, 1828—1916; Con-
gregationalist; grandson of above; b. at
Norwich, Conn.; professor of New Tes-
tament Greek at Yale; ordained 1801;
president of Yale 1880 — 99; American
Bible reviser; American editor of some
of Meyer’s Commentaries; d. at New
Haven.
Dykes, John Bacchus, 1823 — 76,
educated at Cambridge; minor canon;
later vicar and precentor at Durham;
also conductor of the Music Society;
wrote hymns and composed music for
23d Psalm.
E
Eagles, Fraternal Order of. History.
This fraternal order was founded in
Seattle, Wash., in 1898, by a coterie of
“Bohemians” mainly bent on pleasure.
For some time the “Aeries” had an
unsavory reputation for violating the
liquor laws as well as for other moral
delinquencies, hut under the administra-
tion of President Frank E. Hering the
charters were withdrawn from some of
the offending branches. On January 1,
1910, a new ritual was adopted, since
the old one had been divulged by rene-
gade Eagles. ■ — Purpose. The order pur-
poses to proclaim “the principles of
Liberty, Truth, Justice, and Equality”
and to advocate “the Golden Rule laid
down by Christ.” It cultivates socia-
bility, spends large sums for sick- and
death-benefits, furnishes its members
and their families free medical service,
insures them a decent burial, provides
relief for their widows and their or-
phaned children, and, in general, “takes
care of its members when they become
sick or disabled.” For members and
their families the order provides “a year-
round program of wholesome social life
and pleasurable activity.” Moreover, it
undertakes “to improve the communities
in which the members live,” and some
of the richer “Aeries” have made their
homes practically civic centers. Besides
this, it supports local charities and wel-
fare work. — Organization. The order is
divided into branches, called “Aeries.”
The national conventions are known as
“Grand Aerie Sessions” and are presided
over by the “Grand Worthy President,”
assisted by other officers. Jfuneral ser-
vices are conducted by lay “chaplains.” —
Character. The F. O. E. is more than an
insurance order. In the Official Circular
No. 77/, published by Mr. Hering when
“Grand Worthy President’” and dated
“South Bend, Ind., November 20, 1909,”
it is said: “Our ritual is the fraternal
religion of the Fraternal Order of
Eagles. It names the great ethical
principles to the furtherance of which
this order is dedicated. The beneficial
and social features of our order are
only concrete aids in carrying out the
ideas and ideals set forth in our obli-
gation and in our lectures. The benefits
and the social hours are means to an
Easier Controversy
218
Eastern Star, Order of
end; that end is to add to the sum of
human happiness.” “The order has a se-
cret ritual (cp. Eagle Magazine, Vol. XI,
No. 6, p. 34), “no part of which is open
to the prying eyes of the public.” The
“Aeries” hold “memorial services for de-
ceased members,” at which prayers are
recited by lay “chaplains.” Not a few
of its leaders, like Frank E. Hering, are
high-degree Freemasons. — Membership.
The Insurance Department was estab-
lished in 1918 with 2,516 benefit mem-
bers. There are now altogether 1,194
lodges. The total membership is given
at over 500,000. The home office is in
Kansas City, Mo.
Easter Controversy. It arose from
a lack of uniform practise regarding the
time of celebrating the Christian Pass-
over. The churches of Asia Minor
always celebrated it on the 14tli of
Nisan, so that the death of Christ might
be commemorated on any day of the
week. The entire West, on the con-
trary, uniformly celebrated the death of
Christ on a Friday and the resurrection
on the Sunday following. This difference,
only generally stated here, was already
discussed by Polycarp of Smyrna and
Anicetus of Rome (ca. 155). Under
Victor of Rome, about a generation
later, it almost led to a schism. The
Council of Nicea declared itself against
the Quartodecimanians, who were hence-
forth treated as heretics. For further
details larger works must be consulted.
Eastern Star, Order of. The Order
of the Eastern Star was established in
1788 and reestablished in 1867 as an
“adoptive rite” of Freemasonry, “created
by Freemasons, and only members of the
Masonic fraternity and women relatives
of the latter being allowed to join it.”
( Gycl . of Frat., p. 98.) According to the
Builder, “a journal for the Masonic stu-
dent” (Anamosa, Iowa, Vol. VII, No. 11,
Nov., 1922), the Order of the Eastern
Star is “nq£ a Masonic organization in
any sense of that word, except the loos-
est, which would cover the whole family
of societies associated with, or similar
to, Freemasonry, such as the Shrine, the
Grotto, the Sciots, the Rosicrucians, the
Acacia Fraternity, etc.” The question
regarding the Masonic status of the
Eastern Star was precipitated by an
order of Grand Master John S. Sell of
Pennsylvania, commanding Master Ma-
sons of that jurisdiction either to sever
their connection with the Eastern Star
or be dropped from Masonry. (See the
Builder, Masonic monthly, Cedar Rap-
ids, Iowa, July, 1923, Vol. IX, No. 7,
p. 222 sq.) Likewise the Grand Lodge of
England, “the Mother Masonic, Grand
Lodge of the World,” has declined to en-
dorse the Eastern Star. The Grand
Chapter of the Eastern Star protested
against this action on the ground that
no grand lodge has the right to prescribe
what societies shall be open to Masons.
The reason of the edict against the
Order of the Eastern Star seems to have
been that some Masonic secrets leaked
out through members of the Eastern
Star. — Purpose. In general, the pur-
pose of the Order of the Eastern Star is
similar to that ' of Freemasonry. It
claims that its teachings are founded on
the Holy Bible. Its degrees, as a rule,
are named for Bible characters (Ruth,
Esther, Martha, etc.). The heroine of
the fifth and last degree, according to
its author, Robert Morris (Macoy’s Ma-
sonic Manual, p. 62), is alluded to in
the Second Epistle of St. John under the
title of Electa (?). The ritual, known
as the Michigan Ritual and used in that
State from the early fifties of the past
century, was written by John II. Tatum.
This ritual, however, has been revised
once or twice. — Organization. In 1807
Michigan organized the first grand chap-
ter with delegates from fifteen chapters,
or lodges. But already in 1855 Morris
had inaugurated a “Supreme Constella-
tion” of the Eastern Star, composed of
lodges in the States of New Jersey, New
York, Indiana, Kentucky, Georgia, and
Missouri. A “Constellation” was com-
posed of five or more of each sex, but no
more than 25 could be members of the
“Constellation.” Other “Constellations”
were added, but in 1870 they had died
out. In 1868 Robert Macoy, National
Grand Secretary, arranged a Manual of
the Eastern Star and published a char-
ter, which he sold to chapters. About
700 chapters were organized. In 1870
the “General Grand Chapter” was formed
at Indianapolis, Ind., with delegates
from Indiana, New Jersey, Missouri, and
California. From this resulted the
present ordes, now spread in all parts
of the world. Each State of the Union
lias a “Grand Chapter” with jurisdic-
tion over its chapters, except Delaware.
Michigan has the oldest “Grand Chap-
ter.” — Character. The Order of the
Eastern Star is more than a charitable
and benevolent body. Its teachings are
expressed by the symbolism of the Order,
which centers about the five-pointed star
and the pentagon, or signet of Solomon,
The first point, according to the modern
ritual, represents the binding force of
the vow, illustrated by Jephthah’s
daughter; the second, devotion to re-
ligious principles, as exemplified in the
Klieling-, Johann Georg
219
Kckf Joliann
character of Ruth; the third, fidelity
to kindred and friends, as personified hy
Esther; the fourth, faith in the power
and merits of a Redeemer, as mani-
fested by Martha; and the fifth, charity,
illustrated by Electa ( ?). The society
has the customary sign-language found
in kindred lodges, and its practical re-
ligion is obedience to the principles of
virtue and truth. — Membership. At
present Illinois ha's the largest member-
ship and the largest number of chap-
ters. New York and New Jersey are the
only States not under the jurisdiction
of the “General Grand Chapter.” Mem-
bership in the United States is esti-
mated at between 125,000 and 150,000.
In Canada there are grand chapters in
Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, Sas-
katchewan, Manitoba, and Quebec. In
Scotland there are about 35,000 mem-
bers. In England the order is not per-
mitted to establish itself. International
headquarters were established in Wash-
ington, D. C., in April, 1921, with offices
in the Masonic Temple.
Ebeling, Johann Georg, 1020 — 70;
little known of his early life; in 1602
musical director and teacher at St.
Nicolai, in Berlin, where Paul Gerhardt
then held the office of diaconus, for
many of whose hymns lie composed the
chorals; after 1008 professor of music
at the Gymnasium Carolinum in Stet-
tin; published Pauli Qerhardti Geistliche
Andachlen, a collection of 120 sacred
songs.
Eber, Paul, 1511 — 09; studied at the
St. Lorenz School in Nuernberg and at
Wittenberg under Luther and Melanch-
thon; Latin professor there in 1544, of
Hebrew in 1557 ; castle preacher ; later,
city preacher and general superinten-
dent of the electorate; next 'to Luther,
best poet of Wittenberg school; wrote:
“Halft mir Gott’s Guete preisen”; “Herr
Gott, dicli loben alle wir”; “Wenn wir
in hoechsten Noeten sein”; “Herr Jesu
Christ, wahr’r Mensch und Gott.”
Eberhardt, Christoph Ludwig ;
b. 1831 in Lauffen, Wuerttemberg; edu-
cated at the Basel Missionary Institute;
came to Pastor Schmid, Ann Arbor,
1860; first missionary of Michigan
Synod; pastor of St. Paul’s, Saginaw,
1801; stood for sound Lutheranism;
“Father of Michigan Seminary,” contri-
buting liberally and bequeathing a sub-
stantial sum; helped found Michigan
Synod and remained its leader until his
death, 1893.
Ebionites ( Hebrew, ebijon, poor ) ,
a term of various connotation, applied
at first probably to all Christians alike
by their Jewish adversaries (cf. the
pauperes of Minucius Felix). More
limited, it denotes all Judaizing Chris-
tians. So Origen (f 254), who, however,
distinguishes two parties, a more con-
servative and a more radical one, the
former perhaps identical with the Naza-
renes. It is the extreme Ebionites that
concern us here. Maintaining the per-
petual obligation of the Mosaic Law, de-
claring Paul a heretic and rejecting his
epistles, denying the divinity of Christ
and recognizing in Him only a supreme
Lawgiver, they,. degraded Christianity to
the level of Jewish legalism. They dis-
appear from history about the end of
the fourth century.
Eccard, Johannes, 1553 — 1011; pu-
pil of Joachim von Burgk and of Orlan-
dus Lassus; in 1578 director of the
Rugger private orchestra at Augsburg;
later Kapellmeister at Koenigsbcrg and
finally at Berlin; eminent composer of
sacred music; among his own published
works are: Neve deulsche hieder and
Jt'ucnftilimmigc geistliche hieder; a mo-
tet, O Lamm (lattes, has been reprinted
in modern form.
Ecclesiology. That part of dog-
matics or doctrinal theology which
treats of the conception of the Church
chiefly according to its internal religious
aspect, “the Holy Christian Church, the
communion of saints.”
Ecclesiastical Polity. A branch of
theological knowledge properly connected
most closely with church history and
pastoral theology, which gives informa-
tion on, and instruction concerning, the
government of the Church or of indi-
vidual congregations. Among the chief
types of ecclesiastical polity' are the
monarchical type of Roman Catholicism,
the aristocratic type of the Oriental
churches, the consistorial type of the
Lutheran churches of Germany, the Epis-
copal type of the Church of England
and of the Protestant Episcopal Church,
the Presbyterian type of many Reformed
bodies, particularly of the strict pres-
byterian type, the congregational type
of many Lutheran, Congregational, and
Baptist churches, in which the individ-
ual congregation is autonomous, and the
eclectic type, which combines the fea-
tures of the one or the other type per-
taining to certain church-bodies. The
church polity clearly in harmony with
Biblical standards and doctrine is that
of the congregational type. See also
Church and State ; Religious Liberty.
Eck, Johann (Maier or Mayr). Ro-
man Catholic controversialist, violent
opponent of Luther, 1486 — 1543; studied
Kckhardt, E.
220
Education of Ministers
at Heidelberg and Tuebingen; Semi-
Pelagian in his views; attacked Luther
in his Obelisks; disputation between
Eck and Carlstadt (Luther) at Leipzig,
1519; issued a version of Eraser's trans-
lation of the New Testament.
Eckhardt, E. (“Meister”), father of
German speculative mysticism (intuition
the highest stage of knowledge) ; Do-
minican vicar-general, with power to re-
form the convents in Bohemia, and
teacher of theology in France and Ger-
many (Suso and Tauler his pupils) ;
charged at Cologne with teaching pan-
theism, which he disclaimed; d. 1327
(132 8). While bis ethical view is of
rare purity, he teaches salvation through
perfect love for God and self-denial.
Ecuador. See South America.
Eddy, Clarence, 1851 — ; studied un-
der Buck, in Berlin under Haupt and
Loeschhorn; distinguished organist;
director of Hershey School of Music in
Chicago; made many tours, published
a number of compositions and books of
theory.
Eddy, Mary Baker Glover. See
Christian Science.
Edersheim, Alfred, 1825 — 89; En-
glish scholar; b. at Vienna; Jew; con-
verted; Presbyterian minister 1846;
Anglican curate 1875; lecturer at Ox-
ford; d. at Menton. Life and Times of
Jesus the Messiah; etc.
Edessa (Conversion and School at).
Edessa, a city in northern Mesopotamia,
adopted Christianity before the end of
the second century and became the chief
seat of Christian life and learning in the
East. Its theological school (the Schola
Persica) , established by Ephraem the
Syrian ca. 350, after the Persians had
destroyed his school at Nisibis, fur-
nished ministers to Mesopotamia and
Persia and championed the cause of
orthodoxy against Arianism and Nes-
torianism, until the school itself fell
under the charge of the latter and was
closed by the bishop (489). In Biblical
interpretation the school represented, in
the main, the grammatico-historical as
opposed to the allegorizing method.
Edict of Nantes. In this edict,
April 13, 1598, Henry IV of Prance
granted toleration to bis Protestant sub-
jects. It was revoked on October 22,
1685, by Louis NIV, which caused the
expatriation of about 50,000 Protestants.
Edmeston, James, 1791 — 1867, edu-
cated as architect and surveyor; greatly
interested in church-work; his hymns
number almost 2,000; wrote, among
others: “Lead Us, Heavenly Father”;
“Savior, Breathe an Evening Blessing.”
Education, Higher. See Higher Edu-
cation.
Education of Ministers. In the
earliest times ministers of the Gospel re-
ceived the necessary training for their
work by means of personal contact and
instruction, such as Christ gave to His
disciples and Paul to his colaborers. De-
bates with Gnostics and pagan philos-
ophers made it necessary for the leaders
of the Church to be well trained. Cate-
chetical schools came to be also semi-
naries for the clergy. The most promi-
nent of these were Alexandria and Rome.
Little is known of the organization,
courses, and the history of these insti-
tutions. During the Middle Ages theo-
logical, students came to depend for their
education on the cloister and on epis-
copal schools; in the country some re-
ceived their training in the home of the
local priest. In the fifth century there
were such schools in Italy, France, Eng-
land, and Ireland, whence also came the
missionaries who preached in Germany,
(St. Gall and other monasteries). In
general, theological training was very
deficient. To preach only a short ser-
mon was a difficult task even for a
bishop, and many priests were hardly
able to read the Scripture lesson for the
Sunday. Charlemagne in his day labored
faithfully for the advancement of min-
isterial education, encouraging the erec-
tion and maintenance of monastic and
episcopal schools. It became customary
for each cathedral to have its own school
for the training of the clergy, and in
814 this was made compulsory. The
schools at .Rome and at Lifigc were most
prominent in the 10th century. But
most of these schools gave only elemen-
tary instruction; higher education Vas
directed to the study of the Scriptures
and the Fathers. Beginning with the
13th century, theological schools became
parts of universities, Dominicans and
Franciscans establishing their colleges
at every important seat of learning.
Paris and Oxford were famous for their
theological instruction. At Paris ten
years were required for the completion
of the course. Subjects: Exegesis, Dog-
matics, Morals, Church and Canon Law,
Homiletics. Method: Lectures and dis-
putations. Texts: Sentences of Peter
Lombard, the Bible. To regulate the
lives of students, special dwellings were
provided. The Renaissance and the Ref-
ormation had great influence on theo-
logical education. Scholastic theology
Edncation of Minister*
221 Education, Popular and Christian
was banished; study of Biblical inter-
pretation in the original languages
formed the basis of instruction. Com-
mentaries on the chief books of the Bible
were written (Luther’s Genesis, Proph-
ets, Galatians, etc.). Next in importance
was dogmatic theology, a summary of
the doctrines of Scriptures (Melanch-
thon’s Loci and Calvin’s Insiitutiones) .
Much attention was given to practical
matters; the teaching and preaching
function of ministers was emphasized.
About 1700, Pietism, stressing the per-
sonal religious experience, set in as a re-
action against the prevailing intellectual
and philosophic training at the univer-
sities. About 1800, Rationalism ruled
supreme even in the theological facul-
ties and corrupted the future ministers
of the Church. During the 19th century
modern scientific and liberal thought
dominated the theology of Germany, and
the ideas and expressions of the German
lecture-room made their way to other
countries and affected the education of
ministers everywhere. Almost from the
first the universities which came under
Protestant influence were the training-
places for the future ministers (Witten-
berg, Leipzig, Jena, Geneva, Basel, Up-
sala, Oxford, Cambridge ) . As time went
on, the deficiency of the universities as
practical training-schools became appar-
ent, and theological seminaries were
established, in which the candidates re-
ceived instruction in the practise of
their profession. After the Counter-
Reformation the education of the Cath-
olic priesthood passed largely into the
hands of the Jesuits. The Catholic edu-
cational system includes both theolog-
ical faculties in the universities and
numerous theological seminaries. In
America chairs of divinity were estab-
lished at Harvard in 1638 and at Yale
in 1641, but the most practical training
students received was the experience
and individual instruction gained in the
homes of leading ministers of the colo-
nies. In the early years of the 19th cen-
tury nearly all denominations built their
own seminaries. In 1839 Lutheran im-
migrants from Saxony settled in Perry
Co., Mo., and at once opened a college
for the training of ministers in a rude
log cabin, which was destined to become
the mother of a large number of col-
leges and seminaries, now under the fos-
tering care of the Missouri Synod. At
Port Wayne, Ind., Milwaukee, Wis., St.
Paul, Minn., Concordia, Mo., Bronxville,
N. Y., Winfield, Kans., Conover, N. C.,
Oakland, Cal., Portland, Oreg., and Ed-
monton, Can., this synod maintains col-
leges, where young men contemplating
entering the ministry receive their pre-
paratory classical education. Time: six
to seven years; studies: English, Ger-
man, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Mathematics,
History, Sciences. Then they enter the
theological seminary at St. Louis, Mo.,
now the largest Lutheran theological
seminary in this country. Time, three
to four years ; studies :' Literature and
Interpretation of the Bible, Systematic
Theology, Homiletics, Church History,
Hermeneutics, Isagogics, Logic, Philos-
ophy, Catechetics, Pedagogy, Missions,
etc. Por the purpose of practical experi-
ence many students serve temporarily as
vicars in schools and churches. The
Missouri Synod has another theological
seminary at Springfield, 111., where a
shorter course (a three-year preparatory
and a three-year theological course) is
offered, and a college and seminary at
Porto Alegre, Brazil.
Education, Popular and Christian.
When the apostles began to proclaim the
Gospel of Christ to the Gentile world,
schools were quite numerous both in
Greece and in Rome. Education, how-
ever, was chiefly intellectual, esthetic,
rhetorical, and philosophical, while it
had no means of enforcing a moral
training. Hence, in spite of its formal
cultural attainments the pagan world
was morally bankrupt. “In no period
had brute force more completely tri-
umphed; in none was the thirst for ma-
terial advantage more intense; in few
was vice more ostentatiously glorified.”
In its reaction against this corrupt so-
ciety life itself in the early Christian
Church, of which none could become or
remain a member who would not re-
nounce the idolatrous worship and im-
moral life and keep himself unspotted
from the world, became a factor of
strong educational value to its members
and to others. 1 Pet. 4, 4. Instruction
in the teachings of the Church was at
first private and individual. Parents
would teach their children; members of
the congregation, deacons, etc., would
instruct those who wished to become ac-
quainted with the Christian doctrine.
Soon, however, catechumen schools (q. -u)
were organized for the instruction of
those who desired to become members of
the Church, but who lacked the requisite
knowledge of doctrine and sufficient
moral stability. Only after candidates
had undergone some instruction and dis-
cipline, were they received into full com-
munion through the Sacrament of Bap-
tism. These catechumens included chil-
dren of the believers, Jewish converts,
and adult converts of the heathen popu-
lation. At stated periods in the week, in
Education, Popular and Christian 222 Education, Popular and Christian
some placeB every day, the catechumens
met for instruction and moral training.
This cUBtom of cateehumenical instruc-
tion waB universal, and through it, sup-
plemented by the oversight of the home,
which Was far more rigid than that of
the contemporary Roman and Grecian
home, the children of the Christian popu-
lation received their education. Instruc-
tion in secular branches they received at
home from their parents or from private
tutors, or they would attend the public
heathen schools. But when the persecu-
tions ceased, men of influence in the
Church warned against sending children
to these heathen schools and advised
that the entire education of the young
be placed into the hands of Christian
teachers. Thus came the Christian
school. Reading, writing, memoriter
work and recitation, and singing were
the chief subjects of the curriculum.
Protogenes of Edessa is said to have had
such a school for children at the end of
the second century. During the fourth
century monasticism came into promi-
nence, and while it is true that these
early monastic orders did not make edu-
cation a controlling aim, it is also true
that from, the seventh to the thirteenth
century there was practically no other
education but that offered by the monks.
No other conception of education ex-
isted, and no other educational institu-
tions were tolerated except those con-
trolled by the Church and the monas-
teries. Thus it happened that the
monasteries were the sole educational in-
stitutions of this period. To be sure,
their educational activities were meager,
judged by modern standards. Except
for the training of the monks themselves
and of the youth offered for monastic
life, the cloisters made little provision
for a general schooling of any kind.
Reading, writing, singing, calculating the
church calendar, was taught. Previous
to the 8th century schools throughout
Europe were very rudimentary. Then,
through a movement headed by Charle-
magne and the educator Alcuin (ca. 800),
monastic schools became more numerous
and of a better grade. Soon they began
to provide an education also for youth
not intended for monastic life. Such
pupils were called externs and were thus
distinguished from the interns, who pur-
sued their studies preparatory to taking
the vows. But the people of those days
cared more for warfare than for school-
ing; there was no general public de-
mand for education, and the Church
which failed to emphasize its importance
must be held responsible for the fact
that schools were not more numerous
and that the character of the work was
not of a higher grade. With the 13th
century the intellectual interest and con-
trol passed from the monasteries to the
schools. Schools of all grades became
abundant. The most numerous were the
chantry schools (Stiftsschulen) . As the
religious services required by these foun-
dations could occupy but a small por-
tion of time, it became customary to
stipulate that such priests Bhould teach
the children of the community. Some
regulations of these chantries provided
for a small number of children, some
for all comers; some had the stipulation
that instruction should be gratis, some
permitted a fee; some indicated that
the merest rudiments were taught,
others stipulated that instruction be
given in the Trivium (see Liberal Arts).
Another type of school, more free from
ecclesiastical control, was the Guild
School. These schools, established by
some merchant and craft guild, were
ordinarily only elementary, sometimes
also grammar schools for the children
of the guild members and of others. In
many communities these schools grad-
ually became burgher or town schools,
controlled and supported by secular
authority, and in the content of their
school work better represented the eco-
nomic interests and demands of the citi-
zens. They were often taught by priests,
though lay teachers became more and
more numerous. There were also some
private schools and a few schools for
girls. Clerical supervision was still al-
most universal. Subjects: reading and
writing the vernacular and Latin, arith-
metic, some geography, and history.
The method was scholastic drill by con-
tinuous repetition of rules and defini-
tions, etc. Because of the lack of text-
books the teacher dictated what the chil-
dren were to learn. The discipline was
severe and harsh. In general, the schools
fully deserved the censure we find in Lu-
ther’s Address to the Mayors and Coun-
oilmen of the German Cities.
The Reformation marks a new epoch
in education. Humanistic tendencies had
already begun to affect the educational
ideals of the times, but it was Luther
who by his educational writings assumed
leadership in the educational movement
of this period, working hard and success-
fully, together with Melanchthon and
Bugenhagen, for the advancement of
popular education. Schooling was to be
brought to all people, rich and poor,
nobles and commoners, boys and girls.
Indeed, emphasizing those elements in
education which prepare the child for
an intelligent performance of its duties
Education, Poimlai and Christian J223
£gede, Hans
in life, tlieir chief concern was to give
a thorough religious instruction and a
truly Christian education to the child
that it might learn to know and love its
Savior, live and die in the faith of
Christ. Education was not merely in-
tellectual, hut moral and religious. Re-
ligious material and the linguistic
training necessary for the use of such
material constituted the bulk of the sub-
ject-matter. The practical outcome of
the Reformation is seen in the number
of church and school ordinances, visita-
tions, and general articles which aimed
to secure school facilities with adequate
support, the selection of suitable teach-
ers, and provisions made for proper
supervision. “Thus to the Reformation
we owe our idea of universal elementary
education and also the early realization
of this idea.” ( P. Monroe. ) The family
became an educational factor of prime
importance because the head of the
family was to teach the chief articles
as we find them in the Small Catechism
in all simplicity to his household. Ele-
mentary schools multiplied, every vil-
lage had its vernacular school, which
was attended by all the children of the
community, boys and girls. There they
were taught the catechism and learned
reading, writing, ciphering, singing, and
some history. The Latin schools were
expanded into six classes. Thus the
public school system (Volksschulen)' of
the German states developed, the first of
a modern type. The Thirty Years’ War
had a disastrous effect upon the de-
velopment of schools in Germany; but
beginning with the 18th century, school
affairs began to make rapid and con-
tinuous progress. Especially the Prus-
sian school system, organized in 1684,
forged to the front in all educational
matters. “No other people,” says
P. Monroe, “have even approximated
the achievements of the German states
in these respects.” Other countries fol-
lowed the example and pace set by Ger-
many in education. The educational ad-
vance in Protestant countries aroused
also the Roman Catholics, and the
Christian Brothers and the Jesuits be-
came the chief teaching force of this
Church. Since the Reformation, educa-
tion has received, and still is receiving,
ever-increasing attention. Prominent
educators ( Comenius, Pestalozzi, Her-
bart, Froebel, Diesterweg, Mann, and
others) spent much time and labor in
improving the curriculum and the meth-
ods, as well as facilities for obtaining
an education. The various educational
ideals, methods, theories, and tendencies
were reflected in the work of the com-
mon school. Popular education has in-
deed become popular in all progressive
countries, schools have multiplied to
such an extent that education is within
the reach of every boy and girl. Present
social and economic conditions demand
that every child have at least a good
common school education. Attendance
at school has become compulsory. The
state has taken education into its hands,
and in each country a school system has
been developed according to the educa-
tional ideals dominant there. In gen-
eral, it may be said that, since the Ref-
ormation, Germany has been, and is to
this day, the schoolmaster of the world.
German influence has been especially
strong and persistent in the educational
systems of America and England. “Ger-
man educational ideas and methods,”
says Monroe, “have profoundly influ-
enced all parts of the American system
of education, but especially its top and
its foundation, the university and the
elementary school, including the kinder-
garten, both of which have been either
created or fashioned on the model of
corresponding German institutions.” In
countries where the state recognizes an
established form of religion the state-
controlled schools also teach that re-
ligion; wherever there is no state re-
ligion, as in America, the schools have
been secularized (see Public Schools),
and Christian instruction and education
is offered in parochial schools and in
Sunday-schools ( q. v. ) .
Edwards, Jonathan, the Elder, 1703
to 1758; the “American Calvin”; b. at
East Windsor, Conn. ; pastorate at
Northampton with two great awaken-
ings, 1734 and 1740; missionary to the
Indians at Stockbridge 1751; d. as pres-
ident of Princeton College. Wrote :
Freedom of the Will; etc.
Edwards, Jonathan, the Younger*.
1745 — 1801; son of preceding; pastor;
president of Union College, Schenectady,.
N. Y.; his theory (governmental) of the.
atonement was in the main that of.
Grotius (q.v.).
Egede, Hans, Lutheran Apostle of;
Greenland; b. January 31, 1686, Fronde-.
naes, Norway; d. November 5, 1758, at
Stubbekjoebing, Denmark. He resigned!
his pastorate at Vaagen to go to Green-
land. His heart burned for the people
who had once been Christians, but were
again steeped in idolatry. After sur-
mounting almost endless difficulties, he
finally received permission from Fred-
erick IV of Denmark to engage in this
missionary enterprise and set sail May 3,
1721, the whole party numbering 46
Egypt
224
Elders
people. Landing in Greenland was ef-
fected July 3, 1721. After much effort,
Egede mastered the difficult Eskimo lan-
guage, translated Luther’s Small Cate-
chism, and began to minister in self-
sacrificing manner to great and small.
The rough climate, indifference of the
natives, lack of foodstuffs, enmity of the
sorcerers, the offensive life of the Euro-
peans, all tended to increase the difficul-
ties of the work. But the heroic faith
of Egede surmounted them all. The
Bergen- Greenland Trading Company,
organized to assist Egede, proved a
failure and was dissolved by the king
in 1731. Meanwhile assistance was
given him by Pastor Albert Topp and
his own son Paul. By their faithful
efforts many Greenlanders were con-
verted. In 1736 Egede returned to
Copenhagen, where he conducted a semi-
nary for missionaries. Paul Egede trans-
lated the New Testament into the Green-
land Eskimo language.
Egypt. A vast country in North-
eastern Africa; British Protectorate
since 1914. Area (without Sudan),
about 350,000 sq. mi. Population, ap-
proximately 12,800,000. The country is
divided into Upper and lower Egypt.
Language, Arabic. Tteligion, predomi-
nantly Mohammedan. Christianity ap-
pears to have come to Egypt in the first
century. The Bible was translated into
three Coptic dialects. Missions con-
ducted by a number of European and
American organizations. — Statistics:
Foreign staff, 354; Christian commu-
nity, 41,000; communicants, 16,457. See
Anglo-Bgyptian Sudan.
Eichhorn, Joh. Gottfried; b. 1752,
d. 1827 at Goettingen; pioneer of Bib-
lical isagogics; wrote very extensively
on these subjects in a rationalistic spirit.
His researches lack thoroughness and
the required carefulness.
Eickmann, Martin; b. 1859; gradu-
ated at Northwestern College and Mil-
waukee Seminary; member of the Wis-
consin Synod ; pastor at Center and
Menomonie, Wis., 1882- — 1903; much-
beloved inspector of Northwestern Col-
lege until his sudden death, 1915.
Eielsen, Elling; b. September 19,
1804, in Norway; lay preacher in Nor-
way, Sweden, and Denmark 1832 — 39;
emigrated 1839; ordained 1843 by “the
first Norwegian Lutheran pastor in
America”; organized, 1846, “The Evan-
gelical Lutheran Church in America”
(The Ellingian Synod) ; its president;
d. January 10, 1883.
Eilert, E. TV, b. 1866 in New York,
printer and publisher; member of sev-
eral boards in the United Lutheran
Church; treasurer of National Lutheran
Council.
Elders. Derived from Old Testament
usage, Ex. 3, 10, which employs the term
elders with reference to the chief repre-
sentatives of the Israelitish tribes, and
from the contemporary usage in the
synagog, Luke 7, 3, the word presbyter in
the New Testament is a synonym for “pas-
tors,” Eph. 4, 11 ; “bishops (overseers),”
Acts 22, 28 if.; “leaders” and “rulers,”
Ileb. 13, 7; 1 Thess. 5, 12; 1 Pet. 5, 1—4.
Large congregations had a number of
presbyters or elders. Acts 11, 30; 15, 4.
0. 23; 21, 18 (Jerusalem); 20, 17. 28
(Ephesus) ; Jas. 5, 14, etc. Of these,
some served in the teaching office, while
others were limited in their functions
to the maintenance of Christian disci-
pline and business administration, 1 Tim.
5, 17, in which latter function they were
evidently associated with the deacons.
They appear from the first to have been
elected by the people and, on their being
approved by the apostles or their repre-
sentatives, to have been inducted into
their office by prayer and the laying on
of hands. About 150 A. D. differences in
rank had been introduced into the offices
of the Church, and presbyters thereafter
were subordinate to the bishops.
In the modern Church, eldership is
characteristic of the Presbyterian
churches, which derive their name from
this institution. Two classes of elders
are distinguished, teaching and ruling
elders. The former constitute the body
of pastors. The latter are laymen, who
are set apart as assistants to the minis-
ters in the oversight and ruling of the
congregation. Together with the min-
ister they constitute the “session,” the
lowest among the ruling powers of the
Church. The Form, of Government of
the Presbyterian Church contains the
following: “Ruling elders are properly
the. representatives of the people, chosen
by them for the purpose of exercising
government and discipline, in conjunc-
tion with pastors, or ministers.” The
office is perpetual. One elder from each
congregation is a member of the Pres-
bytery and Synod, and one for every
twenty-four ministers in each presbytery
is sent to the General Assembly, the
highest legislative body in the Presby-
terian communion.
In the Lutheran Church the terms
elder and deacon are used synonymously
with reference to the laymen chosen by
the congregation annually or for a num-
ber of years as assistants to the pastor
in the performance of his official duties.
Together with the pastor they constitute
Election
225
Election
tlie Church Board, or Board of Elders,
also called Vestry, but with reference to
the congregation possess only advisory or
executive, not legislative, powers. With
the eldership the office of trustee is fre-
quently united, the trusteeship being an
office prescribed by law when congrega-
tions are incorporated. See also Clergy.
Election, also known as predestina-
tion, is a drecrce of Cod, a purpose of
God definitely expressed and as defi-
nitely carried into execution. “As many
as were ordained to eternal life believed.”
Acts 13, 48. “According as He [God]
hath chosen us.” Eph. 1, 4. “God hath
from the beginning chosen you.” 2 Thess.
2, 13. — This decree is not an absolute
decree; it was not made, and is not car-
ried out, simply in accordance with the
supreme and majestic will of God (as
though salvation were not the result of
God’s grace in Christ, but simply of an
act of arbitrary choice on God’s part),
but it is a decree in Christ ; it is in-
timately connected with Christ and with
the work of redemption wrought by
Christ. “According as He hath chosen
us in Him [Christ].” Eph. 1, 4. — It is
a decree which operates through means
given hy God for that purpose, that is,
it finds its expression not immediately,
but mediately. “Whom He did predes-
tinate, them He also called.” Rom. 8, 30.
The call of God is part of the operation
of His decree of election, and this call
is issued by and through the Gospel.
“Whereunto He called you by our Gos-
pel.” 2 Thess. 2, 14. — The election of
God is a decree of grace, of unmerited
love and favor, a choosing, or selection,
which was made entirely by virtue of
this attribute in God, none other being
here concerned as a motive. “There is
a remnant according to the election of
grace.” Rom. 11,5. There is no election,
or predestination, of wrath, rejection, or
damnation. If the statement is made
that such a decree is the “necessary
alternative” in view of the fact that the
great majority of men are lost, such a
conclusion is untenable in the light of
Scriptures, which know nothing of a pre-
destination to damnation, but, on the
contrary, specifically declare that “God
will have all men to be saved and to
come unto the knowledge of the truth.”
1 Tim. 2, 4. The unbelief of those who
are lost is not the result of any decree
on the part of God, but the consequence
and expression of their resistance against
the serious and efficacious gracious will
and intention of God pertaining to their
salvation. In Antioch of Pisidia “as
many as were ordained unto eternal life
believed,” Acts 13, 48 ; but of those who
Concordia Cyclopedia
contradicted and blasphemed it is said:
“It was necessary that the Word of God
should first have been spoken to you;
but seeing ye put it from you and judge
yourselves unworthy of everlasting life,
lo, we turn to the Gentiles.” V. 46. Ob-
duration is not carried out upon unbe-
lievers absolutely, but it is a recompense
to them, Rom. 11,9, namely, on account
of their resistance to the gracious visi-
tation of God in the means of grace. Cp.
Luke 7, 30; Acts 7, 51. — The election of
grace is a decree which is carried out in
the faith and life of the Christians.
Their faith is not a reason, but the re-
sult of the divine decree and choice.
“As many as were ordained to eternal
life believed.” Acts 13, 48. “God hath
from the beginning chosen you to sal-
vation through sanctification of the
Spirit and belief of the truth, whereunto
He called you by our Gospel.” 2 Thess.
2, 13. 14. A further consequence of the
divine election, then, is the believer’s
life in agreement with the holy will of
God. “According as He hath chosen us
in Him before the foundation of the
world, that toe should be holy and with-
out blame before Him in love.” Eph. 1, 4.
It is clear from these statements that
the election of grace, as carried out in
time, is not dependent upon anything in
man, either antecedent to a person’s com-
ing to faith or consequent to his believ-
ing. God chose no man “in view of his
faith” or in view of His knowledge that
a certain person would come to faith or
remain in the faith, or that he would
in any way distinguish himself before
others in his acceptance of the grace of
God offered to all men in the Gospel.
Just as there is no cooperation on the
part of man in the act of conversion, so
there is no condition, attribute, qr any
other factor in man which induced God
to elect him unto eternal salvation. Any
theory which tries to operate with Buch
suppositions is bound, in some measure
and in some respect, to set aside the
grace of God. — The election of grace
has certain persons in view. It is not
identical with the universal gracious
will and intention of God, which desires
the salvation of all men. Election, or
choice, is narrower in its function. It
is the decree according to which God,
from the total number of fallen men, all
of whom have been redeemed by Christ
and all of whom the Lord seriously de-
sires to have saved, chooses certain
people and destines them to eternal life.
The Bible teaches that all those who are
included in God’s one election, the elec-
tion of grace, will certainly be saved.
The election was not made and does not
15
tSiectloii
Klcctiort
226
operate according to the principle: “He
that endureth unto the end, the same
shall be saved.” Matt. 10, 22; 24, 13.
This principle is not the election of
grace. According to the doctrine of
Scriptures, God did not choose a prin-
ciple, but certain persons. “According
as He hath chosen us in Him.” Eph. 1, 4.
“Whereunto He called you by our Gos-
pel.” 2 Thess. 2, 13. “To them that are
called according to His purpose.” Rom.
8, 28. “As many as were ordained to
eternal life believed.” Acts 13, 48. It is
true that the word “elect” is sometimes
figuratively (metonymy) used in Scrip-
tures in addressing the believers, the
congregation, cp. Luke 18, 7; Col. 3, 12;
1 Pet. 2, 9; Rev. 17, 14; but this is to
be understood in the same sense in which
Paul addresses all the members of a
given congregation as “holy” and “faith-
ful.” Cp. Eph. 1, 1 ; Col. 3, 12 ; Phil. 1, 1.
All believers may thus apply to them-
selves the wonderful words of Christ:
“My sheep hear My voice, and I know
them, and they follow Me; and I give
unto them eternal life, and they shall
never perish, neither shall any man
pluck them out of My hand. My Father,
which gave them to Me, is greater than
all; and no man is able to pluck them
out of My Father’s hand.” John 10,
27—29.
Two attempts have been made to
solve the mystery which appears when
one contemplates this doctrine. The
difference in the event, under precisely
similar conditions, has been accounted
for by eliminating the “similar condi-
tions” either through assuming a differ-
ence in God or by assuming a difference
in those to whom the Gospel is ad-
dressed. The former is the Calvinistic
solution, the latter the synergistic.
Calvin and, after him, the Reformed
theologians generally have paralleled
with the decree of predestination a de-
cree of reprobation. By an absolute act
of sovereign choice, God has from ever-
lasting predestinated certain persons to
eternal life, for the glory of His love,
and others to eternal perdition, for the
glory of His justice. Some Calvinists
go so far as to assert the foreordination
of the Fall itself (supralapsarians),
others limit the twofold decree to fallen
mankind (infralapsarians) ; all agree
that grace is not universal, but par-
ticular, and that the general preaching
of Gospel invitations is intended to be
effective only in the case of the elect.
Against Calvinism, Lutheran theology
urges such decisive texts as 2 Cor. 5, 14.
15. 19; Heb. 2, 9; 2 Pet. 3, 9; John
3, 16; 1, 29; Matt. 11, 28; John 12, 47.
See Augustinianism. — The other escape
from the dilemma is the solution pro-
posed by synergists (Pelagians, Semi-
Pelagians, Arminians, the New Theology,
— so far as it still accepts the super-
natural, — the majority of modern Lu-
theran theologians in Germany). Syn-
ergism denies, in effect, the doctrine of
total depravity. It argues that if one
man is saved, the other lost, then the
former must have been inherently better
(morally) than the latter, and that in
respect to this difference, God elected
one to life and failed to save the other.
This teaching, of course, directly con-
travenes the entire presentation of the
doctrine of election both in the Old and
in the New Testament.
That the doctrine of the eternal elec-
tion of grace is full of the most glorious
consolation to all believers is brought
out in the Lutheran Confessions, in the
Formula of Concord, Article XI, where
we read : “Therefore, if we wish to think
or speak correctly and profitably con-
cerning eternal election, or the predesti-
nation and ordination of the children of
God to eternal life, we should accustom
ourselves not to speculate concerning the
bare, secret, concealed, inscrutable fore-
knowledge of God, but how the counsel,
purpose, and ordination of God in Christ
Jesus, who is the true Book of Life, is
revealed to us through the Word, namely,
that the entire doctrine concerning the
purpose, counsel, will, and ordination of
God pertaining to our redemption, call,
justification, and salvation should be
taken together; as Paul treats and has
explained this article Rom. 8, 29 f. ; Eph.
1, 4 f., as also Christ in the parable,
Matt. 22, 1 ff., namely, that God in His
purpose and counsel ordained [decreed] :
1. that the human race is truly redeemed
and reconciled with God through Christ,
who, by His faultless [innocency] obe-
dience, suffering, and death, has merited
for us the righteousness which avails
before God, and, eternal life; 2. that
such merit and benefits of Christ shall
be presented, offered, and distributed to
us through His Word and Sacraments;
3. that by His Holy Ghost, through the
Word, when it is preached, heard, and
pondered, He will be efficacious and
active in us, convert hearts to true re-
pentance, and preserve them in the true
faith; 4. that He will justify all those
who in true repentance receive Christ by
a true faith and will receive them into
grace, the adoption of sons, and the in-
heritance of eternal life; 5. that He will
also sanctify in love those who are thus
justified, as St. Paul says, Eph. 1, 4;
6. that He also will protect them in
Elevation of the Host
227
Elks, Order of
their great weakness against the devil,
the world, and the flesh, and rule and
lead them in His ways, raise them again
[place His hand beneath them], when
they stumble, comfort them under the
cross and in temptation, and preserve
them [for life eternal]; 7. that He will
also strengthen, increase, and support to
the end the good work which He has be-
gun in them, if they adhere to God’s
Word, pray diligently, abide in God’s
goodness [grace], and faithfully use the
gifts received; 8. that finally He will
eternally save and glorify in life eternal
those whom He has elected, called, and
justified. And [indeed] in this His coun-
sel, purpose, and ordination God has pre-
pared salvation not only in general, but
has in grace considered and chosen to
salvation each and every person of the
elect who are to be saved through Christ,
also ordained that in the way just men-
tioned He will, by His grace, gifts, and
efficacy, bring them thereto [make them
participants of eternal salvation], aid,
promote, strengthen, and preserve them.
All this, according to the Scriptures, is
comprised in the doctrine concerning the
eternal election of God to adoption and
eternal salvation and is to be understood
by it, and never excluded nor omitted,
when we speak of God’s purpose, predes-
tination, election, and ordination to sal-
vation. And when our thoughts con-
cerning this article are thus formed ac-
cording to the Scriptures, we can by
God’s grace simply [and correctly] adapt
ourselves to it [and advantageously
treat of it].” (Cone. Trigl., 1067. 1069,
§§ 13-24.)
Elevation of the Host. The Council
of Trent says of the Eucharist, without
the least Scriptural foundation: “There
is no room left for doubt that all the
faithful of Christ may render in venera-
tion the worship of latria (q.v.), which
is due to the true God, to this most holy
sacrament.” (Sess. XIII, chap. 5.) When
the priest, in the Mass, has consecrated
the bread, he first adores it himself with
bended knees and then elevates it as high
as he conveniently can, to be adored by
the people. The ringing of a little bell
gives them notice. In the same manner
the chalice is elevated and adored.
Elias, Levita, German- Jewish gram-
marian; b. ca. 1468, near Nuremberg;
d. 1549 at Venice. His epoch-making
works on Hebrew grammar and lexicog-
raphy were sources from which scholars
of the Reformation period gained their
knowledge of the Hebrew Bible and its
language.
Eliot, John, “Apostle to the Indians”
of North America ; b. 1604 at Nasing or
Widford, near London; d. May 20, 1690,
at Roxbury, Mass. A Puritan, he emi-
grated to America 1631; became pastor
of the Church of Christ, Roxbury, 1632.
At the age of forty-two he studied the
Indian Mohican tongue, engaged in mis-
sion-work, amid much opposition and
vexation, 1646; translated and pub-
lished, among other books, the Bible into
Mohican, which was the first Bible
printed in America. Thirteen churches
were founded by him. Number of con-
verts, in 1674, estimated at 3,600. He
educated a large number of native work-
ers, 24 of whom were preachers. Wars
seriously impeded and injured his work.
Financial assistance was given him by
the English “Corporation for Promoting
the Gospel among the Indians in New
England.”
Elisabeth, St., wife of the Landgrave
of Thuringia; spent her life (1207- — 31)
in saintly ministrations to the needy and
hastened its end by the practise of un-
natural asceticism.
Elizabeth, Queen of England 1558 to
1603. Daughter of Henry VIII and
Anne Boleyn. Steered middle course in
religion and completed establishment of
Anglican Church, that is, the fact that
it was made the State Church ; approved
Thirty -nine Articles (Latin edition) 1563;
by destroying the Armada in 1588, foiled
Philip of Spain’s attempt to reestablish
Catholicism in England; was able and
accomplished ruler, but cruelly perse-
cuted Non-conformists.
Elizabethans. A name often given
nuns of the third order of St. Francis,
who devote themselves to nursing the
sick.
Elks, Benevolent and Protective
Order of. History. This order was
founded in 1866, at New York City, by
Charles Algernon S. Vivian, an English
actor, in protest to the laws closing
saloons, theaters, etc., on Sunday. Orig-
inally known as “Jolly Corkers,” the
members afterwards adopted the name of
“Elks,” from a moose-head in Barnum’s
old museum, which they mistook for the
head of an elk. The Grand Lodge was
chartered under the laws of the State
of New York, in 1871. — Purpose. The
order is described by Preuss as a “con-
vivial, charitable, and benevolent so-
ciety; by the Lutheraner (Vol. LX,
No. 19) as one that “preeminently serves
the flesh” ; by the Christlicher Apologete
as one that “considers sensual indul-
gence the chief object in life.” In his
much-commented editorial on “The Elks”
Father Phelan writes : “At eleven o’clock
no true Elk drinks alone.” The Cyelo-
Elka, Order of
228
Given, Cornelius
pedia of Fraternities: “What the mem-
bers of the order do at half-past eleven
is known only to themselves.” — Char-
acter. Since the order was founded by
Freemasons, it has much in common
with Freemasonry, e. g., the use of
aprons, “lodges of sorrow,” and “tylers”
(doorkeepers). It is claimed that much
of the horse-play and Masonic mummery
at the initiations has now been abol-
ished. However, the quasi-religious me-
morial service for the dead, which takes
place each year on the first Sunday in
December and is known as “Elks’ Memo-
rial Day,” — the Constitution of the
Order calls it a “sacred session,” — is
still retained. A description of such a
service, which the Cleveland Catholic
Universe rightly calls mockery, is given
by Preuss (Diet, of Sacred and Other
Societies, p. 60), as published originally
in the Christian Cynosure, Dec., 1910,
Vol.XLII, No. 8, p. 245) .
That the Elk “theology” is essentially
the theology of the Masonic lodge (pa-
ganism) is clear from the following
statement made by one of the leading
representatives of the Order, Mr. Frank-
lin Beaver, of Seattle, Wash. (Seattle
Daily Times, Apr. 12, 1909) : “Elkology
is by far the more comprehensive [com-
pared with traditional Christianity],
since it contains not only the theory of
a God, but the new application of His
existence ; not only a theory of life
and man, but a demonstration of the
fact; not only a theory of immortality,
but the practicable evidence of it. . . .
W T hen the smoke of prejudice has cleared
from the present theological atmosphere,
there will be visible ‘a religion that is
free, not creed -bound; scientific, not
dogmatic; spiritual, not traditional;
universal, not sectarian’ ; a religion
whose aim will be ‘the realization of the
highest moral ideal of humanity, both
personal and social’; its object, ‘the
cultivation and dissemination of the
spiritual qualities of reverence, peace,
and love.’ Such -a religion I presume at
this time to call the religion of the
Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks,
or Elkology. . . . The God of the Elks
is Love. His attributes are happiness
and helpfulness. Our God is a law of
love, and according to its various degrees
of enlightenment and its knowledge does
all mankind live and move and have its
being in that law. The voice of God is
no longer confined to printed page made
sacred by antiquity, but to-day we are
hearing His voice in every vibrating
sound, from the wind of the desert to
the shrill of steam and electricity. We
have at last discovered the inspired word
of God to be in every sentence, written
or spoken, in which there is inspiration
for any part of mankind to think nobler
thoughts or to live better lives, irrespec-
tive of its authorship.” — Organization.
That the order is secret goes without
saying. The governing body is the Su-
preme Lodge, to which subordinate lodges
send representatives. As a rule, only
one lodge of Elks is permitted in a city
(since 1886). At first the order was
composed exclusively of actors, but it
now draws its members from all walks
of business and professional life. The
titles of some of the officers of the lodge
(Esteemed Loyal Knight, Esteemed Lead-
ing Knight, Esteemed Lecturing Knight)
are just “kabbalistic enough to excite
interest.” — Membership. In 1898 there
were about 300 subordinate lodges in as
many cities throughout the country with
35,000 members. The report of Grand
Secretary Fred Robinson for 1922 — 23,
presented at the Atlanta, Ga., session of
the Grand Lodge, showed that the order
now has a membership of 826,825, an
increase of 14,168 since the 1922 meet-
ing. Fifteen new lodges were chartered
during the year, making the last lodge
No. 1,470. Headquarters are the Elks’
Home at 108 — 116 W. 43d St., New York
City.
Ellerians, also called Ronsdorf Sect
and Zionites, a sect founded in Elberfeld,
Germany, and later removed to Ronsdorf
by Elias Eller (1690 — 1750), whose wife,
as the “Mother of Zion,” was, a second
time, to give birth to the Savior. After
Eller’s death the sect declined rapidly.
Ellerton, John, 1826 — 98; educated
at Cambridge; held a number of posi-
tions as curate, vicar, and rector ; widely
known as hymnologist, editor, and trans-
lator; wrote: “Savior, Again to Thy
Dear Name,” and others.
Elliot, Julia Anne, married^ to the
Rev. H.V. Elliot in 1833, d. 1841; author
of eleven hymns, which are in most re-
fined poetical taste, best-known : “Fa-
ther, Who the Light This Day.”
Elliott, Charlotte, 1789 — 1871 ; spent
the greater part of her life at Brighton;
noted for her spiritual-mindedness so
prominent in her poems, among which
the favorite “Just as I Am,” which
ranks with the finest hymns in the Eng-
lish language, effective especially because
it was born of personal experience.
Elven, Cornelius, 1797 — 1873, for
fifty years pastor of a Baptist church
in Suffolk; known as the author of a
favorite hymn: “With Broken Heart
and Contrite Sigh,”
Elvira, Council of
229
Encyclopedias
Elvira, Council of. For Celibacy.
This council (306) commanded the clergy
to abstain from connubial intercourse.
Though the measure was ineffectual, it
shows the unsound ascetic trend with
regard to clerical marriage.
Email (Enamel) Painting. The art
of painting, in miniature, with email or
melted glass, as it was developed in the
Middle Ages, beginning with the tenth
century; also the painting with colored
glass on gold, a variety of filigree-work.
Ember-Days. Days of fasting and
prayer, in the Roman Church, which ap-
proximately mark the beginning of the
four seasons. They are the Wednesday,
Friday, and Saturday following Ash
Wednesday, Pentecost, September 14,
and December 13.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, American
philosopher and poet; b. 1803 at Boston;
d. 1882 at Concord. Several years pas-
tor of a Unitarian church in Boston ;
but as he held too radical views, he left
the ministry. Won fame as lecturer.
Central figure of school of philosophy
called New England Transcendentalism
(q. y.), which held pantheistic and mystic
views and denied the supernatural origin
of Christianity.
Emory, John, 1780—1835, Methodist
Episcopal; b. in Queen Anne Co., Md.;
studied law; held various pastorates;
headed Methodist Book Concern; origi-
nated Methodist Quarterly Review ; bishop
1832; d. near Raistcrstown, Md.
Empiricism. The philosophical the-
ory according to which experience is the
only source of knowledge. As it denies
the possibility of a supernatural source
of knowledge, it leads to criticism of
Christian ethics and religion. Modern
science, being decidedly empirical, is con-
sequently often antagonistic to divine
revelation.
Emser, Hieronymus. Bitter contro-
versialist against Luther, 1478 — 1527;
studied at Tuebingen and Basel; writ-
ings issued by the two principals full
of personalities; Emser’s translation of
the Bible, 1527, a plagiarism of Luther’s
work.
Emser Punktation, the name applied
to a series of twenty -three articles drawn
up in 1786 at Ems by the archbishops
of Mayence, Treves, Cologne, and Salz-
burg as a protest against the erection of
a papal nuntiature at Munich, an office
which the ecclesiastical princes felt to
be an infringement upon their rights.
The ultimate aim was to establish an in-
dependent national church in Germany;
but owing to clerical and political oppo-
sition the plan failed.
Enckhausen, Heinrich Friedrich,
1 7 99 — 1885 ; studied under Aloys Schmitt ;
organist and director of the 8ingaka.de-
mie ; also court pianist in Hanover;
much orchestral and sacred music and
standard book of chorals.
Encratites (Abstainers), followers of
Tatian, so called from their ascetic life.
They abstained from flesh, marriage,
wine (using water for wine even in the
Eucharist) .
Encyclicals. A term now applied
exclusively to circular letters addressed
by the Pope to all Roman bishops on
subjects of general interest. The most
remarkable encyclical is probably Quanta
Oura (Pius IX, 1864), accompanied by
a syllabus condemning 80 propositions.
Leo XIII issued many encyclicals treat-
ing of social and political questions.
Encyclopedists, name of editors and
collaborators of the epoch-making French
Encyclopedic, 1751 — 80, an alphabetic-
ally arranged work of reference in
35 volumes, covering the whole field of
knowledge and, in a wider sense, all
those who shared its philosophical, reli-
gious, and political principles. This
encyclopedia was edited by Diderot and
d’Alembert. Voltaire, Helvetius, Hol-
bach, Rousseau, and Turgot were the
most prominent collaborators. It is a
product of English deism and French
naturalism and exerted a far-reaching
destructive influence. It did not openly
advocate atheism and materialism, but
the fundamental principle is that of
skepticism, and it is the most important
literary product of the “Enlightenment”
(q.v.).
Encyclopedia, Theological. That
part of the preliminary work in the
general field of theology which pertains
to the general subject-matter of theo-
logical knowledge with all its divisions.
Encyclopedias. Works of general
reference, more complete than dictiona-
ries and glossaries, many of the articles,
especially those pertaining to the tend-
ency of the respective encyclopedia,
being fairly comprehensive. Every de-
partment of knowledge now has its
special encyclopedias, such as the sci-
ences and all the subdivisions of the sci-
ences, also medicine, law, archeology, etc.
The users of the present volume will
probably be interested in a general clas-
sification, with some special reference to
theology and general religious and edu-
cational features. The following list
will be found fairly comprehensive from
this viewpoint: Biblical Encyclopedia;
Book of Knowledge ; Brockhaus’s Kon-
versationslexikon (kept fairly up to date
Engelsbraeder
230
Kittfland
for general knowledge) ; Catholic En-
cyclopedia (especially from the view-
point of the Roman Catholic Church) ;
Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (ar-
ticles very much condensed) ; Collier’s
Pictured Cyclopedia (very progressive
and modern, with a fairly good attempt
at objective presentation) ; Compton’s
Pictured Encyclopedia (one of the most
ambitious undertakings for the general
reader, but not objective enough in the
scientific section) ; Encyclopedia Amer-
icana (the most complete work for Amer-
ican conditions) ; Encyclopedia Britan-
nica (accorded high praise, but not
strong on American viewpoint) ; Ency-
clopedia of Sunday-schools and Religious
Education (a first attempt in this field,
not by any means exhaustive) ; Hast-
ings’s Encyclopedia of Religion and
Ethics (very complete, very learned, but
often with a very liberal bias) ; Inter-
national Encyclopedia (satisfactory for
general reference work) ; International
Standard Bible Encyclopedia, on the
whole, exhaustive; Jewish Cyclopedia
(written distinctly from the viewpoint
of the international Jew) ; McClintock
and Strong (full of information on mat-
ters connected with religion and the
Bible, its general trend being conserva-
tive) ; Meusel’s Konversationslexikon
(a very handy German cyclopedia;
articles condensed, but comprehensive) ;
Meyer’s Konversationslexikon (six vol-
umes, fully satisfactory for ordinary
use); New Teachers’ and Pupils’ Cyclo-
pedia; Schaff -Herzog Encyclopedia of
Religious Knowledge, new (generally re-
liable for even detailed work, but some
sections liberal) ; Standard Cyclopedia
(not exhaustive, but often very satis-
factory) ; Source Book (one of the re-
cent loose-leaf publications, kept up to
date by additional material furnished to
subscribers) ; Universal Cyclopedia and
Atlas; Volume Library (sufficient for
quick reference work).
Engelsbrueder. See Qichtelians.
England. Christianity was probably
introduced into Britain before the end of
the second century. The strongest proof
for this assumption is the fact that
three British bishops attended the con-
ference at Arles A. D. 314. British bish-
ops also attended the councils of Sardica
A. D. 347. Pelagianism, at an early date,
took root in Britain, which was the
native country of Pelagius. By the
Saxon invasion (449) the greater part
of Britain was again plunged into bar-
barism, and Christianity maintained an
existence only in Wales and Cornwall,
where the British rites and usages were
preserved until near the end of the
seventh century. The monastery of Iona,
established about 565 by Columba, be-
came a center of missionary activity not
only for Scotland, but also for North
Britain. Up to the sixth century, British
Christianity was independent of Rome.
In 596, however, Augustine, with a num-
ber of monks, landed in Britain and con-
verted Ethel bert, King of Kent, and
other chieftains of England. In 597
Augustine was consecrated at Arles and
became the first Bishop of Canterbury.
In 668 Theodore was sent over by the
Pope as Primate of England. Under his
administration (668—89) the Roman and
British Christians were united into one
body. From this period up to the time
of the Reformation, England was in
formal connection with the See of Rome.
Among the theologians and missionaries
of the early British Church, Bede (735),
Alenin (804), King Alfred (900), are
the most prominent. After the Norman
Conquest (A. D. 1066), the ever-increas-
ing power of the Roman Church gave
rise to many struggles between the eccle-
siastical and royal powers for suprem-
acy. William the Conqueror refused to
acknowledge the Pope as his feudal
superior, prohibited the publishing of
papal bulls, and deprived the clergy of
the right of excommunication without
his express permission. The papal en-
croachments rose to their height during
the reign of John, when England was
laid under an interdict and the king re-
signed his crown to the Pope. Edward I
gave a cheek to the power of the clergy,
subjected them to taxation. During these
centuries few innovations in doctrine
were made. However, in 1213 the Coun-
cil of St. John’s Lateran declared tran-
substantiation to he a tenet of the Church.
During the reign of Henry II, in the
12th century, certain German church re-
formers came to England, preaching the
evangelical doctrines in opposition to
the Romish Church. Though bitterly
persecuted, their work was not entirely
without success. In 1327 John Wyclif
was born. As Rector of Lutterworth he
carried on evangelical work. His trans-
lation of the Bible and his numerous
writings made a great impression upon
the educated classes, but the work had
little effect upon the common people.
A small band of his followers in 1400
formed a party called the Lollards, who
spread his religious tenets, though they
were persecuted and many of them
burned for heresy. The great change,
however, which was to doom the Romish
Church in England, came about during
the reign of Henry VIII (1509 — 47).
Knglaml
231
TCngrlaml
This monarch had written a treatise
against Luther, for which he received
the title of “Defender of the Faith”
(1521). However, opposed by the Pope
on account of his adulterous lust, Henry
summoned a convocation in 1531, by
which he was proclaimed the “only and
supreme lord, and, as far as the law of
Christ permits, even the supreme head
of the Church of England.” In 1533,
Cranmer, upon his elevation to the See
of Canterbury, pronounced sentence of
divorce between Henry VIII and Cathe-
rine, and the marriage to Anne Boleyn
was publicly announced. The Pope de-
clared this illegal, whereupon Henry
caused Parliament to abolish all Roman
authority in England and to stop all
payments to the Roman exchequer. This
complete separation from the Church of
Rome would not have been possible had
it not been for the writings of the Ger-
man reformers, which had been spread
and were widely read in England, as
well as for the various Bible translations
(Wyclif, Tyndale), which, being widely
read, opened the eyes of the people as
to what precious truths of God’s Word
had been withheld from them. In
1536 — 39 the king abolished the monastic
establishments and confiscated the wealth
that had been accumulated in the mon-
asteries of the realm. In Thomas Cran-
mer, Henry found a bold Primate, who
was a strong friend of the new views
and had married a Lutheran wife. With
the Reformation on the Continent, how-
ever, the king had no sympathy. The
Articles adopted by the convocation of
1536 retained the doctrine of transub-
stantiation, the use of images, the prayers
to saints, purgatory, and auricular con-
fession, and only divested these practises
of some gross superstitions. In 1539 the
king gave his sanction to the translation
of the Scriptures (Great Bible). Under
Edward VI ( 1548 — 53 ) , the doctrinal
reformation was accomplished. In 1549
a Prayer-book was issued, and in 1552
42 Articles were drawn up, which de-
clared “that the Church of Rome had
erred also in matters of faith,” expressly
denied transubstantiation, permitted the
marriage of the clergy, discontinued
auricular confession, and approved of
communion in both kinds. The reign of
Mary (1553 — 58), who was a firm ad-
herent of the Roman Catholic faith,
checked the Reformation for a time.
Hooper, Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer
were burned at the stake, and many
refugees fled to Basel and Geneva. The
number of executions for religious rea-
sons during her reign was 286, of whom
46 were women. The reign of Elizabeth
was favorable to the spread and firm
establishment of the new Church. In
the first years of her rule the separation
of the national Church from the Roman
Catholic See was completed, while dur-
ing the later years of her reign the
struggle between Anglicanism and Puri-
tanism deepened, resulting in a victory
for the Anglican Church. In the first
year of her reign the Act of Supremacy,
by which all allegiance to foreign princes
or prelates was forbidden, was renewed,
and the Act of Uniformity was passed,
by which the use of the liturgy was en-
forced. In 1563 the 42 articles were re-
duced to 39 and were accepted as the
standard of confession of the Anglican,
or Episcopal, Church.
The greatest struggle the Episcopal
Church encountered within her own pale
was Puritanism, which was not so much
a 'question of doctrine, — for even among
the Puritans the prevailing doctrinal
views were Calvinistic, — but rather one
of ecclesiastical polity and vestments.
Returning from Geneva, where they had
become acquainted with the bare frigid-
ity of the church as instituted by Cal-
vin, many of the refugees who had left
the Continent during Mary’s reign were
much dissatisfied with the elaborate rit-
ual of the Church and favored a simpler
form of worship. The ablest exponent
of these views was Thomas Cartwright,
Margaret Professor of Divinity. The
conflict was settled in 1593 by the Act
of Parliament which made Puritanism
an offense against the statute law. In
the seventeenth century the Church of
England became more and more con-
solidated, although for a time Puritan-
ism again triumphed. At this time also
the doctrine of the divine appointment
of the episcopacy was developed and
confirmed. Under James I (1603 — 25),
who cordially hated every form of Prot-
estantism, the Puritan party was com-
pletely humiliated. Their Millenary
Petition, signed by 800 clergymen, ask-
ing for the removal of superstitious
usages from the Prayer-book, was re-
jected. Under the auspices of James the
authorized version of the English Bible
appeared in 1611. The Church of Eng-
land was represented at the Synod of
Dort by five commissioners, who, how-
ever, were to favor no innovations in
doctrine. Under Charles I (1625 — 49)
and Archbishop Laud (1633- — 45) High
Church views assumed an extreme form,
the latter asserting the episcopacy to be
essential to the very existence of the
Church. Under Laud there was revived
also, according to the opinion of the
Puritans and Low Churchmen, the ritual
England
232
England
of Rome, and Arminian views, advocated
by him, spread in the church. He died
at the block in 1645. During the Com-
monwealth the Established Church was
religio illicita, since the episcopacy was
abolished by an Act of Parliament and
the use of the liturgy discontinued Sep-
tember 10, 1642. A Presbyterian king-
dom was established by the Westminster
Assembly in 1643. But in spite of the
powerful personality of Cromwell, Puri-
tanism in England was a failure, and
upon the accession of Charles II (1660)
the Episcopal Church again became the
Established Church. Puritanism was
now rigidly oppressed, the use of the
Prayer-book was enforced by the Act of
Uniformity (1662), and 2,000 English
clergymen were deprived of their bene-
fices. By the Five-mile Act ( 1665 ) and
the Test Act (1673) the Puritans were
excluded from all offices. James II, the
successor of Charles II, favored Roman-
ism, but a change came with the acces-
sion of William and Mary in 1688.
With this reign began the movement in
favor, not only of toleration, but of ab-
solute freedom of worship and political
equality. Freedom of worship was es-
tablished by the Act of Toleration (1689),
and the Test Act was repealed in 1828.
In 1829 all disabilities were removed
from Roman Catholics, and in 1858 also
from the Jews. In the eighteenth cen-
tury worldliness and Deism became
rampant. However, this was counter-
acted by the activity of Whitefield and
the Wesleys, and new life sprang up in
the Church of England as the result of
this revival of practical religion. In
consequence of the missionary activity
of the Methodists there was an intense
interest in missionary activity among
the heathen and among the depraved
classes at home. In 1780 Robert Raikes,
of Gloucester, organized Sunday-schools
for the poor, and in 1799 the first mis-
sionary society was founded. At this
time also a movement was organized
toward the abolition of the slave trade.
The nineteenth century was characterized
particularly by the rise of the Oxford
Movement (Puseyism), through which
John Henry Newman, Henry Edward
Manning, and other clergymen of note
became converts to the Catholic Church.
However, this was also characterized by
earnest evangelical piety. The British
and Foreign Bible Society united both
Episcopalians and Dissenters in a com-
mon enterprise, while the Evangelical
Alliance in 2846 sought to unify them
in spirit and prayer. In the last half
of the century Biblical scholarship was
developed to a high point by such men
as Archbishop Trench, Dean Alford,
Bishop Lightfoot, B. F. Westcott, Bishop
Ellicott, Dean Stanley, Professors Hatch
and Hort, and others. These Bible
studies culminated in the movement to
revise the English translation of the
Bible. (For Established Church see
Elizabeth. )
The High Church party in the Church
of England still insists upon its ex-
clusive right to the episcopacy and
apostolic succession, upon the ritual, the
doctrine of the real presence and bap-
tismal regeneration, and has reintro-
duced Romanistic practises, such as
veneration of the blessed Sacrament,
auricular confession, Communion in one
kind for the laity, and establishment of
monastic orders. The Low Church party
represents the evangelical element of the
Church; it holds strictly to the natural
interpretation of the 39 Articles, denies
the episcopal system to be essential to
the proper organization of the Church,
and denounces all ritualistic practises.
The Broad Church party is, to a great ex-
tent, composed of latitudinarians, or the
liberal element, represented by such men
as Arnold, Julius Hare, Kingsley, Stan-
ley, etc. The- compulsory church rate
Abolition Act (1868) relieved all Dis-
senters of church taxation and the Uni-
versity Test Act (1871) opened the uni-
versity to all students, irrespective of
creed.
The doctrinal standards of the Angli-
can Church are the 39 Articles, and the
Book of Common Prayer, to which may
be added the Catechism and the two
Books of Homilies, issued under Ed-
ward VI and sanctioned by the 39 Ar-
ticles. The worship of the Church of
England is liturgical and regulated by
the Book of Common Prayer. Any de-
parture, even in the smallest detail, from
it is illegal. The clergy of the Church
of England consists of three orders - — •
deacons, priests (presbyters), and bish-
ops. The canonical age is, respectively,
twenty-three, twenty-four, and thirty.
The bishop has the exclusive right of
ordination and confirmation, and of the
consecration of churches. Bishops are
appointed by the crown. Deans have
charge of cathedral churches and are as-
sisted by canons, the number of whom
must not exceed six for any cathedral.
The archdeacon assists the bishop in his
official duties as superintendent of the
diocese, holds synods, delivers charges,
and visits parishes. Bishops frequently
associate with themselves suffragan bish-
ops. England is divided into the arch-
bishoprics of Canterbury and York. The
Irish Church, which was disestablished
Enlightenment
233
Enlightenment
in 1869, has two archbishops and eleven
bishops, while the Scotch Episcopal
Church has seven bishops. The clergy of
the Church in priests’ orders in England
and Wales are called rectors, vicars, or
curates. See Hierarchy.
The Church of England is one of the
estates of the realm, and its relation to
the state is one of dependence, the sov-
ereign being the supreme governor and
Parliament its highest legislative body.
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the
first peer in the realm and crowns the
king. The bishops have their palaces
and seats in the House of Lords. The
convocations of Canterbury and York
are the two highest official church-bodies,
the convocations being assembled by the
king’s writ. Judicial business is trans-
acted in three courts — the lowest, the
diocesan, a consistory court, presided
over by the bishop’s chancellor; the
court of arches; and the king in council,
or the judicial committee of the privy
council. There are three church censures
— suspension, deprivation, and degrada-
tion. At the first Lambeth Synod (1888),
which included the bishops of the Church
of England and the colonies, as well as
all the Protestant Episcopal churches in
America, the opposition of a wing of the
Low Church party to the Oxford Move-
ment led to the formation of the Free
Church of England and to the introduc-
tion into England of the Reformed Epis-
copal Church.
The Free Church of England is a small
Protestant organization, which, in 1844,
separated from the Church of England
on account of the Oxford Movement. It
is entirely free from state control and
thus claims the right to enter any parish
where an advanced ritualism prevails
and to establish its own services on the
basis of the evangelical party of the
Anglican Church. It is governed by its
own convocation and by its few bishops,
who were consecrated by Bishop Cum-
mins of the American Reformed Epis-
copal Church. The convocation meets
annually in June. It is practically iden-
tical with the Reformed Episcopal
Church of England, though it refuses to
unite with this body on account of dif-
ferences regarding government and the
rights of the laity. See Reformed Epis-
copal Church.
For denominations, such as Baptists,
Methodists, Irvingites, etc., see the re-
spective headings.
Enlightenment (German, AufMae-
rung ) , the subjective and rationalistic
spirit of the 18th century which declared
its independence of the authority of
Biblical revelation, affecting not only
theology, but all phases of life, and be-
came the basis of modern culture and
history. While in the preceding cen-
turies European life, philosophy, inter-
national and national politics, econom-
ics, literature, education, were under
the domination of the theological spirit,
the Enlightenment declared its hostility
to the supernaturalism of the Church
and its influence on the affairs of the
world and in the conflict between reason
and faith asserted that man by nature
is endowed with sufficient reason to
work out every problem that confronts
him. While this evolution reached its
height in the 18th century, particularly
in the second half, which coincides
roughly with the reign of Frederick II
in Prussia and which Germans call das
Zeitalter der Aufklaerung, the begin-
nings may he traced to the Renaissance.
Italian Humanism of the 15th and 16th
centuries, which was merely a revival
of ancient paganism and fundamentally
hostile to Christianity, worked as a
leaven throughout Europe. The over-
whelming religious interest created by
the Reformation repressed its influence
for a time, but it came to the surface
again, first in Holland in the rational-
ism of Des Cartes (q.v.) , the pantheism
and Biblical criticism of Spinoza (q.v.),
the skepticism of Pierre Bayle (q.v.),
then in England, where Deism (q. v.) had
taken its rise in the 17tli century. The
principle of Deism was common sense;
it was directed against the supernatural
character of Christianity and reduced
religion to a system of ethics based on
epistemology and psychology. English
Deism exerted a great influence on
France, where the Enlightenment took
a more radical turn. Its development
was largely influenced by the conditions
created by the reign of Louis XIV —
Jesuistic morality, frivolity, bigotry,
hypocrisy. A frivolous spirit took pos-
session of the upper classes, to whom
Catholicism, Jansenism, and Protestant-
ism were equally ridiculous. The En-
glish common sense was changed to a
philosophy of esprit, a mere travesty of
the former. Its leading exponents were
the Encyclopedists (q.v.), including the
skeptical Voltaire and the crass ma-
terialists Lamettrie and Holbach (q.v.).
It bred an extreme radicalism, which
attacked Church, State, and society and
reached its climax in the French Revolu-
tion with its terrible excesses. German
Enlightenment was a product both of
the English and the French, aided by
the introduction of Freemasonry in 1733
and the popular philosophy of Wolff
(q.v.), which was based on that of Leib-
Envelope System
234
Epliraem the Syrian
nitz ( q. v . ) . Prominent factors in the
German movement were the influence of
the skeptical Frederick II, Nicolai’s All-
gemeine Deutsche Bibliothek, the writ-
ings of Moses Mendelssohn, the father of
Reform Judaism, Reimarus, and Lessing
(q.v.). Theology became grossly ration-
alistic. However, the German move-
ment soon sloughed off its vulgar fea-
tures, mainly through the influence of
Goethe and Kant ( qq . u.), who, too, were
rationalists and products of the En-
lightenment, but who criticised its shal-
lowness and led German literature and
philosophy to their greatest heights.
German Enlightenment was followed by
an influential philosophical idealism.
Though the Enlightenment in its 18th
century form has passed and a Chris-
tian reaction set in in the 19th century,
its antichristian influences are still at
work in Germany, France, England,
America, and were given new impetus
and new modes of expression by the
great pseudodiscovery of the 19tli cen-
tury, biological evolution, which is ex-
erting its baleful influence on every field
of human knowledge.
Envelope System. When the every-
member canvass (q. v.) is made, the
church-member should hand in his
pledge-card (q.v.). Each pledge-card is
then numbered, and a package of enve-
lopes, monthly or weekly, single or
double, having a corresponding number
and being dated, is handed or mailed to
the church-member. These envelopes
should be brought by the members to
the services and deposited in an envelope
box provided at the entrance to the
church. When a member is absent on
one Sunday, he brings two envelopes on
the following Sunday. The envelopes
are received by a financial secretary and
the amounts carefully entered in a spe-
cial book provided for that purpose,
which should contain the envelope num-
ber, the name of the contributor, and
the amount pledged. Books made for
this purpose can be purchased. Every
quarter of a year the financial secretary
should mail a statement to the con-
tributors, showing the amount promised,
the amount paid, and the amount in ar-
rears. Good business method requires
that this be done. The envelope system
provides for regular and frequent giving
by all the members in accordance with
their means. More can and will be
given by the average Christian if he is
given an opportunity to contribute fifty-
two times a year than if he is called
upon to contribute larger sums only
once, twice, three, or four times a year.
In its essence the envelope system is in
every essential that system which Paul
suggested to the Corinthian congrega-
tion. 1 Cor. 10, 2. The envelope system
is being successfully used by many con-
gregations. As a result their contribu-
tions are much larger than they for-
merly were. It should be remembered
that the every-inember canvass and a
good financial secretary are essential to
the successful working of the envelope
system. The envelopes can be purchased
in cartons from church publication
houses or from special church envelope
firms.
Ephesus, Third Ecumenical Coun-
cil of. The deciding factor in the Nes-
torian Controversy (q.v.). This coun-
cil was convoked by Theodosius II, who
favored Nestorius; met June 22, 431;
Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, the chief
opponent of Nestorius, presided. On the
same day, refusing to wait any longer
for the arrival of the bishops of Syria
and the East, the adherents of Nestorius,
the bishops present, about 200, con-
demned the error of Nestorius and de-
posed and excommunicated him. The
decree says: “Mary brought forth, ac-
cording to the flesh, the Word of God
made flesh.” bringing out the Scriptural
doctrine that God, according to the
human nature, was born of the Virgin
Mary, that the human nature of Christ
is not a separate person, the mere in-
strument of the divine nature, but that
there is one person with the natures in-
divisibly and inseparably, personally,
united. The legates of Celestine of
Rome, arriving later, joined in the con-
demnation of Nestorius July 11. Clos-
ing session, August 31. The judgment,
approved by the whole Western Church
and the greater part of the East, was
confirmed by the Council of Chalcedon.
Celestine, appealed to by Cyril, had in-
structed his legates to utilize the occa-
sion in the interest of the primacy of
Rome; God graciously overruled the
wiles of Rome, the arrogance of Cyril,
and the rivalry between the patriarch-
ates in the interest of the saving doc-
trine of the person of Christ. — The
Council, besides, condemned Pelagianism
and the Messalians (Euchites, Eusta-
thians), who made prayer the one means
of grace, and on the motion of Cyril re-
fused the bishop of Jerusalem the patri-
archal rank.
Ephraem the Syrian, the most prom-
inent of the Fathers of the Syrian
Church in the fourth century, propheta
Byrorum, its greatest preacher and
hymn-writer; lived as an anchorite at
Eplirafn Community
235
Kpiscoiiaey
Edessa, studying . and writing, teaching
and preaching, and succoring the needy.
He wrote commentaries on most hooks
of the Bible. Ilia sermons, combating
Arianism and the other heresies of his
day, were publicly read in many
churches. D. ca. 378.
Ephrata Community. See Commu-
nistic Societies.
Epicureanism, the philosophy of Epi-
curus (341 — 270 B. 0.), is a combination
of the atomism of Democritus with the
hedonism of Aristippus. Atomism is as
follows: Matter and void are the only
real entities, uncreated and eternal.
Atoms are the primordial particles of
matter, indivisible, invisible, and inde-
structible, which by fortuitous con-
course bring worlds into being. Men
and animals are spontaneous products
of the earth. The soul, too, is material,
made of fine, smooth atoms disseminated
through the body and destined to perish.
Death ends all. Epicureanism has no
room for either theology or teleology.
The gods, inconsistently retained in the
system, inhabit the placid intormundane
spaces and take no part in the govern-
ment of the world or the affairs of men.
This material and mechanical world-
view, according to Epicurus, is essential
to happiness. Indeed, its only purpose
is to furnish a physical or philosophic
basis for a hedonistic theory of conduct.
Pleasure is the highest good, not the
fleeting pleasure of the voluptuary, to
be sure, but rather an unclouded serenity
of mind. To attain this end, religion
must be destroyed, since it is the chief
cause of mental disquiet and anxiety.
Virtue must be preferred, not because
good in itself, but because it brings
peace and contentment. Right and
wrong are purely conventional distinc-
tions.
Epileptic Homes. The best-known
epileptic home is the one founded by
Pastor von Bodelschwingli, “Bethel bei
Bielefeld,” 1872. Bodelschwingli made
the observation that epileptics are best
cared for if they are permitted to con-
tinue their former occupations and if an
institution affords them as much as pos-
sible the comforts of home life. Epilep-
tic institutions under Lutheran auspices
are maintained at Watertown, Wis. (Syn-
odical Conference), and Rochester, Pa.
Epiphanius of Salamis; h. ca. 310;
bishop of Salamis in Cyprus 307; d. 403;
highly esteemed for his monastic asceti-
cism, learning, piety, and self-denying
care for the poor, and liis zeal for
orthodoxy; his zeal, however, not al-
ways according to knowledge (see Ori-
gen) . His polemical treatises have his-
torical value.
Episcopacy. In the apostolic age
the episcopal office, or office of bishops,
was in no wise distinguished from that
of eldership, the terms bishop (overseer)
and elder (presbyter) being used synony-
mously and corresponding to the modern
minister, or pastor. See Elders, Minis-
terial Office.
The Roman Catholic theory of epis-
copacy is based upon the Roman idea of
the Church, which requires an external
sacrifice and special priests to per-
form it. The priest is supposed to re-
ceive his internal consecration from God
through the external consecration of the
Church, and by this is meant the impo-
sition of hands by the bishop. It is
held that the episcopate is perpetuated
in uninterrupted succession from the
apostles (Apostolic Succession, q. v.).
The bishops form a perpetual corpora-
tion, exercising its powers under a com-
mon head, the Pope. The theory that
the Pope holds his office as primus inter
pares, that is, that he is first among
equals (Gallican view), and that the
bishops rule each by divine right, has
gradually yielded to the ultramontane
idea of the episcopate, by which the
Pope is constituted sole bishop by divine
right, all other bishops existing only
through him.
The Church of England and the Prot-
estant Episcopal Church in the United
States hold that there are three orders
of ministers in the Church — bishops,
priests, and deacons, and that the bish-
ops are the successors of the apostles.
The High Church (Romanizing) party
maintains the divine right of episcopacy
and its absolute necessity for the exist-
ence of the Church, while the Low
Church party denies that episcopacy is
of the essence of the Church. In har-
mony with its view regarding the nature
of episcopacy, High Church writers do
not regard as a “Church” any denomi-
nation which has not the episcopal office
by (presumed) apostolic succession. In
their opinion the Roman system, the
Greek Catholic (Oriental) Church, and
the state church of Sweden, which like-
wise has bishops, are true churches,
while the Methodist, Presbyterian, Lu-
theran denominations, and Protestant
churches generally are not regarded as
“churches.” The episcopacy of the An-
glican Church is diocesan, like that of
the Roman Catholic, and the bishops
are named from the chief city of the
diocese. In the Protestant Episcopal
Church (United States) the dioceses
are generally coextensive with the States
Epistemology
236
Erastianism
of the Union, and the bishops are named
accordingly ( Bishop of Delaware, etc. ) .
There are no archbishops, hut assistant
and missionary bishops are authorized.
In the Methodist Episcopal Church
the bishops are not regarded as succes-
sors to the apostles, and the New Testa-
ment principle that bishops are of no
higher rank than other clergy is recog-
nized. Upon the bishops of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church are devolved cer-
tain extraordinary functions, such as
ordaining, and presiding in assemblies.
Epistemology. See Philosophy.
Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum,
a Humanist attack on Rome by Crotus
Rubeanus, Hutten, and others, 1515 and
1517, purported to be written by Domi-
nicans, laying absurd problems in schol-
arship and theology before Professor
Ortuinus of Cologne. The barbaric Latin
of the monks is successfully imitated
and their ignorance, arrogance, hypoc-
risy, and licentiousness exposed.
Epworth. League. An organization
for young people in the Methodist
churches of America. Organized at
Cleveland, O., 1889, by merging a few
young people’s societies into one single
organization. The purpose of the League
is to win young people for Jesus Christ
and to train them to serve Him. Weekly
devotional meetings are held. Summer
institutes for instruction and training
in the Christian life have been conducted.
Hundreds of volunteers have come from
these for the ministry and the mission-
fields and other services of the Church.
The members of the League contribute
liberally to the benevolences of the
Church. The Epworth Herald is the
official paper of the League in the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church, North ; the Ep-
worth Era is the official paper of the
League in the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South, and the Methodist
Church of Canada.
Era. A special period of time in his-
tory reckoned from a definite point of
time known as an epoch. The Christian
era has its inception with the epoch of
the birth of Christ, according to the
writings of a monk, Dionysius Exiguus
(q.v.). Other eras are those of the
world, beginning with its creation, and
such as are used in local calendars.
Erasmus, Desiderius, Roterodamus.
Dutch Humanist, who also dabbled in
theology; b. at Rotterdam, Holland,
1466; d. at Basel, Switzerland, 1536;
received very good education in monastic
and semimonastic schools; was admit-
ted to priesthood, but never exercised
its functions; spent much time at
learned centers of the Continent; held
position of Lady Margaret Professor of
Divinity at Cambridge and was offered
many other positions of honor, but pre-
ferred a life of independent literary ac-
tivity; noted for his telling Latin style.
While in England, Erasmus began a sys-
tematic examination of manuscripts of
the New Testament in order to prepare
a new edition and a Latin translation.
This edition was published by Eroben
of Basel in 1510 and, with its succes-
sors, became the basis of the best scien-
tific study of the Bible during the period
of the Reformation, Luther making use
of an Erasmian edition as the basis of
his German translation. When the Ref-
ormation began, Erasmus was put to a
hard test; he was in sympathy with
many points of Luther’s writings, espe-
cially in the great Reformer’s criticism
of the external evils of the Church. But
he was too strongly settled in his dila-
tory and vacillating method of thinking,
writing, and acting, and his ideas of the
reformation of the Church ran along
humanistic rather than Biblical lines.
The consequence was that, whereas Lu-
ther at first expressed his admiration
for all that Erasmus had done in the
cause of a purer, moral Christianity, he
finally, on account of the refusal of
Erasmus to commit himself, on account
of his dread to suggest any change in
the doctrinal position of the Church,
and on account of the treatise De Libero
Arbitrio (Of Free Will ) with its equiv-
ocal and false theology, was obliged to
turn against Erasmus in his noted
treatise De Servo Arbitrio (Of the En-
slaved Will). The result of this con-
troversy for Erasmus was that he found
himself, at the close of his life, at odds
with both parties, the Roman Catholic
and the Lutheran, or Protestant. Toward
the end of his life he published a book,
Gospel Preacher, in which he tries to
emphasize the importance of preaching
in the work of the ministry. He was
one of the most learned men of his age,
if not of all times, but did not rise above
mediocrity in usefulness, chiefly on ac-
count of his vacillating disposition.
Erastianism. A view according to
which the state is supreme in ecclesias-
tical causes, the word being derived from
Erastus, a Swiss Reformed physician
and theologian (d. 1562), who denied that
the Church has any power to make laws
and decrees and declared that the in-
fliction of penalties, especially such as
pertain to the body, belongs to civil
magistrates. Erastianism, in its wide
application, goes beyond the views held
by Erastus.
Eremites
237
Each, Jolinnn
Eremites. See Hermits.
Erk, Ludwig Christian, 1807 — 83;
trained chiefly by his father and Andr<5
at Offenbach; music teacher in Moers,
then conductor in Berlin; chief work in
male choir and in his chorus for mixed
voices; in 1857 royal musical director,
finally professor; published a number of
song-books for schools, which enjoyed
great popularity, and several books of
chorals, based upon his studies of the
choral in the 16th and 17tli centuries.
Erlangen School. Since the re-
awakening of confessional Lutheranism
from rationalism, the University of Er-
langen has exerted a far-reaching influ-
ence on the Lutheran Church. The
leaders of this school have been von Hof-
mann and, later, frank. Other promi-
nent teachers: Harless, Hoefling, Tho-
musius, Delitzscli, Kahnis, Luthardt, Th.
Ilarnack, l’litt, v. Zezscliwitz, Th. /aim,
Ilimels, etc. Its organ was the Zeit-
svhrift fuer Proteatantismus und Kirche.
This school has manfully combated
rationalism in its old form, as well as in
its modern guise of liberalism, and has
made some valuable contributions to
Lutheran theology. But, though claim-
ing to represent conservative, confes-
sional Lutheranism, it has forsaken the
Lutheran base. It claims the right to
develop the doctrines of the Confessions
along the lines of a “scientific” theology
(wissenschaftliche Theologie ) , has repu-
diated the principle that Scripture alone
is the source of theology ( principium
oognoscendi) , and substituted therefor
the believing ego, the Christian con-
sciousness, the theologian himself, thus
following Schleiermacher rather than
Luther. There is consequently a wide
divergence in their teachings. While
they are unanimous in rejecting the old
Lutheran conception of inspiration, some
have thrown overboard the vicarious
atonement, and others have developed
the modern kenosis, subordinationism,
and various forms of synergism and
self- justification.
Ernest the Confessor, Duke of
Brunswick-Lueneburg ; b. 1497; nephew
of Frederick the Wise; pupil of Luther;
reformed his duchy in 1527 ; signed the
Augsburg Confession in 1530; d. 1546.
Ernesti, Johann August; b. 1707;
d. 1781 as professor in Leipzig; mediat-
ing theologian; trying to hold to the in-
spiration of the Bible and the Symbolical
Books of the Church, he nevertheless
made concessions to the rationalistic
tendency of his time.
Ernst, Augustus Friedrich ; b. June
25, 1841, at Eddesse, Hannover; after
graduating from the Celle Gymnasium,
he studied theology at Goettingen, also
philology and philosophy. For one year
he instructed at the Clausthal Gymna-
sium, then came to America, 1863, to
serve the Lutheran Church. Ordained
at Pottstown, Pa., 1864, for a Brooklyn
pastorate, which he left, 1868, to go to
Albany. Through the offices of Pastor
Adelberg he accepted the call to North-
western College, Watertown, Wis., as
professor and inspector, 1869; two years
later he was made president, from which
office he resigned, 1919, remaining as
professor; on leave since 1921, when he
was incapacitated by illness. It was his
task to reconstruct the college (opened
1865); he made of it the American
school with Lutheran ideals of the best
German tradition that it is to-day. He
could not conceive of a higher ambition
than to teach the men who were to teach
the Church. The Joint Synod of Wis-
consin is predominatingly manned by his
pupils; he has been called the “Pre-
ceptor of the Lutheran Northwest.” He
was made honorary Pli. I), by Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis. Serving synod in
many capacities, he was also the first
president of the Joint Synod. The only
books this brilliant scholar cared to
write were text-books for parish schools,
a IHble History and a Header ( German ) ,
D. August 8, 1924.
Ernst, Heinrich; b. 1842 in Hesse-
Nassau; pastor in Ohio Synod; profes-
sor in Luther Seminary, St. Paul, since
1884; contributor to Theol. Zeitblaetter.
Ernst, Johann Adam. A native Bo-
hemian. Loehe’s first missioner, 1842;
affiliated with the Ohio Synod; with-
drew in 1845; active in the movement
leading to the founding of the Missouri
Synod; a charter member; held pastor-
ates at Marysville, 0., Eden, N. Y., and
Elmira, Ont., and Euclid, O. ; d. Janu-
ary 20, 1895.
Esbjoern, Lars Paul, 1808 — 70; grad-
uate of Upsala University 1832; pas-
tor in Sweden 1835 — 49; emigrated
1849; pastor in Illinois 1849 — 58;
Scandinavian professor of theology at
Illinois State University 1858 — 60;
president and professor of Augustana
Seminary, Chicago, 1860 — 63; pastor in
Sweden 1863 — 70; author of books and
articles.
Esch, Johann, and Voes, Heinrich,
young Augustinians at Antwerp, con-
verted by Luther’s writings, firm against
Louvain theologians; forced by Hoog-
straten to choose between recanting or
burning; burned in Brussels market
July 1, 1523. Luther celebrated their
Eschatology
238
Ethical (lilt 11 re
martyrdom in his first poem and sent
a comforting letter to the faithful at
Brussels.
Eschatology. That part of dogmat-
ics, or doctrinal theology, which treats
of the last things — immortality, the
resurrection, life after death, the second
coming of Christ, the final Judgment,
and the end of the world.
Escobar y Mendoza, Antonio. Span-
ish Jesuit, 1589 — 1009; noted for his as-
ceticism and energy as preacher; wrote
extensively in exegesis and moral the-
ology; among his works arc commen-
taries on the gospels and a book of
moral theology of the Jesuits, burned by
Parlement de Paris in 1701.
Esthonia heard of Christianity in
1190 from Meinhard, “the Apostle of
Livonia,” and it was forced on the people
in 1201 by King Canute VI of Denmark.
The Order of Teutonic Knights pur-
chased the country of Waldemar III in
1346 and continued the “missionary”
work. In 1521 Walter of Plettenberg,
the head of the order, introduced the
Reformation. Luther wrote to the Chris-
tians of Riga, Reval, capital of Esthonia,
and Dorpat in 1523. In these three
cities S. Tegetmeier established the Ref-
ormation. The Catechism came in 1501,
the Bible in 1633. In 1711 Peter the
Great took the country. During the
nineteenth century the Lutheran Church
in the Baltic Provinces suffered much
oppression and some losses in conse-
quence of Orthodox propaganda and ad-
verse legislation. — Esthonia, including
parts of Livonia (with the island of
Oesel) and other territory, became a re-
public in 1919; population, 1,750,000,
five-sixths Lutheran, the rest Orthodox,
Catholic, etc.; nineteen-twentieths are
Estlionians, who are Finnish in blood
and language. A synod headed by a
bishop has been organized. Church and
State are separate.
Estiua, Wilhelm (Wilhelm Hessel
van Est) . Roman Catholic theologian,
1541 — 1613; rector of Seminary at
Douay; later chancellor of the univer-
sity; wrote commentaries on all Pau-
line letters and annotations of all proof-
texts.
Eternal Life. The life of the spirit,
distinguished from the temporal (union
of soul and body), which consists of the
union of the Christian with God through
faith in Christ Jesus, especially the per-
fect enjoyment of this union in heaven.
That eternal life is a present possession
of every Christian is clearly taught in
Scripture. “God hath given to us eter-
nal life, and this life is in His Son.”
1 JohnS, 11. “He that bclieveth on the
Son hath everlasting life.” John 3, 30.
This eternal life, then, commences when
it pleases the Father to reveal to us the
Son that we may be enabled to “call
Him Lord by the Holy Ghost.” Then it
is that heaven is opened in the soul, so
that the Christian can “rejoice evermore
and in all things give thanks.”
As to the blessedness of the future
life, the Scriptures clearly and consist-
ently describe it as a state in which the
believer is entirely freed from the suf-
ferings of this present existence, since
sin has been entirely put off. The divine
image, lost in the Fall, is completely re-
stored: man lms again his eoncreatcd
righteousness and holiness and a bliss-
ful knowledge of God, so far as a crea-
ture may be capable of this knowledge
(the beatific vision). What provision
will be made for the mind of man other-
wise and for his senses we do not know,
as Scripture speaks only in images on
this point. When Paul was “caught up
to the third heaven,” into “paradise,” he
“heard unspeakable words,” transcend-
ing human utterance. 2 Cor. 12, 1 — 4.
Christ is always represented as person-
ally visible to^the believer, whose per-
sonal and familiar intercourse he will
enjoy. In His presence we shall be re-
united with the friends who died before
us and with all the saints, 1 Thess. 4, 17 ;
Luke 10, 22, although the carnal union
of men and women will cease, Matt.
22, 30. There the saints who have come
out of great tribulation will be clothed
upon with glory ineffable and will for-
ever enjoy perfect peace. Is. 49, 10;
Dan. 12, 3; Matt. 13, 43; John 14, 2;
Eph. 5, 27; 1 Pet. 1, 4; 5, 10; 1 John
4, 17; Rev. 14, 13; 22, 3.
Ethical Culture. A movement begun
in New York 1870 when Felix Adler
(b. 1851 at Alzey, Germany; son of a
Jewish Rabbi who emigrated to America
1857 ; since 1902 Professor of Political
and Social Ethics at Columbia Univer-
sity) founded the New York Society for
Ethical Culture, which was designated
by him as “the new religion of humanity,
whose God is The Good, whose church
is the universe, whose heaven is here on
earth and not in the clouds.” Its motto
is, “Deed, not creed,” and its purpose is
to elevate ethics to the highest place in
man’s life, to declare its absolute inde-
pendence from all creeds, to help men
lead better and more worth-while lives,
and to get them into the right relation-
ship with each other. Similar societies
were formed in Chicago 1883, Phila-
delphia 1885, St. Louis 1886, Brooklyn
1906, and these societies are united in
Ktliicjs
239
Eucharist
the American Ethical Culture Union,
which was organized 1880. The move-
ment also spread to Europe. Numerous
societies were organized in London (1886)
and the rest of England, in Berlin (1892)
and other German cities, in Vienna, Zu-
rich, Lausanne, Home, Venice, and even
in India, Japan, New Zealand, South
Africa, and an International Ethical
Union was organized 1890. The move-
ment, which is horn of agnosticism, is
the result of the endeavor to divorce
ethics from religion and “to assert the
supreme importance of the ethical factor
in all relations of life apart from all
theological and metaphysical considera-
tions.” The societies do not hold re-
ligious services with ritual and ceremo-
nies, but have meetings on Sundays, at
which moral questions and community
problems are discussed by the leaders,
and ethical interests constitute the
source of the religious life of the mem-
bers. As great stress is laid on moral
instruction of the young, the New York
society supports, besides a Sunday-
school, an efficient day-school, The Eth-
ical Culture School, for its children and
others, complete from kindergarten to
high school and normal departments. It
has also done extensive philanthropic
work, including a system of nursing for
the poor, care of crippled children, the
support of two settlement houses, and
other humanitarian undertakings. Com-
mendable as some of these achievements
seem, and though the movement pro-
fesses to maintain a neutral attitude
toward the various religions, it is the
very antithesis of Christianity, which
rears its ethical system on the founda-
tion of God’s love for men in Christ. In
1916 there were in the United States
■ 5 organizations with 2,850 members. It
is noteworthy that the main adherents
in New York and Philadelphia are Jews.
The societies in England are still pros-
pering, but the German movement has
declined almost completely.
Ethics. The organized knowledge
which treats of the nature and condi-
tion of man as a morally responsible
being on the basis of the natural knowl-
edge of God and of conscience. Chris-
tian ethics makes the Bible the basis of
its presentation.
Ethiopia. See Abyssinia.
Ethiopianism (Ethiopian Movement).
A movement among the native peoples
of Central and South Africa aiming at
the dethronement of white supremacy in
that country and at ultimate expulsion
of the white race. It traces its origin
to the past century, when, about 1892,
two native ministers of the Wesleyan
Church defected and founded the Church
of Ethiopia, from which all whites were
to be excluded; the slogan is, “Africa
for the Africans.” The African Metho-
dist Episcopal Church in the United
States recognized Mr. Dwane, one of the
founders, and the Ethiopian Church, as
did also the Anglican Church at Cape
Town. In 1898 Bishop Turner of the
American African M. E. Church visited
Africa and ordained many native Kafir
ministers. Later the African Methodist
Episcopal Church delegated Dr. Levi
Coppin, of Philadelphia, as bishop to
South Africa, and he was able to re-
organize the natives of the English
Methodist missions in opposition to the
Church of Ethiopia. Much religious and
political unrest resulted among the na-
tives from the Ethiopian Movement,
such as the Herero (1904) and the Zulu
(1900) uprisings. Latterly the move-
ment appears to have lost its force.
Eucharist ( Liturgical ). The liturgy
of the Lord’s Supper is included in the
Morning Service; for, as a rule, the Sac-
rament should be celebrated in this ser-
vice. A hymn serves as an introduction
to this solemn service, an offertory often
being selected for this purpose. The
pastor having come to the altar during
the singing of this hymn, the first part
of the service of the Holy Communion
follows, namely, the Preface. The Salu-
tation and Response are sung to indi-
cate the opening of a new part of the
service. The Prefatory Sentences, Sur-
sum, and Gratias are held in an ele-
vated tone, in conformity with the
solemnity of the occasion. Then comes
the impressive, beautiful Preface proper.
The simple Preface was in use in the
Liturgy of St. James and may have a
still greater antiquity. In the fourth
century Prefaces were composed for all
the festivals and their seasons, these
hymns now being known as Proper
Prefaces. They are Eucharistic Prayers
of singular beauty, seeming to gain, with
every new sentence, in joyful cadence,
until each one reaches its culmination
in the burst of triumphant melody on
the part of the congregation, in the re-
sponse of the Hymnus Seraphicus, or
Tersanctus. Is. 6, 3; Ps. 118, 26. The
second part of the hymn, usually called
the Benedictus, resolves the whole Sane-
tus into a hymn of praise to Christ as
true God. John 12, 41. — The second
part of the Communion service proper is
the Administration, which is opened
with the chanting of the Lord’s Prayer,
here not so much a prayer of consecra-
tion as one of joyful access. By reciting
Encliariatic Controversies
240
Eusebius of Caesarea
this prayer, the communicants are made
conscious of their adoption as children
of God in Christ and feel that they may
come to the Lord as fellow-members of
the same body. Immediately after the
Lord’s Prayer follow the Words of In-
stitution, taken verbally from the gos-
pels, without transcriptions and addi-
tions. These words teach the sacra-
mental use, the sacramental presence,
the sacramental benefit, and the sacra-
mental institution, and are the formula
of consecration. At the close of the con-
secration the pastor turns to the congre-
gation with the Pax. Luke 24, 30. As
the 'pastor turns back to the altar, the
congregation chants the Agnus Dei, dur-
ing which the communicants begin to
come forward. In the words of distri-
bution the word “true” is added on ac-
count of Reformed errors. - — In the third
part of the Communion service, the Post-
communion, the Nunc Dimittis of the be-
lievers expresses the believing accept-
ance of the faithful; it is fitly closed
with the Gloria Patri, a doxology to the
Triune God for the manifestation of
His glory, mercy, and power. Then the
Thanksgiving Collect, expressing the
gratitude of the believers for the bene-
fits received, is chanted. The service
closes with the Benedicamus, the Salu-
tation and Response, and the Versicle
of Benediction, giving all glory to God
alone. The congregation is dismissed
with the Aaronic Blessing, Num. 0,
24 — 26, to which the congregation re-
sponds with Amen.
Eucharistic Controversies. The the-
ory that during Holy Communion bread
and wine are transformed into the body
and blood of Christ (subsequently called
Transubstantiation ) and that the Mass
is a sacrifice, which had been gaining
ground since Gregory I, was championed
in 844 by Pascliasius Radbertus, abbot
of Corbie, Prance, who argued from the
authority of the Fathers and the alleged
miraculous phenomena exhibited by the
consecrated bread. Asked for his opinion
by the king, Ratramnus, monk of Corbie,
condemned the book of his abbot, deny-
ing, on his part, the real presence of the
body and the blood and admitting noth-
ing beyond a spiritual eating and drink-
ing — practically the Reformed doctrine.
Rabanus Maurus and Scotus Erigena
held the same views, Hincmar and others
sided with Radbertus, and Christian
Drutlimar and others declared for im-
panation and consubstantiation, while
the Scriptural doctrine of the real pres-
ence, the sacramental, supernatural
union, was entirely lost sight of. The
theory of Radbertus prevailed. — Beren-
gar of Tours, who elaborated the theory
of Ratramnus and denied that the un-
worthy communicant receives the body
and blood of Christ, was accused of
heresy by Lanfranc, his friend, con-
demned unheard by a synod in Rome
1050, condemned, while in prison by a
second synod, which also had the book
of Ratramnus burned, satisfied the papal
legate Hildebrand with an evasive decla-
ration, was compelled in Rome, 1059, to
consign his writings to the fire and ac-
cept an extremely Capernaitic formula,
repudiated his confession and answered
Lanfranc with his chief work, On the
Holy Supper, and was compelled in 1079,
at Rome, by Gregory VII (Hildebrand),
who himself did not believe in transub-
stantion, to abjure his view and accept
the popular one. Gregory prohibited all
further controversies, and transubstan-
tiation came to be universally accepted.
Berengar retracted his recantation, sub-
mitted after another trial, and died as
a solitary penitent.
Eudemonism. The ethical theory
which makes happiness the highest aim
in life. As the sources of happiness
vary greatly, we may distinguish gross
and fine eudemonism. The former is
also called hedonism (q.v.). The lat-
ter finds happiness in intellectual and'
esthetic pursuits. Eudemonism which
makes not private, but public welfare or
happiness its aim is called utilitarian-
ism. All forms of eudemonism were re-
jected as immoral by Kant, who, going
to the other extreme, established the
principle that the good must be done for
its own sake.
Eunomius, bishop of Cyzicus in My-
sia, radical Arian, who declared that the
Son was unlike (anomoios) the Father.
Eusebius of Caesarea; b. ca. 280,
surnamed Pamphili = tlie friend of Pam-
philus, his teacher; imprisoned in Egypt
for confessing; bishop of Caesarea soon
after 313; enjoyed the confidence of
Constantine; d. 339. He was prominent
at Nicea, working for a compromise; he
subscribed to the Nicene Creed, but later
was at the head of the moderate Semi-
Arians and presided at the synod in
Tyre, 335, which condemned Athanasius.
In the field of Church History he served
the Church well, “the Father of Church
History,” being the first in the field and
preserving valuable material for his suc-
cessors. His Church History, Chronicle
(a universal history), Life of Constan-
tine, etc., are the fruit of most pains-
taking research. He wrote, besides,
apologetic, dogmatic, and exegetic trea-
Eusebius of Einesa
241
Evangelical Association
tises and collaborated with Pamphilus
on the Apology for Origen.
Eusebius of Emesa, of the Antioch-
ian School (q.v.), bishop of Emesa in
Rhenieia; later teacher in Antioch;
d. 300; noted exegete and orator; a pu-
pil of Eusebius of Caesarea; a Semi-
Arian; teacher of Diodorus of Tarsus.
Eusebius of Nicomedia and Con-
stantinople; d. 341; strongly Arian in
his theology; signed the Confession of
Nicea after' long opposition; later used
political power to promote Arianism.
Eutychianism. A heresy of the fifth
century, taking its name from Eutyches,
an Alexandrian presbyter and archiman-
drite, who asserted that there were two
natures in Christ before the incarnation
or the union of the divine nature with
the human. See Ghalcedon, Council of.
Evangelical Alliance. Dr. Chalmers
(d. 1847), the founder of the Tree
Church of Scotland, was instrumental
in calling, in 1840, a meeting in London
of Protestants from all countries, who
sought to unite more closely all evan-
gelical Christians, insisted on liberty of
conscience and religious tolerance, and
were opposed to the papacy and to
Puseyism. Hoffmann of Berlin, Tholuck
of Halle, and the Baptist preacher
Oncken of Hamburg attended the meet-
ing. They organized and adopted the
name Evangelical Alliance. All who
would accept the following doctrines
were to be eligible to membership: l.the
divine inspiration, authority, and suf-
ficiency of the Scriptures; 2. the right
and duty of private judgment; 3. the
unity of the Godhead and the trinity of
the divine persons; 4. the total deprav-
ity of human nature as a result of the
Fall; 5. the incarnation of the Son of
God, His work of redemption for sinful
mankind, mediatory intercession, and
His kingship; 6. justification only by
faith; 7. the work of the Holy Spirit in
converting and sanctifying the sinner;
8. the immortality of the soul, the resur-
rection of the body, the final Judgment
by the Savior, receiving the righteous
into eternal life and condemning the un-
godly to eternal perdition; 9. the divine
institution of the office of the ministry
and of the Sacraments (Baptism and the
Lord’s Supper). The Evangelical Al-
liance did not seek organically to unite
the churches, but simply to bring about
a closer fellowship of individual Chris-
tians. Every member was asked to pray
for the common cause on the morning of
the first day of every week and during
the first week of every year. — The
Evangelical Christendom, published in
Concordia Cyclopedia
London since 1847, and the Neue evan-
gelisahe Kirchenzeitung , published since
1859 in Germany, espouse the cause of
the Alliance.
Evangelical Association (Albrights
and Albright Methodists) . This denomi-
nation was organized by Jacob Albright
(orig. Albrecht); b. in Pottstown, Pa.,
1769; d. 1808. Under his instruction
twenty converts from among the Ger-
man-speaking people in Pennsylvania
united in 1800 to pray with and for
each other. Albright did not purpose
to found a new Church, but the language
conditions and the opposition manifested
by some Methodists to the modes of wor-
ship used by his converts made a sepa-
rate ecclesiastical organization neces-
sary. It was not, however, until 1803
that ah ecclesiastical organization was
effected, at a general assembly held in
Eastern Pennsylvania, when Albright
was set apart as a minister of the Gos-
pel and ordained as an elder. The act
of consecration was performed by the
laying on of hands in solemn prayer by
two of his associates. The first annual
conference was held in Lebanon County,
Pa., in November, 1807. Albright was
elected bishop, and articles of faith and
the book of discipline were adopted, but
a full form of church government was
not devised for some years. The first
general conference convened in Buffalo
Valley, Center County, Pa., in October,
1816, at which time the denomination
adopted the name “Evangelical Associa-
tion,” whereas formerly they were known
as Albrights or Albright Methodists.
Although in the beginning the activities
of the Church' were carried on in the
German language only, the scope was
soon widened, and the work was carried
on also in English, and of late years
English has become the dominant lan-
guage. The denomination spread into
the Central and throughout the Northern
and Western States, from New England
to the Pacific coast, and north into
Canada. For some years the missionary
idea, which has always been a dominant
purpose of the denomination, found its
expression in local work; but in 1839
a General Missionary Society was organ-
ized, and a Woman’s Society followed
in 1883. In 1854 the Church first
reached out to Europe and began an im-
portant work both in Germany and
Switzerland. In 1876 work was begun
in Japan, and since then missions have
been established in China and Russia.
As early as 1815 a church publishing
house was founded. The official organ,
Der Christliche Botschafter, was founded
in 1836. A division in 1891 resulted in
16
Evangelical Association
242
Evangelistic Associations
the organization of the United Evan-
gelical Church under Bishop R. Dubs.
An attempt to reunite the two bodies
failed. In 1894 the minority, which had
left the Association, organized a Gen-
eral Conference at Naperville, 111., adopt-
ing the name “United Evangelical
Church.” The changes adopted did not
affect the doctrinal position of the body,
but only matters of church polity. At
present, efforts are being made for a re-
union of the two denominations. ■ — Doc-
trine. In doctrine the Evangelical As-
sociation is Arminian, and its articles
of faith correspond very closely to those
of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
Christian perfection is defined as “a
state of grace in which Christians are
so firmly rooted in God that they have
instant victory over every temptation
the very moment it presents itself, in
which their rest, peace, and joy in God
is not interrupted by the vicissitudes of
life; in which, in short, sin has lost its
power over them, and they rule over the
flesh, the world, and Satan, yet in watch-
fulness.” Entire sanctification is the
basis of this perfection, which, however,
constantly admits of a fuller participa-
tion in divine power and a constant ex-
pansion in spiritual capacity. They
practise pedobaptism, although adults
may be rebaptized if they so desire.
Their doctrines are stated in their Cate-
chism of the Evangelical Association,
a declaration of Christian doctrine, by
Bishop J. J. Esher.
Polity. The polity of the Evangelical
Association is connectional in form.
Bishops are elected by the General Con-
ference for a term of four years, but are
not ordained or consecrated as such. The
General Conference, which meets quad-
rennially, has been, since 1839, a dele-
gated body. The annual and quarterly
conferences correspond to the smaller
bodies in the Methodist Episcopal
Church. The annual conferences consist
of the ministers within certain terri-
torial bounds and a limited number of
laymen, and the quarterly conferences,
of the officers of the local congregations.
Pastors are appointed annually on the
itinerant system, the time limit being
seven consecutive years in any field, ex-
cept the missionary conference.
Work. The general missionary work,
both home and foreign, is under the care
of a missionary society, which carries
on its work through a Board, whose
membership consists of the officers of the
society, one ministerial delegate from the
Woman’s Missionary Society, the mis-
sionary secretary of the Young People’s
Alliance, and six laymen who are elected
by the general conference. The Woman’s
Missionary Society has 557 local socie-
ties with a total membership of 14,852,
and works under the general direction
of the Board of Missions. A consider-
able amount of work iB done in the west
and northwest, including the western
provinces of Canada — Manitoba, Sas-
katchewan, and Alberta — and in the
large cities of the United States. In
close sympathy with the Board of Home
Missions is the work of the Board of
Church Extension in assisting needy
mission-congregations to erect church-
buildings by means of temporary loans
at a minimum rate of interest. Foreign
missions are carried on through both
the Board of Missions and the Woman’s
Missionary Society. The fields occupied
are Japan, China, Germany, Switzerland,
Russia, and Canada. The most distinc-
tively foreign mission work is that in
China and Japan. In addition, there
were in Europe, connected with the As-
sociation, generally under the care of na-
tive preachers, 350 churches, with 23,000
members, and in Cannda 124 churches,
with 9,932 members.
In 1021, the Evangelical Association
reported 1,009 ministers, 1,528 churches,
and 123,508 communicant members; the
United Evangelical Church reported 527
ministers, 897 churches, aiid 88,847 com-
municants.
Evangelical Counsels. See Consilia
Evangelica.
Evangelical Protestant Church of
North America. This denomination
was formed in Cincinnati, in 1911, by
consolidating the German Evangelical
Protestant Ministers’ Association and
the German Evangelical Ministers’ Con-
ference.
Doctrine and Polity. This denomina-
tion protests against any compulsion in
matters of faith and conscience and
grants to every one the privilege of in-
dividual examination and research.
Their doctrinal position is characterized
by extreme liberalism, rationalism, and
Unitarianism, and they reject all doc-
trines which transcend reason. The
churches as such conduct no specific
missionary enterprises. Formerly Ger-
man was the only official language of
the meetings; however, at present the
English language is mainly employed in
the education of the young people. In
1918 the body reported 37 organizations
and 17,962 members.
Evangelistic Associations. Under
this head are included various associa-
tions of churches which are more or less
organized and have one general eha.ra.c->
1' vantfeliisUc Associations
Evangelistic Associations
243
teristic, namely, the conduct of evan-
gelistic, or missionary work. In a few
cases only they are practically denomi-
nations. None of them is large, and
some are very small and local in their
character. The bodies belonging to the
“Evangelistic Association” are as fol-
lows: —
1. The Apostolic Church (2 organiza-
tions and 112 members in 1910) was
organized in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1888
by Albert F. Atwood. It rejects all
creeds and traditions of men.
2. The Apostolic Christian Church
(54 organizations, with 4,700 members
in 1910). This body traces its origin to
a Swiss, the Rev. S. H. Froehlich. ,The
principal characteristic is the develop-
ment of the doctrine of entire sanctifica-
tion.
3. The Apostolic Faith Movement
(24 organizations and 2,190 members in
1910). This movement originated in
1900, in the revival work of some evan-
gelists. It stands for the “restoration
of the faith once delivered to the saints,
the old-time religion, camp-meetings, re-
vivals, missions, street and prison work,
and Christian unity everywhere.” For-
eign missionary work is carried on in
Japan, China, Korea, the Philippines,
India, Africa, South America, and some
of the European countries, as Finland
and Germany.
4. The Christian Congregation (7 or-
ganizations and 645 members in 1910).
This body was organized in 1899 at Ko-
komo, Ind., for the special purpose of
“securing a broader Christian fellow-
ship,” and “of emphasizing and system-
atizing works of charity.” Both in doc-
trine and polity it is in general accord
with the Methodist Episcopal Church.
5. The Church of Daniel’s Band (0 or-
ganizations and 393 members in 1916).
6. Church of God as Organized by
Christ ( 17 organizations, with 227 mem-
bers). This body was organized in 1886
by a circuit preacher belonging to the
Mennonite Brethren in Christ. These
churches have no definite ordination for
the service of the church; they teach re-
pentance and restitution so far as resti-
tution is possible, non-resistance, and
full obedience to Christ’s commands;
observe the sacraments of Baptism, Com-
munion, and foot-washing, but have no
binding form for their worship. They
confine missionary labor to those near at
hand, since, “the heathen will be judged
according to their conscience,” conse-
quently the labors of others are not
necessary to their salvation.
7. The Church Transcendent (3 organi-
zations and 91 members in 1916). The
Church Transcendent was organized in
Warren, O. It is also known as “The
Transcendental Way.”
8. Ilephzibah Faith Missionary Asso-
ciation ( 12 associations and 352 mem-
bers in 1916). Under this name a num-
ber of independent churches were organ-
ized at Glenwood, Iowa, in 1892 for the
threefold purpose of preaching the doc-
trine of holiness, developing missionary
work both at home and abroad, and pro-
moting philanthropic work, especially
the care of orphans and needy persons.
No salaries are paid, but only “sufficient
food and clothing and traveling expenses
arc supplied.” Foreign missionary work
has been carried on since 1894 in Japan,
India, Mexico, Africa, and China.
9. Lumber River Mission (6 organiza-
tions and 434 members in 1916). This
organization includes a few churches in
North Carolina, all established since
1900.
10. Metropolitan Church Association
(7 organizations and 704 members in
1916). This organization, sometimes
called the “Burning Bush,” is an out-
growth of the Metropolitan Methodist
Church of Chicago. In doctrine and
practise the Metropolitan Church Asso-
ciation resembles the early Methodists.
It has no specific creed, but emphasizes
the doctrines of free grace and sanctifi-
cation. It has no definite form of church
organization, each society or branch
being independent. The organization is
conducted as a faith organization, no one
connected with it receiving any salary
or regular payment for any kind of work
done. Individual members make it a
rule of their life not to hold property
that can be sold for the advancement of
the kingdom of Christ. The special fea-
ture of the association is its evangelistic
work which it carries on in various
parts of the country.
11. Missionary Church Association
(25 organizations, 1,544 members in
1916). The Missionary Church Associa-
tion was organized in 1898, at Berne,
Ind., by a number of persons of different
denominations for promoting the fuller
teaching of the Word of God and for
engaging in more aggressive missionary
work. It stands for the evangelical
truths of Christendom, with especial em-
phasis on the healing of the body in
answer to the prayer of faith, the per-
sonal and premillennial coming of Jesus
Christ and His reign on earth, the future
resurrection of the body unto the immor-
tality of the just and unto the endless
punishment of the unjust.
The home mission work, which is
largely among the Jews of New York
Evangelistic Associations
Evolution
644
and Chicago, and evangelistic work in
different parts of the country, is repre-
sented by twelve missionaries. The de-
nomination supports the Bible Training
School of Fort Wayne, Ind., at which
place also is located the headquarters
of the Association. The leading publi-
cation of the body is the Missionary
Worker , a semimonthly periodical. In
its foreign mission work the Association
is represented by 15 missionaries, with
10 stations in China, India, and Africa.
12. Peniel Missions (10 organizations,
257 members in 1910). The organiza-
tions grouped under this heading trace
their beginning to the work of Rev. T. P.
Ferguson, a Presbyterian minister, who
in 1886 organized a mission at Los An-
geles, Cal. They give special attention
to the salvation of the lost in the large
cities. While the principal work is car-
ried on in the United States, foreign
work has been begun in Bolivia, Porto
Rico, Egypt, and India.
13. Pentecost Bands of the World
(10 organizations, 218 members in 1910).
In 1885 a missionary society of young
people was formed in the Free Methodist
Church by the Rev. Vivian A. Dake.
No definite creed has been adopted; how-
ever, in doctrine the members of this
body agree in general with those of the
Methodist Episcopal Church. Foreign
missionary work is carried on in India,
Japan, Jamaica, and Sweden.
14. Pillar of Fire (formerly Pente-
costal Union Church) (21 organizations
and 1,129 members in 1916). The Pen-
tecostal Union Church was incorporated
in 1902 at Denver, Colo., by Mrs. Alma
White. Believing that it was impossible
for her to carry out the mission of the
Church in connection with “worldly
apostate denominations,” and having re-
ceived a vision of a world-wide evan-
gelism, Mrs. White established a number
of missions in different cities. Having
gained the interest of ministers and lay-
men, a large building with a well-organ-
ized training school was erected in Den-
ver. After this followed the opening of
headquarters in Zarephath, New Jersey,
near Bound Brook. Among the publica-
tions was Pillar of Fire, which name
more recently has been adopted by the
organization as official. The work ex-
tended to the larger cities of the United
States. The doctrinal belief of the “Pil-
lar of Fire” includes divine healing for
the body, the premillennial coming of
the Lord and the restoration of the
Jews, eternal punishment for the wicked,
and everlasting life for the righteous.
In order to guard against conforming
to the world, the denomination has
adopted uniforms of dark blue. Mis-
sionary work is carried on in all sec-
tions of the United States and in Eng-
land.
15. Voluntary Missionary Society in
America (4 organizations and 855 mem-
bers in 1916). This is a small associa-
tion of Negro churches, organized in
1900.
16. Free Christian Zion Church of
Christ (35 organizations and 6,225 mem-
bers in 1916). This denomination wns
organized on July 10, 1905, at Redemp-
tion, Ark., by a small company of Negro
ministers. In doctrine and polity the
church is in general accord with the
Methodist bodies.
Evangelistics. That branch of theo-
logical knowledge which treats of the
history and the theory of foreign mis-
sions, the extension of Christianity
among the heathen.
Evangelization. This is a move-
ment, started by John Hudson Taylor
and others, which characterizes the mis-
sionary task as consisting in “the evan-
gelization of the world,” some adding
the words “in this generation.” The
term evangelization has not been pre-
cisely fixed and is often loosely used.
Great hosts of evangelists are sent out
who give their time almost wholly to
preaching and who consider the estab-
lishing of organized congregations and
Christian schools and also the getting
out of Christian literature, to be of
secondary importance. The missionary
task of the Christian Church, however,
is not only to win souls for Christ by
preaching the Gospel, but also to gather
them into (organized) congregations.
Evans, Christmas (1766 — 1838). Bun-
van of Wales. — B. Ysgaerwen; preacher
(Presbyterian) ; (Baptist) at Lleyn,
Anglesey, and other places; famous for
eloquence ; d. Swansea.
Evans, James, “Apostle of the North,”
b. 1801, Kingston-on-Hull, England; d.
November 25, 1846, England. Mission-
ary among Canadian Indians. Ordained
1830. At St. Clair Indian Mission, 1835.
Appointed to Lake Superior regions,
1838. Among Indians at Lake Winni-
peg, 1840. Invented Cree syllabic char-
acters. Translated portions of the Bible
and hymn-book, assisted by the Wes-
leyan Missionary Society.
Evidences of Christianity. See
Apologetics.
Evolution. According to the present-
day naturalistic philosophy, the alleged
process by which the universe in gen-
eral, but especially the supposed planet
Evolution
245
tzvoiutioii
which we regard as our world, together
with all the inanimate and animate ob-
jects existing thereon, have been evolved
or developed, in the course of many
millions of years, in accordance with
natural laws now existing, from some
form of primitive mass which contained
the fundamental chemical elements now
found in the universe. A distinction
may be observed, generally speaking, be-
tween atheistic evolution, which declares
that everything now existing came into
being without the power of a supernatu-
ral being, and theistic evolution, which
is ready to admit that some superior
being called the primitive masses into
existence and drew up certain funda-
mental laws of nature. — History. The
idea of evolution may be said to go back
to some of the ancient Greek philoso-
phers, notably to Empedocles, in the sev-
enth century B. C., who thought that
various organs of animals and men
came together by chance, and Aristotle
(384 — 322 B. C. ) , whose idea was that
simple forms of life developed into
higher forms; he also held the notion
of spontaneous generation. At the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century Eras-
mus Darwin promulgated an idea of
evolution which had some influence on
others, and Lamarck ventured a theory
of cosmic evolution which found some
followers. It was in 1859 that Charles
Darwin (1809 — 1882) promulgated his
theory of organic evolution, which has
since, with various modifications, en-
gaged the attention of scientists and
others. Darwin was followed especially
by Alfred Russel Wallace, Herbert Spen-
cer, and by the notorious Ernst Haeckel
in Jena, Germany. From biology, in
whose domain the idea originated, it
spread to psychology, then to the other
sciences, then to history and literature.
The explanations which are offered on
the basis of the first modern believers
in the theory are the following. Evolu-
tion is the process by which the whole
existing universe, both organic and in-
organic, has been gradually developed
through the action of natural laws.
Cosmic evolution is the derivation of
the material universe by gradual change.
Organic evolution is based on Darwin’s
theory of descent, namely, that from one
or two simple forms of life, present
early in the earth’s history, all of the
diversified forms of life appearing since
then, both living and fossil, have been
derived by gradual change through the
action of natural laws or processes. The
average person dabbling in the theory
of evolution and accepting it with the
bland credulity which people often ac-
cord the so-called assured results of
science, does not even know that the
ideas of Darwin have been practically
superseded in every part, and that Neo-
Lamarckism and Neo-Darwinism (as
modified by Weissmann and Mendel),
together with the mutation theory and
the doctrine of orthogenesis, have taken
the place of the hypothesis first heralded
as gospel truth. The nebular hypothesis
of Lamarck, according to which the earth
was derived from the condensation of
nebular material of the universe, has
also given place to Chamberlain’s plane-
toid hypothesis, according to which
small planets in space were built up by
accretions, until the time came when
life was developed, this, in turn, result-
ing in the present status of affairs in
the world of organic and inorganic mat-
ter. — Criticism. The defenders of the
theory of evolution in our days seem to
be unaware of the fact that the scien-
tific demonstration of their hypothesis
is missing in its entirety, that not one
point of their so-called evidence has ever
been substantiated. There is not one
instance on record in which a creature
of a lower order developed into one of
a higher order. Thousands of genera-
tions of Paramecium caudatum (a tiny
one-celled animal) have been watched,
but not in a single case was a two-celled
animal produced. The missing link is
still missing, also between man and his
supposed apelike ancestor. The evidence
brought in support of the Neanderthal
man, the Cro-Magnon man, the Pithe-
canthropus erectus, the Australopithe-
cus Africanus and others, has been so
contradictory and insufficient in every
part that it would have to be ruled out
by each and every unprejudiced court.
The findings of a sane geology have
shown that the onion-skin theory of the
earth’s surface is a mistake; the evi-
dence of history, of ethnology, of an-
thropology, and archeology is strictly
against the theory of evolution. Ques-
tions which evolution has not answered
and cannot answer are such as the fol-
lowing: Where did the first atom or
the first electron come from ? Where
did the laws of nature originate? What
is life? How was conscious life pro-
duced, according to evolution? What is
instinct? — Wallace was honest enough
to state, before his death, that there is
a gulf which evolution cannot bridge,
which revelation must supply. A con-
sistent Christian will find it safe — and
reasonable — to accept the Scripture ac-
count of the creation of the world in
six days of twenty-four hours each (see
Creation — Hexaemeron) and to confess
Ewald, Geoi’fe' Heinrich Anguti 246
Hxhorier.g
with the words of our Small Catechism:
“I believe that God has made me and
all creatures, that He has given me my
body and soul, eyes, ears, and all my
members, my reason and all my senses,
and still preserves them.”
Ewald, Georg Heinrich August,
b. 1803 at Goettingen, d. there 1875;
professor of oriental languages and phi-
losophy; liberal in theology, author of
numerous works on the Old Testament
and of a Hebrew grammar; was involved
in numerous controversies; of profound
learning.
Ewald, Paul, b. 1857 at Leipzig;
d. 1911; since 1894 professor of dog-
matic theology and New Testament exe-
gesis at Erlangen; modern positive
theologian.
Exaltation, State of. See Christ.
Excommunication, in the Roman
Church, cannot be pronounced by con-
gregations or even parish priests, but
only by Popes, councils, bishops, and
a few other dignitaries. The distinction
formerly made between major and minor
excommunication was abrogated in 1884.
Excommunications are divided into those
ferendae sententiae (in which a definite
sentence of excommunication must be
pronounced) and those latae sententiae
(in which the commission of a stated
offense automatically excommunicates
the offender). About 50 offenses belong
to the latter class. Absolution from
some excommunications is reserved to
the Pope, from others to the bishop (see
Reserved Cases ) ; still others are not re-
served. Whenever Rome has been able
to do so, it has had civil punishments
inflicted on the excommunicated; in
fact, it has used, and still uses, this
power chiefly as a means to beat down
opposition and force respect and sub-
mission to the hierarchy and the canon
law. While such crimes as parricide and
incest do not entail excommunication
latae sententiae, the following do so and
are reserved to the Pope: reading heret-
ical books; usurping church property;
bringing clerics before civil courts; tak-
ing relics from Rome without permis-
sion; assaulting, or even slapping, a
cleric of any grade. (See Privilegium
Canonis, Office of the Keys.)
Excommunication, is the judicial ex-
clusion of unrepentant sinners from the
rights and privileges of the communion
of saints. According to Christ’s words
in Matt. 18, this act of exclusion is a
duty to be performed by the Christian
congregation when the offender has
shown himself unresponsive to admoni-
tion, and when properly performed ex-
cludes from access to God, from partici-
pation in the pardon won by Christ, and
from communion with the saints in tlu!
life hereafter. Even as the sinner's con-
version and his introduction into the
Church has been a translation from the
kingdom and power of Satan to the
kingdom and government of Christ, so
by excommunication from the Church
the offender is “delivered unto Satan.”
1 Tim. 1, 19. 20. Cf. Col. 1, 13. When
the congregation has in the manner pre-
scribed Matt. 18 declared a member ex-
communicate, he is to be held a heathen
and a publican by the whole multitude
of the faithful until be be openly rec-
onciled by penance. Excommunication
improperly declared is void, and no re-
pentant and confessing sinner is ex-
cluded from the kingdom of God by such
a ban. The ultimate purpose of excom-
munication is not punishment, but the
salvation of the offending member, and
the removal of offense from the Church.
(See Keys , Office of the.)
Exegesis. That branch of theological
knowledge which deals directly with the
translation, exposition, and elucidation
of the Holy Scriptures, chielly in the
original tongues. It is divided into
philological exegesis, in which the ety-
mology, the contextual meaning, and
the grammar are most prominent; his-
torical exegesis, which is concerned with
previous interpretations of a given pas-
sage; theological exegesis, which aims
to present the doctrinal content of a pas-
sage; and practical or homiletical exe-
gesis, which tries to unfold the meaning
of a passage with the special object of
making it applicable in teaching and
preaching.
Exercises, Spiritual. See Jesuits,
Order of.
Execrabilis, Bulla. A notorious bull
or official papal document issued Jan-
uary 18, 14G0, by Pope Tins II (q.v.).
Even at an assembly of Christian princes
held at Mantua, Gregory of Heimburg,
the delegate of the Austrian Duke Sigis-
mund had opposed the crusade proposed
by the Pope against the Turks. The re-
sult was a quarrel, in the course of
which Gregory appealed from the Pope
to a general council. But Pius II was
clever enough to forestall events which
might have turned against him, and so
the bull issued by him applied the ban
to any appeal of this kind. The logical
consequence was a further establishment
of the Pope’s power.
Exhorters, a class of lay persons
licensed in the Methodist Episcopal
Church to exhort, not to preach. The
Exorcism
247
Faltli
duties of the exliorter are to hold meet-
ings for prayer and exhortation where-
ever opportunity is afforded. This office
is used in developing the talent of per-
sons likely to be called to the ministry.
Exorcism. In connection with the
ceremonies of the Christian Church, the
rite used in driving out evil spirits, es-
pecially in the administration of Holy
Baptism, in order to dissever the soul
of the candidate from the influence of
evil powers, to which he, while in the
realm of the world and its wickedness,
had been subject. The Greater Exorcism
and the Minor Exorcism were distin-
guished in baptism, but exorcisms were
also employed at the dedication of
churches and upon other occasions. The
exorcism, without its superstitious fea-
tures, was taken over into the rite of
baptism by Luther, but it was rightly
spoken of as an indifferent matter and
has not been widely used in the Lutheran
Church since the seventeenth century.
Exorcist. See Minor Orders; Hier-
archy.
Eyck Family, especially the brothers
Hubert, 11170 — 1426, and Jan, • 1390 to
1440, artists of the Netherlands, whose
most prominent painting is the oil paint-
ing of the altar at Ghent, a composite
picture, with the Lamb in the center.
F
Faber, Ernst; b. at Koburg, Ger-
many, April 15, 1839; d. at Tsingtau,
China, 1899; was a Rhenish Mission
Society missionary; arrived at Hong-
kong April 25, 1805; resigned from
membership of society 1880, settling in
Hongkong. Joined the Ev. Protestant
Mission Society (Weimar Mission) in
1885, moving to Shanghai; author of
renown.
Faber, Frederick William; 1814 to
1863; educated at Oxford; rector of
Elton, seceded to Church of Rome in
1846; established the Oratorians, first
at London, then at Brompton; wrote:
“Sweet Savior, llless Us ere We Go,”
and other hymns.
Fabri, Friedrich; b. at Schweinfurt,
June 12, 1821; d. at Wuerzburg, July
18, 1891; was inspector of the Rhenish
Missionary Society in Barmen, 1857 to
1884; since 1889 professor at Bonn.
Fabricius, Jacob, chaplain to King
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and
thought by some to be the author, or the
coauthor, of the hymn “Fear Not,
O Little Flock, the Foe,” written in
1631; others ascribe the authorship to
Johann Michael Altenberg.
Fabricius, Johann Philipp; b. Jan-
uary 22, 1711, at Kleeberg, Germany;
d. January 23, 1791, at Madras, India;
a Lutheran missionary among the Tamil
people of India. Arrived at Tranquebar
September 8, 1741, in Madras 1742; re-
vised the Tamil Bible; published a Lu-
theran hymn-book and other books. The
last years of his life were clouded by
financial difficulties, caused by injudi-
cious investment of trust funds.
Fairbairn, Andrew Martin; b. at
Edinburgh 1838; d. at London 1912;
Congregationalist; minister at Bath-
gate, West Lothian, Aberdeen; princi-
pal of Airdale College at Bradford and
Mansfield College at Oxford 1886 to
1909; member of important commissions
and boards; lectured in American uni-
versities. Studies in the Life of Christ;
Catholicism, Roman and Anglican; con-
tributed chapter on Calvin and the Re-
formed Church to Cambridge Modem
History ; etc.
Fairbairn, Patrick; b. 1805 at Hally -
burton, Berks; d. at Glasgow 1874;
Scotch Presbyterian; pastor on Orkney
Islands, at Bridgeton and Salton; joined
Free Church 1843; professor of divinity
at Free Church College, Aberdeen; prin-
cipal at Glasgow; visited United States;
member of Old Testament Revision Com-
pany; wrote Typology of Scripture, etc.;
edited Imperial Bible Dictionary.
Faith. The active principle in the
Christian life by virtue of which the be-
liever appropriates unto himself the
merits won for all men through the
atonement made by Jesus Christ. Faith
is essentially trust, and justifying faith
is essentially reliance upon the promises
of God, which direct the world to Christ
as the Redeemer of mankind. Involved
in every act of conscious faith, there is
a knowledge of the historical facts re-
garding the work of redemption and an
act of the will by which these facts are
accepted as true and saving. But united
with such knowledge and cordial belief
there is in faith that trust in the merits
of Christ’s life, death, and resurrection,
by which the believer knows himself as
reconciled to the favor of God. Yet faith
is not justifying faith by virtue of the
attitude described, or its exercise, but by
virtue of its object, which is Jesus
Christ. Gal. 2, 16; John 17, 21. Chris-
tian faith in a wider sense is assent to
Faith, Fathers of
248
Falth-llealliig
the whole Gospel of Christ and to the
entire revelation of God in Scripture.
Luke 24, 25. 26; Heb. 11. But inasmuch
as it justifies the believer in the sight
of God, it is the reliance on the blood of
Christ, the sure confidence that through
the merits of Christ his sins are forgiven
and eternal life assured. Where such
faith dwells in the heart, man renounces
all righteousness in himself, does not at-
tempt to make terms with his Savior,
but trusts wholly in His atonement, and
desires to be saved by grace alone.
Such faith is wholly a creation of the
Holy Spirit, 1 Cor. 2, 4. 5, who is the
Seal that confirms salvation unto the be-
liever in Christ, 1 Cor. 1, 22; Eph. 4, 30.
See Justification.
Faith, Fathers of (Paccanarists) .
A society modeled after the Jesuits,
founded by Nieolo Paccunari in 1707 to
replace the Jesuit order, which had been
dissolved by Clement XIV. The life of
the society was brief and turbulent, and
on the restoration of the Jesuits, in 1814,
it disappeared, most of its members join-
ing the restored order.
Faith-Healing. The religious cults
which are either bound up with faith-
healing or involve it have a long history,
beginning with the priests in the Isis
temples of ancient Egypt and continu-
ing to the system of Mrs. Eddy, New
Thought, Spiritism, and Pentecostalism.
Part of the stock in trade of all healers
is a dependence on suggestion, of which
the healer may or may not be conscious.
The medicine men of ancient and modern
paganism made medicine rather for the
mind than for the body. In the Cath-
olic Church the healing power was asso-
ciated, and is to-day, with saints, relics,
and shrines. Charms, amulets, and
talismans, all play their part, every
imaginable thing having been so used.
There is an endless list of spells and in-
cantations.
In modern times the revival of faith-
cure was inaugurated by the German
Swiss alchemist Paracelsus (d. 1541),
author of a tlieosophic system which
dealt with magnetic powers by which
cures might be wrought. Through Mes-
mer, the originator of hypnotism (about
1815), the line of development goes
through Phineas P. Quimby to Mrs. Eddy,
in whom the basing of a religious system
upon the claim that cures performed in
its name vindicate its apostolic char-
acter first came to the front.
To a Bible Christian there is only one
test that he recognizes in all matters of
religion — the agreement of any doctrine
or practise with the Word of God. Cer-
tainly, if any one claiming to do the
works of God is in disagreement with
the Word of God, he is self-deceived or
a deceiver. Miracles are a testimony of
God to His Revelation. God will cer-
tainly not endorse a false prophet by
granting him special gifts of the
Spirit — who is the Spirit of Truth.
Mark 10, 20 and Heb. 2, 3. 4 plainly
teach that the gifts of the Spirit were
to confirm the Word of God. Any one,
therefore, who teaches contrary to the
Word of God surely does not possess the
gift of healing.
That “signs and wonders” may be
wrought by those who reject the revela-
tion of God was taught early in the
Old Testament. Deut. 13, 1 — 5. Paul,
speaking by the Spirit, refers, 2 Thess.
2, 10, to those who “after the working of
Satan” will perform “signs and lying
wonders.” Rev. 10, 13. 14 refers to a
working of miracles by the spirits of
devils. Our Lord Himself says that on
Judgment Day He will say to some who
“have done many wonderful works”:
“Depart from Me, ye that work in-
iquity!” Matt. 7, 23. Hence we say:
Any one who asserts that his miracles
of healing are proof of a divine mission
at once writes himself down as a de-
ceiver.
Foremost among all church-bodies
that claim the gift of healing is the
Roman Catholic Church. At Lourdes in
France, in the shrine of St. Anne de
Beaupre, below Quebec, in the Church of
St. Anne de Detroit, and in St. Anne’s
Church in Chicago the collections of
crutches, trusses, canes, braces, ear-
trumpets, and eye-glasses heaped around
the shrines are shown as proofs conclu-
sive of the cures wrought. But no Lu-
theran will believe that these cures are
wrought by divine power, as a confirma-
tion of the Word. Mark 16, 20. He will
rather be reminded of the prophecy con-
cerning the lying wonders of Antichrist.
2 Thess. 2, 10. Then there is the Chris-
tian Science Church. Shall we admit
that God will confirm His Word through
the works of a sect which denies every
doctrine of apostolic Christianity? Mrs.
Eddy denied the personality of God, the
existence of Satan and of sin, the crea-
tion of man, the Trinity, the power of
prayer, the atonement. Can a cult which
embodies these soul-destroying denials
be regarded as the heir of a promise once
given to them that believe? The prin-
cipal drawing-card of New Thought and
its various offshoots — the Sun-phoners,
the Church of Divine Science, etc. — is
the miraculous cure of diseases. Cer-
tainly God would not “confirm His
Faith-Healing
249
Faith-Healing
Word” through such agencies. Tlic Mor-
mons, when still practising polygamy
openly, widely advertised the cures
which their apostles effected. The Spir-
itists have their “healing mediums,”
thousands of them. The Nazarites, the
Jeliovites, the Irvingites, the Quakers,
the House of David, the Theosophists —
all outside the pale of Christianity- —
have claimed the same power. Will any
one say that God has testified through
all these, and through Eddy ism, and the
New Thought, and Romanism, and a
number of other sects, great and small,
all differing from one another and all
denying Christ’s saving doctrine?
Divine healers, one and all, teach
that “faith” is necessary for their cures.
“Faith” amounts simply to the belief
that God is able to perform a miracu-
lous cure through this particular healer.
A mental attitude of trust in the heal-
er’s power, confidence in his gift to heal
disease by prayer, is the “faith” de-
manded of the patient. This is certainly
not the faith which Christians have in
mind when they use the word. The
healers, indeed, preach about Christ’s
atonement, His bloody sacrifice, and the
necessity of faith in Him and of conver-
sion. But this preaching is immediately
linked up with the doctrine that, as
Christ died to save us from sin, so He
also died to save us from sickness, and
that, unless we believe in His power to
heal sickness, we do not accept Him as
our personal Savior. The phrase used
is: “A Double Cure for a Double Curse”
(sin and sickness).
Aside from all suggestions from with-
out, the mind, working unconsciously
( “subconsciously” ) through the nervous
system, possesses certain curative powers.
In such cases we say that “nature” has
come to the rescue, that medicine can
only “assist nature.” The divine healers
depend on this curative power of mind
in many cases. Rheumatism often dis-
appears by self-elimination. Physicians
assert that tuberculosis often heals it-
self. Cases of rheumatism and tubercu-
losis “cured” by the healers are there-
fore not worth following up, for they
would prove nothing even if a perfect re-
covery were demonstrated. How the
mind is able to do such things, we do
not understand; that it does them con-
tinually belongs to the abc of medicine.
Thousands of those especially who seek
relief from illness in Christian Science
suffer from some morbid condition of
the mind, which causes one or another
of the various forms of hysteria (not
“hysterics,” which is another matter),
sometimes called “neurosis.” In hys-
teria the symptoms of the disease appear
while the disease itself is not present.
Competent authorities assert that hys-
teria can simulate every known com-
plaint: paralysis, heart disease, and the
worst forms of fever and ague. A good
physician will diagnose such cases as
what they really are and will, in “slow”
cases, apply “mental therapeutics,” that
is to say, will endeavor to cure through
the mind, along the lines now widely
used by medical practitioners. The Pen-
tecostal healer will do the same thing,
only he will not call it “suggestion,” or
“mental therapeutics”; he will say that
God has given him the gift of healing,
(hat his cures are evidence of this gift.
Every physician knows the power which
mind has over the body and turns it to
account in his practise. The healers do
the same, but they claim that they are
working miracles.
Moreover, it is evident that the healers
know very well that a state of mind
must be induced in patients who are sub-
ject to mental healing, and, furthermore,
that they are well aware of their in-
ability to cure certain diseases and
hence are consciously dishonest when
they claim that they can lical all dis-
eases and that they heal by divine
power. Divine healers, faith-curists,
fetish priests, shamans and medicine
men, Eddyists, — all are able to reach
diseases which are merely functional;
they cannot cure those which have at-
tacked the tissues of the body. When
a disease is due to a derangement of the
nerval force, it can be reached by sug-
gestion. Get the patient into a state of
confidence, and he will slowly mend.
Give him a psychological shock, and he
may be cured instantly. Thousands of
such cases are on record in the medical
journals. They are worked at St. Anne’s
shrines and by the adoration of the
Sacred Heart and by faith in a healer.
But when the tissue of the body is im-
paired or broken down, as in the case
of an ulcerated tooth, of any malignant
growth, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, ery-
sipelas, lockjaw, measles, pneumonia,
and all other forms of organic disease,
suggestion can work no cure, and the
healers are helpless. Jesus went into
the lazaretto at Bethesda and cured a
hopeless case. He healed entire com-
panies of lepers. Suggestion cannot do
this, and the suggestion is all there is
to the power of the healers. Fifty years
ago it was called mesmerism.
“Christians believe in prayer for the
sick and that God can and does answer
such prayer in accordance with His wis-
dom, but they also believe that He
Fuitli, Rule of
250
Fall of Man
works” — ordinarily — “through means,
including medical skill. God is in all
the processes of nature and of human
art, and no one is more ready to ac-
knowledge this than the Christian phy-
sician.” (The quotation is from Snow-
den’s The Truth about Christian Sci-
ence.) “In the healing of every disease
of whatever kind,” says Dr. Henry H.
Goddard, “we cannot be too deeply im-
pressed with the Lord’s part of the work.
He is the Operator. We are the cooper-
ators. More and more am I impressed
that every patient of mine who has ever
risen from his sick-bed on to his feet
again has done so by divine power.
Not I have cured him, but the Lord.”
Christians will continue to believe
that sickness, while a consequence of the
Pall and at times indeed visited upon
individuals as a punishment for sin, is,
in the case of every child of God, even
when caused by transgression, a means
in the hands of a loving Father to train
His children in patience, and in daily
repentance, and in the gift of prayer,
and in the overcoming of the lusts that
war against the spirit, for the salvation
of their souls and, yes, of their bodies
also; for in heaven at last- — and only
then — “there shall be no more death,
neither sorrow nor crying, neither shall
there be any more pain.” Rev. 21, 4.
Faith, Buie of. The source and cri-
terion of religious truth. According to
Lutheran and Protestant doctrine gen-
erally, the Scriptures alone are the rule
of faith. The Greek and Roman churches
and some Anglicans find the rule of faith
not only in Scripture, but also in the
Church (tradition). The supreme au-
thority in the Roman Church is, indeed,
the Pope, as living expounder of re-
ligious truth and authorized interpreter
of the Bible. The Quakers and many
other mystics recognize the “inner light”
as the principle of religious knowledge.
Rationalism (Modernism) makes reason
the final arbiter and the mind of man
the measure of truth and thereby de-
stroys the supernatural in religion and
reduces it to a system of morality. See
Bible; Rule of Faith.
Fakir (Arab. “poor”). 1. Name of
Mohammedan dervishes (q.v.). 2. Fre-
quently also applied to non-Mohamme-
dan Indian ascetics, of whom there are
two classes : first, the Yogi, followers of
the Yoga (q.v.) system of philosophy,
who meditate upon the Deity and aim
to attain union with it and thereby oc-
cult powers; secondly, those ascetic
mendicants who for the sake of penance
or other reasons practise some revolting
and often horrible form of self-torture.
The latter number about two millions.
See Hinduism.
Falckner, Justus, one of the pioneers
of Lutheranism in America; b. Novem-
ber 22, 1072, at Langen-Reinsdorf, Sax-
ony, where his father, Daniel, and his
grandfather, Christian, had been pastors.
He came to America with his brother
Daniel, 1700, as a land agent and joined
a company of mystics near Philadelphia.
In 1703 Rudman persuaded him to ac-
cept a call to the Lutheran Church in
New York. He was ordained in “Gloria
Dei” Church at Wicaco, November 24,
1703 (the first Lutheran ordination of
record in America). He took up his
work in New York on December 2 and
for two decades served a parish extend-
ing from Perth Amboy, N. J., in the
south to Albany and the Schoharie Val-
ley in the north. After Kocherthal’s
death lie also served the German colo-
nies bordering on the central part of the
Hudson. The records of his ministry,
preserved in the archives of St. Mat-
thew’s Church, New York, show him to
have been a devoted pastor, a tireless
missionary, and a faithful watchman
over his flock. In 1708 he issued his
“Orondelycke Onderricht,” a text-book
on Christian doctrine, with special ref-
erence to the errors of the Reformed.
His hymn “Auf, ihr Christen, Christi
Gliedor,” composed while he was a stu-
dent at Halle, is found, also in transla-
tion, in many hymnals. He married,
1717, Gerritje Hardick, of Claverack.
D. in 1723.
Falk, Johann Daniel; b. October
28, 1768, at Danzig; d. February 14,
1826; enrolled 1792 at the University
of Halle to study theology; organized,
in 1813, the Society of Friends in Need
( G esellschaft der Freunde in der Not)
for the purpose of educating forsaken
and neglected children; later, estab-
lished a school for such children; also
a writer.
Fall of Man. The act of the first
parents of our race by which they trans-
gressed the divine command, an act
through which, by imputation, all men
were constituted sinners (Rom. 5, 12 — 19)
and which had the result that thereby
their nature, and the nature of all who
are descended from them, became corrupt
and subject to sin, having lost the divine
image of perfect holiness and true knowl-
edge of God. Man had been placed in a
state of probation, possessing the ability
not to sin (posse non peecare). The test
of this probation was obedience to the
divine Law. While in this state, man was
Fa mi glia
251
Farmers’ Unions
tempted from without by the enticements
of Satan; the temptation appealed to
his senses and to his intellect and had
accomplished its intent when man first
conceived evil lust and then, in the ex-
ercise of free will, committed the first
forbidden act. The consequence was a
separation from God, since man now had
become alienated from the life of the
Spirit, seeking in self and in the world
that whereby he might live. Thus man
had been brought to know, though in a
different sense from that which he'had
desired, good and evil. And he had been
brought to this state through free choice.
Only through the second Adam, Christ,
were the ravages of the Kail and its con-
sequences, temporal and eternal death,
abundantly made good, and the means
of pardon and grace provided for the
entire human race.
Famiglia. See Pope.
Farel, Guillaume; b. near Gap,
France, 1489; d. at Neuchfltel 1505;
noted French preacher in Switzerland
and promoter of Reformed faith; driven
from Paris, 1521, for being a Lutheran;
preached at Basel, Neuclifitel, Geneva,
Metz, etc.; intimate with Calvin, whom
he fairly compelled to settle at Geneva;
witnessed burning of Servetus; zealous,
but indiscreet.
Farmers’ Unions. 1) National Farm-
ers’ Alliance. Organized 1880 at St.
Louis, Mo., as a non-sectarian, political
organization of farmers and their wives
to “promote the interest of agriculture.”
The secret ritual and initiatory cere-
mony were to impress the candidates
with the duties, rights, and privileges of
the agriculturist. As an emblem the
Alliance adopted “the sheaf of wheat,”
which, in conjunction with the plow and
the letters N. F. A., constituted the badge
of Alliance membership. The Alliance,
as a secret society, 'was well-nigh ex-
hausted after the formation of the
People’s Party in 1892, but in 1895 it
still retained an organization and num-
bered 10,000 members. In 1890 the
National People’s Party, the offspring
of the National Farmers’ Alliance, se-
cured control of the machinery of the
National Democratic party in the Na-
tional Convention at Chicago and polled
over 6,000,000 votes for Win. J. Bryan.
By 1897 little of the National Farmers’
Alliance survived. — • 2) Farmers’ Edu-
cational and Cooperative Union of
America. This farmers’ organization
became prominent in 1913. According
to its charter the purpose for which it
is formed was “to organize and charter
subordinate unions at various places in
the United States . . . for fraternal pur-
poses and to cooperate with them in the
protection of their interests, to initiate
members, and to collect a fee therefor.”
The Union originally had “chaplains,”
a “ritual,” and “secret work,” but in
1917 the ritual was abolished and a
“manual of business” adopted to take
its place. The Union still has many
members, especially in the South and
Southwest. — 3) Farmers’ Social and
Economic Union. This is one of a num-
ber of secret societies started of late
years among Western farmers to assist
them in bettering their lot. It admits
both men and women and has a ritual
and secret work, consisting of one degree.
To become a member, a candidate must
“be a believer in a Supreme Being and
must take a pledge to keep the secrets
and obey the rules of the order.” Among
the lodge officers is a “chaplain,” whose
duty it is “to open each meeting with
divine service and do such other work as
may be properly required of him.” —
4) The Farm Labor Union of America
is a non-fraternal organization, started
in 1920, in opposition to the American
Farm Bureau Federation, which it re-
gards as “a Big Business Organization.”
Its chief purpose seems to be to build
up a sound system of cooperative mar-
keting and to eliminate the profits of
the middleman. — 5) National Grange.
A national secret society of farmers, or-
ganized at Fredonia, N. Y., in 1807.
Originally known as “The National
Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry.”
Many of the founders were 32d- and 3311-
degree Masons and prominent Odd-Fel-
lows. This accounts for the fact that
the Grange was “modeled on the Masonic
Order.” The two avowed purposes of
the order are: industrial benefits and
the social improvement of its members.
It has exercised no little influence, espe-
cially in promoting cooperation among
farmers. Politics are strictly kept out
of the order. “Modeled on the Masonic
Order,” the Grange lias the usual equip-
ment of degrees, signs, and passwords.
It has an elaborate ritual with seven
degrees. According to the Exposition,
or constitution, the first degree is the
Laborer’s Degree (in the female degree,
the Maid’s Degree). The sign of the de-
gree bears this interpretation : “A good
laborer places faith in God.” In both
ritual and hymns Christ is ignored, and
pagan goddesses (Ceres, Flora, Pomona)
are honored. The second degree is styled
the Cultivator. In taking it, the ini-
tiate assumes the following obligations:
“I hereby solemnly renew my obligation
of secrecy and fidelity, taken in the first.
Farrar, Frederick William
252
Fasting
degree of this order ; and further prom-
ise upon my sacred honor to keep the
secrets, fulfil the obligations, and obey
the injunctions of this second degree,
and aid my brothers and sisters in doing
the same.” The Shepherdess, the corre-
sponding female degree, has the same
obligation. The third degree is the Har-
vester (female, Gleaner) ; the fourth, the
Husbandman (female, Matron) . Similar
obligations to observe the precepts and
injunctions and not to reveal the secrets
are taken as aforementioned. — After
1871 the progress of the National Grange
was rapid. Its climax of prosperity was
reached in 1875, when there were in ex-
istence 21,000 Granges with a member-
ship of over 750,000. At this time jeal-
ousy arose between the subordinate
Granges and the National Grange, and
parties with no interest in agriculture
beyond that of selling goods to the
farmer made their way into the order.
This produced a great slump in member-
ship. However, the Grange still has
branches in 33 States. Its national
headquarters are at Fredonia, N. Y.
Farrar, Frederick William; Angli-
can; b. at Bombay 1831; educated in
England; priest 1857; educator; canon
of Westminster 1870; archdeacon 1883;
dean of Canterbury 1805; d. there 1903.
Numerous and varied writings: fiction;
theological works. Life of Christ; Life
of St. Paul; Eternal Hope (sermons de-
nying the doctrine of eternal punishment
for all unbelievers) ; etc.
Fasting. Fasting is frequently men-
tioned in the Old Testament. It was
undertaken voluntarily or by public pre-
scription, except on the Day of Atone-
ment, the only fast ordained by the Law.
Lev. 16, 29. Later, the Pharisees con-
sidered fasting a meritorious work
(Luke 18, 12), their “twice-a-week” being
Mondays and Thursdays. Jesus speaks
of fasting as a familiar practise, which,
in itself, He does not condemn (Matt. 6,
16 — 18); yet His disciples did not fast
(Matt. 9, 14), and He nowhere com-
manded it. The apostles fasted at times.
Acts 13, 2; 14, 23. In conformity with
Jewish custom many in the early Church
fasted twice a week, but, by way of dis-
tinction, on Wednesdays and Fridays.
Under the influence of monastic ideas
the practise gradually lost its voluntary
character and was imposed on all Chris-
tians as both obligatory and meritori-
ous. — To fast meant, at first, to abstain
from all food till evening, when a simple
meal of bread, salt, and water was taken.
The rigor of this provision was soon re-
laxed, especially in the West. The Greek
Church to . the present day keeps its
fasts with considerable strictness; but
the Roman Church, as early as the
Middle Ages, permitted fasting to be-
come a very tolerable experience. Its
casuists here found a tempting field to
exercise their ingenuity. Martin Chem-
nitz, in the 10th century, pronounced
the Romish fasting a mere mockery.
What fasting is in the Roman Church
to-day may be gathered from the Cath-
olic Encyclopedia. The only absolute
fast* is demanded before Communion,
when not even a drop of water may be
taken after the preceding midnight.
Every Friday, abstinence from meat is
enjoined. In addition, the following
“fast-days” obtain in the United States
at present: all days of Lent, the Fridays
of Advent, the ember-days ( q. v. ) , and
four vigils (q.v.). The manner of keep-
ing these fasts is interesting, as witness
the following information: “Fasting es-
sentially consists in eating but one full
meal in twenty-four hours, and that
about midday.” Of course, there must
be no meat, but otherwise one may eat
as heartily as one pleases. One must be
careful that this meal is not broken by
a noteworthy interruption (lasting, say,
an hour or so), otherwise it will be two
meals. Nor should the meal be too
long; “ordinarily a duration of more
than two hours is considered immoderate
in this matter.” In addition to this
“full meal” a collation of about eight
ounces is permitted in the evening,
which may include eggs, cheese, butter,
milk, and fish (“provided that the
fish are small” — Catholic Dictionary).
“A little tea, coffee, chocolate, or like
beverage, with a morsel of bread or
a cracker, is now allowed in the morn-
ing.” .Water, lemonade, pop, ginger ale,
wine, beer, and similar drinks may be
taken outside of meal-times; honey,
soup, and broth are expressly excluded
from the list of such interiinistic drinks.
These provisions are often further re-
laxed by indult (q. v.) , and “all who
cannot comply with the obligation with-
out undergoing more than ordinary
hardships are excused.” Otherwise the
law is binding on all between the ages
of twenty-one and sixty. Great stress is
laid on the provision that when meat is
permitted on a fast-day by indult, fish
cannot be eaten at the same meal with-
out sin. “Finally, the Holy See has re-
peatedly declared that the use of lard,
allowed by indult, comprehends butter
or the fat of any animal.” The mere
quotation of these puerilities serves to
characterize the Roman boast that its
fasting is an aid to devotion and an in-
Fatalism
253
Feast ot Asses
valuable means of self-discipline.- — But
there is a far more serious aspect to the
matter. These things, which God has
not commanded, the Church of Rome
binds on the consciences of its adherents
under penalty of mortal sin. Thereby
it falls under the condemnation of such
passages as Gal. ii, 1, Matt. 15, 0, and
Rev. 22, 18. Nor does it blush to offer
such mummeries to Almighty God as
works of merit that have a right to
claim every reward at His disposal. The
definition of Alexander of Hales, though
never officially adopted, embodies the
position of the Roman Church: “Fast-
ing is an abstinence from food and drink
according to the rule of the Church,
which looks to ( intuitu ) the satisfying
for sin and the acquiring of eternal life.”
Fatalism, the doctrine that all human
experiences and actions are determined,
not by natural causes, but by a blind
fate, so that the course of events cannot
be changed, no matter what man may do.
It is quite distinct from determinism
(q.v.) proper, which does not eliminate
natural causes as determining action.
Fatalism is a prominent feature of Is-
lam. It is decidedly anticliristian, deny-
ing the possibility of any personal rela-
tion between the believer and God.
Father, God the. The term “Father”
as used in Scripture ordinarily refers to
the God of the Covenant in His relation
to the believers and in this sense refers
to the Divine Essence without distinc-
tion of Persons. See Fatherhood of Ood.
In many texts, however, the Persons are
so differentiated as clearly to limit the
term Father to the First Person. The
Father, personally so named, c. (/., John
3,35; 5,20; 15,9; 17 (entire); 20,17;
1 Pet. 1, 3, is specifically described as
Himself unbegotten, John 5, 20, but gen-
erating eternally the Son, Ps. 2, 7 ; Acts
13, 33; Heb. 1, 5, and emitting (spirat-
ing) the Holy Spirit, John 15,26; Matt.
10,20; Gal. 4, 6. While this act of gen-
eration, or begetting, of which the human
mind can form no adequate notion, is
a true act, yet it is an act which termi-
nates within the Godhead, the Son also
being God, of the same one and indivis-
ible essence with the Father John 10, 30.
It is therefore called an internal act,
performed when nothing existed beside
God. Likewise the eternal spiration,
performed by the Father and the Son, is
an internal act of God. Both the gen-
eration and spiration indicate the par-
ticular relation existing between Father
and Son and between Father, Son, and
Spirit and involve no factor of time, as
if the Father had existed before the Son
was generated, or as if Father and Son
had existed before the Holy Ghost pro-
ceeded from Them. Even the difference
between generation and spiration trans-
cends our comprehension. All we can
say is that there is a difference between
these two acts. Of the external works
of the Deity, two are predicated of the
Father. The Father sent His Son to re-
deem maft and gives, or sends, the Holy
Spirit. John 3, 1C. 17 ; 14, 26. Further-
more, there is ascribed to the Father the
creation of the world and its preserva-
tion. These works, however, are com-
mon to the three Persons, since Creation
is also predicated of the Son, John 1,
3. 10; Col. 1, 10; Heb. 1, 3, and of the
Holy Spirit, Ps. 33, 6. See Trinity, Doc-
trine of the.
Fatherhood of God. The term Fa-
ther is applied to the Triune Divine
Essence in Scripture in a twofold sense.
God is Father in the sense of Author,
Originator, Generator, and Preserver of
all things. Thus Ps. 68, 5; Is. 64, 8.
Much more commonly, however, the
word Father involves the concepts of
love, mercy, and grace and is equivalent
to “God of the covenant.” As such He
is a Father of those who have entered
into covenant relations with Him. The
idea of a divine Fatherhood as imply-
ing a relation to all mankind in this
sense, and apart from the covenant of
grace, is foreign to the Scriptures. Cf.
Rom. 9, 8; John 8, 44. Its correlated
idea is, not humanity as such, but man-
kind redeemed, especially the believers,
who have received the blessings of the
covenant. In this sense Israel was
taught to look upon God as Father,
Ex. 4, 22; Deut. 32, 6; Ps. 89, 27 f.;
Is. 63, 16; John 8, 41; 5, 45; Jer. 31, 9
(2 Cor. 6, 18). By adoption, John 1,
12. 13; Eph. 1, 5, the believers are
children of God, John 1, 12; Rom. 8, 16.
In this sense Jesus speaks of God as the
Father of the believers. Matt. 6, 4. 8. 9.
15. 18. For Father, the First Person of
the Trinity, see Father, God the.
Fathers of the Church, recognized
teachers of the Church from the close of
the Apostolic Age down to Pope Gregory
(d. 604) and John of Damascus (d. 754),
the last Latin and Greek representa-
tives, respectively.
Fawcett, John, 1739 — 1817 ; ordained
Baptist minister in 1765 near Hebden
Bridge, York; opened school at Brear-
ley Hall in 1777; wrote: “Blest Be the
Tie that Binds”; “Thy Presence, Gra-
cious God, Afford.”
Feast of Asses. A festival celebrated
in many parts of the Continent on the
Octave of Epiphany (January 13), the
Fecht, Joliaim
254
l'etisllisni
flight into Egypt being represented in a
realistic manner, also by hymns ad-
dressed to a live mule bearing a girl who
plays the part of the Virgin.
Fecht, Johann; b. 1636, d. 1716 as
professor and superintendent at Ros-
tock; a staunch defender of Lutheran
orthodoxy against Pietism ; wrote, to-
gether with his colleague Gruenenberg,
an excellent exposition of the Small
Catechism.
Federal Council of the Churches of
Christ in America. Organized in Phila-
delphia, December, 1908, thirty denomi-
nations having been represented. The
purpose of the Council, according to its
constitution, is: 1. to express the fellow-
ship and catholic unity of the Christian
Church; 2. to bring the Christian bodies
of America into united service for Christ
and the world; 3. to encourage devo-
tional fellowship and mutual counsel
concerning the spiritual life and reli-
gious activities of the Church; 4. to
secure a larger combined influence for
the Church of Christ in all matters af-
fecting the moral and social condition
of the people, so as to promote the ap-
plication of the Law of Christ in every
relation to human life; 5. to assist in
the organization of local branches of the
Federal Council, to promote its aim in
their communities. Each denomination
represented is entitled to four delegates,
and to one delegate for every 50,000
members or a major fraction thereof.
The Council has no authority over any
denomination, nor has it the right to
make any creeds. The celebration of the
four -hundredth anniversary of the Ref-
ormation was promoted by the Council.
Feine, Paul; b. 1859; Lutheran theo-
logian; professor of New Testament at
Vienna, Evangelical faculty; at Bres-
lau; since 1910 at Halle; wrote: Ein-
leitung in das Neue Testament ; Theo-
logie des Neuen Testaments ; etc.
Felicissimus, Schism of, arose from
the hostility of certain presbyters, un-
der the lead of the ecclesiastical dem-
agog Novatus, against Cyprian, bishop
of Carthage, elected 248. Without the
consent of the bishop, Novatus ordained
the deacon Felicissimus, and when Cyp-
rian, from his retreat during the Decian
persecution, ordered a church visitation
and a collection for the poor, Felicissi-
mus refused to recognize the bishop’s
commissioners. The opposition gained
ground through the indulgence shown
toward the lapsed (q. v.) as compared
with the severity of Cyprian. The schis-
matics were condemned by a council at
Carthage (251),
Fenelon, Francois de Salignac de
la Mothe, 1651- — 1715; famous French
prelate, educator, and author; arch-
bishop of Cambrai ; missionary to the
Huguenots, whom he sought to win by
persuasion, though in case of the obsti-
nate not disdaining the “salutary pres-
sure” of the civil authorities; also a
firm opponent of the Jansenist move-
ment.
Feria. Especially in Roman liturgies
any week-day, the ferial services being
those of any ordinary day, but especially
a festival or fast-day during the week,
Good Friday being feria sexta in Holy
Week.
Festivals, Movable and Immovable.
See Church-Year.
Feth, H., D. D. See Roster at end of
book.
Fetishism, a term derived from Por-
tuguese feitico (Lat., factitius ), "charm,
talisman,” and now used by anthropol-
ogists in a great variety of senses, e. g.,
denoting belief in charms or the per-
sonification and worship of sun, moon,
stars, earth, mountains, rivers, springs,
and other objects of nature, but gener-
ally understood to mean belief that a
spirit may dwell temporarily or per-
manently in some material object, which
thereby becomes an object of reverence
or worship. Such objects, or fetishes,
are of the greatest variety — claws,
teeth, horns, bones, or other parts of
animals; shells, stones, leaves, pieces of
wood or metal, rags, refuse, etc. Be-
cause of the indwelling spirit or magical
powers, these fetishes, of which each has
a special field of activity, are believed to
be able to secure for the owner success
in his undertakings, preservation from,
and healing of, injuries and diseases,
long life, courage, shrewdness, good
weather, in fact, able to obtain for him
anything he desires or to guard him
against anything he fears. The savage
will talk to it and entreat it, anoint it
with oil, sprinkle it with blood. If he
has great succegs with it, it may become
the fetish of an entire tribe and the
owner its priest. Fetishes may be found
by some chance occurrence, or certain ob-
jects may become fetishes by incantation
or by simple invitation extended to the
spirit to dwell in the object. — Fetishism
is found among all non-civilized races,
but mainly among the Negro tribes of
Africa. Traces have been discovered in
ancient Greece, Egypt, Babylonia, India,
China, also among modern civilized
peoples. Idol-worship is but one step
removed from fetishism. The use of
charms and amulets, though not iden-
Feuerbach, Tmlwift'
255
Finance** in flic Church
tical with fetishism as above outlined,
and the adoration Roman Catholics give
to statues, pictures, and relics of saints,
have a fetishistic basis. However, mod-
ern science of religion shows its hostility
to Christianity when it asserts that the
essential idea of fetishism is also found
in the veneration of the Ark of the Cove-
nant by Hebrews and of cross, baptismal
water, and Eucharist by Christians.; for
no such notion was connected with the
Ark by God’s sanction.
Feuerbach, Ludwig-, German philos-
opher; b. 1804 at Landshut, Bavaria;
d. 1872 near Nuernberg. Prominent rep-
resentative of modern materialistic athe-
ism. Religion is an illusion. God,
heaven, eternal life, are merely human
desires. Man makes God in his own
image and ought to worship his own self
and not God. His materialism culmi-
nated in the formula, “Der Mensch ist,
was er isst.” Wrote Wesen des Christen-
turns. Wesen der Religion.
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, German
philosopher; b. at Rammenau 1762; d. at
Berlin 1814; professor at Jena, 1794;
forced to resign, 1799, on charge of athe-
ism; later in Berlin; ardent patriot,
delivering famous lectures, 1807- — 8,
Reden an die deutsche Nation; first
rector of University of Berlin, 1810; in
philosophy he stands between Kant and
Hegel; rejected doctrines of atonement
and deity of Christ; wrote: Anweisung
mm seligen Leben.
Fick, Hermann, 1822 — 85; studied
at Goettingen; private tutor in Meck-
lenburg; came to America in 1846; pas-
tor in New Melle, Mo., in Bremen near
St. Louis, in Detroit, in Collinsville, 111.,
and in Boston, Mass.; not only a success-
ful preacher, but also a man with pro-
nounced literary ability, his Lutherbuch
for schools being the classic of its day
and his poems for special occasions,
which appeared in the various period-
icals of the Missouri Synod, character-
ized by warmth and power; wrote:
“Gehe auf, du Trost der Heiden.”
Fiction ( Novels , etc.). A special form
of literary writing, in prose, in which
the characters that appear, the happen-
ings, and also the scenes in which the
incidents are laid, are wholly or partly
imagined. In the historical novels the
most prominent characters are usually
drawn from life, while the secondary
characters are supplied by the writer’s
imagination. In some stories, as in the
Waverly Novels of Sir Walter Scott, the
scenes are often pictured with a close
attention to nature, even down to insig-
nificant details. Novels, on the whole,
accentuate the unusual and emphasize
virtues and vices in a manner incom-
patible with the ordinary existence of
the average human being. While some
of them are works of art of a very high
order and exert a wholesome stimulus
upon the imagination, the great major-
ity of novels and short stories of our
day, especially those of the Russian and
French schools dealing with sex prob-
lems, and among these particularly the
so-called triangle and quadrilateral prob-
lem novels (in which either the husband
or the wife, or both, become unfaithful
to their marriage vows) are among the
worst influences upon the minds of all
who are addicted to their study, and
especially upon the young people in the
formative age. Novels for the home
library should be selected with very
great care and the reading of Christian
young people of the junior age carefully
controlled.
Fiji Islands, or Viti Islands, a group
in the South Pacific Ocean, belonging to
Great Britain. Area, 7,083 sq. mi. Pop-
ulation, 139,000, of Melanesian stock;
formerly cannibals. Missions were be-
gun in 1834 by two English Wesleyan
Methodists. After tyiey had suffered
much persecution, the Methodist Church
became firmly established; whole tribes
renounced idolatry in a day. The Ro-
man Catholic Church began counter-mis-
sions in 1863. — Many Indian coolies are
emigrating to the islands; the Methodist
Mission Society of Australia is working
among them. In 1902 the S. P. G. also
entered the field. See Melanesia.
Filioque Controversy. One of the
major disputes of the early Church,
which later became one of the chief
points of difference between the Eastern
and the Western Church. It concerns
the fact of the procession of the Holy
Ghost from the Father and the Son
(Filioque). The Apostles’ Creed begins
the Third Article: “And in the Holy
Ghost.” To this the Constantinopolitan
Creed added, “who proceedeth from the
Father.” The Latin Church added, “and
the Son,” mainly in the interest of the
fight against Arianism ( q. v. ) The addi-
tion was used for more than two hun-
dred years before it was formally ac-
cepted at the Council at Aachen (809).
The term clearly agrees with John
15,26, according to which the orthodox
Church has ever taught the procession of
the Spirit from the Father and the Son,
Finances in the Church. That the
Church needs money to carry on its,
work is a self-evident fact. It is also,
a fact that the work of the Church is
Finland
256
Fischer, Christoph
often hindered by lack of funds; the
church deficit has become proverbial.
The average Christian does not con-
tribute in accordance with his means.
Is the Church itself not largely respon-
sible for this condition? An improve-
ment in church finances ought to be
worked out according to the following
lines: 1. Christians must learn that the
Word of God teaches that giving is a
Christian duty. Christians should abound
also in the grace of giving and thereby
prove the sincerity of their love. 2 Cor.
8, 7. 8. 2. Christians must be duly in-
formed with reference to the needs of
the Church. The average Christian
knows little about these needs. The
work of the Church, its opportunities
and its needs, should be duly presented.
This should be done not only in the pul-
pit, but also in the meetings of the vot-
ing members, the young people’s society,
and the ladies’ society, as well as in the
week-day school and in the Sunday-
school. The members should also be
urged to read the church-papers and
such special literature (folders with pic-
tures) as may be issued by a church-
body from time to time. People will not
give to anything in which they are not
interested. 3. Christians must by a good
financial system (every -member canvass
and envelope system, q. v . ) be given an
opportunity to contribute regularly and
often.
Finland received Christianity from
the English Henry, bishop of Upsala,
who came over with the crusade of
Eric VIII of Sweden and was martyred
in 1118. Thomas, an English Dominican,
about 1216, became the first bishop.- — -
The Reformation came from Sweden, to
which Finland belonged. Peter Saer-
kilathi studied abroad, became a Lu-
theran, returned to Finland, and re-
formed in Church and school. Martin
Skytte, who had studied at the cele-
brated school at Ramno, became the first
Lutheran bishop, 1528 — 50, appointed by
Gustav Vasa. Eight young Finns were
sent to Wittenberg to study theology;
one of these was Michael Agricola, who
became a prominent reformer. He trans-
lated the Bible and other books into
Finnish and thus made it a book lan-
guage. Paul Junsten studied at Witten-
berg and became the first bishop of Vi-
borg. The first hymnal was translated
by Jacob Peterson Finn or Suomalainen,
schoolmaster at Abo. King John, 1568
to 1592, tried to force in the Catholic
“Red Book,” but it was rejected in 1593,
and the Augsburg Confession was adopted,
and only the Lutheran religion was tol-
erated. The first university was erected
at Abo in 1649 (since 1827 in Helsing-
fors ) . Pietism and later rationalism ran
its course in Finland as in the rest of
Europe. Then came the “Awakening”;
it was headed, in its pietistic form, by
the peasant P. Ruotsalainen, d. 1852 ;
the conservative party was led by Prov-
ost F. G. Hedberg, d. 1862. At present
Liberalism holds sway. A small number
of pastors and congregations, however,
have taken a stand for confessional Lu-
theranism. (See Mo.-Synod, Foreign Con-
nections.) A Bible Society was organ-
ized in 1812, a Mission Society in 1859
with a Missionary Institute at Helsing-
fors. There are five bishoprics (of which
one comprises the 700,000 Swedish-speak-
ing inhabitants and the two German Lu-
theran congregations in Helsingfors)
with 532 congregations, headed by the
archbishop of Abo. In 1809 Sweden lost
the entire country to Russia; it became
independent in 1917. Capital, Helsing-
fors. Religious liberty obtains. Popu-
lation in 1917: Lutherans, 3,283,035;
Greek Catholics, and Raskolniks, 56,815;
Roman Catholics, 606; Baptists, Metho-
dists, Adventists, 6,397. Two German
Lutheran congregations in Helsingfors.
Less than one half of one per cent, of the
people are illiterate.
Finney, Charles Grandison, 1792 to
1875; Congregationalist; b. at Warren,
Conn.; pastor of Broadway Tabernacle,
New York City, revivalist, attaching im-
portance to anxious seat; president of
Oberlin College ; d. at Oberlin, O. ;
author.
Fire-Worshipers. Name applied to
Zoroastrians (see Zoroastrianism) and
their modern representatives, the Parsees
(q.v.). Fire-worship formed an element
in many primitive religions, but in the
old religion of Iran, especially as devel-
oped by Zoroaster, it is a very conspicu-
ous characteristic. In Parsee temples
a holy fire is perpetually burning, which
is most carefully guarded, and protected
from contamination. The modern Par-
sees, however, deny that they are fire-
worshipers and say that they regard fire
merely as an emblem or manifestation
of the Deity.
Firmilian, bishop of Caesarea in Cap-
padocia; disciple of Origen; opponent
of heretical baptism and of the suprem-
acy of the Roman bishop ; d. 269 in
Tarsus.
Fischer, Christoph ( Visoher ), 1520
to 1597 (or 1600) ; propst (provost) at
Jueterbogk; preacher at Schmalkalden,
Meiningen, Celle, Halberstadt, and finally
at Celle; wrote: “Wir danken dir, Herr
t'lspher, Ludwig' Fberlmrd
257
Flagellants
Josu Christ, dass du fuer uus gestorben
bist.”
Fischer, Ludwig Eberhard, 1695 to
1773; pastor of St. Leonhard in Stutt-
gart; finally chief court preacher and
member of the consistory ; wrote: “Herr
Jesu, der du selbst von Gott als Lehrer
kommen.”
Fisher, George Park, 1827 — 1909;
Congregational ist; b. at Wrentham,
Mass.; professor of divinity and college
preacher, Yale College, 1854. — 61; pro-
fessor of ecclesiastical history, Yale
Divinity School, 1801 (retired 1901);
president of American Historical Asso-
ciation 1898; d. at Litchfield, Conn.;
wrote: History of the Reformation
(1873, new cd. 1906) ; History of Chris-
tian Doctrine ; etc.
Fiske, John, American historian and
philosopher; b. 1842 at Hartford, Conn.;
d. 1901 at Gloucester, Mass.; for many
years at Harvard; noted lecturer; pop-
ularized Evolution and Spencer’s philos-
ophy in America, especially in Outlines
of Cosmic Philosophy, 1874; devoted last
twenty years to American history.
Flacius (Vlacich), Matthias, called
Illyricus from the land of his birth;
b. 1020. When at seventeen he would
study theology, his uncle, Baldo Lupc-
tino, provincial of the Franciscans,
pointed him to Luther as the restorer of
the true Gospel. He came to Wittenberg
in 1541 and after intense spiritual strug-
gles, made known to Bugenhagen and
Luther, during which he was prayed for
in church, came to peace of soul through
justification by faith in Christ, and to
this doctrine he dedicated his life. Pro-
fessor of Hebrew in 1544. On bended
knees and with tears he begged Melanch-
tlion and the rest of his colleagues not
to give in to the Interim, which lie then
attacked in writings. In 1549 he left
Wittenberg and at Magdeburg earned his
bread and continued his attacks on the
Interim and the Adiapliorists (see the
articles) and gloriously saved true Lu-
theranism. When George Major at Eis-
leben preached the necessity of good
works for salvation, Flacius promptly
sprang to the defense of salvation by
grace alone; see Majoristic Controversy.
When in 1552 Osiander came out with
his Romanizing doctrine of justification
and Duke Albrecht of Prussia would win
the breadless and homeless Flacius as an
ally against Melanclithon, the breadless
and homeless Flacius sided with Me-
lanchtlion against Osiander and thus
proved that his fight was one of con-
science, not personality. In a few
months he wrote seventeen works to up-
Concordia Cyclopedia
hold the forensic doctrine of satisfaction
and imputation in justification — the
brilliant, keen, thorough, logical, exeget-
ical defender of Lutheranism; see Osian-
drian Controversy. In 1553 Caspar
Schwenkfeld came out with his “inner
word” and his distinction between God’s
Word and Holy Scripture. Flacius de-
fended the identity of Word and Scrip-
ture and the efficacy of the means of
grace from 1554 to 1557. In 1557 Fla-
cius was called to the University of
Jena. The “fighter’s” efforts for peace
with Mclanehthon were futile, because
the “peaceable” Melanchthon could not
bring himself publicly to condemn his
error in the Interim. In 1558 Flacius
attacked Pfeffinger’s false doctrine on
Free Will and in the heat of debate with
Victorin Strigel, in 1560, made the hasty
statement that original sin belonged to
the substance of human nature and was
not merely a so-called “accident.” Even
•such friends as Hessliusius and Wigand
reproved him for this error. In 1571 he
modified the statement. While Art. I of
the Formula of Concord rejects this so-
called Manicheism, it upholds the mon-
ergism of the Holy Ghost in the conver-
sion of man as taught by Flacius. In
the course of the controversy, 1561, Fla-
cius was deposed, and he escaped arrest
by fleeing to Regensburg, where he kept
on writing for the truth. Before being
driven out, he went to Antwerp, 1566,
where William of Orange had granted
religious liberty to the Calvinists and
the Lutherans. The next year war drove
him out, and he wandered about as a
man without a country, till he found an
asylum in a cloister at Frankfurt, where
the prioress, Catherine von Meersfeld,
gallantly protected him until he died, in
1575, only fifty-five years old. Alongside
of his polemics Flacius was also a great
church historian. He projected the mon-
umental Magdeburg Centuries, a general
church history by centuries, with special
reference to the rise and growth of
Antichrist. In the Catalogus Testium
Veritatis he gathered about 400 wit-
nesses to the truth of the Gospel during
the preceding ages. In his Claris and
Glossa he was a thorough reformer of
the Biblical studies.
Flagellants. People who, inspired by
religious zeal and fanaticism, whip them-
selves or inflict other severe corporal
tortures upon themselves in the mistaken
notion that they are thereby crucifying
their own flesh, keeping their spirit in
subjection, and earning some form of
merit in the sight of God. Fanatics of
this kind are found even in the early
centuries, but the movement assumed the
17
Plattlch, .loli a 11 11 Friedrich
258
Foot -Washing?
proportions of a religious epidemic in
tlie thirteenth century, when a pilgrim-
age of these fanatics swept through
Northern Italy, crossed the Alps, and
finally spent itself in Germany and the
Slavic countries. In 1.148 — 9 a similar
epidemic occurred, which extended even
to England. The flagellants usually
founded fraternities, whose members
bound themselves to observe a peniten-
tial season. At such times the deluded
people wandered far and wide through
the country, striking their bare backs
with scourges and cudgels and inflicting
worse tortures. Movements of this na-
ture have been observed periodically up
to the present time, the fanaticism of
the flagellants often assuming alarming
proportions. Thus the authorities of one
of our southwestern States were com-
pelled to stop the actions of some flagel-
lants when it was found that they did
not shrink even from crucifixion.
Flattich, Johann Friedrich; b. at
Beihingen, October 3, 1713; d. at Muen-
chingen, June 1, 1797; a Swabian
preacher and pedagog, disciple of Bengel;
chiefly known as a teacher; a striking
personality, original humor, and a keen
and accurate judgment, together with
sincerity, uprightness, and courage, made
him a remarkable character.
Fleischmann, Philipp; b. January 22,
1815, in Regensburg, Bavaria; itinerant
minister among the “separated Luther-
ans” in Pomerania and Hesse-Nassau;
one of the founders and, temporarily,
director of the Teachers’ Seminary of
the Missouri Synod; served several con-
gregations; d. as pastor in Kendallville,
Ind., September 11, 1878.
Fleming, Paul, 1609 — 40; studied
medicine and poetry at Leipzig, later
medicine at Leyden; physician at Ham-
burg; a gifted poet, of true and deep
feeling; wrote: “In alien meinen Taten.”
Flesh. In Scripture, flesh stands for
the material part of the human person,
Ps. 16, 9; 84, 2; Rom. 13, 14, especially
when viewed in its weakness as com-
pared with the divine essence, Ps. 78, 39;
1 Pet. 1, 24. In this sense the Incarna-
tion was an assumption of the flesh.
John 1, 14. But the characteristic idea
connected with flesh is an ethical one, de-
noting man’s incapacity for good or,
positively, the depravity and corruption
of his entire nature. So Rom. 6, 19 ;
7, 18; 8, 3. This sinful flesh remains
with the Christian even after conversion
and hinders the efficacy of the divine
Law, so that, although the Law gains
the assent of the inner man, the spir-
itual, regenerated nature of man, it is
not fulfilled because of this tendency of
the flesh toward what is forbidden. See
Sanctification. This fleshly (carnal)
mind is enmity against God, Rom. 8, 4. 5,
is the source and seat of all evil pas-
sions, and hence must result in death,
Rom. 7, 5 ; 8, 8. 9. Hence, too, the lusts
and works of the flesh are opposed to
holy, divine impulses and actions. Gal.
5,16; Eph. 2, 3. 4. To crucify the flesh
is the great object of the Christian life,
attainable alone through the Spirit of
Christ, who dwells in the regenerated.
Gal. 5, 25; Rom. 8, 13.
Fliedner, Fritz. Son of Theodor
Fliedner. Founder of the Evangelical
Church in Spain ( Iglesia Evangelica
1'tspanola) .
Fliedner, Theodor; b. 1800; d. 1804.
Studied theology at Giessen and Goet-
tingen; pastor at Kaiserswerth, 1821 to
1849. Founded institution of deacon-
esses, Rhenish -Westphalian Prison So-
ciety, 1826; refuge home (10X10 feet)
for discharged female prisoners; first
infant school of Germany at Duesseldorf
and Kaiserswerth, 1836; opened first
Protestant deaconess house at Kaisers-
werth, October 13, 1836; added a hos-
pital and training-school, 1846; an or-
phanage for girls, 1842; a retreat for
female sufferers from mental diseases,
1847; personally established a deaconess
house at Pittsburgh, Pa., 1849; hospi-
tals at Jerusalem, Constantinople, and
Alexandria; training-schools at Smyrna,
Jerusalem, and Beirut. When he died,
there were 32 “mother-houses” and 1,600
deaconesses. Issued a deaconess journal,
Armen- und Krankenfreund, 1849. Es-
tablished a deacons’ house at Duisburg,
1849. Fliedner was weak in body, strong
in spirit, sober in judgment, humble in
character, untiring in service.
Flitner, Johann, 1618 — 78; precen-
tor, then diaconus at Grimmen, near
Grcifswald; town preacher near the end
of his life; hymns during leisure years
at Stralsund; wrote: “Jesu, meines
Herzens Freud’.”
Foot-Washing. A ceremony com-
monly performed in ancient times and
particularly in Oriental countries as a
duty of hospitality, Gen. 18, 4; Luke
7, 8, which was invested with a spiritual
meaning by Christ when He washed the
feet of His disciples, John 13, 4. The
purpose of this act of our Lord is clear
from His own words. Vv. 12 — 17. It
was a lesson in humility, self-abnegation,
and service. Lessons drawn from the
foot-wasliing which would make the en-
tire transaction symbolical of the wash-
ing away of sin and purification in the
Foreign Missions, History of 259
Foresters of America
blood of the Lamb are pious applications
not warranted by the text. In early
postapostolic times the command: “Ye
also ought to wash one another’s feet,”
came to be observed according to the
letter. This was in harmony with the
externalizing and legalistic change which
had come over apostolic Christianity.
In the Middle Ages it was observed at
the installation of princes and bishops.
It was performed by the emperors of
Austria annually down to most recent
times. The Mennonites, Church of God,
and other sects practise it to-day. Lu-
ther opposed “this hypocritical foot-
washing,” in which, as practised in his
day, the superior washes the feet of the
inferior, who, the ceremony over, will
have to act all the more humbly towards
him, while Christ has made His act an
emblem of true humility. “We have
nothing to do,” said Luther, “with foot-
washing with water; otherwise it were
not only the feet of the Twelve, but
those of everybody we should have to
wash. If you would wish to wash your
neighbor’s feet, see that your heart is
really humble and that you endeavor to
help every one to become really better.”
Foreign Missions, History of. See
the various countries.
Foreign-Tongue Missions (Fremd-
sprachige Missionen) is a term denoting
mission-work carried on among descen-
dants of persons from European coun-
tries wlio have immigrated into the
United States. It is a purely technical
term. Slovaks, Hungarians, Italians,
Serbs, Letts, Lithuanians, Persians,
Poles, and members of other nationali-
ties are ministered to spiritually in their
own native tongue by the Missouri Synod
and by other religious organizations, and
in order to characterize this branch of
Home Mission activity, the term was
coined.
Foresters, Ancient Order of. This
secret order, the lineal descendant of
English Forestry, was brought to this
country about 1832, the first “Court”
being established in Philadelphia. Since
1892 women are admitted to full mem-
bership. The ritual of the order shows
traces of Masonic influence and was
taken over from the Ancient Order of
Shepherds, which was incorporated with
the Ancient Order of Foresters in 1835.
Since then the order passed through con-
siderable trouble, and in 1923 it was im-
possible to obtain direct information
concerning it.
Foresters, Independent Order of.
History. This order was organized in
consequence of a scission in the Ancient
Order of Foresters, in 1874, at Newark,
N. J. Its form of government closely
resembles that of the British parent or-
ganization and that of the Independent
Order of Odd-Fellows. In 1875 a ladies’
branch was organized, called Miriam De-
gree ; also a uniformed rank, called Glen-
wood Degree. In 1877 juvenile branches
were added.- — Purpose. The I. 0. F. fur-
nishes members with free medical at-
tendance and nurses and pays sick-, dis-
ability-, funeral-, and death -benefits. —
Character. The I. 0. F. is not merely a
fraternal, but a religious organization.
In spite of the claim made by this order
that all discussions on religion are ban-
ished from the meetings, these are begun
and closed with religious services, as
prescribed by the ritual. The chaplain
is known as the “Orator.” Elaborate
religious services are held also at the
initiation of candidates, at visitations
made by higher officers, at the dedication
of meeting-houses, at the funerals of de-
ceased members, etc. The order of fu-
neral services is replete with quotations
from Holy Scriptures, but contains no
reference to Christ and the Holy Ghost.
For children between twelve and eighteen
years of age there are “Juvenile Courts,”
with a special ritual, special secrets, and
an “obligation.” After the children have
attained the age of sixteen, the juvenile
members may join the courts for adults.
— Organization. The I. 0. F. has three
degrees, each with its own secrets and
rituals. The lowest is that of the “Sub-
ordinate Courts”; next comes that of
the “High Courts,” and finally that of
the “Supreme Court.” Above the “Su-
preme Court” is the “Executive Council,”
which consists of seven persons, in whose
hands is the entire direction of the order.
There is also a side branch, which is
called the “Royal Foresters.” Women
Foresters (called “Companions”), while
having the same degrees as the male
Foresters, have separate courts in the
two lower degrees, but use the same
ritual and the same “obligation.” The
first are the “Companion Courts,” and
the next the “Companion High Courts.”
From these women may proceed into the
“Supreme Courts,” which admit both
sexes. However, they cannot become
members of the “Executive Council” or
officers of the “Supreme Court.” - — Mem-
bership. The order claims to have a
membership of over 150,000 in Canada
and the United States.
Foresters of America. (See Ancient
Order of Foresters; also Independent
Order of Foresters.) History. This or-
der is an offshoot of the Ancient Order
Foresters of America
260
Formaln of Concord
of Foresters. It severed its connection
with the parent lodge at the Minneapolis
convention in 1889, forming a Supreme
Court of the Ancient Order of Foresters
of America, with a new constitution and
by-laws. The newly organized American
Order began with thirteen Grand Courts
in thirteen States of the Union, subordi-
nate to the Supreme Court. — Purpose.
The primary objects of the order are to
provide sick- and funeral-benefits for
members and to contribute to their
moral and material welfare and those
dependent upon them. Membership is
confined to white men from eighteen to
fifty years of age, of good moral char-
acter, soundness of health and body, and
professing belief in a Supreme Being. —
Organization. The government of the or-
der, as well as its material benefits, is
in part patterned after those of the Odd-
Fellows. The Supreme, formerly High,
Court of the Foresters of America is
composed of officers and representatives
of Grand Courts, which, in turn, are
made up of officers and representatives
from subordinate Courts in States, ter-
ritories, or provinces. The American
Order adopted new regalia and a new
ritual, incorporated the American flag
in its insignia, prefixed “Liberty” to the
ancient motto of the Order, “Unity,
Benevolence, and Concord,” and estab-
lished August 15 as “Foresters’ Day”
and the second Sunday in June as “Me-
morial Day.” The Knights of the Sher-
wood Forest form the second degree and
constitute the semimilitary or uni-
formed body in this Order of Foresters,
with a Supreme Conclave of the World,
numbering fifty subordinate Conclaves.
The Ancient Order of Shepherds became
the third degree of the order in 1889,
shortly after the Minneapolis convention.
The Companions of the Forest is another
important branch, membership in which
is confined to Foresters and women rela-
tives and friends, who meet in “Circles.”
The Companions constitute the fourth
degree of the order. The Junior For-
esters of America form a branch of the
order which is confined to youths from
twelve to eighteen years of age. - — - Char-
acter. Like the Odd-Fellows, the For-
esters stress the religious and moral side
of the order. They have an elaborate
ritual, which in some respects is similar
to that of the Odd-Fellows. The ritual
embodies legends from Robin Hood and
events from Biblical history relative to
the Garden of Eden, the lesson taught
being to help those less fortunate than
the members of the society. — Member-
ship. There are at present 1,127 lodges,
with a membership of 205,310.
Forgiveness of Sins. The act of
divine grace by which, in virtue of the
merits of Christ’s atonement, appropri-
ated by faith, God frees the sinner from
the guilt and the penalties of hiB sins.
The Law is vindicated by the atonement
of Christ, and the penalty of sin is paid.
To all who will believe in Christ as their
Mediator and Redeemer, God offers free
and full forgiveness. Acts 5,31; 1 John
2, 12; Rom. 3, 24; Is. 1, 18; 55, 1. 2.
Viewed from another angle, this trans-
action is called justification, not in the
sense that the person justified is morally
just, but just with respect to the Law
and the Lawgiver. In other words, the
person who has received pardon is jus-
tified in the sense that he is declared
innocent, being placed in a position of
not having broken the Law at all and
not deserving of punishment. See Jus-
tification. Such forgiveness is granted
believers as a free gift, not because of
any merit or desert of their own. The
whole scheme is one of mercy, to which
the sinner makes his appeal and which
has before the world was made provided
a Redeemer who should reconcile men to
God. John 3, 16.
Formosa (Taiwan), an island belong-
ing to the Japanese Empire since 1895,
formerly to China. Area, 13,944 sq. mi.
Population, some 3,654,000. The interior
mountains are still inhabited by savages.
Dutch missionaries, notably Junius and
Candidius, worked here in the 17th cen-
tury, until expelled by the Chinese pirate
Koxinga 1661. The English Presbyte-
rian Church began work in 1865 in
Taiwanfu, the Canadian Presbyterians
in 1872 in Tanisui. Statistics: Foreign
staff, 41. Christian community, 21,081;
communicants, 10,481.
Forms, Book of. See Agenda.
Formula of Concord. Melanchthon’s
departure from the truth in several
points menaced the doctrine of justifica-
tion over against the Romanists and the
doctrine of the Lord’s Supper over
against the Calvinists, and true Luther-
ans, like Amsdorf, Flacius, and others,
leaped to the defense of the truth. The
strife waxed fierce. No peace could be
made with the enemy. An understand-
ing must be reached within the Lutheran
borders. Repeated efforts at peace proved
futile. In 1567 Jacob Andreae, Provost
and Chancellor at Tuebingen, was or-
dered to draw up peace formulas, which
he did; but he was met with distrust
by the Lutherans and the Philippists.
In 1569 he went to Saxony, but again
both parties spurned him. Another trip
in 1570 was also fruitless, In 1574 the
Formula of Concord
261
Formula of Concord
un-Lutheran character of the Philippists
was shown up, and the Elector August
ended their dishonest rule in Saxony.
In 1573 Andreae published /Si* Chris-
tian Sermons on the dissensions in the
Lutheran Church, by which the Luther-
ans were to be united against the Philip-
pists and the Calvinists. On the sug-
gestion of Chemnitz, Andreae, in 1574,
worked them over into eleven articles —
the Swabian Concord; revised by Chy-
traeus and Chemnitz — Swabian -Saxon
Concord. — Lucas Osiander and Baltha-
sar Bidembach put together a formula
which was adopted by a number of theo-
logians at Maulbronn on January 19,
1576, which was in doctrinal harmony
with the Swabian-Saxon Concord. A meet-
ing of theologians was called at Torgau,
May 6 — June 7, 1576. The Saxons were
headed by Nikolaus Selnecker; from
Wuerttemberg came Jacob Andreae;
from Brunswick, Chemnitz and Chy-
traeus; from Brandenburg, Andreas
Musculus and Christoph Koerner. From
the Swabian -Saxon Concord and the
Maulbronn formula they worked out the
Torgau Book. The Elector August sent
out copies for criticism — which came.
One took exception to the great length
of the confession. Accordingly, Andreae
drew up an epitome of the work. About
twenty-five of the requested criticisms
having come in, the Elector August
wished them to be considered in the final
revision, which was to be made at Ber-
gen, near Magdeburg, on March 1, 1577,
by Andreae, Chemnitz, and Selnecker, to
whom were added Musculus, Koerner,
and Chytraeus. The work was easily
finished by May 28 — the Bergen Book,
which forms the Solid Declaration in the
Book of Concord ; Andreae’s Epitome
was also carefully revised and approved.
The Electors of Saxony and Branden-
burg sent the work for signatures.
A preface, sketched by Andreae, was
revised and adopted at Bergen in Febru-
ary, 1580; it cleared away some mis-
understandings. The Formula of Con-
cord first appeared officially in the Book
of Concord, published in German at
Dresden on June' 257 Tf>80, the jfjftieth
anniversary of the “Augsburg" Confession.
The official Latin translation, prepared
under Chemnitz, came out in 1584. The
Formula of Concord has two parts, the
Epitome and the Solid Declaration, each
treating the same twelve articles. The
Epitome 1 ) defines the state of contro-
versy, 2 ) affirms the true doctrine,
3) rejects the false doctrine. The Solid
Declaration omits this division and dis-
cusses the matter connectedly and at
length, bringing proof-passages from
Scripture and testimonies from the Fa-
thers, the other symbols, and the writ-
ings of Luther and others. The Epitome
has an introduction, the Solid Declara-
tion, an introduction and also a preface.
The introduction confesses the Scrip-
tures as the only rule of faith and prac-
tise and also accepts the Lutheran con-
fessions hitherto adopted. The first
article, “On Original Si n.” rejects tKe
exaggerations of Flacius. The second
article, “On Free Will,” rejects all syn-
ergism and upholds the sole work of
grace in man’s conversion. The third
article, “On the Righteousness of Faith
before God,” stresses the forensic char-
acter of justification and from it sharply
separates sanctification, though it, in-
deed, necessarily follows. The fourth ar-
ticle, “On Good Works,” shows £ha¥~falth
produces good works as a good tree pro-
duces good fruit. To say they are nec-
essary to salvation is to vitiate jus-
tification; to say they are harmful to
salvation is harmful to holiness. Thi-
fifth article, “On the Law and the Gos-
pel,” sharply separates the two and
shows the true nature and function of
each. The si xth artic le, “On the Third
Use of tluTTiaw,” shows most devotion-
ally that even the Christian still needs
the Law for his Old Adam. The sevent h
ar ticle , “On the Lord’s Supper,”’ upholds
the reaT^rreSSnce' in The Sacrament over
against Zwingli and Calvin. The eighth
article, “On the Person of Christ,” treats
of the personal union of the two natures
and the sharing of the attributes as a
basis for the real presence. T he ninth
article, “On Christ’s Descent into SeEC”
briefly and simply asserts the whole
Christ descended to proclaim His vic-
tory; against Aepinus of Hamburg.
The .lentil arjic le. “On Church Cere-
monies,” holds them indifferent in them-
selves, but utterly wrong when they in-
volve a denial of the truth. The e leven th
article, “On Predestination,” rejects Cal -
vin’s doctrine of reprobation and teaches
only an election of grace. Salvation is
due alone to God’s grace, damnation
alone to man’s fault. T he twelfth ar -
ticle, “On Other Heresies, ’ v "curtly rejects
the Anabaptists, Anti-Trinitarians, et a-l.
Follows a Catalog of Testimonies from
Scripture and the Fathers by Andreae
and Chemnitz, which, however, is not a
part of the confession. — The Formula of
Concord, standing as it does so clearly
and firmly for the divine truth — “We
believe, teach, and confess that the sole
rule and standard according to which all
dogmas together with all teachers should
be estimated and judged are the pro-
phetic and apostolic Scriptures of the
Forsandei', Nils
262
Pour Polios
Old and of the New Testament alone” —
and drawing so exactly the lines which
separate Lutherans not only from Ro-
manists, but also from Calvinists, Crypto-
Calvinists, unionists, and other errorists
(Cone. Trigl., p. 777), finally brought
peace to the distracted Lutheran Church.
Special credit is due Andreae for his pa-
tience, persistence, calm and kind work,
free from all personalities, to Chemnitz,
who gave to the Formula its theological
clarity and correctness, and to the Elector
August of Saxony, who not only spent
“a ton of gold,” but also, with his wife,
often kneeled before God and appealed
to Him for grace on the work of the
theologians. Of course, extremists on
both sides held aloof, but at the very
beginning, in__ .1577.... and 1578, it was
signed by three electorsr'XweriL y~iifi ndes,
twenEyTour cctttirte; — thirty-eight cities,
and about eight thousand clergymen ;
later came the state churches of Sweden,
Lauenburg, Holstein, Pomerania, and
Strassburg.
Forsander, Nils, church historian,
b. 1846 in Sweden, educated at Augus-
tana College, Rock Island, 111.; pro-
fessor there 1889 — 1020; editor Angus-
Inna Quarterly, 1900 — 1912; Author Life
Pictures from Swedish Church History,
Ol.avus Petri, Marburg Colloquy.
Fortunatus, Venantius Honorius
Clementianus. Lived in last part of
sixth century, born in Italy and con-
verted to Christianity at Aquileia, after
565 in Gaul, under protection of Queen
Rhadegunda, bishop of Poitiers in 597 ;
writings chiefly poetical, but genius not
of the highest order; among his hymns
Veceilla Regis prodeunt (The Royal Ban-
ners Forward Fly ) , the Christmas hymn
Agnosce omne saeculum, and the Easter
song Salve, festa dies.
Fortune-Telling. Under this heading
are included all attempts, no matter how
successful and no matter by what means
obtained, to uncover the future, although
revelations pertaining to the past are
also commonly included in the term. On
account of the unwarranted inquisitive-
ness of man and his desire to lift the
veil of the future, attempts have ever
been made to find ways and means of
foretelling future events. Long lists of
omens and portents were kept among
various peoples, and certain individuals
were regarded as having the special
faculty of looking into the future and of
prognosticating events. Sometimes for-
tune-tellers made use of shrewd guesses,
based upon a reading of the character
and on the past history of the person
concerned. In many cases the law of
averages is applied. In still other cases
the aid of the devil and of evil spirits is
openly invoked. The future was alleged
to be foretold from the flight of birds,
from the position of the intestines in a
slaughtered sacrificial animal, from the
coincidence of minor happenings in a
person’s life, from the appearance of
water or other liquids in sacred cups and
other vessels, from the manner in which
a deck of cards falls when dealt, from the
configuration of the lines in a person’s
hands, from crystal globes, and from
many other arbitrary factors. - — The
Lord condemned all attempts of this
kind in unmistakable words, as when
He forbade the use of divination, the ob-
serving of times and of the cry of birds,
etc. Lev. 19, 26; Num. 23, 23; Deut. 18,
10. 11. When Saul first became king,
he cast out all those that had familiar
spirits and the wizards out of the land,
1 Sam. 28, 9, the witch at Endor being
apparently the only person of that kind
left in the country. But at a later date
the prophets of the Lord found it neces-
sary to reprimand the people for their
transgression of the Lord’s command
with regard to divination. Gp. Is. 44, 25;
Micah 3,7. Also 2 Kings 23,24; 21,6.
As superstition has always existed in the
world since the Fall of man, so it has
persisted also in our days, the situation
having become somewhat worse once
more since the World War has ushered
in a more extended interest in spiritism
and kindred subjects. Christianity takes
an unequivocal stand against all such
practises. See Spiritism,.
Fourier, Charles. See Communism,
Communistic Societies.
Four Points (points on which atti-
tudes in American Lutheran Church
differ) — Altar Fellowship, Pulpit Fel-
lowship, Lodges, Cliiliasm. Though the
General Council was formed as a re-
sult of the laxity in doctrine and prac-
tise in the General Synod and had in-
vited other synods to come into the new
organization on a soundly Lutheran
basis, it became apparent at its first
meeting in Fort Wayne (1867) that it
was unwilling to take an unequivocal
Lutheran stand on the so-called Four
Points. The Joint Synod of Ohio in a
formal request desired an explicit decla-
ration in regard to the Four Points.
The official answer of the General Coun-
cil was: “That this Council is aware
of nothing in its ‘Fundamental Prin-
ciples of Faith and Church Polity’ and
Constitution, nor in the relation it sus-
tains to the four questions raised, which
justifies a doubt whether its decisions on
Four Points
263
France
them all, wlii'n they arc! brought up in
(ho manner prescribed in the constitu-
tion, will be in harmony with Holy
Scripture and the Confessions of the
Church. — That so soon as official evi-
dence shall be presented to this body,
in the manner prescribed by the Con-
stitution, that un-Lutheran doctrines or
practises are authorized by the action of
any of its Synods, or by their refusal
to act, it will weigh that evidence, and,
if it finds they exist, use all its constitu-
tional power to convince the minds of
men in regard to them, and as speedily
as possible to remove them.” A similar
answer was given to the Iowa Synod,
which demanded a declaration on the
three last points. Dr. C. P. Krautli, in
1808, formulated the following declara-
tion: “As regards Chiliasm . . . the Gen-
eral Council has neither had, nor would
consent to have, fellowship with any
Synod which tolerated the ‘Jewish opin-
ions’ or ‘Chiliastic opinions’ condemned
in the XVII Article of the Augshurg
Confession.” “As regards seceret socie-
ties . . . any and all societies for moral
and religious ends which do not rest on
the supreme authority of God’s Holy
Word, as contained in the Old and New
Testaments — which do not recognize
our Lord Jesus Christ as the true God
and the only Mediator between God and
man — which teach doctrines or have
usages or forms of worship condemned
in God’s Word and the Confessions of
His Church • — which assume to them-
selves what God has given to His Church
and its Ministers — which require un-
defined obligations to be assumed by
oath, are un-Christian.” “As regards
the communion with those not of our
Church we hold: That the principle of
discriminating as over against an indis-
criminate communion is to be firmly
maintained. Heretics and fundamental
errorists are to be excluded from the
Lord’s Table. The responsibility for an
unworthy approach to the Lord’s Table
does not rest alone upon him who makes
that approach, but also upon him who
invites it.” “As regards exchange of
pulpits ... no man should be admitted
to our pulpits, whether of Lutheran
name or any other, of whom there is
just reason to doubt whether he will
preach the pure truth of God’s Word as
taught in the Confessions of our Church.
— Lutheran ministers may properly
preach wherever there is an opening in
the pulpit of other churches, unless the
circumstances imply, or seem to imply,
a fellowship with error or schism, or a
restriction on the unreserved expression
of the whole counsel of God.” While
this declaration reveals a desire to oc-
cupy a truly Lutheran position, the real
grievance of the western synods was not
that there were members of the General
Council who were lagging behind in Lu :
theran doctrine and practise, but that
many of its prominent leaders and peri-
odicals occupied an un-Lutheran position
without being taken to task for it. As
a result of the failure of the General
Council to give a satisfactory declara-
tion in regard to the Four Points the
Ohio Synod refused to join, the Iowa
Synod withdrew after the first meeting,
Wisconsin left in 1868, Minnesota and
Illinois, in 1871, Michigan, in 1887,
Texas joined Iowa as a district in 1875.
Fox, George. See Friends , Society of.
Foxe, John, 1516 — 87. English mar-
tyrologist. B. in Lincolnshire; tutor;
compelled to flee on Mary’s accession to>
throne; upon her death prebend Salis-
bury; d. London. Acts and Monuments.
Fra Angelico (Fra Giovanni de Fie-
sole), 1387 — 1455, the painter of mysti-
cism over against the strong naturalism
of the Florentine school; finest speci-
mens of his art in the monastery San
Marco in Florence.
France (Gaul). France was among
the first of the European countries in
which Christian churches were founded.
At the beginning of the fourth century
the entire province of Gaul had not only
its Christian churches, but also regular
bishoprics. Among the Franks, King
Clovis, together with more than 3,000 of
his men, embraced Christianity after
the battle of Tolbiacum in 496. The
Franks, who had embraced the Catholic
faith, soon began to be regarded as the
chief Catholic nation of Europe, al-
though the establishment of the empire
of Charlemagne for a while made France
a part of the union of German nations.
However, after the division of the em-
pire in 843, France again became an in-
dependent state. As in Germany, so also
in France, the kings were obliged to de-
fend themselves against the impudent en-
croachments of the Papal See. Louis IX,
though so firmly, attached to the Church
as to be declared a saint after his death,
nevertheless confirmed the right of the
nation by the Pragmatic Sanction in
1269, the great palladium of the Gallican
Church. In opposition to Pope Boni-
face VIII, who declared that every one
was a heretic who refused to believe that
the king in temporal as well as in spir-
itual matters was subject to papal power,
the three estates of France convened in
a General Diet (1302) and succeeded in
maintaining the independence of the
France
264
France
French kingdom. In 1303 the king of
France succeeded even in having a Pope
elected who took up his residence at
Avignon, where for more than a century
(until 1408) the papacy remained a tool
in the hands of French kings. The Con-
cordat,, which Martin V proposed to
France, was rejected in 1418 by the
Parliament, which remained the stead-
fast defender of French liberty. France
took a prominent part in all the great
church movements of the Middle Ages,
notably in the crusades, and within the
French Church reformatory movements
were time and again inaugurated for the
purpose of restoring a purer form of
Christianity or of overthrowing the pa-
pacy. (Waldenses; Albigenses.)
Reformatory movements during the
16th and the following centuries were
violently suppressed by long-continued
and cruel persecutions. Nevertheless, in
many parts of France, especially in the
South, the Reformation obtained a firm
hold, and for many centuries the Hugue-
nots maintained their religious inde-
pendence. Henry IV, himself a Hugue-
not, on becoming king of France, changed
his faith and became Catholic for politi-
cal reasons. Under Louis XIV, the most
virulent as well as the most wicked of
French kings, the Romaii Church reached
the zenith of its power and splendor.
The French Revolution for a time seemed
to sweep away the entire Church of
France, the National Assembly, in 1790,
decreeing that all ecclesiastical officers,
under penalty of losing their office,
should take an oath for the civil con-
stitution of the clergy. Napoleon, on
the contrary, regarded the establishment
of the Roman Church as the religion of
the state as necessary, and accordingly,
in 1801, concluded a Concordat, by
which, however, the Galilean liberties
were preserved. In 1813 Napoleon, in
a new Concordat, extorted some impor-
tant concessions from the imprisoned
Pope, and when the Pope revoked all he
had done, Napoleon published a Concor-
dat as the law of the empire on the
very next day (March 25). The kings
of France who ascended the throne after
the overthrow of Napoleon, again recog-
nized the Roman Church as the religion
of the state, though they granted reli-
gious toleration to every form of public
worship. The revolution of 1830 re-
vealed the popular indignation against
the Church, and although Louis Philippe
made great concessions to the Church,
Romanism lost the prerogative of being
the religion of the state. The repeal of
the Concordat and the Separation Law
(December 11, 1905) radically changed
the situation of the Church. This law
coming into force on January 6, 1906,
secured to the state the right of nomi-
nating bishops, repealed all state and
municipal appropriations for public wor-
ship, abrogated all establishments of
worship, the use of churches for divine
service being permitted only by virtue
of annual notifications to the civil
authorities pending the time of their
use. The Church, however, has complete
freedom on the subject of its organiza-
tion, its hierarchy, discipline, and litur-
gical arrangement.
The history of French Protestantism
is a long record of conflicts with Roman-
ism and of persecution at the hands of
secular power controlled by it. In 1521
the University of Paris declared itself
against the Reformation. In the same
year, however, the first Protestant con-
gregation was formed at Meaux, the
bishop of the city, Briconnot, himself
becoming a convert of Le Fevre and
Farel, the most eminent of French
preachers. In 1555 the first avowed
French Reformed Church was estab-
lished in Paris, and the First Synod of
the First Protestant Church assembled
privately in Paris, May 25, 1559. The
Confession of Faith adopted at the First
Synod consisted of 40 articles, which
were strictly Calvinistic. In spite of
the cruel persecutions of the Calvinists,
the Church continued to increase, so that
Beza (who died in 1605) could count
2,150 churches in connection with the
Protestant Church of France, some of
which had 10,000 members. The cele-
brated edict of January (1562) granted
to the Huguenots provisionally the right
to assemble for religious worship out-
side of the towns. However, even against
this trifling concession a number of Par-
liaments, especially that of Paris, raised
the strongest remonstrance. The Duke
of Guise threatened to cut it with the
edge of his sword and commenced hos-
tilities the same night at Vassey, where
a number of Huguenots were massacred.
A bloody civil war followed, in which the
Huguenots suffered heavy losses and
which was ended by the peace of St. Ger-
maine (1570), in which the government
gave to the Huguenots four fortified
towns for the future. Upon this the
Huguenots gained new hopes, especially
since their chief defender, Henry of Na-
varre, was married to the king’s sister.
However, when all their chief men were
assembled at Paris to celebrate the nup-
tials, the queen mother treacherously
gave the sign for that bloody massacre
known in history as the Night of St. Bar-
tholomew, in which from 20,000 to
Franco
265
Franciscans
100,000 Protestants perished, among
them the great Coligny. The Hugue-
nots again rose in their despair, and
received new concessions in the Edict of
Poitiers (1577). However, the Holy
League, which had been organized by the
Duke of Guise and his brother, com-
pelled the king to revoke everything and
take a pledge not to rest till the last
heretic should be extirpated from France.
The assassination of the Duke of Guise
and his brother by order of the king,
led to the king’s own assassination, upon
which Henry of Navarre, who had been
the head of the Protestants, ascended the
throne; however, only after he had
joined the Roman Church (1593). By
the) Edict of Nantes (1598), which he
declared irrevocable, freedom of faith
and public worship, their rights as citi-
zens, and great privileges as an organ-
ized political corporation, were granted
to the Huguenots. After the assassina-
tion of this king (1610) the Protestants
were again forced by persecution to take
up arms in defense of their rights. Car-
dinal Richelieu disarmed them as a
political party, though securing to them
their former ecclesiastical privileges by
the Act of Amnesty at Nimes (1629).
About this time the number of the Hu-
guenots had been reduced to only about
half of what it was before the massacre
of St. Bartholomew, and Louis XIV re-
garded it as his special mission to break
the power of Protestantism in the state,
and after protracted persecutions re-
voked the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Dur-
ing this time between thirty to forty
thousand Protestants fled from France.
Nevertheless, two million of the Re-
formed remained with no congregations
except in the wilderness, and in 1744
they again had their first National
Synod. Louis XV on May 14, 1724, is-
sued the last great law against the Prot-
estants, which enforced the most severe
measures of Louis XIV. This attempt,
however, to coerce the Huguenots into
Catholicism only drove them farther
away from it, and the provincial synods
multiplied. Antoine Court opened a
school of theology at Lausanne, which
continued to supply the Protestant
Church with pastors till the time of
Napoleon. After 1760 the principles of
toleration began to prevail, and Louis XVI
in November, 1788, published an edict of
tolerance, which restored to the French
Protestants their religious liberty. At
present the Reformed French Church is
divided into three groups : the Eglise
Reformee Evangelique (orthodox), the
Union d’Eglises Rcformccs de France
(center) and the Eglises ReformSes Unies
(liberal). — In 1848 Frederick Monod and
others seceded from the state church
and in 1849 formed the Union des Eglises
Evanggliques, generally called the Free
Church. Lutheranism also found early
adherents in France, some of whom suf-
fered martyrdom for their faith; but
the influence of Calvin soon prevailed.
In 1648 Alsace and a number of other
districts and towns in which the Lu-
theran Church was established either ex-
clusively or partly, was ceded to France
by the Peace of Westphalia. Religious
liberty was guaranteed to the Lutherans
and again confirmed by the Peace of
Nymwegen in 1678. The congregations
of the conquered German districts grad-
ually coalesced into one Evangelical Lu-
theran Church of France. Since 1896
the Lutheran Church has maintained a
mission in Madagascar.
Francis, Benjamin, 1734 — 1799, stud-
ied at Bristol Baptist College; pastor
at Horsley in Gloucestershire for forty-
two years ; author of many poetical com-
positions, among which: “In Loud, Ex-
alted Strains the King of Glory Praise”;
“Jesus, and Shall It Ever Be.”
Francis, St. The founder of the
Franciscan order; b. at Assisi, Italy,
1182; d. there, 1226. After a thought-
less youth, Francis determined to devote
himself to a life of preaching in apostolic
poverty. Matt. 10, 9. 10. Barefoot, in a
coarse tunic, he preached repentance and
brotherly love to the common people in
the vernacular, though he made no effort
to wean them from their superstitions
and pagan practises. A band of disciples
and imitators gathered about him; their
methods received papal approbation.
Francis himself journeyed to Egypt and
tried to convert the sultan. On the foun-
dation which he had laid, the Franciscan
order was built, though largely at vari-
ance with his original plan, to conform
to the wishes of the hierarchy. Francis
was thoroughly humble, gentle, and sin-
cere, considered the most lovable figure
in the history of the papal church. (See
Stigmatisation . )
Franciscans (Fratres Minorca : Friars
Minor). This, the first of the mendicant
orders ( q. v . ) , was founded by Francis of
Assisi (see Francis , St.), in 1210. He
was the first to apply the obligation of
poverty not only to individual monks,
but also to the order as such; support
was to be gained by begging. The mem-
bers were to devote themselves to the
sick and the poor, to the preaching of
repentance, and to missions among the
heathen. The shaping of the order, even
during the lifetime of Francis, passed
Franck, JoUaiin
266
I'miirkrim Synod
into the hands of the Pope and was car-
ried out in the interests of the papacy.
Together with the Dominicans, the Fran-
ciscans became the “watchdogs” of Rome.
Their preaching addressed itself to the
emotions, while that of the Dominicans
appealed more to reason. Franciscan
missionaries penetrated Asia, Afriea,
and the Americas. Their intellectual
activity did not equal that of the Do-
minicans, but they produced the theolo-
gians Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura,
and Duns Scotus. They rivaled the
Jesuits in the Counter-Reformation. For
centuries the order was racked by dis-
putes concerning the obligation of pov-
erty; many of its members felt the arm
of the Inquisition; some perished at the
stake. In 1517, a split took place be-
tween the stricter faction (Obscrvantists,
Franciscans proper) and the moderate
faction (Conventuals, Minorites) . From
the former went out the Capuchins. The
female Franciscans are the Poor Clares.
At present there are about 20,000 Fran-
ciscans, approximately 1,600 in the
United States.
Franck, Johann, 1618 — 77, studied
at Koenigsberg, friend of Simon Dach
and Heinrich Held, lawyer in 1645, bur-
gomaster of Guben, his home town in
1661; both secular and religious poetry,
high rank as hymn-writer, firm faith,
deep earnestness, finished form, simplic-
ity of expression; wrote: “Herr Jesu,
Licht der Heiden”; “Schmuecke dich,
o liebe Seele”; “Jesu, meine Freude.”
Franck, Johann Wolfgang, 1641 to
1688, physician and opera-conductor at
Hamburg, where he produced fourteen
operas; wrote also church music, pub-
lished Oeistliche Melodien containing
much fine material.
Franck, Melchior, 1580 — 1639, after
residence at Nuernberg spent thirty-five
years of his life as Kapellmeister at Co-
burg; composer in stylo of Eccard;
wrote choral “Jerusalem, du hochgebaute
Stadt,” and many pieces for chorus.
Franck, Michael, 1609 — 67, studies
interrupted by father’s death, master-
baker at Schleusingen, then at Coburg;
some of his hymns crude, but popular;
wrote “Sei Gott getreu.”
Franck, Salomo, 1659 — 1725, secre-
tary of Schwarzburg ducal, administra-
tion, later of consistory at Jena, then
at Weimar; number of secular poems,
many hymns; wrote: “So ruhest du”;
“Ach Gott, verlass mich nicht”; “Ich
halte Gott in allem stille.”
Francke, A. G. G., b. January 21,
1821, in Meinersen, Hannover, gained
for service in America, ordained 1846,
twice pastor at Dover, Mo., pastor in
Buffalo, 1856 pastor in Addison, 111.,
d. January 3, 1879. Vice-President of
Western District of Missouri Synod,
president of the Board of the Addison
Seminary, president of the Addison
Orphan Asylum.
Francke, August Hermann, with
Spener the foremost representative of
Pietism, b. at Luebeck 1663, d. at Halle
1727; studied theology and ancient and
modern languages, especially Hebrew, at
Erfurt, Kiel, and Leipzig. Graduating
1685 at Leipzig, he lectured there for
two years on Biblical Interpretation and
with his friend Anton instituted the col-
legium, philobiblicum for closer, devo-
tional Bible-study. Spending some time
at Lueneburg as student and instructor,
at Hamburg as teacher, and with Spener
at Dresden, he returned 1689 to Leipzig,
where his lectures aroused great interest,
but also violent opposition as leading to
pietistic self-complacency. Called as
pastor to Hamburg in 1690, his sermons
awakened deep interest, but after fifteen
months his opponents brought about liis
banishment. Due to Sponer’s influence
he became pastor in Glaucha and profes-
sor at the University of Ilallc, 1692.
Here he developed a most strenuous and
successful activity as pastor, professor,
educator, and organizer of charitable in-
stitutions; his orphanage, founded 1695,
expanded into a cluster of educational
and charitable institutions, sustained
solely by faith. Under him Halle became
the center of the Danish East Indian
Mission; Ziegenbalg and Pluctscliau, the
first Lutheran missionaries in India,
were trained there. Francke also carried
on an enormous correspondence with in-
dividuals and societies throughout Ger-
many and other countries on religious
matters. His writings consist of herme-
neutical, practical, exegetica], and po-
lemical treatises ; he also composed a
small number of hymns. In him are ex-
hibited great personal piety and marvel-
ous zeal in philanthropical work; lie
appears in a less favorable light in his
controversies with orthodox Lutheran
theologians. (See Pietism.)
Franckean Synod, the, was organized
May 25, 1837, in Minden, N. Y., by a
number of men of the Western Confer-
ence of the Hartwick Synod (q.v.), for
whom the liberal position of that synod
was not extreme enough. The Franckean
Synod not only rejected the Augsburg
Confession, but failed to declare its be-
lief in some of the fundamental doctrines
of the Bible, e. g., the Trinity and the
Frank, Curl Adolf
267
Frederick August II, tlie Strong
Deity of Christ. It held aloof from all
other Lutheran synods until, in 18(14, it
was admitted to the General Synod.
This led to the disruption of the General
Synod and the founding of the General
Council. Rev. Morris Officer of the
Franckean Synod organized the Muhlen-
berg Mission in Africa in 1854. In
1908 the Franckean Synod, together with
the Ilartwick Synod and the N. Y. and
N. J. Synod merged into the New York
Synod of the General Synod. At the
time of this merger it numbered 22 pas-
tors, 31 congregations, and 2,329 com-
municants.
Frank, Carl Adolf. Clergyman and
editor; b. February 28, 1846, Wimpfon,
Germany; graduate of Concordia Semi-
nary, St. Louis, Mo., 1 808 ; pastor at Lan-
caster, O,, New Orleans, Zanesville, 0. ;
professor at Columbus, O., 1878 — 81;
editor of Lutheran Witness, 1881 — 85;
J). I)., Concordia Seminary; died as pas-
tor in Evansville, Ind., January 18, 1922.
Frank, Franz Hem. Reinhold von,
h. 1827, d. 1894; one of the most promi-
nent of the so-called positive Lutheran
theologians of modern times; educated
at Leipzig (Harless) ; 1857 professor at
Erlangen; from 1875 till his end succes-
sor of Tliomasius in the chair of system-
atic theology. He wrote 'l’heologie der
Ooncordienformel, System der christ-
lichen Gewissheit, System der christ-
lichen Wahrheit, System der christlichcn
Sittlichkeit. The basis of Frank’s the-
ology (principium cognoscendi) is not
Scripture, but the consciousness of the
regenerate man, the converted ego. (See
lirlangen School.)
Frank, John H. (1853 — 1915), busi-
ness man of Milwaukee, member Grace
Church; one of leading laymen of Wis-
consin Synod. Helped found Milwaukee
Lutheran High School, contributing lib-
erally of his time and money.
Franks, Conversion of. See Conver-
sion of Franks, Saxons, etc.
Fraternities, College (Greek letter
fraternities). Character. The “Greek
letter fraternities or societies” are stu-
dents’ secret societies, at universities,
colleges, and high schools, the Greek let-
ter designating different fraternities and
standing for Greek words or phrases
which express a moral sentiment; e.g..
Phi Beta Kappa • — Philosophia Biou
Kubernaetaes, — Philosophy the Guide
of Life. Sometimes, however, any har-
monious combination of letters is first
selected, and the motto is fixed to them
afterwards. All the Greek letter frater-
nities have rituals which are defined by
A.Preuss as “a hodgepodge of Christian
sentiments, hymns, and prayers, and
pagan myths.” From an “oath of Fidel-
ity” we quote the following: “President:
Since it is of your own free will and
accord, you will advance to the altar,
kneel on your left knee, your right hand
resting on the Holy Bible, the Insignia
of the Fraternity, your left hand over
your heart, in which due form you will
say — ‘I’ — - repeat your name and say
after me : ‘I, , of my own free will
and accord, in the presence of Almighty
God and these witnesses, do hereby and
hereon most solemnly and sincerely
promise and swear that I will never re-
veal any of the secrets of the Phi Delta
Fraternity, which have been heretofore,
may at this time, or shall at any future
period, be communicated to me as such.
. . . I furthermore promise and swear
that I will support and obey the con-
stitution of Phi Delta, and the by-laws
and edicts that may from time to time
be enacted by the Grand Council and the
Chapter of which I am a member. . . .
To all this I most solemnly and sincerely
swear on my honor as a man. on the love
(hat I bear for my brother, and on my
hopes of salvation, to keep and perform
tlie same without any equivocation, men-
tal reservation, secret evasion of mind
whatever, binding myself, should I ever
prove a traitor to my obligations, to no
less penalty than that of having my
name forever dishonored among men, my
friends turn from me in loathing, and
that I be an outcast in the world forever.
May I never again know what it is to
love or to be loved, so help me God, and
keep me steadfast in the due perform-
ance of the same.’ ” This “Oath of
Fidelity” is followed by readings from
the Bible, a long account of the “mythol-
ogy of the Fraternity” and an unctuous
prayer by the Chaplain. Membership.
A complete list of the Greek letter fra-
ternities with a detailed account of each
fraternity is found in Baird’s Manual of
American College Fraternities, 10th ed.,
by James T. Brown, New York, 1923.
There is an antisecret society called
Delta Vpsilon, existing at a number of
colleges, which grew out of a confedera-
tion of societies having their origin in
opposition to secret fraternities (for in-
formation see Baird’s Manual). Accord-
ing to the Christian Cynosure (Sept.,
1923, Vol. LXV, No. 5, p. 133) nineteen
States have legislated against the “frats”
in high schools.
Frederick August II, the Strong
(1670 — 1733), Elector of Saxony, abjured
Lutheran faith and joined the Roman
Catholic Church to secure the Polish
crown. His people, however, including
Predevick tlie Wise
•268
freemaHonry
the Electress herself, refused to follow
their ruler and exacted of him a con-
firmation of all their rights and privi-
leges, besides virtually depriving him of
all ecclesiastical authority, as exercised
by his Protestant ancestors.
Frederick the Wise, Elector of Sax-
ony since 1486, was a pious prince, who
had his daily mass even when hunting
and traveling. In 1493 he went to the
Holy Land as a plain pilgrim to get ab-
solution from guilt and penalty. At the
court church in Wittenberg he gathered
the greatest number of relics in Ger-
many, 19,013 in 1520. In 1502 he founded
the University of Wittenberg. He saw
the need of a reformation of the Church
in head and members. He would not
be a candidate for Germany’s imperial
crown, and his influence made young
Karl the Kaiser. He would do nothing
against God’s Word, and so did not inter-
fere with Luther’s work, though likely
without real knowledge of its true na-
ture; and he would not let Luther be
punished without a fair hearing, though
he risked his own electoral hat. Strange
to say, he and his most famous subject
never met. Just before his death he
took the Holy Communion in both kinds
(the first German prince to do so) ■ —
thus finally, but unmistakably, profess-
ing the Lutheran faith. He died in the
troublous times of the Peasant War in
1525.
Free Church of England. See Eng-
land.
Free Baptists. This body originated
in New Hampshire in 1780 under the
leadership of Benjamin Randall, who, in
1770, had become converted upon hearing
Whitefield at Portsmouth, N. H. Refus-
ing to preach the sterner Calvinistic
doctrines, and holding Arminian ten-
ets, he was declared unsound in doctrine
and disfellowshiped. In doctrine the
Free Baptists hold that, although man,
in his fallen state, cannot become a child
of God by natural goodness and works
of his own, redemption and regeneration
are freely provided for him, the call of
the Gospel being coextensive with the
atonement, to all men, so that salvation
is equally possible to all. In contradis-
tinction to strict Calvinism, they hold
that the truly regenerate are through in-
firmity and manifold temptations in dan-
ger of falling and must watch and pray
lest they make shipwreck of faith. They
regard immersion as the only proper
form of baptism, which should be ad-
ministered only to those who for them-
selves repent and believe in Christ. The
invitation to the Lord’s Supper, which is
the “privilege and duty of all who have
spiritual union with Christ,” is given to
all, participation in it being left to the
individual. The human will is declared
to be “free and self-determined, having
power to yield to gracious influences and
live or resist them and perish.” The
doctrine of election is defined not as an
“unconditional decree” fixing the future
state of man, but simply as God’s de-
termination” from the beginning to save
all who should comply with the condi-
tions of salvation.” In polity the Free
Baptists are congregational, each local
church being independent. In 1920 the
religious census reported 178 ministers,
171 churches, and 12,257 communicants
belonging to the Free Baptist Conven-
tion.
Freemasonry. History. The complete
name of this secret society is : The An-
cient : and Honorable Society of Free and
Accepted Masons, commonly known as
Ancient, Free, and Accepted Masons
{ A. F. & A. M.), or as Free and Accepted
.Masons (F. & A. M. ). The following
theories have been advanced to explain
its origin: 1. The theory which carries
it back through the medieval stone ma-
sons to the Ancient Mysteries, or to King
Solomon’s Temple. 2. That which traces
it to Noah, to Enoch, and to Adam.
3. The theory that Freemasonry had its
origin in the Roman Colleges of Artifi-
cers of the earlier centuries of the Chris-
tian era. 4. That it was brought into
Europe by the returning Crusaders.
5. That it was an emanation from the
Templars after the suppression of the
Order in 1312. 6. That it formed a vir-
tual continuation of the Rosicrucians.
7. That it grew out of the secret society
creations of the partisans of the Stuarts
in their efforts to regain the throne of
England. 8. That it was derived from
the Essenes. 9. That it was derived from
the Culdees. All the theories have been
exploded by scholars of note, many of
whom were themselves Freemasons. The
foremost writers on Freemasonry are:
R. F. Gould, W. J. Hughan, and Rev. A.
F. A. Woodford of England, D. Murray
Lyon of Scotland, Albert Pike, G. F.
Fort, Albert G. Mackey, Charles T.
McCIenachan, E. T. Carson, T. S. Parvin,
Josiah H. Drummond, and others in the
United States. All these writers agree
that, while the rites and symbols of
Freemasonry possess great antiquity,
speculative Freemasonry, as an organiza-
tion, is modern, perhaps not over three
hundred years old. Freemasonry, as it
existed in 1717, was the result of the
evolution of guilds of operative stone
masons. The professed desire, at this
Fre em nsitiivy
269
Freemasonry
time, was to found a brotherhood which
would build spiritual instead of material
temples, to become freemasons, as dis-
tinct from free masons, who were work-
men or ordinary laborers. In 1717 a
Grand Lodge was formed at London,
which had only a single ceremonial or
degree. In 1724 the three symbolic de-
grees, Entered Apprentice, Fellow-craft,
and Master Mason ha<jl made their ap-
pearance. The craft guilds had contrib-
uted the square and compasses; their
patron saint, John the Baptist; a refer-
ence to King Solomon’s Temple ; the
two famous pillars; the mystical num-
bers five, seven, and nine; words and
grips, and a long and honorable record
as builders of cathedrals and churches
under codes of laws for their govern-
ment, which oral and manuscript tradi-
tion carried back prior to the 10th cen-
tury, when, in 920, it was said that a
general assembly of Masons was held at
York, under the patronage of Edwin. It
is commonly affirmed that regular Ma-
sonic assemblies were periodically held
at York thereafter, but Gould asserts
that but one general assembly was held
at York prior to 1717, the prototype of
the Grand Lodge. Within ten years
after the formation of the Grand Lodge
of England at London, in 1717, Free-
masonry had spread throughout the
United Kingdom and the Continent of
Europe, to many of the British colonies,
and by 1730 to those in America. In
1724 the Grand Lodge of England granted
a charter for a subordinate Lodge at the
ancient city of York. For a number of
years there were many divisions and dis-
sensions among Freemasons, who were
divided into various parties, each claim-
ing priority. In 1813 negotiations for
peace resulted in a United Grand Lodge
of England, which since that time has
been undisturbed by schisms. It is to
be noted that the expression “York Rite
Masons’’ has no basis whatever. There
is no York Masonic Rite, sinee symbolic
Freemasonry, as it now exists, came from
the Grand Lodge of England, founded at
London in 1717. Nevertheless, the name
has continued.
In the United States, the systems of
Freemasonry as practised here are gen-
erally known as the York (English) Rite
and the Scottish Rite. Properly speak-
ing, the York Rite may be called the
American Rite, for this Rite is peculiar
in its organized proceedings to the United
States.
Organization. I. The American (York)
Rite. This Rite embraces the following
degrees: The Symbolic, the Capitular,
the Cryptic, and the Templar. It is prac-
tised only in the United States and in
Canada. A. The Symbolic degrees are
conferred in a Lodge and are: The En-
tered Apprentice, the Fellow-craft, and
tlie Master Mason. B. The Capitular de-
grees are conferred in a Royal Arch
Chapter and are: The Mark Master, the
Fast Master, the Most Excellent Master,
and the Royal Arch (conferred only upon
three persons at the same time ) . Be-
sides these there is the honorary degree
of “High Priesthood ” (originated in
Pennsylvania in 1825), which is con-
ferred in a “Council of Past High
Priests” upon such as have been elected
to preside over a Chapter of Royal Arch
Masons. As these degrees are conferred
in a Chapter, they are called Capitulcvr
degrees. C. The Cryptic degrees, which
are conferred in a Council, are : The
Royal Master, the Select Master, and the
Super-Excellent Master. They are con-
ferred in Councils of Royal and Select
/Rasters, which are united into Grand
Councils, and a General Council of the
United States of America. D. The Tem-
plar degrees, which are conferred in a
Commandery, are: The Red Cross (for-
merly “Babylonish Pass”), the Temple,
and the Malta degrees. Usually, Grand
Commanderies of Knights Templars do
not require the possession of the Cryptic
degrees by candidates for orders con-
ferred in commanderies.
II. The Scottish Rite. I. The Scottish
Rite, too, has a Symbolic Lodge, with the
three degrees : 1 . Entered Apprentice;
2. Fellow-craft ; and 3. Master Mason.
However, these three degrees, which are
called Symbolic or Blue Degrees, are not
conferred in England, Scotland, Ireland,
and the United States, “through respect
for the older authority in those countries
of the York and American Ri te.” (Mackey,
Encyclopedia of Freemasonry, p. 697.) The
Scottish rite, therefore, embraces practi-
cally the degrees from the 4th to the 33d
inclusive. The following classification
shows the arrangement of these degrees
of the Scottish Rite: II. Lodge of Perfec-
tion. 4. Secret Master; 5. Perfect Mas-
ter; 6. Intimate Secretary ; 7. Provost
and Judge; 8. Intendant of the Build-
ing; 9. Elected Knight of the Nine;
10. Illustrious Elect of the Fifteen;
11. Sublime Knight Elect of the Twelve;
12. Grand Master Architect; lS. Knight
of the Ninth Arch, or Royal Arch of
Solomon; 14. Grand Elect, Perfect and
Sublime Mason. III. Council of Princes
of Jerusalem. 15. Knight of the East;
16. Prince of Jerusalem. IV. Chapter of
Rose Croix. 17. ICnight of the East;
18. Prince of Jerusalem. V. Council of
Kadosh. 19. Grand Pontiff; 20. Grand
Freemasonry
270
PfeemasoMy
Master of Symbolic Lodges ; 21. Eoa-
chite, or Prussian Knight; 22. Knight
of the Royal Ax, or Prince of Libanus;
23. Chief of the Tabernacle ; 24. Prince
of the Tabernacle ; 25. Knight of the
Brazen Serpent; 26. Prince of Mercy;
27. Knight Commander of the Temple;
28. Knight of the Sun, or Prince Adept ;
29. Grand Scottish Knight of St. An-
drew; 30. Knight Kadosh. VI. Consis-
tory of Sublime Princes of the Royal
Secret. 31. Inspector Inquisitor Com-
mander; 32. Sublime Prince of the Royal
Secret. VII. Supreme Council. 33. Sov-
ereign Grand Inspector-General.
The Ancient and Accepted Scottish
Rite was “constructed” at Charleston,
S. C., in 1801, out of the 25 degrees of
the Rite of Perfection, which had been
introduced from France into the' West
Indies and America. Members of the
33d degree constitute the chiefs of the
Rite. Of these there are not many. In
1907 there were not more than a hundred
active 33d degree Masons.
The nominal “Grand East” (head-
quarters) of the Southern Jurisdiction
is at Charleston, S. C., its secretariat, in
Washington, D. C. (since 1870). The
“Grand East” of the Northern Council
is at Boston, Mass. ; the secretariat, in
New York City.
III. Non-Masonic Bodies, to whicli only
Freemasons are admitted, are: The
Modem Society of Rosicrucians ; the
Sovereign College of Allied Masonic and
Christian Degrees for America; the An-
cient Arabic Order of the Veiled Proph-
ets of the Enchanted Realm; the Inde-
pendent International Order of Owls;
and the “side degree" known as Tall
Cedars of Lebanon. There are also two
“spurious,” or irregular, Masonic bodies,
namely, 1, the Cerneau and Seymour
Cerneau “Scottish Rite” bodies, and
2. the “Scottish Rite Masons” (Colored).
Character and Purpose. That Free-
masonry is a “religious cult” diametric-
ally opposed to Christianity is clear from
the writings of such noted Masonic
authors as Albert G. Mackey and Albert
Pike. Freemasonry has its own altars,
temples, priesthood, worship, ritual, cere-
monies, festivals, consecrations, anoint-
ings; its own creed, its own morality,
its own theory of the human soul and
the relations of that soul to God. Free-
masonry attempts to displace Chris-
tianity, and rates its “religious” tenets
and morality higher than that of Chris-
tianity. Its religion is naturalism; its
“God,” the symbol of nature — “Nature
self-originated, the cause of its own ex-
istence.” Its “Bible” is not the Chris-
tian Book of divine Revelation (which
is held to he an imperfect form of the
Jewish Kabbala), but merely one of the
many religious books, such as tile Koran,
the Vedas, the Zendavesta, the Book of
Mormon, etc. The morality of Masonry
is a pagan work-righteousness and proud
Pharisaism. Its benevolence is devoid of
the charity of Christ. Its history shows
that it is a renaissance of pagan mysti-
cism, the religious application of the
principles of tht> humanists and deists
who strove to carry the world back to
heathenism. The following quotations
are taken from the Encyclopedia of Al-
bert G. Mackey, M. I)., Past General
Grand High Priest and Secretary-Gen-
eral of the Supreme Council 33d for the
Southern Jurisdiction of the United
States, published by Moss & Co., 432
Chestnut St., Philadelphia, 1870. 1. Is
Freemasonry the Christian Religion?
Ans. “Freemasonry is not Christianity,
nor a substitute for it. . . . The religion
of Masonry is not sectarian. It admits
men of every creed within its hospitable
bosom. It is not Judaism, thougli there
is nothing in it to offend the Jew; it is
not Christianity, but there is nothing in
it repugnant to the faith of a Christian.”
(Encyclopedia, p. 162.) 2. What is the
religion of Freemasonry? Ans. “Its re-
ligion is that genera] one of nature.”
(Encyclopedia, p. 641.) “Freemasonry is
a religious institution, and lienee its
regulations inculcate the use of prayer
as a proper tribute of gratitude to the
beneficent Author of Life." ( Encycl .,
p. 594.) “If Masonry were simply a
Christian institution, the Jew and the
Moslem, the Brahman and the Buddhist,
could not conscientiously partake of its
illumination. But its universality is its
boast. At its altar men of all religions
may kneel; to its creed disciples of
every faith may subscribe.” (Encycl.,
p. 162.) 3. How does Freemasonry use
the Bible? Ans. “The Bible is used
among Masons as the symbol of the will
of God, however it may be expressed.
And, therefore, whatever to any people
expresses that will may be used as a sub-
stitute for the Bible in a Masonic Lodge.
Thus in a Lodge consisting entirely of
Jews, the Old Testament alone may be
placed upon the altar, and Turkish Ma-
sons make use of the Koran. Whether it
be the Gospels to the Christian, the Pen-
tateuch to the Israelite, the Koran to the
Mussulman, or the Vedas to the Brah-
man, it everywhere masonically conveys
the same idea - — that of the symbolism
of the Divine Will revealed to man.”
(Encycl., p. 114.) 4. What is the Creed
of Freemasonry? Ans. “This creed con-
sists of two articles : First, a belief in
Free Protestants
271
Free Will
God, the Creator of all things, who is
therefore recognized ns the Grand Archi-
tect of the Universe; and secondly, a be-
lief in the eternal life, to which this
present life is bnt a preparatory and pro-
bationary state. . . ( Encycl ., p. 102.)
5. What is the object of Freemasonry?
Ans. “It is neither charity nor almsgiv-
ing, nor the cultivation of the social sen-
timent; for both of these arc merely in-
cidental to its organization; but it is
the search after truth, and that truth
is the unity of God and the immortality
of the soul.” (Encycl., p. 217.) “The
real object of Freemasonry ... is the
search for truth, . . . that which is prop-
erly expressed to a knowledge of God.”
( Encycl., p. 834. ) 6. Docs Freemasonry
teach salvation by, works ? Ans. “It in-
culcates the practise of virtue, but it
supplies no scheme of redemption for sin.
It points its disciples to the path of
righteousness, but it does not claim to
be ‘the way, the truth, and the life.’ ”
(Encycl., p. 641.) “It is the object of
the speculative Mason, by a uniform
tenor of virtuous conduct, to receive,
when his allotted course of life is passed,
the inappreciable reward, from his Celes-
tial Grand Master, of ‘Well done, thou
good and faithful servant.’ ” ( Lexicon,
pp. 450. 451.) From these quotations it
is clear: 1. That Freemasonry is a reli-
gious cult, teaching “universal religion,”
or “pagan naturalism.” 2. That it denies
the Holy Trinity, the vicarious atone-
ment of Christ, and the way to salvation
by grace through faith in the divine-
human Redeemer. 3. That it substitutes
for the Gospel plan of redemption the
pagan doctrine of salvation by work-
righteousness. Cf. 2 Cor. 6, 14- — 18. Mem-
bership. About 2,850,910 in the United
States and its possessions.
Free Protestants. (Rationalistic Prot-
estants, Freie Protestant en). Under this
name are grouped several churches which
are in close connection with the Evan-
gelical Protestant Church of North
America, and which may be regarded as
the successors of the Pro test ant env erein
which was organized by Rluntschli,
Schwarz, Rothe, and Sclienkel in Ger-
many in 1863. They reject all specifi-
cally Christian doctrines and are in
agreement with the Unitarian faith.
Freethinker, in general, one who, in
questions of religion, recognizes no other
authority than his own reason. In Eng-
land, term was applied to the Deists of
the 18th century, who still maintained a
belief in a superior being, while the
French freethinkers (Rousseau, Voltaire,
Encyclopedists [g. i;.], et al.) closely ap-
proached atheism. German freethought
led to organization of Freie Oemeinden.
See Lichtfrcunde.
Free Will. The Scriptural doctrine
concerning the freedom of the human
will stands in close connection with the
doctrine concerning original sin, and it
is from the viewpoint of original sin that
the doctrine of the freedom of the human
will after the Fall must be studied. While
the Scripture emphatically declares that
man, also after the Fall, continues to
be a responsible moral agent, who in
earthly matters, to some extent, may
exercise freedom of will, it, nevertheless,
asserts that “natural man recciveth not
the things of the Spirit of God, neither
can he know them,” 1 Cor. 2, 14; that
man, by nature, “is dead in trespasses
and sins,” Eph. 2, 1; that “the carnal
mind is enmity against God,” Rom. 8, 7 ;
and that “no man can say that Jesus is
the Lord but by the Holy Ghost,” 1 Cor.
12, 3. Accordingly, the Scriptures deny
to man, since the Fall and before his
conversion, freedom of will in spiritual
matters, and assert that his regenera-
tion and conversion is accomplished en-
tirely through the Holy Ghost by the
Gospel. “God hath saved us, not accord-
ing to our works, but according to Ilis
own purpose and grace,” 2 Tim. 1, 9;
“Turn Thou me, and I shall be turned,”
Jer. 31, 18. In accord with these words
St. Augustine declares : “By the sin of
Adam, in whom all men together sinned,
sin and all the other positive punish-
ments of Adam’s sin came into the world.
By it, human nature has been both
physically and morally corrupted. Every
man brings into the world with him a
nature already so corrupt that he can
do nothing but sin.” As regards free
will, he says: “By Adam’s transgression
the freedom of the human will has been
entirely lost. In his present corrupt
state, man can will and do only evil.”
This view of St. Augustine is in accord
with the Scriptures, which declare that
“it is God which worketli in you both to
will and to do of His good pleasure,”
Phil. 2, 13, and has been substantially
adopted by the Lutheran Church, which,
however, at the same time, rejects the
postulates of fatalism. Cp. Formula of
Concord, Art. II. Opposed to the Scrip-
tural doctrine, Pelagianism has held that
by his transgression Adam injured only
himself, not his posterity; that in re-
spect to his moral nature every man is
born in precisely the same condition in
which Adam was created; that there is,
therefore, no original sin; that man’s
will is free, every man having the power
to will and to do good as well as the op-
posite ; hence it depends upon himself
Free Will Baptists
272
French Bevolntien, The
whether he be good or evil. This extreme
view of Polagianism was modified by the
Semi-Pelagianists and later on by the
Arminians, who denied the total corrup-
tion and depravity of the human nature
by the Fall, and admitted a partial cor-
ruption only. Thus their chief confes-
sion says: “They, the Remonstrants
[Arminians] do not regard original sin
as sin properly so called, nor as an evil
which, as a penalty in the strict sense
of that word, passes over from Adam
upon his posterity, but as an evil, in-
firmity, or vice, or whatever name it may
be designated by, which is propagated
from Adam, deprived of original right-
eousness, to his posterity.” The Belgic
Confession (Art. XV), which states the
strictly Reformed doctrine, says: Origi-
nal sin is that corruption of the whole
nature and that hereditary vice, by
which even infants themselves in their
mothers’ wombs are polluted, which, as
a rule, produces every kind of sin in
man and is therefore so base and exe-
crable in the sight of God that it suffices
to the condemnation of the human race.”
The Romanistic view is Semi-Pelagian-
istic. Cf. Bellarmin (De Gratia Primi
Horn.) : They [the Catholics] teach that
through the sin of Adam the whole man
was truly deteriorated, but that he has
not lost free will nor any other of the
dona naturalia, but only the dona super-
naturalia. Opposed to Pelagianism,
Semi-Pelagianism, and synergism, the
Lutheran Confessions have always em-
phasized the total depravity of the hu-
man nature by the Fall and man’s utter
lack of freedom in spiritual matters
since the fall.
Free Will Baptists (white). This
body was organized in North Carolina
under the leadership of Elder Paul
Palmer, who as early as 1727 had organ-
ized a church in that State. In 1752 the
congregations served by him and his
helpers were formed into an organiza-
tion, called “the yearly meeting,” having
16 churches, 10 ministers, and 1,000 com-
municants. At first they had no distinc-
tive name, but afterwards they were
known as “Free Will Baptists” and later,
as “Original Free Will Baptists,” which
name they dropped since 1890, calling
themselves “Free Will Baptists.” They
accept the five points of Arminianism as
opposed to the five points of Calvinism,
and in a confession of faith, containing
eighteen articles, declare that Christ
“freely gave Himself a ransom for all,
tasting death for every man”; that
“God wants all to come to repentance”;
and that “all men, at one time or an-
other, are found in such capacity as
that, through the grace of God, they
may be eternally saved.” They consider
believers’ baptism the only true prin-
ciple and immersion the only correct
form; no distinction is made in the in-
vitation to the Lord’s Supper, as they
uniformly practise open communion.
They also believe in foot-washing, anoint-
ing the sick with oil, restricting the
ministerial office to men, and having
ruling elders for the settlement of church
difficulties. In polity the Free Will Bap-
tists are distinctly congregational, quar-
terly conferences for business purposes
being held, in which all members may
participate. The quarterly conferences
are united in state bodies, variously
called conferences or associations, and
there is an annual conference represent-
ing the entire denomination. In 1921
they had 876 ministers, 762 churches,
and 54,996 communicants.
Freie Gemeinden. See Lichtfreunde.
French Equatorial Africa, a vast
tract of land on the equator in Western
Africa, belonging to France, to which the
former German Cameroons were added
after the World War, area 982,049 sq.
mi., population 2,845,936, exclusive of
the Cameroons, which have an area of
166,489 sq. mi., and a population of
1.500.000. Missions: General Council of
Cooperating Missions, Oerebro Missions-
foerening, Soci4t6 des Missions Evan-
gfiliques de Paris, Svenska Missionsfoer-
bundet. Statistics: Foreign staff, 104.
Christian community, 5,823; communi-
cants, 2,863. Cameroons: Foreign staff,
110. Christian community, 134,334; com-
municants, 47,205.
French Guiana. See South America.
French Indo-China, a dependency of
France in Southeastern Asia, consisting
of Cochin China, area, estimated, 22,000
sq. mi., population 3,795,613; Annam,
area*30,758 sq. mi., population 5,731,189;
Cambodia, area 57,900 sq. mi., population
2.000. 000; Tonkin, area 40,530 sq. mi.,
population 6,470,250; Laos, area 96,500
sq. mi., population 800,000; Kwangchow,
area 190 sq. mi., population 168,000.
Total area, 256,878 sq. mi. Total popu-
lation, 19,747,431. Missions: Christian
and Missionary Alliance, Christian Mis-
sions in Many Lands. Statistics: For-
eign staff, 33. Christian community, 432.
French Revolution, The, Religious
Aspect of. ■ — The great upheaval known
as the French Revolution was a revolt
of the French people against the feudal
order of society and government with its
crying iniquities and invidious discrimi-
nations, a protest of the commoners
against tyranny and class privilege. It
French Revolution, The
273
Frick, Win. K.
was not, as is so often said, the direct
result of the skeptical philosophy of the
liberal French writers of the 18th cen-
tury (Diderot, D’Alembert, Montesquieu,
Voltaire, Rousseau), though their writ-
ings were a powerful factor in molding
public opinion and in stirring the pas-
sions. The Church being an integral
part of the existing order, it was, of
course, drawn into the whirlpool, even to
the extent of suffering temporary anni-
hilation when the anticlerical frenzy
reached its height. We proceed to give
the main outline of events, so far as the
revolution affected the Church. The na-
tional or constituent assembly (1789 to
1791), to save the nation from bank-
ruptcy, confiscated the church property
(estimated at over a billion francs) and
suppressed the religious orders. To safe-
guard the sovereignty of the state it
decreed the “Civil Constitution of the
Clergy,” that is, it reduced all ministers
of religion to servants of the state,
salaried out of the public funds and
chosen by popular election. The decree
set aside all ecclesiastical dioceses and
provinces, reduced the number of bishops
by one half, and expressly forbade all
French citizens to recognize the author-
ity of any bishop or metropolitan out-
side of the kingdom. It also declared
liberty of conscience as man’s inalienable
right. Those drastic measures, repudiat-
ing all ecclesiastical (including papal)
authority, rudely shocked the conscience
of many Frenchmen and stirred the
wrath of the Pope and many bishops
against the revolution. The legislative
assembly (1791 — 92), instead of adopt-
ing a conciliatory policy, exacted of all
the clergy an oath of allegiance to the
constitution; the Pope forbade it — both
on pain of permanent suspension. The
Gallican Church was rent into two war-
ring factions. The nonjuring priests
and bishops were persecuted or driven
into exile. But the climax was reached
during the “Reign of Terror” (1793—94),
when bald atheism celebrated a momen-
tary triumph in the “total abolition of
Christianity” and the establishment of
the worship of Reason. About 2,000
churches were destroyed, images were
torn down, and the “Holy Guillotine”
took the place of the cross. A few
months later Robespierre, believing that
the state could not be built on atheism,
stood forth as the champion of deism
and by an eloquent address before the
convention secured the adoption of the
decree that the French people believe in
the existence of God and the immortality
of the soul. When Napoleon seized the
.helm of state, he concluded a Concordat
with Rome (1801), which, while appar-
ently making the Church dependent on
the State, played directly into the hands
of papal authority over the French
clergy.
French West Africa, a vast tract of
land in Central Africa, bordering on the
Atlantic Ocean, belonging to France,
whose area is about 1,800,500 sq. mi.,
and whose population is approximately
12,283,9G2, mostly Mohammedans. It
comprises Senegal, area 74,112 sq. mi.,
population 1,225,523; Guinea, area
95,218 sq. mi., population 1,875,990;
Ivory Coast, area 121,976 sq. mi., popu-
lation 1,545,680; Dahomey, area 42,460
sq. mi., population 842,243 ; French Sou-
dan, area 617,000 sq. mi., population
2,474,589; Upper Volta, area 154,400
sq. mi., population 2,974,142; Maurita-
nia, area 345,400 sq. mi., population
261,740; Territory of Niger, area
349,400 sq. mi., population 1,084,043,
About 20,200 sq. mi. of the former Ger-
man Togoland after the War were at-
tached to French Dahomey. Missions:
SociStS des Missions Evang41iqucs de
Paris, Gospel Missionary Union, West
Indian African Mission, Wesleyan Mis-
sionary Society. Foreign staff, 37.
Christian community, 147,627, communi-
cants, 60,944.
Fresco. See Al Fresco.
Fresenius, Joh. Fhil. h. 1705, d. 1761 ;
pietistic devotional writer and preacher
(his Sermons on ihe Epistles still in
use) ; held various pastorates, 1743 in
Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1748 senior mini-
sterii; wrote against the Moravians;
took deep interest in the founding of the
Lutheran Church in America.
Freund, Kornelius, 1530 — 1591, pre-
centor in Borna near Leipzig, later in
Zwickau; form of hymns rough, but
contents full of depth; wrote: “Freut
euch, ihr Mensclienkinder all’.”
Freylinghausen, Johann Anasta-
sius, 1670 — 1739; director of the
Francke institutions in Halle, which
under him attained their highest de-
velopment; hymnological exponent of
Halle pietism; edited Geistreiches Ge-
sangbuch; wrote also a number of
hymns.
Freystein, Johann Burkhard, 1671
to 1718, studied law at Leipzig and Jena,
practised principally at Dresden; influ-
enced by Spener; wrote: “Mache dieh,
mein Geist, bereit.”
Frick, Wm. K., 1850 — 1918, promi-
nent in promoting General Council’s
English work in the Northwest, entered
ministry 1873, professor at Gustavus
18
Friedrich, Johannes
274
Fritscli, Ahasveru*
Adolphus College 1.883 — 89, pastor of
Redeemer, Milwaukee, 1889 — 1918, pres-
ident of the Synod of the Northwest
1894 — 1901, author of a life of Muhlen-
berg.
Friedrich, Johannes (1830 — ), for a
time, leader of the Old Catholics, priest,
professor of theology at Munich, finally
separated from the Old Catholics be-
cause he opposed the abolition of cler-
ical celibacy. See Old Catholics.
Friendly Islands. See Tonga
Islands.
Friends, Society of, commonly called
Quakers, a religious body founded by
George Fox (1024 — 91) in the middle of
the 17tli century in England. Fox, who
was a shoemaker by trade, was im-
pressed by the lack of spirituality of
both clergy and laity of his time and be-
lieved himself called to inaugurate a
revival of primitive Christianity and to
preach the doctrine of the “inner light,”
or the “Christ within.” He began his
ministry in 1047 and soon found fol-
lowers who first called themselves
“Children of Truth,” or “Children of
Light,” and finally adopted the name
“Religious Society of Friends.” Their
number grew rapidly, including many of
the higher classes, ministers of the
Established Church, army officers, jus-
tices. The most noted converts were
William Penn and Robert Barclay, 1648
to 1690 (qq.v.). During the first de-
cades the Friends suffered much perse-
cution, due not only to their holding
public meetings, while other non-con-
formists met in secret, but also to
their virulent polemics against existing
churches and interruption of their ser-
vices, refusal to take oaths, to pay
tithes, and to take off their hats in court.
In 1656 Quakerism was introduced into
the New England States, but everywhere
it met with persecution, especially by
the Puritans in Massachusetts, who
hanged a number of Quakers in Boston.
Persecuted in England and New Eng-
land, William Penn created an asylum
for them in the colony of Pennsylvania,
which he founded in 1682. Here they
prospered and became known for their
kind treatment of Indians and their
efforts in behalf of the abolition of
slavery. With regard to their religious
beliefs, Quakers deny that they are anti-
Trinitarians. However, they reject such
expressions as “person,” “Trinity,” etc.,
and use unbiblieal modes of expression.
Penn had a great admiration for Soci-
nus (q.v.), and though modern Quakers
have expressed themselves more clearly,
they still regard the writings of Penn
and Barclay as authoritative. Other
characteristic teachings are mainly the
result of their doctrine of the “inner
light.” The outward redemption of
Christ is not sufficient; there must also
be present an inner redemption, which
is imparted by the “inner light.” Justi-
fication is not imputative, but is an in-
ner change, followed by good works,
which are necessary for salvation. Clod
gives His Spirit without the means of
His Word, and it is possible to be saved
without having knowledge of the historic
Christ. All those are members of tins
Church who are illuminated by the “in-
ner light” and are obedient to it, be they
Christians, Turks, Jews, or heathen.
Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, being
“outward rites,” are rejected. The ser-
vices are completely noil-liturgical. With
covered heads they sit in their bare as-
sembly-rooms in silence, until some one,
man or woman, is prompted to speak.
If the Spirit prompts no one, the meet-
ing ends in silence. Clod did not insli-
tute a, special ministry. Any one, man
or woman, may teach, if called by the
“inner light.” Lately, however, minis-
ters have been employed, though they
are not ordained and most of them do
not receive any salary. Their code of
morals forbids holding public office, tak-
ing oaths, participating in war, and
taking human life. Their organization
is simple, including monthly meetings of
the societies, which send representatives
to .quarterly meetings, which, in turn,
are represented at yearly meetings.
Twelve of the yearly meetings of the
Orthodox Quakers united lo form a,
“Five-years Meeting,” Quakerism ex-
perienced a number of schisms, such as
that of Keith (1692) and of Hicks
(1827 — 8). The 1910 census reported
92,379 Orthodox, 17,171 Hicksite, 3,373
Wilburite, and 60 Primitive Quakers in
the United States. Indiana is the
Quaker stronghold. England, Scotland,
and Ireland have about 21,000; Canada,
1,200. There are also scattered socie-
ties and missions numbering more than
7,000 members in many other Old and
New World countries.
Frincke (Fricke), C. H. F. ; b. July
13, 1824, at Bundheim, Brunswick; at-
tended the teachers’ seminary at that
place; prepared for the ministry bv
Wyneken and Sihler; the first home
missionary of the Missouri Synod, “with-
out salary”; ordained 1847; pastor at
White Creek, Ind„ Indianapolis, Balti-
more; d. June 5, 1905.
Fritsch, Ahasverus, 1629 — 1701, ju-
rist in high positions at Rudolstadt,
Fritschel, tico. J.
275
Fry, C. L.
filially chancellor; full of enthusiasm
for hymnology ; wrote: “ 1 )er am Kreu/,
ist nieine Liehe”; “Hoechster Koenig,
Jesu Christ”; also arranged tunes.
Fritschel, Geo. J., son of Gottfried;
I). 1807; studied in America and Eu-
rope; was ordained 1892 as pastor at
Galveston; induced Texas Synod to join
Iowa Synod; professor at Warthurg
Seminary since 1900; wrote: <1 esvhichtc
der lutherisolicn Kirche in Amerika
(1890), Schrifllehre von <lcr Gnaden-
walU, Zur Einigung der htlherischen
Kirche, etc.
Fritschel, Gottfried, prominent and
scholarly theologian of the Iowa Synod;
h. December 19, 1890, at Nuremberg;
studied under Loehe and J. T. Mueller,
and at Erlangen, followed his brother
Siegmund to America in 1857; became
a lender in the Iowa Synod; professor
of exegesis and dogmatics in Warthurg
Seminary (St. Sehald, Iowa, and Mcn-
dota, 111.) ; was a prolific writer, a
strong controversialist, and a regular
contributor to the loica-Kirchenblatt ,
Brobsls Monatshcftc, and Kirchliche
Zeitschrift ; wrote : Passionsbet raclitun-
(/ra, Indian Mission in the 17th Cen-
tury, etc.; d. at Meiulota, July 13, 1889.
Fritschel, Max, leading theologian
of the Iowa Synod; b. 18(18; son of
Siegmund 1*'. ; educated at Thiel College,
Warthurg Seminary, Rostock, Leipzig,
and Erlangen; professor in Warthurg
Seminary at Dubuque since 1891 and its
president since 1900.
Fritschel, Siegmund, brother of
Gottfried F.; b. December 3, 1833, at
Nuremberg; d. at Dulmque, Iowa, 1900;
studied under Loehe and was sent by
him to America in 1853; took part in
the organization of the Iowa Synod and
assisted Grossmann in the work at the
seminary; for a while had charge of a
church in Wisconsin and also served the
Buffalo Synod church at Detroit; re-
turned to the seminary 1858 and labored
side by side with his brother for more
than thirty years, occupying the chair
of practical theology. Dr. Krauth gives
him much credit for his beneficial influ-
ence on the development of the General
Council. He was a contributor to
Brobsts Monatshefte and Kirchliche Zeit-
schrift.
Fritz, J. H. C. See Roster at end of
book.
Froebel, Friedrich; b. at Oberweiss-
baeh 1782; d. 1852; founder of the kin-
dergarten and exponent of a philosophy
of education which has exerted a wide
influence on other educational institu-
tions. According to Froebel, education
is not primarily active, inasmuch as by
external influences it molds the char-
acter of the child, as the potter molds
his clay, but rather passive, in this, that
it permits, stimulates, leads, and directs
self-activity and self-expression of the
child's inner nature. The first duty of
the teacher is to nurse the “divine na-
ture” in the child, then to correct aber-
rations and to provide suitable means
for self-activity. Education is the
proper development of what is in the
child. While there is much truth in
this, it is contrary to Scripture to as-
sume that man is originally good and
that depravity is tint an acquired habit,
(thief work. The education of Man. In
1837 Froebel opened a school for little
children at Blankenburg, the first kin-
dergarten. The central idea of the kin-
dergarten is to learn while playing, to
make use of the self-activity of children,
as manifested in their plays, for their
education, and to provide suitable edu-
cative means for such self-activity. The
kindergarten lias made great progress
since Froebel’s days, also in our country,
Froehlich, Bartholomaeus. Details
of life not known. Pastor at Perleberg
in Brandenburg, 1580 — 90. His hymn,
"Gin Wuermlein bin ieh, arm nrnl klein,”
appeared 1587 in Schlecker's Christian
Psalms.
Frohnmeier, L. J. ; b. December 12,
1850, at Ludwigsburg, Wuerttcmberg,
Germany; d. March l(i, 1921, at Basel;
missionary to Malabar Coast, India,
1870; recalled to he inspector of Basel
Mission, 1900.
Frommel, Emil; b. 1828; d. 1890;
assistant of Aloys Ilenhoefer; 1809,
military chaplain at Berlin; 1871. court
preacher; very popular preacher and
writer; positive in theology.
Frommel, Max, brother of the
former; b. 1830; d. 1890 at Celle;
through Harless a decided Lutheran;
for a time in Breslau Synod; then gen-
eral superintendent at Celle; also popu-
lar preacher and writer like his brother.
Frothingham, Nathaniel Langdon,
1793 — 1870; educated at Harvard; min-
ister in the Unitarian Church at Boston
for thirty-five years; published Metrical
Pieces; among his hymns : “0 Lord of
Life and Truth and Grace.”
Fry, C. L., lender in Lutheran
Brotherhood; b. 1858; a son of Jacob
Fry (see below) ; educated in Phil-
adelphia Seminary; held pastorates
at Lancaster, Philadelphia, Catasauqua,
Pa.; superintendent of Church Exten-
sion work in the General Council, 1915
to 1918.
Pify, Kllxabctli
I^andamentuliaiil
276
Fry, Elizabeth, nee Gurney; li. 1780;
d. 1845; a “female Howard” (q.v.); be-
gan to visit prisons in 1813. As a result
societies for prison reform were organ-
ized in Great Britain and most countries
of Western Europe. Her reading of the
Scriptures in Newgate Prison is the sub-
ject of a famous picture.
Fry, Jacob; b. 1834; professor of
homiletics and pastoral theology in the
Philadelphia Seminary; b. at Trappe,
Pa.; educated at Union College, Sche-
nectady; licensed 1854; pastor at Car-
lisle and Reading, Pa.; professor in
Philadelphia, 1891 — 1918; author of
Elementary Homiletics and Pastor’s
Guide.
Fuehrich, Joseph, 1800 — 7fi; Ger-
man painter of the idealist school; fol-
lows ancient style, thoughtful and ex-
pressive; fine composition work; among
his paintings: “The Incarnation”; “The
Prodigal Son.”
Fuerbringer, L., D. D. See Roster at
end of book.
Fuerbringer, Ottomar; b. June 30,
1810, in Gera, Thuringia; studied the-
ology at Leipzig, 1828 — -30, together
with Walther, Brolim, Buenger, and
others of the circle led by Candidate
Kuehn in their Biblical studies and de-
votional exercises. Prom 1831 to 1838
he was instructor in an institute for
boys at Eichenberg, conducted by Pastor
G. H. Loeber. He came to America as
one of the Saxon pilgrims under the
leadership of Martin Stephan, in 1839.
Together with Brolim and Buenger he
founded Concordia College in Perry Co.,
Mo., in which he was the first instructor
in the classic languages and in history.
In 1840 he became pastor in Venedy, 111.
He assisted in drawing up the constitu-
tion of the Missouri Synod, was present
at the first meeting of the Synod, 1847 ;
became a voting member at the second
meeting, 1848. He became pastor of the
congregations in Freistadt and Kircli-
hayn, Wis., 1851, and was thereby forced
to take an active part in the controversy
with Grabau; his articles appeared in
Der Lutheraner. When the Missouri
Synod was divided into Districts in
1854, he became president of the North-
ern District and retained this office un-
til 1872. In 1858 he was called as
pastor of St. Lawrence’s Church in Fran-
kenmuth, Mich. At the beginning of the
Civil War he called together all the un-
married men in his parish and per-
suaded them voluntarily to fill the quota
of men demanded from their county in
order that the fathers of families might
be exempted from military services. He
was again prevailed upon to act as
president of the Northern District, 1874
to 1882. D. July 12, 1892. Pastoral
wisdom combined with Lutheran sound-
ness characterized his pastoral work ;
his deep learning and simple, popular
style rendered him an effective preacher
and catechist; his contributions to
Lutheraner and Lehre und Wehre and
his presidential addresses proved him to
be, as Dr. Graebner says, “the profound-
est thinker among the fathers of the
Missouri Synod.”
Fugger, Kaspar, name of father and
son, Lutheran clergymen, the elder dying
at Dresden in 1592, the younger in 1017 ;
the song: “Wir Cliristenleut’ liab’n jetz-
und Freud” apparently by the father.
Fugue. A musical composition in
strict polyphonic style, in which, as the
name indicates (from fuga, meaning
flight), the theme introduced by one part
or voice is repeated and imitated by the
others in a more or less regular succes-
sion, Bach being the great master in this
style.
Funcke, Friedrich, 1C42 — 99; cantor
at Perleberg, later at Lueueburg; pastor
at Roemstedt; both hymn-writer and
musician; wrote: “/ouch uns nach dir,
so laufen wir.”
Funcke, Otto, 1836- — 1907; pastor at
Bremen, writer of devotional literature,
some of his books being translated also
into English.
Fundamentalism. A term which
originated during the second decade of
the twentieth century as an appellation
of the evangelical party in the Reformed
Churches of the United States as op-
posed to the rationalistic party, the so-
called Modernists (New Theology men).
The ground was laid for this movement
by the publication, in 1900, of twelve
small volumes of essays entitled The Fun-
damentals, which issued from the Moody
Bible Institute press of Chicago, two
laymen, who preferred to remain anony-
mous, defraying the expense of printing
and dissemination. Fundamentals ac-
cording to Lutheran doctrine are those
doctrines which are essential to the
faith unto salvation, particularly the
doctrines of the deity of Christ, the
atonement made through His blood, jus-
tification by faith, without the deeds of
the Law, the resurrection of all the dead,
the Judgment, and heaven and hell. In
other words, they are the doctrines
which constitute the essence of Chris-
tianity, and denial of which excludes
from the covenant of divine grace. In
this sense the term is used by the Fun-
damentalists generally, although their
Gabriel
277
GalllcaulMui
eschatology is in the main chiliastie in
its interpretation of Judgment and the
resurrection. Fundamentalism lacks the
emphasis of Lutheranism on the means
of grace, due to the fact that its doc-
trine of sanctification has not been able
to free itself of its Reformed (Zwing-
lian-Calvinistic) leaven and because of
its Reformed rejection of Baptism and
the Eucharist as a means of grace. The
Fundamentalist controversy raged par-
ticularly in the Presbyterian Church, in
which a layman, William Jennings
Bryan (d. July 20, 1925), was the
leader, hut also in the Methodist and
Baptist communions.
G
Gabriel (lit., champion of God). Used
as the proper name to designate the
heavenly messenger who was sent to
Daniel to interpret the vision of the ram
and the he-goat, Dan. 7, and to commu-
nicate the prophecy of the seventy weeks,
Dan. 9. In the opening pages of the New
Testament he is employed to announce
the birth of John the Baptist to Zacha-
rias and that of the Savior to the Virgin
Mary. Luke 1, 11. 26. Gabriel is ordi-
narily spoken of as one of the arch-
angels, his superior dignity being de-
duced both from the august nature of
his messages and from the phrase “that
stand in the presence of God.” Luke
1, 19. If it is permitted to generalize
upon the incidents recorded in Scrip-
ture, Gabriel’s special ministration is
one of comfort and sympathy, as Mi-
chael’s is that of contention against evil.
See Angels, Michael.
Galesburg Buie, a name given to a
ruling of the General Council in regard
to pulpit- and altar-fellowship at Gales-
burg, 111., 1875. The declaration in re-
gard to pulpit- and altar -fellowship,
adopted by the General Council in 1868
(see Four Points), was explained in
1870 in answer to a question of the Min-
nesota Synod: “In employing the term
‘fundamental errorists,’ in the declara-
tions made at Pittsburgh, it understands
not those who are the victims of invol-
untary mistakes, but those who wilfully,
wickedly, and persistently desert, in
whole or in part, the Christian faith,
especially as embodied in the Confessions
of the Church Catholic, in the purest
form in which it now exists on earth,
to wit, the Evangelical Lutheran Church,
and thus overturn or destroy the founda-
tion in them confessed.” The Iowa
Synod, asking a further explanation of
this declaration, was given the answer
by Dr. Krauth: “I. The rule is: Lu-
theran pulpits for Lutheran ministers
only ; Lutheran altars for Lutheran com-
municants only. II. The exceptions to
the rule belong to the sphere of privilege,
not of right. III. The determination of
the exceptions is to be made in conso-
nance with these principles by the con-
scientious judgment of pastors as the
cases arise.” (Akron Rule.) At Gales-
burg, in 1875, the General Council de-
clared: “The rule, which accords with
the Word of God and with the Confessions
of our Church, is : ‘Lutheran pulpits for
Lutheran ministers only; Lutheran al-
tars for Lutheran communicants only.’ ”
However, this declaration is open to the
interpretation that in certain cases Lu-
theran pulpits are open to non-Lutheran
preachers and Lutheran altars to non-
Lutheran communicants, as was virtu-
ally admitted by the General Council in
answer to an appeal of the New York
Ministerium against violations of the
Galesburg Rule. The question whether
the addition to the Akron Rule (1872)
made at Galesburg (1875), viz., “which
accords with the Word of God and the
Confessions of our Church,” did not
practically annul Points II and III, re-
garding the exceptions, was answered by
the Council at Pittsburgh (1889) to the
effect that “inasmuch as the General
Council has never annulled, rescinded, or
reconsidered the declarations made at
Akron in 1872, they still remain, in all
their parts and provisions, the action
and rule of the Council.”
Galleries ( Gemaeldegalerien ) for Be-
ligious Art. Although none of the
great galleries of Europe may be said
to be devoted entirely to religious art
and some frankly favor secular art,
there are a few collections in which the
religious element predominates very de-
cidedly, as in those of the Vatican at
Rome, that of the Uffizi and that of the
Pitti Palace, in Florence, that of the
Royal Gallery of Dresden, that of the
Royal Gallery of Madrid, that of the Na-
tional Gallery in London, and those of
smaller collections at Rome (Borghese),
Naples, Munich, Brussels, Venice, Ant-
werp, and Milan.
Gallicanism. The term applied to
the polity of the Catholic Church of
France until the rival theory of Ultra-
inontanism gained the ascendancy. Gal-
licanism includes two primary principles :
Gambia
278
Ganae, Ilervey Doddridge
1. Tlie secular government is supreme in
its own sphere. 2. The papal jurisdic-
tion, even within the sphere of religion,
is subordinate to the collective episco-
pate. These principles were generally
maintained against papal absolutism
from the thirteenth century to the days
of Napoleon Bonaparte. The foundation
of these “Gallican Liberties,” as they
are called, was laid by Louis IX (1226
to 1270) in the famous “Pragmatic Sanc-
tion,” which overruled the arrogant pre-
tensions of Clement IV by prohibiting all
papal interference in the matter of eccle-
siastical elections and all papal exac-
tions and assessments without the king’s
consent. Wider in scope was the second
“Pragmatic Sanction,” issued, and incor-
porated with the laws of the kingdom,
by Charles VII in 1438. It embodied
twenty-three reformatory decrees of the
Council of Basel directed against the ex-
tortionary and other arbitrary proceed-
ings of the papacy. In particular, it
declared the supremacy of the national
Church as against the papal ideal of
universal rule. But the fullest expres-
sion of Gallicanism grew out of the
quarrel between Louis XIV and Inno-
cent X, the details of which must be
sought elsewhere. Suffice it to say that
the French clergy supported the king
and issued the four famous propositions
of Gallican liberty: 1. The authority of
the Pope is limited to spiritual matters.
2. The authority of a council is above
that of the Pope. 3. The authority of
the Pope is restricted by the laws, insti-
tutions, and usages of the French Church.
4. The doctrinal pronouncements of the
Pope are final and authoritative only
with the concurrence of the whole
Church. As already stated, Gallicanism
prevailed until Napoleon concluded his
famous Concordat with Pius VII (1802),
which afforded the papacy a welcome op-
portunity of fastening its hold on the
French clergy. By the proclamation of
papal infallibility in 1870 Gallicanism
has definitively received its quietus.
Gambia. British colony and protect-
orate in West Africa. Missions: Wes-
leyan Methodist Mission Society. Chris-
tian community, 1,589; communicants,
711.
Gambling (and Lotteries). Taking
part in games of chance or hazard for
money, the expectation being of a large
return on the smallest possible stake —
an obvious transgression of the Seventh
Commandment. In the strictest sense
of the word gambling refers to gaming
in its worst form, implying professional
play for a money stake by men who are
unscrupulous adepts at so-called games
of chance. Gambling is a vice which has
been common among most savage and
barbarian, as well as among civilized na-
tions. The ancient Germans were so ad-
dicted to it that they indulged it regard-
less of the cost to themselves. In the
Scandinavian countries, in England, and
along the Mediterranean Sea the passion
for gambling was just as pronounced.
1 u Borne, particularly during the days of
the empire, the practise was common,
and various enactments were made
against it. Legislation against the evil
has, in Christian countries, become ever
stricter, especially during the last four
centuries, the statutes of Henry VIII,
of Queen Anne, and of Queen Victoria
being so stringent as finally to include
all betting-houses. In the United States
statutes have been passed in practically
nil of the States, forbidding gambling
for money at certain games, a number of
jurisdictions including also betting in
the category of gambling. In spite of
this, however, gambling is almost uni-
versally practised in most of our great
cities, and with but ft partial veil of
secrecy thrown over the haunts where it
is carried on.
In connection with gambling, lotteries
ought to be considered, that is, schemes
for the distribution of prizes by chance.
Lotteries, like every other species of
gambling, have a pernicious inlluence on
the character of those concerned in them.
As this kind of gambling can be carried
on secretly and the temptations arc
thrown in the way of both sexes, all
ages, and all classes of persons, it spreads
widely in a community, and thus silently
infects the sober, economical, and indus-
trious habits of a people. The lotteries
of countries and states, formerly more
prevalent than now, have had a perni-
cious influence on the people of a state
or community, all argument as to their
possible benefit having been found to be
specious. The same applies to church
lotteries in every form. In their case
the considerations of faith being active
in love must be added to the arguments
of policy otherwise urged.
Gambold, John, 1711 — 71; educated
at Oxford; vicar at a small post in Ox-
fordshire; later joined Moravians and
became one of their bishops ; wrote :
“Thee We Adore, Eternal God.”
Gangra, Council of. (Against Celi-
bacy.) This synod held at Gangra, in
l’aphlagonia (360), vindicated the sa-
credness of marriage and opposed cler-
ical celibacy.
Ganse, Hervey Doddridge, 1822 to
1891; studied at Columbia College and
New Brunswick Seminary; pastor in
Gttr<liner, Allen
279
General Baptists
Reformed Dutch and in Presbyterian
Church; recast the hymn “Nearer, My
God, to Thee.”
Gardiner, Allen; h. in England 1794;
d. in Patagonia, 1851 ; pursued mission-
ary work in South Africa, later in South
America; founded the Patagonian Mis-
sionary Society in 1844 and unsuccess-
fully attempted missions in Tierra del
Fuego, perishing of hunger on its coast
in 1850. The South American Mission-
ary Society was immediately formed and
is carrying on the work with much
success.
Gates, Mary Cornelia, ncc Bishop,
married to Merrill E. Gates in 1873; two
hymns attributed to her arc in general
use, one of which is: “Send Thou,
0 Lord, to Ev’ry riace.”
Gausewitz, Carl F. W., sou of pio-
neer Wisconsin Synod Pastor C. Gause-
witz; b. at Reedsville, Wis., August 29,
1801 ; graduated at Northwestern Col-
lege and Milwaukee Seminary; pastor
at East Farmington, 1882 — 5; at St.
John’s, St. Paul, until 1906; since then
at Grace Church, Milwaukee. While at
St. Paul, he was active in bringing about
formation of the Ev. Luth. Synod of Wis-
consin and Other States, of which he was
president a number of terms. President
of Minnesota Synod 1894 — 1906. Presi-
dent of Synodical Conference since 1912.
Chairman of Board of Trustees of Joint
Synod and member of many commissions
and boards. Author of official catechism,
German and English, of Wisconsin
Synod, which later was adopted by Joint
Synod.
Gautama Buddha. See Ootama.
Gebhardt, Eduard von, 1838 — 1925;
one of the most prominent modern Ger-
man realists, but without the unsympa-
thetic Oriental coloring, rather in the
manner of Duorer; his Christ a clear-
cut, Germanic type; among his most
noted paintings: seven mural paintings
in Loecum, the Crucifixion, the Lord’s
Supper, the Ascension, in all of which he
emphasizes unusual, unconventional mo-
ments.
Gedicke, Lambertus, 1683 — 1735;
studied theology at Halle under Francke;
army chaplain; later garrison preacher
at Berlin; wrote: “Wie Gott mich
fuehrt, so will ich gehn.”
Geier, Martin; b. 1614; d. 1680 at
Freiberg as court preacher in Dresden;
author of commentaries on Psalms, Prov-
erbs, Canticles, and Daniel ; also of
postils.
Geiler, Johannes von Kaisersberg,
German pulpit orator, 1455 — 1510; chief
work done as preacher in the cathedral
of Strassburg, his sermons being marked
by great eloquence and earnestness.
Gellert, Christian Fuerchtegott,
1715 — 69; studied theology at Leipzig;
held positions as tutor and lecturer;
delicate from childhood, suffering from
hypochondria; wrote, among others:
“Gott ist mein”; “Gott, deine Guete
reicht so weit.”
Gemara. See Talmud.
General Assembly. The highest
court of the Presbyterian churches,
which meets annually on the third Thurs-
day in May. It is composed of equal
delegations of commissioners, both min-
isters and ruling ciders, from each pres-
bytery. Its officers are a moderator and
stated permanent clerks. The General
Assembly decides all controversies re-
specting doctrine and discipline, organ-
izes new synods, appoints the various
boards and commissions, and receives
and issues all appeals. Its decision is
final, except in all cases affecting the
constitution of the Church.
General Baptists. The General, or
Arminian, Baptists trace their origin to
the early part of the 17th century, their
first church being founded in Holland,
in 1607 or 1610, and in England, in
1611. In 1714 the Arminian Baptists in
England sent to Virginia Robert Nordin,
who organized a church at Burleigh, Va.
The Calvinistic Baptists were joined by
most of the adherents of the General
Baptists. A General Baptist Church was
organized in Indiana, in 1823, by Benoni
Stinson; and in 1824, there was organ-
ized the Liberty Association, with four
churches. In spite of several movements
to unite with other Baptist bodies, the
General Baptists have remained a sepa-
rate body, which, in 1915, formed a co-
operative union with the Northern Bap-
tist Convention. The distinctive feature
of their confession, which, with the’ ex-
ception of two slight changes, is iden-
tical with the articles of faith as formu-
lated by Benoni Stinson in 1823, is the
doctrine of a general atonement (whence
the name, “General Bapitsts” ) , to wit,
that Christ died for all men, not merely
for the elect, and that any failure of
salvation rests purely with the individ-
ual ; that man is “fallen and depraved”
and cannot extricate liimself from this
state by any ability possessed by nature;
that, except in the case of infants and
idiots, regeneration is necessary for sal-
vation and is secured only through re-
pentance and faith in Christ; that,
while the Christian who endures in faith
to the end shall be saved, it is possible
General Connell
280
General Connell
for a Christian to fall from grace and
be lost; that rewards and punishments
are eternal; that the bodies of the just
and the unjust will be raised, the former
to the resurrection of life, the latter to
the resurrection of damnation; that the
only proper mode of baptism is immer-
sion, and the only proper subjects are be-
lievers ; and that the Lord’s Supper
should be free to all believers. Some of
the churches practise foot-washing. In
polity the General Baptists are in accord
with other Baptist bodies. Foreign mis-
sion work is carried on in the Island of
Guam, where, in 1916, they had two sta-
tions. Their theological seminary is the
Oakland City College in Indiana, and
their publishing house is at Owensville,
Ind., where their church organ, the Mes-
senger, is published. In 1921 the denom-
ination had 500 ministers, 480 churches,
and 30,000 communicants.
General Council of the Lutheran
Church in Worth America, The. This
body owed its existence to the disruption
within the General Synod in 1866. In
the face of the rising tide of confes-
sionalism within the Lutheran Church of
America, which was principally due to
the testimony borne by Walther and
others, the General Synod had received
into membership the Melanchthon Synod,
which stood committed to the “Definite
Platform” (g.v.), in 1859, and the un-
Lutheran Franckean Synod, at York, in
1864. The delegates of the Pennsylvania
Ministerium protested against the admis-
sion of the Franckean Synod and with-
drew from the sessions of the General
Synod. Immediately after the York con-
vention the Ministerium founded the
Philadelphia Seminary in opposition to
the liberal Seminary at Gettysburg. At
the Fort Wayne convention, in 1866, the
General Synod refused to seat the Penn-
sylvania delegates, whereupon this body
severed its connection with the General
Synod and a few weeks later issued a
call, written by Dr. Charles Porterfield
Krauth, “to all synods which confess the
Unaltered Augsburg Confession, for the
purpose of organizing a new general
body upon distinctively Lutheran prin'-
ciples.” In response to this call a con-
vention was held at Reading, Pa., Decem-
ber 12 — 14, 1866, at which delegates
from the following thirteen synods were
present: Pennsylvania Ministerium, New
York Ministerium, Pittsburgh, Minne-
sota, English Ohio (former members of
the General Synod), Joint Ohio, Eng-
lish District Synod of Ohio, Wisconsin,
Michigan, Iowa (German), Canada, Nor-
wegian, and Missouri. At this conven-
tion Krauth’s Fundamental Principles
of Faith and Church Polity were unani-
mously adopted and referred to the
various synods for ratification. At the
organization meeting at Fort Wayne, in
November, 1867, it was found that the
following synods had adopted the con-
fessional basis of the Reading conven-
tion: Pennsylvania, New York, Pitts-
burgh, English Ohio, Wisconsin, Eng-
lish District of Ohio, Michigan, Swedish
Augustana, Minnesota, Canada, Illinois,
Iowa (German). Ohio and Iowa desired
a declaration on the part of the conven-
tion regarding the “Four Points” ( q . v.) :
Chiliasm, Altar-fellowship, Pulpit-fellow-
ship, Secret Societies. The answer being
unsatisfactory, these two synods refused
to unite fully with the new body. For
the same reason Wisconsin, Minnesota,
and Illinois withdrew at subsequent con-
ventions and helped to organize the
Synodical Conference in 1872. Michigan
also left the Council in 1887, and the
greater part of the Texas Synod, ad-
mitted in 1868, joined Iowa in 1895 as
a district. The English Synod of Ohio
disbanded in 1871. The following synods
afterwards united with the Council: In-
diana (II), later called the Chicago
Synod (1872), Holston (1874; left
1884), English Synod of the Northwest
(1893), Manitoba (1897), Pacific (1901),
New York and New England (1903),
Nova Scotia (1903), Central Canada
(1909). The leading men in the Council
were Chas. Porterfield Krauth (presi-
dent, 1870 — 9), Wm. J. Mann, W. A.
Passavant, B. M. Schmucker, G. F. Kro-
tel (president, 1869; 1889 — 91), J. A.
Seiss (president, 1888), A. Spaeth (presi-
dent, 1880—7), R. F. Weidner, G. II.
Gerberding, J. A. W. Haas, H. E. Jacobs,
C. A. Swensson (president, 1893), and
T. E. Schmauck (president, 1907 — 18).
The doctrinal basis of the General Coun-
cil was “the Unaltered Augsburg Confes-
sion, in its original sense, as throughout
in conformity with the pure truth, of
which God’s Word is the only rule.”
The other confessions “are, with the
Unaltered Augsburg Confession, in the
perfect harmony of one and the same
Scriptural faith.” Over against the con-
gregations the General Council was a
legislative body and considered conform-
ity to its decision a moral obligation.
In spite of its strictly Lutheran confes-
sional basis, however, the General Coun-
cil was imbued with a spirit of subtile
unionism. It never issued an entirely
satisfactory declaration in regard to the
much-discussed “Four Points.” Accord-
ing to the Akron-Galesburg Rule ( q. v . ) ,
non-Lutherans were under certain cir-
cumstances to be admitted to the Lord’s
General Slx-Prlnelx»le Baptists 281
General Synod
Supper, and there were exceptions to the '
rule: “Lutheran pulpits for Lutheran
ministers.” Its declaration against chil-
iasm leaves room for the finer kind, and,
while its pronouncement on secret so-
cieties is in conformity with Lutheran
principles, its practise has been sadly out
of tune with its principles. The teach-
ings of some of the leaders of the Gen-
eral Council on ordination, the ministe-
rial office, conversion, predestination, the
inspiration of the Scriptures, evolution,
etc., were not always In harmony with
the Bible and the Lutheran Confessions;
and yet the General Council did not take
such men to task. ■ — The home mission
work of the General Council was carried
on chiefly in the Northwest and in Can-
ada, the institution at Kropp, Germany,
furnishing most of the German pastors.
The General Council conducted a mission
among the Telugus in India and, jointly
with the United Synod in the South, also
in Japan. The Augustana Synod also
had its independent mission in China. —
The General Council maintained the fol-
lowing institutions : Seminaries : Phila-
delphia (Mount Airy, 1864), Maywood,
111. (formerly in Chicago, 1891), Augus-
tana (Rock Island, 111., 1860), Water-
loo, Ont. (1911); classical institutions:
Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pa.
(1867), Wagner Memorial College, Staten
Island, N. Y. (formerly in Rochester,
1883), Thiel College, Greenville, Pa.
(Pittsburgh Synod, 1870), and the col-
leges of the Augustana Synod ( q. v.) .
Within the General Council there were
18 orphans’ homes and many other char-
itable institutions, maintained either by
district synods or private associations.
Many of these owe their existence to the
labors of Dr. W. A. Passavant. The Gen-
eral Council also conducted an immi-
grant and seamen’s mission and took the
lead in deaconess work for many years.
John D. Lankenau established the Mary
J. Drexel Home in Philadelphia, in 1888.
— On October 24, 1917, the General
Council approved of the plan to merge
with the General Synod and the United
Synod in the South in the United Lu-
theran Church in America. In Novem-
ber, 1918, this Merger was consummated
in New York. The Swedish Augustana
Synod, however, refused to enter the
Merger and has stood alone since that
time. At the time of the Merger the
General Council numbered 13 synods,
1,059 pastors, 1,406 congregations, and
340,588 confirmed members. See also
United Lutheran Church.
General Six -Principle Baptists.
This lpody, organized in 1652, is a sur-
vival of the General (Arminian) Bap-
tists, who prevailed in Rhode Island
and Connecticut in the early Colonial
days. These churches insist upon the
six principles mentioned in Heb. 6, 1. 2
as the proper qualifications for church-
fellowship, viz., repentance, faith, bap-
tism, laying on of hands, resurrection
of the dead, and eternal Judgment. In
doctrine they are in sympathy with the
Arminian rather than with the Calvin-
istic Baptists. In 1921 the Convention
counted 7 ministers, 8 churches, and 445
communicants.
General Synod of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church in the United
States of America, The, was organ-
ized at Hagerstown, Md., October 22,
1820. It was the first federation of Lu-
theran synods in America. The synods
participating in the organization of the
general body were the Pennsylvania
Ministerium (founded 1748), the New
York Ministerium (1786), the North
Carolina Synod (1803), and the Synod
of Maryland and Virginia (1820). The
idea of a general body was broached in
1811 by G. Shober and A. G. Stork of the
North Carolina Synod and took definite
shape in the Planeniwurf adopted in
1819 in Baltimore by the mother synod
and representatives of other synods.
The Tennessee Synod objected to the
organization on doctrinal grounds, and
the Ohio Synod also refused to join in
the movement. Nine pastors and four
lay delegates attended the organization
meeting. The New York Ministerium
withdrew after the first meeting because
of lack of interest. In 1823 the Penn-
sylvania Ministerium severed its con-
nection with the General Synod because
of a proposed merger of the latter with
the Reformed Church and because some
of its congregations feared infringement
on their liberties. It was due chiefly to
the exertions of S. S. Schmucker, for
more than forty years a leading spirit
in the General Synod, that that body
survived its critical initial years. When
the Pennsylvania Ministerium withdrew,
a new synod was formed west of the
Susquehanna River, the Synod of West
Pennsylvania, which joined the General
Synod in 1825. The Hartwick Synod
(founded 1830) joined in 1831, the South
Carolina Synod (founded 1824) entered
in 1835, the New York Ministerium
came back in 1837, the Synod of Vir-
ginia, which branched off from the
Maryland Synod in 1829, was admitted
in 1839. Other synods joined in the fol-
lowing order: Synod of the West in
1840 (was divided into Synod of the
Southwest, the Illinois Synod, and the
Synod of the West in 1846), East Ohio
General Synod
282
General Synod
Synod in 1841, East Pennsylvania in
1842, Alleghany and Southwestern Vir-
ginia in 184.'), Miami in 1845, Illinois
and Wittenberg in 1848, Olive Branch in
1850, Pittsburgh, Texas, Northern Illi-
nois, and Pennsylvania Ministerium in
1853, Kentucky and Central Pennsyl-
vania in 1855, Northern Indiana, Iowa
(English), and Southern Illinois in
1857, the Melanclithon Synod in 1859,
and the Franckean Synod and the Min-
nesota Synod in 1804. In 1803, owing
to the Civil War, the Southern synods,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Vir-
ginia, and Southwestern Virginia, with-
drew, and, with the Georgia Synod, or-
ganized the General Synod in the Con-
federate States. The admission of the
Melanclithon Synod, which stood com-
mitted to the “Definite Platform” (q.v.),
caused the withdrawal of the Scandi-
navians in 1860, and the reception of
the un-Lutheran Franckean Synod in
1864 brought about the disruption of the
General Synod in Fort Wayne, in 1866.
The Pennsylvania Ministerium, the New
York Ministerium, the synods of Illinois,
Minnesota, Texas, and the English
Synod of Ohio, together with the greater
part of the Pittsburgh Synod, withdrew
and organized the General Council. The
Susquehanna Synod joined the General
Synod in 1867, Kansas in 1809, Wart-
burg in 1877, German Nebraska and the
Rocky Mountain Synod in 1891, Cali-
fornia in 1892, and the New York Synod
iii 1908. — From its beginning the Gen-
eral Synod was a unionistic body. Nei-
ther the Confessions of the Lutheran
Church were mentioned in its constitu-
tion nor even the Bible; and that the
omission was intentional is evident from
the fact that the General Synod main-
tained its silence in regard to its con-
fession' in spite of the vigorous protests
of the Tennessee Synod and its refusal
to join the general body on that account.
Yet even the name Lutheran was not
without some value. It kept many Lu-
therans from joining the sects, gave the
Lutheran Church a standing among the
sects and also in Europe, and diminished
the danger of a merger with the lie-
formed churches in Pennsylvania and in
the South. In opposition to the ration-
alism found in the New York Minis-
terium of that time it confessed “Jesus
Christ as the Son of God and the
Ground of our faith and hope,” thus act-
ing as a elieck on the inroads of So-
cinianism. On the other hand, the plat-
form of the General Synod was so
broadly “evangelical” that the essentials
of Lutheranism were lost sight of. Fra-
ternizing with, and yielding to, the sects
•was looked upon as a matter of Chris-
tian duty. The Augsburg Confession
was indeed recognized as a confession of
the Lutheran Church, but a distinction
was made between fundamental and
non-fundamental doctrines, without de-
fining what was meant by the terms.
Sclimueker, the theological leader of the
General Synod for thirty-eight years, re-
peatedly declared : The Augsburg Con-
fession was not to be followed uncon-
ditionally, its binding force was limited
expressly to the fundamentals. The con-
fessional deliverances of the General
Synod until 1864 may be summarized
as follows: The fundamental doctrines
of the Bible, i. e., the doctrines in which
all evangelical (non-Socinian) Christians
agree, are taught in a manner substan-
tially correct in the doctrinal articles
(1 — XNI) of the Augsburg Confession.
The doctrines concerning baptismal re-
generation, the real presence of the body
and blood of Christ in the Lord's Sup-
per, for instance, were considered obso-
lete. The Reformed view of the "Sab-
bath” was generally adopted. This
emasculated Lutheranism was misnamed
“American Lutheranism.” Those who
defended the Confessions were decried as
“Henkclites” and “Symbolists.” In 1855
S. S. Sclimueker prepared the “Definite
Platform” (q.v.), intended to be a sub-
stitute for the Augsburg Confession, and
Benjamin Kurtz sponsored it most cor-
dially in the Lutheran Observer. The
confessional reaction, however, which
had set in some ten years before, pre-
vented the general adoption of this
makeshift and even induced the General
Synod to make the Augsburg Confession
its doctrinal basis in 1804 (York Reso-
lution). In course of time the official
doctrinal basis of the General Synod
conformed more and more to that of the
Lutheran Church. In 1895, at Hagers-
town, the General Synod defined “the Un-
altered Augsburg Confession as through-
out in perfect consistence” with the
Word of God. In 1901, at Des Moines,
the distinction between fundamental and
so-called non-fundamental doctrines in
the Augsburg Confession was dropped.
In 1909, at Richmond, Va., the objection
to “the secondary symbols of the Book
of Concord” was withdrawn, and in
1913, at Atchison, Kans., all the Sym-
bols of the Lutheran Church were at
least formally and officially adopted.
Still there remained a wide gap between
the formal adoption and the actual rec-
ognition of the Confessions, and teach-
ings contrary to the Confessions, as
enunciated by leading men in the Gen-
eral Synod, were tolerated without
Gcoigrattliy
283
Gerhard, Joliann
official censure; nor was un-Lutheran
practise censured officially; neither did
the General Synod ever take any action
on the lodge-question. Freemasons, not
only among the laity, but also among
the clergy, occupied positions of trust
and honor in the General Synod. The
leading men of the General Synod were
S. S. Schmucker, J. G. Morris, Benj.
Kurtz, Sam Sprecher, J. A. Brown, J. G.
Butler, C. Phil. Krauth, Wm. Reynolds,
F. W. Conrad, L. A. Gotwald, E. J. Wolf,
M. Valentine, J. W. Richard, D. H. Baus-
lin, G. U. Wenner, J. A. Singmaster, —
Besides Home Mission work, carried on
chiefly through the district synods, the
General Synod conducted a mission at
Guntur, India (begun by the Pennsyl-
vania Ministerium in .1842), and an-
other in Liberia, Africa (begun by the
Franckean Synod), — Its educational in-
stitutions were: Seminaries: Ilartwick
(1815), Gettysburg (1820), Ilamma Di-
vinity School at Springfield, 0. (1845),
Susquehanna University at Selinsgrove,
Pa. (1858), Western at Atchison, Kan*.
(1803), Martin Luther Seminary at Lin-
coln, Nebr. (1913); .classical schools:
Gettysburg (formerly Pennsylvania) Col-
lege, Wittenberg at Springfield, 0., Hart-
wick in New York, Carthage College at
Carthage, 111., Midland at Atchison,
Kans., and Watts Memorial College,
India. Some of these institutions were
the property of district synods. Of in-
ner mission institutions the General
Synod had orphanages at Loysville, Pa.,
Nacliusa, 111., Springfield, O., and Lin-
coln, Nebr. ; a home for the aged in
Washington, D. C., and a deaconess in-
stitution in Baltimore. — In 1918 the
General Synod entered the merger of
various Lutheran bodies, which had its
origin in the movement for a joint cele-
bration of the Reformation Quadriecn-
tennial in 1917. At a meeting of the
committee appointed to arrange a pro-
gram for the celebration the laymen of
the committee presented a plan, April
18, 1917, for a merger of the General
Synod, the General Council, and tiie
United Synod ill the South. The Gen-
eral Synod approved of this plan in Chi-
cago, June 20, 1917. The merger was
consummated in New York, in November,
1918. At the time of this merger tiie
General Synod consisted of 24 district
synods, 1,438 pastors, 1,846 congrega-
tions, and 364,072 confirmed members.
See also United Lutheran Church.
Geography. See Biblical Geography ;
Geography, Ecclesiastical.
Geography, Biblical. See Biblical
Geography.
Geography, Ecclesiastical. That
part of theological science, related to
Church or Ecclesiastical History, which
deals of places, districts, and countries
of importance in tiie work of tiie Church,
such as the chief cities of dioceses and
patriarchates.
George, Margrave of Brandenburg,
“tiie Confessor”; b. 1484; helped his
brother .Albrecht Lulheranize Prussia;
favored the Reformation in Silesia and
in Ansbach; protested at Speyer in
1529; rather than give up the Gospel,
he would have his head chopped off, to
which Carl replied, “Not head off, dear
Prince, not head oil!” — at Augsburg, in
1530; d. December 17, 1543.
George, St. Probably a Christian
martyr of tiie third century; perhaps
a victim of Diocletian’s persecution. He
is patron saint of England, tiie Order of
tiie Garter, and many military orders.
The czar’s coat of arms bore his effigy.
Tiie legend of his combat with a dragon
to liberate a princess arose about the
12th century, possibly founded on the
myths of Perseus and Siegfried.
George the Bearded, Duke of Sax-
ony; b. 1471; welcomed Luther’s Ninety-
five Theses and attacked the corruptions
of the Church, but fiercely opposed Lu-
ther’s doctrine of grace and rejection of
the Council of Constance, though at
Worms he opposed the breaking , of Lu-
ther’s safe-conduct; persecuted his Lu-
theran subjects and yet had to spread
Luther’s New Testament, with a few
alterations; d., relying solely on tiie
merits of Christ, 1539.
Georgia, Synod of. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Gei'berding, G. H. ; b. 1847 in Pitts-
burgh; studied at Philadelphia; or-
dained 1876; pastor until 1894; helped
to organize Synod of the Northwest;
since 1S94 professor of practical the-
ology at the Chicago Seminary; wrote:
The Way of Salvation, The Lutheran
Pastor, The Life of Passavant, The Lu-
theran Catechist, Problems and Possi-
bilities, What’s Wrong ivith the World?
Gerhard, Johann; b. October 17,
1582, at Quedlinburg; d. August 20,
1637, at Jena. The “arcli-theologian,”
tile standard dogmatician of tile period
of orthodoxy. Induced by Johann Arnd
to study theology. Studied at Witten-
berg, Jena, and Marburg. After passing
through a severe sickness, lie wrote
Meditationes Sacrac. Highly recom-
mended to Duke Casimir of Coburg,
though only twenty-four years old, lie
was appointed superintendent at Held-
Gerhard f, Panl
284
German Et. Synod of N. America
burg and made Doctor of Divinity, hav-
ing preached only four times. In 1015
the Duke made him general super-
intendent at Coburg and entrusted him
with the visitation of the realm and the
drawing up of a new church order.
Though eminently successful in these
important duties, his inclination was
toward a theological professorship. At
last the duke’s opposition was overcome,
and Gerhard, especially through the re-
monstrances of the Elector of Saxony,
George I, and the entreaties of the fac-
ulty of the university, in 1616 became
professor at Jena. Here he remained to
the end of his life, though called no less
than twenty-four times to different uni-
versities, even to Upsala in Sweden.
Though of delicate health, the amount
of activity he developed as professor,
author, adviser in theological, ecclesias-
tical, and even political matters — “the
oracle of his times” — is truly pro-
digious. He was greatly beloved by the
students, who on this account flocked to
Jena. Ilis most famous work is his
Loci Theologici in nine volumes, begun
at the age of twenty-seven and finished
in 1622; other books: Confessio Catho-
lica, his continuation of the Harmonia
Evangelistarum of Chemnitz and Leyser,
Eooereitium Pietatis, various commen-
taries. The foremost champion of Lu-
theran orthodoxy, he was of a mild and
irenic disposition.
Gerhardt, Paul, 1607- — 76; the Asaph
of the Lutheran Church; the greatest
hymn-writer after Luther, whom he ex-
ceeds in flexibility of form and in
smoothness of language; b. at Graefen-
liainichen, near Wittenberg; at Univer-
sity of Wittenberg 1628 — 1642; lived in
Berlin as candidate of theology 1643 to
1651; propst at Mittenwalde 1651; dia-
conus at Berlin 1657; deposed 1666;
diaconus at Luebben 1668. The outward
circumstances of his life are gloomy, but
his hymns are full of cheerful trust, sin-
cerely and unaffectedly pious, benign
and amiable. Adhered loyally to Lu-
theran faith, even under persecution, re-
fusing to sanction syncretism. His
hymns reflect his feelings during this
trying period; they show firm grasp of
objective realities, but also transition
to modern subjective tone of religious
poetry; wrote, among others: “Froeli-
lich soil mein Herze springen”; “O Jesu
Christ, dein Kripplein ist”; “Nun lasst
uns gelin und treten”; “Schaut, scliaut,
was ist fuer Wunder dar?” “Auf, auf,
mein Herz, mit Freuden”; “0 Haupt
voll Blut und Wunden”; “Wie soil
icli dich empfangen?” “Wir singen dir,
Immanuel”; “Warum machet solche
Schmerzen?” “Ein Laemmlein geht und
traegt die Schuld” ; “O Welt, sieh hier
dein Leben”; “Sei mir tausendmal ge-
gruesset”; “Sei froehlich alles weit und
breit”; “Gott Vater, sende deinen
Geist”; “Was alle Weisheit in der
Welt”; “Du Volk, das du getaufet hist”;
“Herr Jesu, meine Liebe”; “Der Herr,
der aller Enden”; “0 Jesu Christ, mein
schoenstes Licht”; “Wie ist es moeglich,
hoechstes Licht?” “Warum sollt’ ich
micli derm graemen?”
Gerlach, Otto v. ; b. 1801; d. 1849
as pastor in Berlin; author of a three-
volume German commentary on the
Bible, in which the Bible-text is re-
printed and brief introductions and ex-
planatory remarks are added; written
in popular style.
German Baptist Brethren ( Bun-
kers ). See Church of the Brethren.
German Baptist Brethren Church.
See Church of the Brethren.
German Catholics. The name of a
sect which grew out of the reform move-
ment within the Roman Catholic Church
occasioned by the idolatrous veneration
of the Holy Coat of Treves, against
which Johannes Ronge (subsequently ex-
communicated) emphatically protested.
Doctrinal differences weakened the power
of the secessionists, and to-day only a
remnant survives in Saxony.
(German) Evangelical Synod of
North America. (Die Unierten, Evan-
gelisation.) The beginning of this de-
nomination may be traced back to the
union between Lutherans and Reformed
Christians brought about by Frederick
William III, in 1817, in Germany ( q . v.).
In 1840 members of the United, or Evan-
gelical, Church of Germany who had im-
migrated into this country organized the
German Evangelical Church Organiza-
tion of the West at Gravois Settlement,
Mo., later called the German Evangelical
Synod of the West and since 1877 known
as the German Evangelical Synod of
North America. The Synod is a con-
stituent member of the Federal Council
of the Churches of Christ in America. —
Doctrine and Polity . The synod acknowl-
edges and uses the Augsburg Confession,
Luther’s Catechism, and the Heidelberg
Catechism, accepting both Lutheran and
Reformed confessions “as far as they
agree with each other.” Wherever these
symbols do not agree, it grants liberty
in interpreting Scripture-passages in
question in order to accommodate both
Lutheran and Reformed constituents of
the hody. In general the denomination
leans to the Reformed Confessions, as is
proved by the Evangelische Katechismus
German Seventli-Dny Baptists
285
Germany
and Die Geschichte der dents chan Synode
von Nordamerika by A. Schorv. A gen-
eral conference meets once every four
years. It is composed of the presidents
of the districts, clerical delegates, one
being allowed for every twelve ministers,
and lay delegates, one for every twelve
churches. — Work. The general activi-
ties of the churches are under the gen-
eral control of the synod through central
and district boards. The boards for
home missions seek to gather into the
synod those congregations which natu-
rally belong to it, organizing them
and supplying them with preachers and
the Sacrament. Foreign missionary
work under the care of the Board of
Foreign Missions is carried on in East
India. The educational work of the
synod is now represented by a prepara-
tory school for theological students and
a training-school for parochial school
teachers at Elmhurst, 111., a theolog-
ical seminary at Webster Groves, Mo.,
and an academy at Fort Collins, Colo.
The three schools together reported an
attendance of 242 students. There are
also 324 parochial schools, 204 vacation
schools, and 201 Saturday-schools with
a total attendance of 17,410 pupils. The
total amount contributed for educational
purposes during the year was $82,240.
The value . of property is given as
$410,000 and the amount of endowment
as $25,588. There are 21 philanthropic
institutions, including 10 hospitals or
deaconess homes, four homes for the
aged, four orphan homes, one pastors’
home, and two asylums for epileptics
and feeble-minded with a total of 9,601
patients and inmates. The entire value
of the property is estimated at $700,000,
and the amount contributed toward the
institution in 1910 was $104,721. The
Sunday-schools during 1910 contributed
$102,451 for their own support, $20,921
for missions, and $22,141 for benevolent
purposes. — The various societies of
young people are combined in a Young
People’s Union, representing 605 young
people’s societies with 29,972 members,
95 young women’s societies with 3,051
members, and 35 young men’s societies
with 1,007 members, making a total of
735 societies with 34,090 members. The
men’s ' brotherhoods and the women’s
affiliated organizations are very strong.
In 1920 the denominations reported 1,136
ministers, 1,325 churches, and 274,800
communicants.
German Seventh -Day Baptists.
This body was organized by John Con-
rad Beissel in 1728 when he withdrew
from the Dunker Church. In 1732
Beissel left his congregation and, re-
moving to Ephrata, Pa., lived as a her-
mit, gathering about himself persons of
both sexes who shared his mystic and
ascetic ideas. Celibacy was enjoined
upon the members, and the organization
became known as the Ephrata Society.
In contradistinction to other Dunker
bodies they observe the seventh day as
the Sabbath. At the present time the de-
nomination affiliates regularly with the
Seventh-day Baptist General Conference.
In 1921 only 4 ministers, 3 churches,
and 155 communicants were reported.
German Southwest Africa. Form-
erly a German protectorate; since the
World War under mandate of Union of
South Africa. Area, 322,400 sq. mi.
Population, 240,000, chiefly Ovambas and
Ilereros. Missions : Finska Missions-
siillskapet, Rlieinische Missionsgesell-
schaft, South African Missionary So-
ciety. Statistics: Foreign staff, 105.
Christian community, 62,924; communi-
cants, 27,780.
German Theology (Deutsche Theolo-
gie). A book containing a summary of
the fundamentals of the Christian re-
ligion, “a noble booklet of the right
understanding concerning Adam and
Christ, and how Adam should die and
Christ arise in us,” as Luther puts it,
who published the tract, first as a frag-
ment, in 1516, and two years later in its
complete form. It is a product of the
best period of German mysticism and be-
longs to the school of Tauler (q. v.),
who formerly was considered the author.
Germany. Christianity had entered
Germany as early as the third century,
several flourishing congregations exist-
ing then in the Roman colonies of the
Rhine and the Danube. During the
Roman period these regions became
Christian countries; during the Migra-
tion of Nations, pagan or semipagan.
Towards the end of the sixth century
a great missionary activity set in on
the part of the Franks (whose ruler
Clovis had received baptism 496) and of
Britain. The first apostle of the Ale-
manni was Fridolin, a Celt, 550; he was
followed (610) by Columbanus, of the
Celtic cloister Bangor, with twelve com-
panions, one of them Gallus, d. 640, and
Pirminius, a Frank, d. 753. To Bavaria
with its scanty remnants of Christianity
came the Frankish abbot Eustasius (615)
later on Emmeran, at the end of the cen-
tury Bishop Rupert of Worms, perhaps
a Scot, who almost completed the Chris-
tianizing of tlie country, and the Frank-
ish bishop Corbinianus. Kilian, a Celt,
became the apostle of the Thuringians,
in the same period. The Frankish priest
Germany
286
(.‘ei-m.-i n y
Amandus labored, after 030, among tlie
Frisians, 677. Tlie Anglo-Saxon Wilfred,
and from 090 on the Apostle of the
Frisians, the Anglo-Saxon Willibrod,
were supported by Rome. Boniface (g. v.)
performed splendid missionary work in
Hessia and Thuringia; he was also in-
strumental in bringing the German
Church into subjection to Rome. The
Saxons, after an earlier missionary at-
tempt by two Anglo-Saxon monks, were
compelled by Charlemagne, in the wars
of 772 — 804, to profess Christianity and
were won for Christianity through the
patient labor of the Frankish priests in
the eight bishoprics established by the
ruler. Christianity was spread among
the Wendish races in Holstein, Mecklen-
burg, Pomerania, and parts of Saxony
and Lusatia from 919 to 973 by conquest,
compulsion, German colonization, and
more or less preaching; Mecklenburg,
its depopulated districts peopled with
German colonists, became Christian with
the conversion of its ruler in 1161;
Pomerania submitted to the Duke of
Poland 1121, and Bishop Otto of Bam-
berg established the Church 1124 — 1128.
The Gospel was first brought to the
Prussians (Letts) by Bishop Adalbert of
Prague, martyred 997; not until 1209
their apostle came, the monk Christian,
d. 1245 as bishop of the Prussians. The
crusade of the Teutonic Knights and
their allies ended 1283, with the greater
part of the Prussians extirpated and
Christianity established by a host of real
missionaries.
Germany and the Lutheran Church.
When Luther began his defense of the
Gospel, he was followed by many monks
of the Augustinians, Franciscans, Do-
minicans, Carmelites, and others. Strass-
burg was one of the first cities to de-
clare for the Gospel (1523), followed
by Magdeburg (1524), Bremen (1525),
Brunswick (1526), Goslar, Eimbeck,
Goettingen, Rostock, Hamburg. Elec-
toral Saxony was the first country to in-
troduce the Reformation (1525). Hesse
followed the lead of Saxony (1528),
as did Frankish-Brandenburg, joined by
Nuernberg. Then came Brunswiek-
Lueneburg, East Frisia, Schleswig, Hol-
stein, Silesia. On Luther’s advice the
Grand Master of the Order of Teutonic
Knights, Albrecht von Brandenburg, be-
came secular, the first Duke of Prussia
(later a German state) (1525), and in-
troduced the Reformation. Wuerttem-
berg came in 1534, followed by the city
of Augsburg. Anhalt also came in 1534,
as well as Pomerania and Westphalia.
Luther’s grim enemy, the bearded Duke
George of Saxony, died in 1539, and just
twenty years after the historic Leipzig
Debate with Eck. Luther preached in
St. Thomas's Church, and the Reforma-
tion was introduced. In the same year
came Brandenburg; Kalenbcrg- Bruns-
wick came, Mecklenburg, Qucdlinlmrg,
Naumburg, Brunswick, the Palatinate,
and Cologne. At the Religious Peace of
Augsburg of 1555 the Protestants were
as strong as the Romanists. S. Refor-
mation.
Subsequent Developments. The Cath-
olics put forth strenuous efforts to halt
the spread of Lutheranism and to re-
conquer lost ground. The activity of
the Jesuits and of the courts of Austria
and Bavaria, the virulent persecution
and suppression of Protestantism (see
Counter-Reformation), and the Thirty
Years’ War saved a large portion of Ger-
many, especially in South Germany, for
Rome. Other portions were lost to Cal-
vinism — the Palatinate in 1500, Bre-
men in 1595, Nassau in 1578 and 1580,
Anhalt in 1590, Lippe-Detmold in 1002,
Tlcsse-Cassel in 1005. In 1013 John
Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, of
the House of Hohenzollern, turned Re-
formed. the people, however, remaining
true to the Lutheran Church. The
Union between the Lutherans and Cal-
vinists, proposed by the king of Prussia
in 1817 and approved by the great ma-
jority, was effected and sustained, partly
by force, in Prussia; also in Nassau,
Baden, the Palatinate, Anhalt, and to
some extent in Hesse. The new Church
thus brought into existence took the
name Evangelical. The Separate Lu-
therans refused to have anything to do
with it. See Breslau and Free Churches.
Prior to the World War the Lutheran.
Reformed, and Evangelical Churches in
Germany' were organized as state
churches, the government generally being
in the hands of consistories and super-
intendents appointed by the secular gov-
erning body, which provided, in greater
part, for the support of the congrega-
tions out of the national revenues and
more or less controlled the affairs of the
Church. Of these thirty-four Protestant
church-bodies the Prussian (including the
older provinces) is Evangelical, Hanover
having a Lutheran as well as an Evan-
gelical-Reformed organization; "Schles-
wig-Holstein, Lutheran - Reformed - Evan-
gelical; Nassau, Evangelical; Frank-
fort on the Main, Lutheran-Reformed.
The other Evangelical Churches are
the Palatinate, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt,
Saelisen-Weimar, Sachsen-Meiningen,. An-
halt, Wald eck, and Bremen. Lippe-Det-
mold is Evangelical-Reformed. The Lu-
theran Churches are: Bavaria, Saxony,
28? Germany, Catholic Cliureli In
Germany, Catholic Church In
Wuerttemberg, Mecklenburg - Schwerin,
Mocklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Braun-
schweig, Saohsen-Altenburg, Sachsen-Co-
burg-Gotlia, Schwarzburg-Sondcrhausen,
Schwarzburg - Rudolstadt, Reuss Older
Line, Reuss Younger Line, Schaumburg,
Luebeck, Hamburg. Alsace-Lorraine has
a Lutheran and a Reformed organiza-
tion. The constitution of the German
Republic (11)18) has pronounced the
separation of Church and State and com-
plete equality among all religious de-
nominations (religions freedom having
been established already under the Em-
pire by the several state constitutions
and by imperial law). There is no
longer a state church, theoretically.
Neither is there, practically, a Free
Church. The majority of the clergy and
of the laity seem to desire some sort of
state support and state control and a
Vo Ikskirchc (People’s Church, National
Church ) , which the masses would regard
as their Church without joining it indi-
vidually. The number of Lutherans in
Germany cannot be stated with any de-
gree of accuracy. Reliable statistics of
the thirty-four state churches of 1010
gave a total of 37,117,205. Vaguely
stated, it may be said that two-tliirds of
the population of Germany (50,852,082
in 1923) are Protestants and two-thirds
of the Protestants are Lutherans. — The
"Dissenters” (representing mostly Anglo-
American-Reformed denominations, which
consider Germany as a mission-field; the
German statistics include Christian
Scientists and Mormons) number about
2(10,000. See Lutheran Church.
Germany, Catholic Church in. The
Roman Catholic reaction against the
Reformation in Germany, after a tem-
porary truce marked by the Peace of
Augsburg (1555), finally culminated in
the bloody tragedy of the Thirty Years’
War (1018—1048). The Peace of West-
phalia, which terminated the struggle
and guaranteed to the Protestants (Lu-
therans and Reformed) a legal existence,
destroyed forever the hopes of reestab-
lishing Catholic supremacy in Germany.
The Catholic Church submitted under
protest to the logic of events. Pope In-
nocent X condemned, in the customary
papal phraseology, the ecclesiastical
articles of the treaty and declared them
null and void. But papal bulls had lost
their effect. Protestantism had come to
stay and, what is more, was destined to
become the leading factor in subsequent
religious history. Indeed, if Gieseler is
right, the only thing that saved the
Catholic Church in Germany was the so-
called reservatum ecclesiasticum (eccle-
siastical reservation), according to which
every prelate who apostatized from
Rome was liable to deposition and for-
feiture of temporal and spiritual power.
This measure, essentially an appeal to
self-interest, served as a powerful bar-
rier against further secessions from
Rome. In fact, the geographical distri-
bution between Protestants and Roman-
ists as it existed at the close of the
Thirty Years’ War has remained sub-
stantially unchanged to the present day.
The change of situation created by the
outcome of the war necessitated a cor-
responding change in the Church’s atti-
tude and policy. The Hildebrandian
idea of a papal theocracy was gone for-
ever, Ban and interdict had passed into
history. Even Roman Catholic states
were growing increasingly impatient of
papal interference in their affairs and
often pursued an independent course in
defiance of the Church. A conspicuous
instance of this tendency are the reforms
of Joseph 11 of Austria (see Josephin-
ittm ), not to mention the earlier reforms
of the Duke of Bavaria, Maximilian Jo-
seph III, the Catholic ruler of the most
Catholic country of Germany, as well as
of the later kings of Bavaria in the first
half of the nineteenth century (Maxi-
milian I, 17!)!) — 1825; Ludwig I, 1825
to 1848; Maximilian II, 1848— 18C4).
The official claims of the Church, as also
its inability to realize them, are well
illustrated in the events immediately
following the downfall of Napoleon. At
the Congress of Vienna (1815), convened
for the purpose of reconstructing the
political map of Europe, the papal curia
went to the length of demanding “the.
restoration of the Holy Roman-German
Empire in its medieval -hierarchical
form.” This demand was quietly ig-
nored by the powers. History had pro-
nounced its verdict on that ancient in-
stitution. When the Congress created
that loose aggregation of sovereign
states known as the German Confedera-
tion, the Church was obliged to adjust
herself to the situation by concluding
a. series of concordats, more or less satis-
factory, to regulate her relations with
the several states. With some of them
no agreement could be reached at all.
Into the later developments along this
line we cannot here enter. We only
pause to add that the behavior of the
ultramontane party at the founding of
the German Empire in 1871 shows that,
in spite of rebukes and rebuffs adminis-
tered by the hard facts of history, the
pretensions of Romanism are as sweep-
ing and arrogant as ever. On the other
hand, the Catholic Church of Germany
has witnessed some powerful clerical
Chilierti, Lorenzo
Getok, Karl von 286
Opposition within her own bosom. See
Emser Punktation. In addition to anti-
liierarchical movements, German ration-
alism also for a time disturbed the
peace of the Church. The Church easily
overcame these and similar assaults
upon her authority. The latter was
vigorously upheld and extended by the
Jesuit order, which continued its anti-
Protestant propaganda and agitation
throughout the whole post-Reformation
period (apart from the lull that followed
the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773).
One of their pet themes, especially after
their restoration in 1814, was that Prot-
estantism, in its very essence and na-
ture, was the prolific mother of all re-
ligious, civil, and political disorder and
strife, while Roman Catholicism was ex-
tolled as the only bulwark against these
evils. This brazen lie was propagated
with such persistence that many of the
very elect were deceived. Says Kurtz
(speaking of Protestant Prussia) : “In
incredible blindness the Catholic hier-
archy was regarded as a primary sup-
port of the throne against the revolu-
tionary tendencies of the age (1841 to
1871) and as the surest guarantee of
allegiance in the preponderating^ Cath-
olic provinces.” Such was the power of
the Catholic Church in Prussia that it
commanded double the amount in state
subsidies as compared with the appro-
priations for the maintenance of the
evangelical churches, and this despite
the fact that the Protestants outnum-
bered the Catholics almost two to one.
Small wonder that such a state of affairs
ultimately led to a collision under the
stern regime of Bismarck, even apart
from the immediate occasion of the
quarrel. See Kulturkampf.
Of the sixty million inhabitants of
Germany about one-tliird are Roman
Catholics. The organization of the
Church includes five archbishoprics,
twenty bishoprics, three apostolic vica-
riates, and two apostolic prefectures.
Politically, its interests are represented
by the so-called Catholic Center. What
the establishment of the German Repub-
lic (since 1919) will mean for the future
of German Catholicism remains to be
seen. The constitution provides for com-
plete equality among all religious de-
nominations.
Gerok, Karl von, 1815 — 1890, edu-
cated at Tuebingen; held positions in
the state church, since 1849 at Stutt-
gart, finally as chief court preacher and
oberconsistorialrat ; eloquent preacher,
but fame rests chiefly on his sacred
poetry, especially his Palmblaetter ,
Pfingstrosen, and others; strictly speak-
ing, he wrote only spiritual lyrics, not
hymns for congregational use.
Gerson, Jean Charlier de (Johannes
Arnaudi de Gersonio), 1303 — 1429, theo-
logian, philosopher, educator; educated
under patronage of the Duke of Bur-
gundy, first at Rheims, then at College
of Navarre, in Paris; doctor of theology
in 1392, chancellor of the University of
Paris 1395, prominent in the domain of
ecclesiastical practise, preaching, and
the cure of souls. He considered mysti-
cism {q.v.) as the soul of theology, but
he opposed radical and absolute mysti-
cism. Following his teacher, D’Ailly, in
the field of church politics, he exerted
a strong influence on the Council of
Pisa, although he did not attend in per-
son. His doctrine concerning the char-
acter of a church council as composed of
hierarchical authorities, with every be-
liever, nevertheless, having the right to
voice his opinion, was accepted by the
Council of Constance ( q . v.), but his
later influence at the meetings was in-
significant, so that he finally withdrew
in disgust, to wander into exile from
fear of his former patron, the Duke of
Burgundy. He spent his last years in
Lyons. Among his writings: Consolatio
iheologiae, Monotessaron (a gospel har-
mony), and others. He was later hon-
ored with the title Doctor Christianisxi-
mus (the most Christian doctor). See
also Education.
Gesenius, Justus, 1601 — 1673, studied
at Helmstedt and Jena, pastor at Bruns-
wick in 1629, court chaplain at Hildes-
heim in 1636, chief court preacher and
general superintendent at Hannover in
1642 ; an accomplished and influential
theologian; edited Hannoverian hymn-
books from 1646 to 1659; aimed at cor-
rectness of style according to poetical
canons; wrote: “Jesu, deine heil’gen
Wunden”; “Wenn meine Suend’ micli
kraenken”; “0 Tod, wo ist dein Stachel
nun?” “0 heiligste Dreifaltigkeit.”
Gesenius, Wilh., b. 1786, d. at Halle
1842; renowned Hebraist, author of a
Hebrew grammar and dictionary. He
was a born teacher, extreme rationalist;
was attacked by Hengstenberg in his
Evangelische Kirchenzeitung. Wrote also
Der Prophet Jesaia.
Gesius (Goess), Bartholomaeus,
1555 — 1613, cantor at Frankfurt-on-
Oder; prominent church musician, nu-
merous collections of psalms, hymns,
chorals, etc. ; Cantionale containing
most common choral tunes, two passions.
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 1378 — 1455, Ital-
ian painter and artist in bronze; re-
ceived contract (in competition with
Gkirlamlajo, Domenico Bi&ordi 289
Girard, Stephen
Brunelleschi) for bronze doors of the
Baptistery at Florence.
Ghirlandajo, Domenico Bigordi,
1449 — 94, Italian painter, celebrated
principally as teacher of Michelangelo;
painted chiefly frescoes in his native
city, Florence, but also in Sistine Chapel
at Rome.
Ghost, Holy. See Holy Spirit.
Gibbons, James, Cardinal, b. in Bal-
timore, Md., 1834, educated in Ireland
and in Baltimore, ordained to the priest-
hood 1861, bishop of North Carolina in
1868, archbishop of Baltimore, “Primate
of the United States” 1877, presided over
the third plenary council of Baltimore
1884, created a cardinal by Leo XIII
1886, the leader of the Catholics in the
United States until his death in 1921.
Wrote The Faith of Our Fathers, a pop-
ular and clever defense of Roman Cathol-
icism, widely circulated.
Gibbon, Edward, English historian;
b. 1737, Putney; d. 1794, London. Ro-
man Catholic for a few years; wrote
monumental history Decline and Fall of
Roman Empire, characterized by vast
erudition, lucidity, comprehensive grasp,
but, being a rationalist, he displayed, in
chapters on rise and spread of Chris-
tianity, hostility to Christian Church,
leading to unfairness and inaccuracies.
Gichtelians. Adherents of Johann
Georg Gichtel; b. 1638, Regensburg;
since 1667 in Amsterdam, where d. 1710;
a German mystic and visionary and ec-
centric follower of Jakob Boehme (q. v.),
who antagonized the Lutheran Church,
especially its doctrine of justification.
Because they rejected marriage and be-
lieved themselves as pure as angels, also
called Engelsbrueder. Found in Holland,
Hamburg, Berlin, and other places, and
maintained themselves to nineteenth cen-
tury.
Gideons (The Christian Commercial
Travelers’ Association of America ) . Or-
ganized July 1, 1899. Its purpose is to
supply each room in the hotels of Amer-
ica with a Bible, to unite Christian trav-
elers of America, and to win the commer-
cial travelers for the Church. Official
organ : The Gideon. Headquarters : Chi-
cago, 111.
Gieseler, Joh. Karl Ludwig, b. 1792,
d. 1854; Church historian; professor at
Bonn; 1831 at Goettingen, where he dis-
played marked activity as professor of
Church history and dogmatics, and also
in practical benevolences as curator of
the Orphans’ Home. His chief work is
Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, trans-
lated also into English.
Concordia Cyclopedia
Gifts, Spiritual. Any particular en-
dowment of the believer, employed for
the edification of the Church, 1 Cor. 7, 7 ;
12, 11; Rom. 12, 6. By the abundance
and diversity of these gifts are revealed
the riches of divine grace, 1 Pet. 4, 10.
Several spiritual gifts, charisms, may be
united in one individual. Among special
gifts bestowed by the Holy Spirit upon
the early Church were some of a mirac-
ulous character, — speaking in tongues,
prophesying, healing the sick, and cast-
ing out demons. 1 Cor. 14; Matt. 11, 8;
Mark 6, 13. These gifts particularly im-
pose a heavy responsibility, hence the
apostolic warning not to abuse them and
to retain the most excellent gift of all,
which is love. 1 Cor. 13. In apostolic
times these miraculous gifts were be-
stowed by the laying on of hands. Acts
8, 17 ; 19, 6, though occasionally they fol-
lowed the simple preaching of the Gospel,
Acts 10, 44. 46. As fast as the reigning
power of heathenism was broken, the
miraculous charisms became less fre-
quent and seem to have disappeared after
the fourth century, though not fully and
forever, since phenomena like those of
the first age have been observed in times
of awakening. They have also accom-
panied the entrance of the Gospel into
lands newly opened to the Christian
message. See Healing, Divine; Tongues,
Gift of; Irvingites; Montanism.
Gilbert Islands. See Polynesia.
Gill, Thomas Hornblower, 1819 to
1906, owing to Unitarian tendencies led
the life of an isolated student; belongs
to small company of original British
hymnists, noted for quaintness; wrote,
among others: “0 Mystery of Love
Divine 1 ”
Gilman, Samuel, 1791 — 1858, edu-
cated at Harvard; pastor of Unitarian
congregation at Charleston, S. C., from
1819; his hymns include: “We Sing
Thy Mercy, God of Love”; “This Child
We Dedicate to Thee.”
Giotto, properly Ambrogiotto or An-
giolotto Bondone, 1266 — 1336, prevailed
upon by Cimabue to study painting; his
figures show life and freedom; noted
paintings “Navicella’’ at Rome, and fres-
coes at Florence.
Girard, Stephen. An American phi-
lanthropist, b. at Bordeaux, France, 1750,
d. 1831. He settled in Philadelphia,
1777; profuse in his public charities;
successful business man. At his death
he was worth $9,000,000, of which he
left $140,000 to relatives, $500,000 to the
city of Philadelphia, $300,000 to the
State of Pennsylvania, and large sums
to hospitals, asylums, schools, etc. His
19
Girls’ Clubs
200 Gluck, Christ oi>U Willilinltl
principal bequest of $2,000,000, besides
certain other property and a large plot
of ground in Philadelphia, was for a col-
lege for orphans. No ecelesiastie, min-
ister, or missionary, is allowed to hold
any connection with the institution or
even to be admitted to the premises as
a visitor. Girard was a freethinker
and an ardent admirer of Voltaire and
Rousseau.
Girls’ Clubs. See Boys’ Clubs.
Girl Scouts. This movement began in
1912 in Savannah, Ga., but an organiza-
tion was not incorporated and the name
adopted until 1915. Its aims are similar
to those of the Boy Scouts (q.v.). Each
member promises: “On my honor, I will
try to do my duty to God and my coun-
try, to help others at all times, to obey
the Scout Laws.” The little girls are or-
ganized into Brownies or Junior Scouts,
and the older girls into the Citizen
Scouts. The American Girl is the offi-
cial publication.
Giving, Christian. Money, which is
simply a convenient means of exchange,
is needed by the Church to pay the sala-
ries of pastors, missionaries, religious
educators, and others employed by the
church ; also to build and maintain
churches, schools, colleges, and semina-
ries ; and to care for the needy. The
Lord has made thp giving of money a
Christian duty. The apostle by the
grace of Christ admonishes Christians
to “abound in this grace also,” and
thereby “prove the sincerity of their
love” to Christ and His Church. 2 Cor.
8, 7 — 9. The Lord took His children
severely to task when they were remiss
in the exercise of this duty. Mai. 3,
8 — 10; Hag. 1,2 — 11. The churches of
Macedonia and the poor widow were
praised because, in spite of their deep
poverty, they gave liberally. 2 Cor. 8,
1 — 4; Mark 12,41 — 44. When the Tab-
ernacle in the Old Testament was built,
the people brought “much more than
enough” and had to be “restrained from
bringing.” Ex. 36, 5 — 7. The Lord in
His Word promises to reward Christian
giving. Mai. 3, 10; Luke 6, 38; Prov.
19, 17. The lack of a thorough indoctri-
nation in reference to Christian giving, of
information in reference to the Church’s
needs, and of a good financial system for
collecting moneys, has been largely re-
sponsible for the empty church treasuries
and the resulting deficits.
Gladstone, William Ewart (1809 to
1898). “Grand Old Man.” Prominent
English statesman and noted author.
Began career as High Churchman; dis-
established Irish Church (Anglican) ;
supported interests of Irish Catholic in-
stitutions; fought ritualism and ultra -
montanism ( The Vatican Decrees in
Their Bearing on Civil Allegiance, 1874;
Vaticanism, and Rome and the Newest
Fashion in Religion, 1875) ; held to the
Bible as the Word of God.
Glassius, Solomon, b. 1593; d. 1656;
He taught philosophy, Greek, and Hebrew
since 1617 in Jena, became superintend-
ent in 1625 at Sondershausen ; in 1638
professor of theology at Jena as Ger-
•hard’s successor; from 1640 to the end
of his life general superintendent and
court preacher at Gotha. The greatest
of his very numerous works is his Philo-
logia Sacra.
Glass Painting. The art of produc-
ing pictures on glass with vitrifiable
colors, as distinguished from figures built
up by means of colored art glass, in
which the color forms part of the com-
position of the glass itself. In figure
windows, as developed in the Middle
Ages, the figures of the artist’s cartoon,
or sketch, were made up of pieces of col-
ored glass arranged and built up with
great skill. The faces and hands (also
the feet, if nude) were painted in enamel
colors, and burned in. Shading and half
tints were not attempted at that time,
though the work is now done by etching
with hydrofluoric acid. The finest ex-
amples of medieval glass painting are
the windows of the north aisle in Cologne
Cathedral.
Gloria in Excelsis. See Canticles.
Gloria Patri. See Canticles.
Glosses and Glossators. The prac-
tise of supplying manuscripts with
glosses, i. e., marginal notes to explain
certain words in the text, dates back to
classical times. Such glosses were also
inserted in Bible manuscripts, both in
the margin and between the lines. In
the course of time, they were extended
to include a variety of explanatory ma-
terial. Glossing was carried to the
greatest length in the canon law by the
glossators, canonists living (especially in
Bologna) from the twelth to the fifteenth
century. By the successive additions of
one master after another, a running com-
ment was established, which explained,
illustrated, and reconciled the various
provisions. These glosses were held in
high regard and enjoyed considerable
authority.
Gluck, Christoph. Willibald, 1714
to 1787, studied music in Prague, Vienna,
and Milan ; distinguished principally as
operatic writer, spent his time between
Paris and Vienna; wrote also De Pro-
Giioaticiam
291
God
fundis and an incomplete cantata, “Das
Juengste Gerieht.”
Gnosticism, purporting to be a higher
and more philosophic form of Chris-
tianity ( gnosis , knowledge as opposed to
mere faith), is a paganizing religious
philosophy, which included Christianity
in its vagaries and speculations. It has
its roots in that peculiar mode of thought
which in the early days of Christianity
(Gnosticism was at its height in the
second half of the second century ) sought
to save the wreckage of decadent heathen-
ism by fusing into a single system the
manifold and heterogeneous religious
elements which the ancient world had
produced. Gnosticism is the most stu-
pendous and the most fantastic form of
religious syncretism known to history.
Oriental mysticism and Greek philos-
ophy, Buddhistic nihilism and Platonic
idealism, Zoroastrian dualism and Alex-
andrian Judaism, Babylonian cosmology
and Greek mythology, and other ele-
ments together with Christian ideas are
thrown into the crucible and, as it were,
chemically compounded. Gnosticism was
a serious attempt to solve the deepest
metaphysical and theological problems,
such as the nature of the Deity, the
antithesis between God and matter, the
creation of the material world, the ori-
gin of evil, etc. We can here only point
out some of its salient features without
referring to differences among the vari-
ious Gnostic systems. Common to nearly
all shades of Gnostic speculation is the
dualistie idea of the eternal hostility be-
tween God and matter; the notion of
the Demiurge, the Creator, as an in-
ferior deity; doeetism, or the denial of
the real humanity of the Redeemer. God
is a pure abstraction, a fathomless abyss,
ineffable and incomprehensible. From
him emanate a series of divine potencies,
called aeons, hypostatized divine attri-
butes, such as mind, reason, wisdom,
truth, which in their turn beget further
aeons. Together the aeons constitute the
Plernma, the divine fulness, an ideal
world of light (cf. Plato’s world of
Ideas), as opposed to the Kenoma, Void,
the eternal, unorganized world of matter.
The latter is conceived as intrinsically
evil and therefore eternally distinct from
the Pleroma and the primal abyss (God).
A Gnostic myth was invented to bridge
tiie chasm. Seized with the impulse to
penetrate the veil enshrouding the great
First Cause, Sophia, Wisdom, one of the
lowest aeons, disturbed the harmony of
the ideal world (making a redemption
or restoration necessary), and fell as a
spark of light into the formless chaos
without. Her union with matter gave
birth to the Demiurge, or Creator, who
transformed the chaos of matter into an
organized universe and thus forms the
connecting link between the transcendent
Deity and the material world of phe-
nomena. The Demiurge, ignorant of the
l'leroma, imagined himself to be the
Supreme Being and is identified with the
Jehovah of the Old Testament. Redemp-
tion, according to the Gnostic idea, con-
sists in restoring the cosmic harmony
disturbed by the apostasy of Sophia,
and in liberating the sparks of light
which from the same cause became en-
tangled in the meshes of evil matter —
a redemption from ignorance rather than
from sin. This is accomplished by
Christ, the most perfect aeon, who ap-
pears in the semblance of a human
body (since He can have no actual con-
tact with matter ) , or unites himself
with Jesus at His baptism and forsakes
Him at His Passion. Christ is the Sav-
ior, inasmuch as He teaches men the true
(Gnostic) wisdom, which, of course, only
a select circle are fitted to receive,
namely, the pneumatikoi, or spiritual.
The second class of men, the psychic
(peychikoi) , to which the common body
of Christians belongs, are unable to rise
to true wisdom and must be content
with faith, while the hylic, or material,
are slaves of matter and associates of
Satan, doomed to utter extinction at the
final consummation.
Gobat, Samuel, b. Cremine, Switzer-
land, January 26, 1799; d. Jerusalem,
May 11, 1879. He was missionary in
Africa for the C. M. S. ; later bishop in
Jerusalem.
Gobelin. A fine piece of tapestry of
silk and wool or silk and cotton, origi-
nally made by the Gobelin brothers of
Paris, who flourished about the middle
of the fifteenth century.
God. The eternal, infinite Spirit, sub-
sisting in three Persons, Father, Son, and
Holy Ghost. The existence of God is
supported by various philosophical ar-
guments, but is certified to the Chris-
tian by the multiplied statements of
Holy Scripture that God IS. He who
denies the existence of God is a fool. Ps.
14, 1. As distinguished from the con-
ception of God as an energy residing in
matter (hylozoism) or as a spiritual
principle indwelling in nature (panthe-
ism), God in Scripture is distinguished
from all created things as a personal
spirit, subsisting of and in Himself.
(Personality of God.) God is a spirit,
being not composed of a material and
an immaterial element, but simply spirit,
complete in His spiritual nature. John 4.
God
292
God
(See Anthropomorphism and Anthropopa-
thism.) From the created spirits, God
is distinguished as subsisting in Him-
self and as being one, possessing that in-
dividuality which is called the unity of
God. Is. 44, 6; 48,12; Deut. 6, 4; 1 Tim.
2, 5. God is one. God is also three. The
one statement does not contradict the
other. The divine plurality is indicated
in the Hebrew word for God, Elohim,
which is the plural form of the noun,
yet expressing not a plurality of gods,
but a plurality in God, as indicated by
the singular form of the predicate, e. g.,
created. Gen. 1,1. Although a Trinity,
the divine Unity is one undivided and
indivisible divine Essence, and the divine
Trinity is not a Trinity of parts, but of
persons, each of whom is in the same
sense God. There is no God but the
First Person; there is no God but the
Second Person; there is no God beside
the Third Person; and yet each Person
is God, the same God, the only God.
And, again, the First Person is not the
Second nor the Third ; the Second is not
the First nor the Third; the Third is
not the First nor the Second. “There
is one Divine Essence which is called,
and truly is, God. In this one Divine
Essence there arc three Persons, equally
powerful, equally eternal, God the Fa-
ther, God the Son, and God the Holy
Ghost, all three one Essence, eternal, un-
divided, without parts, of infinite power,
wisdom, and goodness, the Creator and
Preserver of all things, visible and in-
visible.” ( Augsburg Confession, Art. I.)
All similes, comparisons, images, or illus-
trations by which men have tried to rep-
resent the doctrine of three Persons in
one Godhead fail to illustrate ; much
less do they explain. The Trinity has
been compared to fire, which is said to
possess the three “attributes” of flame,
light, and heat ; but this division is
highly artificial, and the comparison is
altogether faulty, because Father, Son,
and Holy Ghost are not so many attri-
butes of God, but are, each of them, God
Himself. The Trinity has been compared
to the division of the human being into
body, soul, and mind; but each of these
constituents is not separately a human
being, while each of the divine Persons,
separately considered, is truly God (as
when it is said that “in Him [Christ]
dwelleth all the fulness of the Godhead
bodily” ) . The doctrine of the Trinity
is, like all the rest, entirely beyond our
powers of comprehension. By this we do
not say that there is here a contradic-
tion with human reason; it would be
so if we taught: “There is only one
God” and: “There are three Gods.” But
such is not the doctrine of Scripture.
There is one God — there are three Per-
sons — these three are one God. There
is here not, properly speaking, a mathe-
matical difficulty; in other words, the
matter that is incomprehensible is not
the numeral terms: one — three, but it
is the relation of the three Persons to
each other, the manner in which they
are united in one Godhead, one divine
Being, without being only parts of that
Being. In the words of the Augsburg
Confession: “By this word ‘person’ is
not meant a part or an attribute of
another.” And this is the mystery of
the Trinity. — That the Father, the Son,
and the Spirit are three distinct Persons
is evident from the narrative of the bap-
tism of Christ. Matt. 3. The Father pro-
claims Himself in the voice from heaven :
“This is My beloved Son, in whom I am
well pleased.” The Son is visibly pres-
ent as He stands in the river Jordan.
The Holy Ghost descends upon Him from
above in the likeness of a dove. The three
Persons are mentioned in the command of
Christ to the apostles: “Baptize them
in the name of the Father and of the Son
and of the Holy Ghost.” Matt. 28. They
are clearly distinguished in Is. 48, 16,
where mention is made of one who sends
(the Father), of one who is sent (the
Messiah ) , and of the “Spirit of the Lord
God.” In another passage, Is. 63, 9. 10,
'there is a reference to the Lord who
sends the “Angel of His presence” (cf.
Gen. 48, 16) and to the “Holy Spirit.”
Gen. 1 and Ps. 33, 6 also refer to the
Lord, the Word (cf. John 1, 1), and the
Spirit, or Breath, of God, aB Maker of
heaven and earth. — These three Persons
are in many passages, both of the Old
and New Testaments, declared equally
powerful, equally eternal. Eph. 1, 10;
3, 14 — 16; John 8, 58; Job 33, 4. Of
each of the three Persons, acts of divine
power are predicated. All receive, in
an equal degree, that honor and adora-
tion which is due only to the Creator of
all things, the Lord of heaven and earth.
The entire and absolute equality (in
rank) of the Father and the Son cannot
be stated more succinctly than in John
5, 23: “All men should honor the Son
even as they honor the Father” (cf. Heb.
1, 6: “Let all the angels of God worship
Him”) ; or the omnipotence of the Son:
“He shall be called: Wonderful, . . .
The Mighty God,” Is. 9; or the omnis-
cience of the Spirit: “The Spirit [of
God] searcheth all things, yea, the deep
things of God,” 1 Cor. 2, 10; cp. vv. 11.
13. 14. Hence the Athanasian Creed is
right when it asserts: “Of these three
Persons none is the first, none the last,
God
293
God
none the greatest, none the smallest, hut
all three Persons are equally eternal,
equally great. . . . Yet there are not
three Gods, hut one God.” — The unity
of God implies His indivisibility. While
we distinguish in Him certain qualities
or attributes, God is not substance plus
the sum of His attributes, but each of
His attributes is identical with His es-
sence. God is Love, love being His very
essence. 1 John 4, 16. He is Life, essen-
tially. John 11, 25. He is Wisdom.
Prov. 8. Whatever God is He is whole
and entire. And so each of the three
Persons can truly be said to be the one
and only God, the First and the Last,
besides whom there is no God.
Because in the divine essence or at-
tributes there never has been, nor ever
will be, nor can be, any increase or de-
crease, or development, or any change of
whatever kind, God is declared to be im-
mutable. This is already implied in His
indivisibility, but is frequently stated in
Scripture, e. g.. Ex. 3, 14; Ps. 102, 27.
God is infinite, inasmuch as He is not
limited by space or time, there being
in Him no distinction of here or there,
sooner or later. God must not be rep-
resented as dilfused through space, since
He is indivisible; He is not related to
space at all, but is Simply everywhere.
And since His attributes are Himself,
each of them — His power, His wisdom,
His truth — is everywhere. Is. 57, 15;
Heb. 7, 26; Ps. 139; 36, 6. 7. God is
likewise unlimited by time; He is eter-
nal. There is in Him no sooner or later,
neither past nor future, but a continual,
unbroken, eternal present. Ps. 2, 7 ;
90, 2; 2 Pet. 3, 8. “As He is present to
all things regardless of space, He is also
present to all things regardless of time.
There is with Him no difference of space
and no difference of time, because there
is with Him neither space nor time, all
distances being here with Him and all
durations being now with Him.” (A. L.
Graebner. ) As God is infinite. His life
also is infinite. God is life in the highest
sense of the term, being determined only
from within Himself. All His works
have all their cause or causes within
Him. John 5, 26.
God is a God of knowledge. 1 Sam.
2, 3. His is an ever-present knowledge,
one that directly knows things that exist
and come to pass; not progressive
knowledge, but ever total, perfect, and
complete. As God has no beginning, His
knowledge had no beginning; it was in
this respect before time and created
things and all temporal events. Eph.
1,4; Ps. 90, 2. This foreknowledge in-
cludes a knowledge of the acts of men,
both good and evil. But knowing all
things as they are, God knows the acts
of men as the acts of rational and re-
sponsible beings, who have a will of their
own and act according to the counsels of
their hearts. — “Wisdom is the attribute
of God by which He chooses, disposes, and
directs the proper means to the proper
ends.” Job 12, 13; 1 Tim. 1, 14; Is. 55,
8. 9. The greatest exhibitions of the wis-
dom of God are the plan of creation and
the plan of salvation. But though these
counsels have been in a measure revealed
to us, there are many things which God
in His wisdom has reserved to Himself.
Rom. 11, 33 f. God is Will inasmuch as
He consciously prompts His own acts
and is intent upon executing that which
He has proposed and ordained. When
God created angels and human beings,
it was His will that there should be
other wills besides His own. These were
to be true wills and the acts of a ra-
tional being, own acts and self-deter-
mined. But God’s will was to remain
supreme, to which the created wills 'were
to respond, though without coercion.
With a view to this relation, God mani-
fested His will in the heart of man by
inscribing therein His holy laws. - —
“Holiness is the absolute purity of God,
according to which His affections,
thoughts, will, and acts are in perfect
consistency and harmony with His own
nature and in energetic opposition to
everything hot in conformity therewith.”
(A. L. Graebner.) 1 Pet. 1, 16; Ps.
145, 17 ; Ex. 20, 26. In this sense God
alone is holy. His love is a holy love;;
His thoughts are holy thoughts; His
will is a holy will; His acts are holy
acts — inasmuch as they are divine, in
perfect consistency and harmony with
His divine nature. And thus God is the
Source and Norm of all holiness, all
things being sanctified as they are made
His own and dedicated to His service.
Since holiness is that purity which ex-
cludes everything that would defile, the
holiness of God places Him in direct op-
position to everything that is not in con-
formity with His nature. The wrath of
God over sin is an exertion of His holi-
ness. Rom. 1, 18 ff. — Justice is that
quality in God by Teason of which He
legislates justly, His laws being the per-
fect expression of His holy will. He is
true to His promises and will exact judg-
ment in accordance with the principles
of right. He is, indeed, Himself that
principle; and being consistent with
Himself, He is righteous, Deut. 32, 4; Ps.
19, 9. In His justice God has promul-
gated laws which are perfect. When
they arc transgressed, His justice de-
God
J294 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
mands punishment, and it vicarious
atonement is made, it must consist of
full satisfaction. The justice of God
takes into account the manner and meas-
ure of sin committed. Matt. 11, 21 ft. ;
Luke 12, 47. The purpose of those pun-
ishments which justice inflicts is retri-
bution. Heb. 2, 2. But also the fulfil-
ment of divine promises is exhibited as
justice; what is in another respect cred-
ited to the grace of God, the Savior of
sinners, is also referred to the righteous-
ness of God, the Judge of the quick and
the dead, to the justice of Him who will
stand by His word and promise. Is.
54,10; 2 Tim. 4, 8. — God is Truth inas-
much as what He does is in agreement
with what He says or promises. There
is in Him no discrepancy between His
will and His words. There is no change
of will in God which might put Him at
variance with His promises. Human
promises often fail of fulfilment, whereas
in God there is no such shortcoming or
discrepancy, and therefore hope based
upon His promises is never vain. Thus,
as God is at all times and everywhere
Himself, His words are at all times -and
in every instance the words of God, who
cannot lie.
The goodness of God is in Scripture
exhibited in four aspects, as love, be-
nevolence, grace, and mercy. “God is
Love inasmuch as He longs for, and de-
lights in, union and communion with the
objects of His holy desire.” (A. L. Graeb-
ner.) That world which is the object of
His love was a lost world; yet Qod
would not have His creatures perish and
He longs for reunion with them. John
3, 16. He yearns in bitter anguish for
the children which have gone astray.
Is. 1, 2 — 5; 49, 15 f. Yet it is a holy
desire; God cannot have communion
with those who are separated from Him
by sin. To make them His own and
unite them with Himself, He wrought a
redemption. Is. 43, 1. — The benevolence
of God is that kindness by which He
provides for the wants of His creatures.
Ps. 104, 27 f. Especially does He desire
to promote the happiness of men, and
hence He formed the plan of salvation.
— “God is gracious inasmuch as He of-
fers and confers His blessings regardless
of the merits or demerits of the objects
of His benevolence.” Rom. 6, 23; • Eph.
2, 8 f. That aspect of goodness by which
He has compassion with the afflicted anfl
bestows His benefits upon the miserable
is called mercy. His mercy is plefiteous
and abundant and extends over all who
suffer trouble and affliction, whether
physical, mental, or spiritual, Ps. 68, 5;
Js. 49, 13.
Finally, there is ascribed to God that
attribute by reason of which He can per-
form, and actually does perform, what-
ever He has purposed — His power. Ps.
115, 3; 135, 6. Yet, when exerted through
certain means, according to an estab-
lished order, this divine power may be
resisted by man. Thus in the means of
grace the power of God operates in a
certain established order peculiar to
these operations and may by the oppo-
site resistance of the evil will of man be
prevented from producing its intended
blessed effect. — For works of God see
Conversion, Creation, Election, Judg-
ment, Redemption, Resurrection, Revela-
tion, and Sanctification.
Godet, Frederic Louis, 1812 — 1900;
Swiss Reformed ; native of Neuchiltel ;
tutor to crown prince of Prussia 1838 to
1844; pastor at Ncuchfitel; professor
there in the theological school of the
Established Church; then, 1873, in that
of the Free Church. Commentaries on
gospels of John and Luke, on Romans,
First Corinthians; etc.
Goenner, Johann Jakob; b. May 11,
1807; called, in 1843, as first full-time
professor at Concordia College, then at
Altenburg, Mo., be moved with the in-
stitution to St. Louis in 1849, retiring
on account of illness 1861; d. Janu-
ary 25, 1864.
Goerres, Joseph; b. 1776 at Coblenz;
in his earlier years a warm advocate of
the ideas of the French Revolution;
later, as professor of history at Munich,
an equally ardent champion of ultra-
montanism; deplored the Reformation
as a second fall and urged a revival of
medievalism; d. in 1848.
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von;
b. 1749 in Frankfurt a. M.; d. 1832 at
Weimar; greatest* German poet. Al-
though during his earlier life favorably
disposed to Christianity, he later became
impatient with Christian demands of
self- and world-denial and inclined to-
ward a pantheistic worship of nature as
well as toward a worship of classical
antiquity, fostered mainly by the fasci-
nation which the paganism of the an-
cient Greek and Roman world exerted
upon him during his travels in Italy,
1786 — 8. As he had no true conception
of the real character of sin, he had no
appreciation of the Christian doctrine of
redemption. Redemption to him was
merely self-redemption, which, in ac-
cordance >vith the pantheistic aspect of
his religion, is achieved by striving to
comprehend the secrets of nature and to
penetrate to the essence of things, as
Faust tried to do. That is salvation by
(■old Coast
295
Good Works
works, as lie says in Faust, that “he may
be. redeemed who strives and labors”
(“Wer immer strebend sieli bemuelit,
den koennen wir erloesen”). Goethe
was essentially a rationalist, as was
Kant, and though he endeavored to pene-
trate into the realm of the eternal, he
failed in the attempt.
Gold Coast. A British crown colony
in West Africa, on the Gulf of Guinea.
Area of the colony, Ashanti, and Pro-
tectorate, ca. 80,000 gq. mi. Population,
1,600,000, chiefly of the Akkra and Tshi
(Ashanti) tribes, which are steeped in
fetishism of incredible cruelty, even
practising human sacrifices. First mis-
sionary, Rev. Thomas Thompson, sent by
the S. P. G. in 1751. Missions: Ameri-
can African Methodist Episcopal Zion
Church, Burning Bush Mission, Seventh-
day Adventists, Salvation Army, Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel, Wes-
leyan Missionary Society. The United
Free Church of Scotland now conducts
the former Basel Missions. Statistics:
Foreign staff, 81 ; Christian community,
146,112,- communicants, 59,764.
Golden Rose. A costly ornament,
blessed by the Pope every year on Lae-
tare Sunday and often sent to Catholic
sovereigns, churches, or communities as
a token of esteem. The custom probably
dates back to the 11th century. The or-
nament, originally a single rose, now
consists of a branch of roses, all of pure
gold, sometimes worth several thousand
dollars. Henry VIII received three golden
roses, and in 1518 one was bestowed on
the Elector Frederick the Wise to make
him proceed against Luther.
Good Samaritans, Independent Or-
der of, and Daughters of Samaria.
History. The Independent Order of Good
Samaritans (white) was organized at
New York City, March 9, 1847. A Grand
Lodge was formed there September 14,
1 847, by representatives of five lodges
from New York and New Jersey. On
December 9, 1847, the first lodge of the
Daughters of Samaria was organized at
New York as an auxiliary order for
women. At the first meeting of the
Grand Lodge, September 14, 1847, a
charter was granted to I. W. B. Smith
and others to institute a lodge of colored
members. — Purpose. The Independent
Order of Good Samaritans was organ-
ized, as a true descendant of the Sons of
Temperance, “to aid in the work of res-
cuing people from the temptation of
using strong drink.” But it is educa-
tional as well as benevolent in its ob-
jects and has beneficiary features, in-
cluding the payment of death-, sick-,
disability-, old age-, and annuity-benefits.
— Character. This order is, in tile strict-
est sense of the term, a secret society,
or lodge, having all the characteristics
of a lodge, such as the oath of secrecy,
a ritual, forms of worship, etc. Its em-
blem is the triangle, enclosing the dove
and olive-branch, with the words “Love,
Purity, and Truth” on its three sides,
symbolizing perfection, equality, and the
Trinity.- — Membership. The order claims
to have initiated 400,000 members; its
lodges are found in nearly .all the States
of the Union and in England. Head-
quarters: Washington, D. C.
Good Sh.eph.erd, Sisters of. See
Sisterhoods.
Good Works. In the Biblical and
proper usage of the term the outflow and
fruit of faith, especially in the outward
deeds of the believers, performed by them
for love of Christ and God and in agree-
ment with the Word and will of God.
Every good thing that a Christian says
and does, and every act by which he
omits something evil, as an evidence of
the divine life of faith in his heart, is
a good work. “We are His workman-
ship, created in Christ Jesus unto good
works, which God hath before ordained
that we should walk in them." Eph.
2, 10. “Who gave Himself for us that
lie might redeem us from all iniquity
and purify unto Himself a peculiar
people, zealous of good works.” Titus
2, 14. “The God of peace . . . make you
perfect in every good work to do His
will, working in you that which is well-'
pleasing in His sight.” Heb. 13, 20. 21.
Good works, properly speaking, are not
the believer’s own performance, but tlie
works of God in and through him; God
gives both the incentive and the power
for the performance of works that are
well-pleasing in His sight. “I am the
Vine, ye are the branches. He that
abideth in Me and I in him, the same
bringeth forth much fruit; for without
Me ye can do nothing.” John 15, 5.
“And God is able to make all grace
abound toward you, that ye, always hav-
ing all sufficiency in all things, may
abound to every good work.” 2 Cor. 9, 8.
Good works are to be done for the pur-
pose of exercising the believer in god-
liness and for spreading abroad the glory
of God. “To them who by patient con-
tinuance in well-doing seek for glory and
honor and immortality, eternal life.”
Rom. 2, 7. “Work out your own salva-
tion with fear and trembling; for it is
God which worketh in you both to will
and to do of His good pleasure.” Phil.
2, 12. 13. “Let your light so shine before
men that they may see your good works
Good Works
Gospel
206
and glorify your Father which is in
heaven.” Matt. 5, 16. — It is true, of
course, that, due to the presence of sin,
of the natural depravity, the works of
the believers are not in themselves per-
fect, either in their inception or in their
fruition. “To will is present with me,
but how to perform that which is good
I find not. For the good that I would
I do not; but the evil which I. would
not, that I do.” Rom. 7, 18. 19. But
these flaws, imperfections, and frailties
connected with the good works of the
believers have been atoned for by Christ
Jesus, for whose sake God looks upon
these works, and upon those who perform
them, as perfect. “There is therefore
now no condemnation to them which are
in Christ Jesus, who walk not after the
flesh, but after the Spirit. ... If Christ
be in you, the body is dead because of
sin; but the Spirit is life because of
righteousness.” Rom. 8, 1. 10. — In direct
contrast to the good works of believers
we have the fictitious good works of men
who have no faith, but whose outward
behavior in many instances resembles
that of the Christians. If these works
are an outflow of an attempt to merit
righteousness before God, as in the pen-
ances of the Roman Church and in all
other self-appointed forms of religion,
they defeat their own end. Such works
are the basis of every false religion.
The Lutheran Confessions say: “With-
out Christ, without faith, and without
the Holy Ghost men are in the power of
the devil, who drives men to manifold
and open crimes.” {Form. Cone., II, 29.
Cone. Trigl., 893.) It is true that we
distinguish a certain form of civic right-
eousness, with certain virtues connected
with the outward maintenance of civic
authority in the world, such as obedience
to the laws, honesty in business, etc. It
is true, also, that man has a free will to
choose such outward manifestations and
civic virtues and that they are often re-
warded by a measure of wealth and
honor in the world. But such exhibi-
tions are not necessarily connected with
a regenerated heart; they may be the
outflow of natural altruism and even of
the most extreme selfishness. They have
nothing in common, therefore, with the
essence of good works as found in the
lives of Christians. — That the good
works of the believers, in themselves,
merit no reward is evident from the pas-
sages adduced above. Where the Bible
speaks of such rewards, it is evident that
a reward of mercy is meant. God looks
upon the imperfect good works of the
believers, on account of the perfect obe-
dience of Christ, as though they were in
themselves good and perfect. In this
sense the good works will also serve as
a criterion on the Last Day to prove the
presence of faith. For, while good works
are not necessary for salvation, as Georg
Major (g. v.) taught shortly after Lu-
ther’s death, they are a necessary fruit
and proof of faith, and the Lutheran
Church has been unjustly accused of set-
ting aside good works and a life of sanc-
tification. See Apology of the Augsburg
Confession, Art. XJC; Formula of Con-
cord, Art. IV.
Gospel. Gospel is derived from “good
spell,” Anglo-Saxon for “good message.”
It is the translation of a Greek word
discoverable in the synonymous “evan-
gel.” A more recent etymology derives
the word from “godspell,” meaning “God-
story.” The source of the Christian
usage of “evangel” is found in Is. 61, 1 :
“The Lord has anointed Me to preach
good tidings unto the meek.” Jesus
made this text the Bubject of His sermon
at Nazareth. Luke 4, 18. He identified
Himself with the preacher of good tid-
ings and thereafter appropriated the
term “evangel,” or “gospel,” to His mes-
sage of salvation. See, for instance,
Matt. 24, 14; Mark 1, 16, and Luke 7, 22.
Not all the preaching of Christ, was, of
course, Gospel. The evangelists distin-
guish between “teaching” and “preach-
ing the Gospel." The Sermon on the
Mount was Gospel in the wider sense
only, since it does not reveal what God
does for our redemption, but describes
the God-pleasing life in a series of evan-
gelical admonitions. (See Law and Gos-
pel.) The Gospel is not simply a “new
idea of God,” or the revelation that God
is our Father. If anything is plain from
Jesus’ own words, it is the identification
of His own Father with the God of an-
cient Israel. The Gospel is rather the
message of good will, by which the par-
don procured for all men through the
atoning work of Christ is announced to
the world. It is termed “the Gospel of
the grace of God,” Acts 20, 24, because it
flows from God’s free love and mercy;
“the Gospel of Christ,” Rom. 1, 16, be-
cause Jesus Christ is the heart and cen-
ter of it; the “Gospel of peace and sal-
vation,” Rom. 11, 16; Eph. 1, 13, because
it publishes peace with God to the peni-
tent and believing, and is the means of
their salvation, temporal and eternal.
The phrase “Gospel of the Kingdom”
describes the message of Jesus inasmuch
as it announces and, indeed, establishes
the kingdom of God on earth. (See
Kingdom of God.) This “Gospel of the
Kingdom,” misinterpreted, is stressed by
modern rationalism with utter exclusion
Gosaner, Johannes Evangelista 207 Gotteaknsten, Lntheriacher
of those elements which constitute the
essential message of the Christian
Church. Under the term “social gospel”
Modernism emphasizes the moral prin-
ciples contained in Christ’s teaching
and applies them not so much to per-
sonal conduct as to social life and human
relations. Naturalistic theology, by its
“social gospel,” eliminates the message
of grace resting on Christ’s atonement
and is for this reason a perversion and
denial of salvation through faith and,
hence, of essential Christianity.
Gossner, Johannes Evangelista;
b. December 14, 1773, at Hausen;
d. March 20, 1858, in Berlin. He re-
nounced the Roman Catholic Church and
took a pastoral charge in Berlin (1829).
He is the founder of the great Mission
Society that bears his name ( Berlin II ) .
For many years he was its head and
directed its policy. Many of his methods
did not stand the test of time.
Gossner Missionary Society ( Goss ■
nerache Misaionagesellsehaft ) , for short
“Berlin II”; founded by Johann Evan-
gelista Gossner ( q . v.), 1836, at Berlin,
Germany, influenced by Spittler and the
Moravians. Gossner separated from the
Berlin Missionary Society, believing that
a different missionary policy at home
and on the field should be observed,
namely, that missionaries should, like
Paul, support themselves by manual
labor. Accordingly he sought and sent
artisans, who were expected to witness
for Christ by word and deed. Later he
appears to have admitted that higher
educational standards are also desirable.
Work was begun in India and in Africa.
Extraordinary successes were obtained
in India among the Kols. Neither field
could be worked during and since the
World War. The Christians among the
Kols in Bihar and Orissa, after some
vicissitudes, succeeded in organizing an
autonomous Church, 1919, which is fos-
tered by the United Lutheran Church in
America. The Ganges Mission was split
up between the English Baptist Mis-
sionary Society, the Regions Beyond
Missionary Union, the Church Mission-
ary Society for Africa and the East, and
the Methodist Episcopal Church Foreign
Missionary Society. The work in the
ICamerun was discontinued.
Gotama (Sanskrit: Gautama), family
name of Siddhartha, son of the raja of
the Sakya clan in the Ganges Valley,
northeast of Benares; b. ca. 560 B. C.
Founder of Buddhism. At twenty-nine,
prompted by reflecting upon the frailty
of human life, he renounced the succession
to the throne and left wife and infant
child (called by Buddhists “The Great
Renunciation”), becoming a wandering
mendicant. After the study of Brah-
manic philosophy and six years of severe
asceticism had failed to satisfy him, he
received a vision whereby he became
Buddha, i. e., the “Enlightened One.” In
Buddhist terminology a Buddha is one
who through knowledge of the truth and
by overcoming all sin has escaped com-
pletely the burdens and pains of exist-
ence and then preaches the true doctrine
to the world. The number of Buddhas
is untold, the last historic one being
Gotama. After his enlightenment, Go-
tama traveled about, preaching salva-
tion, and organized a mendicant order
for his followers. He died at eighty.
For his teachings and their relation to
Brahmanism see Buddhism.
Goths, Conversion of. The Goths,
an East-Germanic tribe, had originally
lived along the Lower Vistula, near the
Baltic Sea. From here they moved to
the north shore of the Black Sea, com-
ing in conflict with the decaying power
of the Roman Empire in the second half
of the second century A. D. Christian
influence is noticeable among them after
276 A. D., but it was not till the time of
Ulfilas, or Wulfilas (q. v.), that Chris-
tianity was formally established among
them. This was between 341 and 380.
The translation of the Bible into Gothic
was an important factor in bringing
about the conversion of the Goths. Un-
fortunately, Arianism got a foothold
among the Goths, and their subsequent
westward migration (Visigoths in France,
Ostrogoths in Italy) spread the error far
and wide. The end of the Visigothic
power came in 711, when they were over-
whelmed by the Arabs.
Gotter, Ludwig Andreas, 1661 to
1735, privy secretary, later Hof rat at
Gotha; tendencies toward pietism; one
of best hymn -writers of the period;
wrote “Herr Jesu, Gnadensonne.”
Gotteskasten, Lutherischer. The
name of a number of societies of pro-
fessed Lutheran character in Germany,
organized with the avowed intention of
replacing the Gustav-Adolf-Verein, which
had similar aims, but had become de-
cidedly unionistic in tendency. The
movement began in 1843; but the first
society was not organized till 1851, in
Hanover, this being followed by others
in Mecklenburg, Saxony, Prussia. Bava-
ria, and elsewhere. The main object of
the societies is to take care of Lutherans
in the so-called diaspora, that is, those
outside of Germany, chiefly by providing
them with ministers, but also for related
Guttsclialk
298
Grace, Means of
purposes, such as the training of pastors
and the erection of churches.
Gottschalk. See Predestinarian Con-
troversy.
Gottschalk, Louis Moreftu, 1829 to
1869; studied in Paris under Hallo,
Stamaty, and Maleden ; brilliant pianist;
tours in Prance, Switzerland, Spain, the
United States, and South America; some
sacred music, including songs.
Gotwald, L. A., 1833 — 1900; Ameri-
can Lutheran theologian and educator;
educated at Gettysburg; pastor till 1888,
then professor of practical theology in
Wittenberg Seminary till 1895; was
tried by college directors for being too
conservative, 1893.
Gounod, Charles-Francois, 1818 to
1893; studied at Paris Conservatory and
at Rome (ecclesiastical music, especially
that of Palestrina) ; lived in Paris as
organist, composer, and conductor; many
sacred compositions, including oratorios
(The Redemption ) and cantatas, espe-
cially masses.
Grace. The good will and favor shown
to one who can plead.no merit, but only
his needs; particularly, the love of God
in its relation to the sinner as such.
There may be love, but not grace, be-
tween equals or between a judge and an
innocent person. Between such there
may be a relation of love or one of
equity; but the quality of grace implies
mercy or the feeling of compassion for
one who has by every right forfeited his
claim upon our love. Such is the grace
of God to the sinner. It is called “free”
grace because it is not grounded in any
worthiness of man (Letter to the Ro-
mans). Any admixture of merit or de-
serts, as constituting a claim upon
mercy, destroys the very idea of grace.
Merit and grace are mutually exclusive.
Grace is universal. The entire world
is its object. God became incarnate in
Christ for the benefit of all men; He
died for the atonement of the sins of
all; all have been pronounced righteous
through His resurrection; the invita-
tion, or call, of grace is intended for all.
No one is excluded from the salvation
which grace has provided. (For the
wrong view see Calvinism.)
The grace of God is revealed 1) in the
sending of His Son into the flesh, 2) in
the justification of the sinner who ac-
cepts .Tesus Christ as his Substitute in
the Judgment, and in the conversion of
the sinner, and 3) in his glorification
(resurrection, eternal life). It is this
doctrine of grace (lmt gives assurance to
the faith of the Christian believer. Its
promises are certain.
Grace is resistible, since it is offered
to us through certain means. (See
Grace , Means of.) Hence the constant
warning of Scripture not to reject salva-
tion; hence, also, in the experience of
the Christian congregation the sad lapses
from faith.
Saving grace, in Christian theology,
has been distinguished in its various
operations as “prevenient,” inasmuch as
by means of outward circumstances and
associations, particularly through the
outward hearing of the Word; the Holy
Spirit would prepare the heart for con-
version; ; as “operative,” inasmuch as
it generates faith; as “cooperative,” in-
asmuch as it is active in the Christian,
jointly with the regenerated will, unto
the production of good works.
Scripture also employs the word
“grace” in .the sense of a gift possessed
by man, as 1 Pet. 4, 10. This, properly
a result of divine grace and not, as in
its original sense, a divine quality or
attitude, has been called “infused grace.”
The Roman Church teaches justification
by “infused grace,” or human conduct,
and by doing so destroys the essence of
the Scriptural doctrine of grace.
Grace, Means of. The special means
which God has appointed for the be-
stowal of salvation, hence, the Word of
God and the Sacraments. In the strict-
est sense the instrument of grace is one
only, viz., the Word of God, since it is
the Word which makes a sacrament of
Baptism and the Lord's Supper. (See
Sacraments.) On account of the empha-
sis laid upon the Word in the Confes-
sions of the Lutheran Church, the Holy
Scriptures have been called the Formal
Principle of the Reformation. Not only
lias Scripture alone normative authority
in matters of faith and conduct, but all
the regenerative influences of the Holy
Spirit operate through the Word, and
through the Word alone. The Reformed
doctrine of Predestination excludes the
idea of means which impart the Spirit
and Ilis gifts to men; the Spirit work-
ing effectively only upon the elect, ac-
cording to the system of Calvin. Hence
even in the earliest (Zwinglian) days
Reformed theology substituted for the
external Word, as means of grace, an
“inner word,” through which alone the
Spirit is believed to work. Hence, too,
the lack of emphasis, even in the best
of Reformed preaching, upon the divine
Word as the vehicle of regenerating
grace and on the Sacraments. The office
of the Word, then, is merely to point to
the way of life, without communicating
that of which it conveys the idea. The
Word and the Sacraments are declared
Grace, Means of
299
< i rni-e, Means of
to be necessary; their office in the
Church is a divine institution; hut they
are only symbols of what the Spirit does
within; and the Spirit works imme-
diately and irresistibly. From these no-
tions, already contained in Zwingli’s
Method of Faith , it was only another
step to the so-called enthusiast (fanat-
ical, Schwaermer } doctrine of the Ana-
baptists and of many sects since their
day regarding the “inner light,” gener-
ally identified with the “baptism of the
Holy Spirit” and the “second conver-
sion.” The crudest extravagances of
revivalism (Methodism, Pentecostalism,
Holy Rollerism) have their root in this
specifically Reformed doctrine of the
immediate working of the Holy Spirit.
As against this idea of operations of
the Holy Spirit without the Word, on
the one hand, and as against the Roman
doctrine of a magic (ex opere operato)
operation of the Sacraments, on the
other, the Lutheran Church teaches the
uniform and constant efficacy of the
Holy Spirit in and through the external
Word, the preaching of the Gospel
(spoken Word, Verbum aiulibile ) and
the Sacraments (visible Word, Verbum
visibile) . — The doctrine of the means
of grace is a peculiar glory of Lutheran
theology. To this central teaching it
owes its sanity and strong appeal, its
freedom from sectarian tendencies and
morbid fanaticism, its coherence and
practicalness, and its adaptation to men
of every race and every degree of cul-
ture. The Lutheran Confessions bring
out with great clearness the thought of
the Reformers upon this subject. Ac-
cording to Lutheran doctrine the means
of grace are — 1) Unchangeable. The
emphasis of Luther upon purity of doc-
trine is accounted for by the fact that
he regarded the Word as bound up with
human salvation. Were the Spirit as-
sumed to work immediately, there would
he no need of urging purity of doctrine.
2) Sufficient. The Roman Church has
added live saeraments to the Scriptural
two and supplements the apostolic doc-
trine by the traditions of the Church.
The Reformed look upon prayer, giving,
“service,” as means of grace. 3) Effica-
cious. The efficacy of Word and Sacra-
ments is not conditioned upon the per-
sonal faith of the administrator, upon
his ordination, or upon his personal en-
dowment, nor upon the intention of the
priest “to do what the Church does”
(Rome). While it is true that the
hearer of the Word as well as the com-
municant and the subject of Baptism
derive no benefit from the means of grace
unless they have faith, it does not fol-
low that faith makes the limans of
grace effective. The Word is a living
Word, the Sacraments true Sacraments
(Christ’s body and blood really present
in the Lord’s Supper), under all circum-
. stances.
Among the statements of the Lutheran
Symbols bearing on this subject, the fol-
lowing are generally regarded as the
most notable : “That we may obtain this
faith, the Ministry of Teaching the Gos-
pel and administering the Sacraments
was instituted. For through the Word
and Sacraments, as through instruments,
the Holy Ghost is given, who works
faith, where and when it pleases God, in
them that hear the Gospel, to wit, that
God, not for our own merits, but for
Christ’s sake, justifies those who believe
that they are received into grace for
Christ’s sake. They condemn the Ana-
baptists and others who think that
the Holy Ghost comes to men without
the external Word, through their own
preparations and works.” (Augsb. Conf.,
Art. V. Gone. Trigl., p. 45.) — “In those
tilings which concern the spoken, out-
ward Word we must firmly hold that
God grants His Spirit or grace to no
one except through or with the preced-
ing outward Word, in order that we may
[thus] be protected against the enthu-
siasts, i. e., spirits who boast that they
have the Spirit without and before the
Word and accordingly judge Scripture
or the spoken Word, and explain and
stretch it at their pleasure.” (Smalc.
Art., III, 8. Gone. Trigl., p.495.) - — “We
ought and must constantly maintain
this point, that God does not wish to
deal with us otherwise than through the
spoken Word and the Sacraments. It is
the devil himself whatsoever is extolled
as Spirit without the Word and Sacra-
ments.” (lb., p. 497.) — “I believe that
there is upon earth a little holy group
and congregation of pure saints under
one Head, even Christ, called together
by the Holy Ghost in one faith, one
mind, and understanding, with manifold
gifts, yet agreeing in love, without sects
or schisms. I am also a part and mem-
ber of the same, a sharer and joint owner
of all the goods it possesses, brought *to
it and incorporated into it by the Holy
Ghost by having heard, and continuing
to hear, the Word of God, which is
the beginning of entering it.” (Large
Catechism; Creed, Art. III. Cone. Trigl.
p. 691.) — “Both the ancient and modern
enthusiasts have taught that God con-
verts men and leads them to the saving
knowledge of Christ through His Spirit,
without any created means and instru-
ment, that is, without the external
Gradoale
300
Gianmmi, Johann
preaching and hearing of God’s Word.”
(Form. Cone., Art. II. Gone. Trigl., p. 881.)
“The enthusiasts, since they can do noth-
ing in these spiritual things, but every-
thing is the operation of God the Holy
Ghost alone, they will regard, hear, or
read neither the Word nor the Sacra-
ments, but wait until God, without
means, instils into them His gifts from
heaven, so that they can truly feel and
perceive in themselves that God has con-
verted them.” (/&., p. 899.) — “And by
this means, and in no other way,
namely, through His holy Word, when
men hear it preached or read it, and the
holy Sacraments, when they are used ac-
cording to His Word, God desires to call
men to eternal salvation, draw them to
Himself, and convert, regenerate, and
sanctify them.” 1 Cor. 1, 21 ; Acts 10,
5. 6; Rom. 10, 17; John 17, 17. 20. (76.,
p. 901.) — “The declaration, John 6, 44,
that no one can come to Christ except
the Father draw him, is right and true.
However, the Father will not do this
without means, but has ordained for
this purpose His Word and Sacraments
as ordinary means and instruments; and
it is the will neither of the Father nor
of the Son that a man should not hear
or should despise the preaching of His
Word and wait for the drawing of the
Father without the Word and Sacra-
ments. For the Father draws indeed by
the power of the Holy Ghost, however,
according to His usual order (the order
decreed and instituted by Himself), by
the hearing of His holy divine Word, as
with a net, by which the elect are
plucked from the jaws of the devil.
Every poor sinner should therefore re-
pair thereto [to holy preaching], hear
it attentively, and not doubt the drawing
of the Father. For the Holy Ghost will
be with His Word in His power and
work by it; and that is the drawing
of the Father.” [Form. Gone., Art. XI.
Gone. Trigl., p. 1087 f. )
Graduale. See Liturgy.
Gradualia. See Hymn.
Graebner, August L.; b. July 10,
1849, at Frankentrost, Mich.; d. at
St. Louis, Mo., December 7, 1904. An
eminent theologian of the American Lu-
theran Church. He was early designated
for the service in the Church. The plas-
tic years of his youth were spent at
Frankentrost and Roseville, Mich., and
in St. Charles, Mo. A graduate of Con-
cordia College, Fort Wayne, and of Con-
cordia Seminary, St. Louis, he became a
teacher at the Lutheran High School
(later called Walther College), St. Louis,
in 1872. Three years later he accepted
a professorship at Northwestern College,
a Wisconsin Synod institution at Water-
town. In 1878 that synod elected him
to a chair at its newly founded semi-
nary at Milwaukee. In 1887 he was
called to the chair of Church History at
Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, as suc-
cessor to the sainted Prof. G. Schaller.
After the death of Prof. R. Lange, head
of the English Department, he lectured
on Dogmatic Theology. Both as his-
torian and dogmatician he rendered dis-
tinguished services to his Church. His
Lutherbueehlein and the more imposing
Dr. Martin lAither: Ein Lebensbild des
Iteformators are works of high excel-
lence, and his monumental Geschichte
der Lutherischen Kirehe in Amerika, the
fruit of indefatigable investigation and
research in Lutheran centers of the East,
has stood the test of time. His thor-
ough, though unique, Doctrinal Theology,
a brief thetical compend of the outlines
of Christian doctrine, is still highly
esteemed. He was the founder of the
Theological Quarterly, a publication at-
testing on every page his erudition,
eloquence, and, above all, his strict fidel-
ity to Scripture and the Lutheran Con-
fessions. He contributed numerous ar-
ticles for other synodical periodicals,
frequently led the doctrinal discussions
at synodical conventions, and was active
as a member of the Board for Foreign
Missions. He was generally recognized
as a scholar of universal learning. In
1903 the theological seminary of the Nor-
wegian Synod conferred upon him the
honorary degree of Doctor of Divinity.
In 1902 he visited the Lutheran churches
in Australia and New Zealand.
Graebner, John Henry Philip; born
July 7, 1819; d. May 27, 1898. Under
Loehe’s direction he emigrated in 1847
with a company of Franconians, estab-
lishing a colony at Frankentrost, Mich.
Pastor at Roseville, Mich., in 1853, also
serving Mount Clemens. Called to St.
Charles, Mo., in 1859, he labored faith-
fully there for many years.
Graebner, William Henry; b. Rose-
ville, Mich., April 2, 1854; educated at
the Addison Teachers’ Seminary; parish-
school teacher at Bay City and Milwau-
kee for nineteen years; entered business
at Milwaukee; served the Wisconsin
Synod and the Joint Synod of Wisconsin
and Other States many years as treas-
urer and member of boards.
Graebner, Th. See Roster at end of
book.
Grail, Holy. See Holy Grail.
Gramann, Johann (Poliander), 1487
to 1541; gained for the cause of the
Grand Army of the Republic 301
Grant, Robert
Reformation at the Leipzig Debate,
where he was Eck’s secretary; preacher
at Wuerzburg, later at Nuremberg; pas-
tor at Koenigsberg from 1525 to his
death : wrote a poetical version of
Ps. 103: ‘“Nun lob, mein’ Seel’, den Her-
ren,” the oldest hymn of praise of the
Lutheran Church.
Grand Army of the Republic. His-
tory. An organization of Union soldiers
and sailors of the Civil War, founded by
B. F. Stephenson at Springfield, 111., in
1866. — Purpose. Its chief objects were
“to preserve and strengthen the kind and
fraternal feelings which bound together
the soldiers and marines in the Civil
War, to perpetuate the memory of the
dead, give mutual assistance and aid,
true allegiance to the Constitution and
laws of the United States, to discounte-
nance disloyalty and insurrection, and
to encourage the spread of universal
liberty, equal rights, and justice to all
men.” — Character. Like all secret so-
cieties, the G. A. R. has its oath of se-
crecy, its ritual, its chaplains, etc. Its
“obligation” reads in part: “I do sol-
emnly swear, in the presence of Al-
mighty God and these witnesses, my for-
mer companions in arms, that I will
never, under any pretense nor for any
purpose whatever, expose the secrets of
this Encampment; that I will never
make known, or cause to be made known,
any of the hidden mysteries, work, or
ritual of this band of comrades, whereby
the same may come to the knowledge of
the uninitiated. ... I do further swear
that I take this obligation upon myself
without mental reservation or equivoca-
tion, under no less a penalty than that
of being treated and punished as a trai-
tor by this order. So help me God and
keep me steadfast!” From the Service
Book of the G. A. R. we take the follow-
ing part of the chaplain’s address for the
“Burial of the Dead”: “It seems well
that we should leave our comrade to rest
where over him will bend the arching
sky, as it did in great love when he
pitched his tent or lay down, weary and
footsore, by the way or on the battle-
field for an hour’s sleep. As he was
then, so he is still — in the hands of the
heavenly Father. ‘God giveth His be-
loved sleep.’ As we lay our comrade
down to rest, let us cherish his virtues
and learn to imitate them. . . . Let each
one be so loyal to every virtue, so true
to every friendship, so faithful in our
remaining marches, that we shall be
ready to fall out, to take our places at
the great review hereafter, not with
doubt, but in faith that the merciful
Captain of our salvation will call us to
that fraternity which, on earth and in
heaven, remains unbroken. Jesus said,
‘Thy brother shall rise again. I am the
Resurrection and the Life.’ Behold, the
silver cord is loosed, tte golden bowl is
broken ; we commit the body to the
grave, where dust shall return to earth
and the spirit to God, who gave it.
Earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to
dust, looking for the resurrection and
the life to come through our Lord Jesus
Christ.” The following prayer is from
the “Memorial Day Service": “Almighty
God, in the name of our Lord Jesus
Christ, who brought life and immortality
to light, we bow before Thee on this
Memorial Day. . . . And to the end that
all for which we pray may be wrought in
ns effectually, grant, 0 God, that by Thy
grace we may be enlisted in Thy great
army of the redeemed, under Jesus
Christ, the Captain of our salvation.
Amen.” — Organization. The Grand Army
of the Republic was organized chiefly
by Odd-Fellows and Freemasons and is
largely made up of members of these
orders. The various army posts are
under the rule of the National Encamp-
ment. The ritual is derived from that
of the old Soldiers’ and Sailors’ League.
— Membership. The Grand Army has
played quite a rOle in politics, but is
now rapidly declining. In 1923 the total
membership was given at 93,171.
Grand Army of the Republic, Re-
lief Corps, Women’s National. His-
tory. This is a female auxiliary to the
Grand Army of the Republic, founded
in Portland, Me., in 1869. The title
“Women’s Relief Corps” appeared when
the first state organization of these
societies was formed at Fitchburg, Mass.,
in April, 1879. In 1881 the National
Encampment of the Grand Army ap-
proved the work of the Women’s Relief
Corps, authorizing it to add to its title
“Auxiliary to the Grand Army of the
Republic.” At the National Encamp-
ment held at Denver, Colo., in 1881,
the various national organizations were
united into the Women’s National Relief
Corps and organized on the same lines
as the Grand Army. — Purpose. The
objects of the Women’s Relief Corps are,
mainly, “to aid and assist the Grand
Army of the Republic and to perpetuate
the memory of their heroic dead and to
assist such Union veterans as need pro-
tection and to extend needful aid to their
widows and orphans.” The total amount
expended for relief has been nearly
$1,500,000. Membership, ca. 225,000.
Grant, Robert, 1785 — 1838; educated
at Cambridge; admitted to the bar in
Graul, Karl
302
Greek Oliureli
1807 ; served in political and diplomatic
positions, at last as governor of Bom-
bay; most popular hymn: “Savior,
when in Dust to Thee.”
Graul, Karl, Lutheran theologian ;
b. February 6, 1814, at Woerlitz; d. No-
vember 10, 1864, at Erlangen. He was
called into the directorship of the Dres-
den-Leipzig Missionary Society in 1844,
serving until 1860. From 1849 to 1853
he was in India, acquainting himself
fully with mission problems and master-
ing the Tamil language. Much opposi-
tion was aroused by his treatment of
the caste question.
Gray, James Martin, 1851 — ; b. in
New York City; minister of Reformed
Episcopal Church; dean of Moody Bible
Institute; contributor to International
Standard Bible Encyclopedia; wrote An-
tidote to Christian Science, etc.
Great Awakening in England and
America. A religious revival almost in
the nature of an epidemic, due chiefly to
the work of the Wesleys in England and
to that of George Whitefield and Jona-
than Edwards in America. Due to the
character of the preaching affected by
these hortatory evangelists, great masses
of people were aroused to a very high
pitch of excitement, declaring their will-
ingness to become members of the Church
under circumstances of almost patholog-
ical intensity. After the death of the
prime movers the excitement abated.
Greece. A peninsula in Southeastern
Europe, divided, by the Corinthian Gulf,
into two sections, Hellas, the northern,
and Peloponnesus, the southern part,
from about the fifth century B. C. till
the second century A. D. the seat of an
advanced classical civilization, but with
all the attendant evils of an idolatrous
heathenism, in which its foremost cities
at the beginning of the Christian era,
Athens and Corinth, together with the
Macedonian cities Philippi and Thessa-
lonica, excelled. Christianity was estab-
lished here in exactly the middle of the
first century, when the Apostle Paul be-
gan his work at Philippi. The country
is still nominally Christian, the Greek
Orthodox Church being the established
religion. See Greek Church.
Greek. See Ancient Languages.
Greek Church (Oriental Church, in-
cluding the Russian Orthodox Church,
the Orthodox Oriental Church of Greece,
the Bulgarian National Church, the Al-
banian Orthodox Church, and minor
branches). History. Almost from the
beginning a difference of opinion be-
tween the eastern and the western divi-
sions of tlic Early Church appeared,
which may, in part, be accounted for by
the difference in language and in tem-
perament. Although the eastern section
produced the great majority of the most
prominent early Fathers, such as Igna-
tius of Antioch, Polycarp of Smyrna,
Papias of Ilierapolis, Clement of Alex-
andria, Origen, Eusebius, Athanasius,
Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, Gregory of
Nyssa, Chrysostom, Cyril of Jerusalem,
and Cyril of Alexandria, and although
it had the strong secs of Antioch, Jeru-
salem, Alexandria, and Constantinople
to represent it at the ecumenical coun-
cils, seven of which it controlled almost,
if not entirely, yet its productive period
did not survive the attack of Mohamme-
danism, and the Western Church, with
only one great see, that of Rome, became
the more influential in Christendom.
Evidences of a difference in spirit ap-
peared even in the Quartodeciman Con-
troversy ( q . v.) and at the Council of
Nicea ( q.v . ), where Hosius of Cordova,
a Western theologian, was Emperor Con-
stantine’s personal representative; it be-
came more pronounced during the so-
called Iconoclastic Controversy (q.v.),
720 — 842; it became more bitter with
the Filioque Controversy ( q. v. ) and the
veiled accusation of heterodoxy attend-
ing its discussions; it culminated in the
mutual recriminations and condemna-
tions and with the attending declara-
tions of excommunication in 1054.
Meanwhile John of Damascus (q. v.),
the last great theologian of the Greek
Church, had summed up the scattered
results of the labors of the preceding
fathers in a fairly complete system of
theology. In the period following the
great schism, up to the fall of Constan-
tinople, we have teachers like Theophy-
lact (d. after 1107) and Eutymius
Zygabenus (d. after 1118). During this
period, in the ninth and tenth centuries,
the Greek Church made a great conquest
in the conversion of the Slavonians (Bul-
garians and Russians), in whose terri-
tory she has maintained herself to the
present day. — Doctrinal Position. Dur-
ing the period of the seven Ecumenical
Councils, that is, till the end of the
eighth century, the Eastern Church was
orthodox in doctrine, with the exception
of her rejection of the procession of the
Holy Ghost from the Father and the
Son (Filioque), which the Western
Church had inserted in the Constantino-
politan Creed. For almost nine centu-
ries after the Second Council of Nicea
(787) the Greek Church accepted no
further symbols and made no collection
representing her doctrinal position. But
Greek Clmreli
303
Greenland
in the seventeenth century it was found
necessary to define her position over
against Romanism and Protestantism, and
so the Eastern Church now acknowledges
three subordinate confessions, namely,
the Orthodox Confession of Petrus Mo-
gilas (1043), a catechetical exposition
of the Nicene Creed, the Lord’s Prayer,
and the Beatitudes, and the Decalog;
the Confession of Dositheus, or Eighteen
Decrees of the Synod of Jerusalem
(1C72); and the Longer Catechism of
Philaret, metropolitan of Moscow,
adopted by the Holy Synod of St. Peters-
burg (Petrograd, or Leningrad) in 1839
and published in all the languages of
Russia. A collection of the Greek con-
fessions was made by Kiminel in 1843,
and they have also been edited by Schaff
( Greeds of Christendom, II, 273 — 542).
It . is evident that the Greek Church has
become more than stagnant in its doc-
trinal position and that the mechanical
routine of maintaining churches without
thorough indoctrination has left little
more than the rudiments of Christianity.
The Church, according to the Eastern
system, is the sum total of those divinely
called who adhere to the formulated
creed. The mysteries are the heritage of
Christ, in which a sensual element is
always combined with some intelligible
factor, by which the soul is sanctified
and the body receives its share of the
consecration. Christian piety is placed
into a scheme, or system, in an alto-
gether mechanical manner, with a cata-
log of virtues and of vices. The use of
pictures and ikons ( q.v .) is justified
and encouraged, the intercession of the
saints is taught, the proper form of
making the cross is transmitted as an
essential thing. ‘ From a high state of
doctrinal clearness the Greek Church has
sunk to a level of low and sensuous re-
striction. — - Liturgy. Tn worship and
ritual the Greek Church is much like the
Roman, with the sacrifice of the Mass as
its center and with an even greater neg-
lect of the sermon, while its worship has
become a most elaborate drama, appeal-
ing almost entirely to the senses and
the imagination, with hardly anything
left for the intellect and the heart.
There is a most complicated system of
ceremonies, with gorgeous and even bar-
baric display and pomp, with endless
changes of sacerdotal dress, crossings,
gestures, genuflections, prostrations,
washings, processions. The liturgy of
St. Chrysostom is used (see Liturgy );
but there are many later additions,
which not. only add to the length of the
service, but bring in an excess of litur-
gical refinement and stress the sensuous
element. — Polity. The Greek Church is
a patriarchal oligarchy, rather than a
monarchy in the Roman sense. The pa-
triarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch, and Jerusalem are supposed to
he equal in power, but the first has the
primacy in honor. The administration
of the churches involves, beside the lower
clergy, an army of higher and lower
ecclesiastical officers. — Relation to the
Reformation. The men who were active
in the Lutheran Reformation of the six-
teenth century did their full duty in try-
ing to bring the truth to the Eastern
Church. The Augsburg Confession and the
Catechisms of Luther were translated into
Greek and sent to Joasaph II, patriarch
of Constantinople; David Chytraeus,
professor at Rostock, in 1509 published
information concerning the Church in
Greece; between 1574 and 1581 Martin
Crusius, Jacob Andreae, Lucas Osiander,
and Heerbrand corresponded with Pa-
triarch Jeremias II of Constantinople.
Later great hopes were placed on Cyril
Lucar (1572 — 1038), who expressed him-
self as very decidedly in favor of many
doctrines taught by the Reformers. But
at his death it was found that he had no
following, and, what is more, a reaction
against Protestantism set in in the lat-
ter half of the seventeenth century.
Since then all attempts to effect a real
understanding have been ineffectual.
The Greek Church had representatives
at the Ethical Council of Stockholm, in
1925, but their attendance would in no
way influence their doctrinal position,
since the insistence upon any kind of
doctrinal stand at Stockholm was neg-
ligible or negative.
Green, William Henry, 1825- — 1900,
conservative Presbyterian; b. at Grove-
ville, N. J. ; instructor of Hebrew at
Princeton; minister at Princeton, Phi-
ladelphia; professor at Princeton Theo-
logical Seminary 1851 — 90; chairman of
American Old Testament Company of
Anglo-American Bible Revision Com-
mittee; maintained verbal inspiration
of Bible; d. at Princeton; wrote: Mo-
ses and the Prophets, Introduction to
Old Testament, Unity of Book of Gene-
sis, etc.
Greenland. The northernmost colony
of Denmark. Estimated area, 40,740
sq. mi. Native Esquimo population, ap-
proximately 14,000. Greenland was dis-
covered by Norsemen in the 10th cen-
tury; rediscovered by John Davis in
1585 and explored by William Baffin in
1016. In 1721 Hans Egede, a Danish
Lutheran, established a mission there.
Later the Moravians followed, but have
Greever, W. TI .
304
Gregory IX
now withdrawn. The religion is Lu-
theran. The Church in Greenland is in
connection with the Danish Church.
Greever, W. H. ; b. 1870; graduated
from Philadelphia Seminary 1896; pas-
tor in West Virginia and Columbia,
S. C. ; editor of Luth. Church Visitor;
later, of American Lutheran Survey ; ac-
tive in promoting the formation of the
United Lutheran Church of 1918; pro-
fessor in seminary at Columbia, S. C.
Gregorian Chant. See Cantus Fir-
mus and Choral.
Gregory I {the Great) . One of the
most influential Popes of the early cen-
turies; h. ca. 540 in Rome; d. 604. His
education was not unusual, embracing
only the average training, together with
a study of the Latin Church Fathers,
especially St. Augustine. Leaving the
political field, he founded a number of
monasteries, was made imperial nuncio,
then, 579, deacon in Constantinople;
after his return to Rome elected Pope
by unanimous vote, being consecrated to
% this office on September 3, 590. Since
Italy at that time was under the rule of
an exarch, who did not reside there,
Gregory found himself obliged to dis-
charge the duties of a worldly ruler,
a position which he discharged with
great prudence and energy. Due to this
circumstance the office of Bishop of
Rome soon became invested with an
authority which it had never before pos-
sessed in the same measure. Although
he rejected the title Papa Universalis
(Universal Pope), he insisted upon the
rights of such a position, chiefly by pre-
suming to direct the affairs of various
dioceses, as difficulties were brought to
his attention. He took a determined
stand against the increasing seculariza-
tion of the clergy and tried to reform
the status of the monks. Having become
interested in some English slaves while
still a deacon, he took the opportunity
to send the abbot Augustine to Kent
upon the occasion of the marriage of
Bertha of France with Ethelbert of Kent.
(See England.) While Gregory occasion-
ally defended the separation of Church
and State in theory, he followed a dif-
ferent policy in practise; as, when Pho-
cas became emperor, after murdering
Mauritius, Gregory sent him a strong
letter of congratulation. — The writings
of Gregory touched upon various fields
of theological knowledge, but he excelled
in homiletics, in liturgies, and in hym-
nology (q. v.) . His Regula Pastoralis is
a handbook of Pastoral Theology, he
himself issued an Antiphonarium (book
of responses), and he enlarged the Sac-
ramentarium and the Benedictionale
(two service books of the Church) to the
form which they kept for many centu-
ries. He was called Doctor Ecclesiae
( Doctor of the Church ) .
Gregory VII ( Hildebrand ). The man
who lifted the Pope’s power to its high-
est point of earthly glory; b. ca. 1020
in Tuscany as the son of a carpenter;
d. in Salerno in 1085. Without unusual
education he became a monk in Rome
and, by virtue of executive ability and
unbounded energy, a friend and coun-
selor of five Popes, beginning with
Leo IX. On the death of Alexander II
he was elected Pope, in 1073. He im-
mediately set about to accomplish a
number of objects which he regarded as
paramount for the establishment of the
power of the papacy. He opposed simony
(the selling of church offices) and
adopted stringent measures to have this
malpractise reduced. He was just as
emphatic in denouncing the licentious-
ness of the clergy, in which he, unfortu-
nately, included not only concubinage,
but also marriage; so he forced celibacy
upon all the members of the clergy. In
1074 he assembled a council, which for-
bade prelates to receive investiture (the
authority of their office) from a layman,
this being directed against the rulers
who had distributed church offices to
their favorites. But the highest ambi-
tion of Gregory was to place the papal
authority not only on a plane of equal-
ity with, but above, that of the empire.
All his other orders had this end in view.
Emperor Henry IV tried to resist the
Pope, but he was summoned to Rome;
when he refused to go and held a diet
at Worms at which the .deposition of the
Pope was declared, Gregory countered
by bringing about the deposition of the
emperor and the election of another, Ru-
dolph of Swabia. Henry was compelled
to submit to the indignity of crossing
the Alps in midwinter and of standing
for three days as a penitent in the court-
yard of the castle of Canossa, where
Gregory was then staying. The condi-
tions of absolution were so intolerable
that Henry subsequently broke them,
made war on Rudolph, defeated him, set
up a rival Pope at Ravenna, and finally
entered Rome, in 1081, where he had
himself crowned by his own Pope and
besieged Gregory in San Angelo. The
latter was delivered by his henchman
Guiseard, but died in exile, unbroken in
his determination to the end.
Gregory IX ( Hugolinus , or Ugolinus).
A strong Pope of the thirteenth century;
b. ca. 1147; d. 1241; became bishop of
Gregory, Caspar Rene
305
Groot, Gerhard
Ostia, then cardinal ; succeeded Hono-
rius III as Pope in 1227. The principal
events of his pontificate were his con-
test with the Emperor Frederick II,
whom he repeatedly excommunicated,
his levying a tithe on all personal prop-
erty in England for his war with Fred-
erick, and his establishment of the inqui-
sition in various cities of France.
Gregory, Caspar Bene, b. 1846 at
Philadelphia, Pa.; studied at Philadel-
phia, Princeton, and Leipzig; pastor of
the American Chapel at the latter place ;
professor at the university; joined the
German army during the World War
and fell in Flanders. Authority in isa-
gogics and textual criticism.
Gregory Nazianzen. A leading theo-
logian of the Eastern Church; b. near
Nazianzus, in Cappadocia, about 329
A. D.; d. at Arianzus ca. 390. His
mother was the pious Nonna, whose in-
fluence on his life was profound. He
studied literature and rhetoric at Caesa-
rea, in Cappadocia, and later spent some
time at Alexandria and then at the Uni-
versity of Athens; also traveled in
Palestine and Egypt; was a friend of
Basil of Caesarea. Arian in his earlier
days, he later became a champion of the
Nicene orthodoxy, which he represented
in Seleucia and especially in Constanti-
nople, where he became bishop in 381;
is said to have preached the first Christ-
mas sermon in Constantinople, December
25, 379. Among his writings are 45 ora-
tions, 243 letters, and a large number of
poems, the latter being written in the
artificial style of the rhetorical school.
Gregory of Nyssa. Prominent theo-
logian of the Eastern Church, younger
brother of Basil the Great; was bishop
of the small Cappadocian town of Nyssa ;
d. after 394 A. D. He was a contempo-
rary of Gregory Nazianzen (q.v.), who
expressed his sympathy to him at the
death of his wife Theosebia. Gregory of
Nyssa was a defender of orthodoxy and
was prominent at various councils.
Among his works are the Hexaemeron
and the Making of Man ( exegetical ) ,
the Great Catechism, (dogmatic), The <■
Soul and the Resurrection, in defense of
the truth, and a number of minor .
writings.
Gregory Thaumaturgus (Wonder-
worker) ; bishop of Neo-Caesarea, in
Pontus (244 — 270) ; pupil and admirer
of Origen; zealous and successful mis-
sionary; attended the synod at Antioch
(265) which condemned Paul of Samo-
sata. His Declaration of Faith is the
most unequivocal statement of Trini-
tarianism of the ante-nicene age. The
Concordia Cyclopedia
stupendous miracles attributed to him
were not mentioned until a century
after his death.
Grell, Eduard August, 1800 — 86;
studied at Berlin, under his father and
others; organist and choirmaster, prin-
cipally at the court cathedral; teacher
of composition; many musical composi-
tions, among which arrangements of
chorals for male chorus.
Grenfell, George; b. at Sancreed,
Cornwall, 1849; d. 1906. Sent out by
the Baptist Missionary Society in 1875
to the Kameruns, West Africa, he ex-
plored rivers in the Kongo Basin. In
1881 he, in company with others, estab-
lished stations at Musuko, Vivi, Isan-
gila, Manyanga. Later he violently pro-
tested to Leopold of Belgium against the
maladministration.
Grenfell, "Wilfred; b. February 28,
1805, at Parkgate, ISngland; medical
missionary in Labrador, 1887 ; founder
and superintendent of the Royal Na-
tional Mission to Deep-sea Fishermen.
Grenfell and Hunt. Two English
scholars, whose work in deciphering and
publishing Egyptian papyri has been a
feature in Greek philology.
Griesbach, Johann Jakob; b. 1745;
d. at Jena 1812; New Testament scholar;
issued a rationalistic critical work on the
text of the New Testament, based on an-
cient manuscripts and the Church
Fathers.
Grigg, Joseph, ca. 1720 — 68; me-
chanic in earlier years; later minister,
till his retirement in 1747; wrote and
published many hymns, among them :
“Behold, a Stranger at the Door.”
Grimm, Karl Ludwig Willibald;
b. 1807 at Jena; d. there 1891; was pro-
fessor and consistorial councilor; in
theology supranaturalist ; wrote Leaoicon
Graeco-Latinum in Libras Novi Testa-
menti, based on Wilke; in the English
revision by Thayer, the best general lexi-
con of the New Testament.
Groenning, Charles William, mis-
sionary; b. November 22, 1813, at Fre-
derick, Denmark; d. 1898 in Germany,
Entered Mission Institute, Hamburg,
1840, commissioned to Telugus, India,
1845; at Ellore 1849; transferred to
Lutheran General Synod 1851; stationed
at Guntur; returned to Europe 18(*5.
Groot, Gerhard. Founder of the
Brethren of the Common Life (q.v.),
1340 — 84. Educated at the cathedral
school of his native city, Deventer, Hol-
land, and at the University of Paris;
traveled in Germany and Austria; con-
verted in 1374, after which he became
20
Gross, C.
306
Guentlier, Martin
a preacher of repentance, desiring to
labor as a missionary preacher. He
made a most profound impression with
his sermons, especially in revealing the
prevailing sins of his time. His chief
works are his published sermons; but
his letters and some of his tracts are
also of abiding interest.
Gross, C. ; b. September 26, 1834, in
Frankfurt-on-the-Main ; entered Concor-
dia Seminary at Altenburg 1847; grad-
uated 1856; his first charge, Richmond,
Va.; 1867 pastor of the congregation in
Buffalo which had beeen formed by unit-
ing those who withdrew from the Buffalo
Synod, after the Buffalo Colloquy, with
the Missouri Synod congregation;- 1880
pastor of Immanuel Church, Fort Wayne,
Ind.; president of the Eastern District;
vice-president of the Missouri Synod;
member of the Electoral College and of
the General Relief Board; d. July 10,
1906.
Grossmann, G. M., 1823 — 97; b. in
Hesse; studied at Erlangen; was sent
by Loehe to Michigan in 1852; in-
spector of Teachers’ Seminary at Sagi-
naw; removed to Iowa 1853; president
of Iowa Synod from its organization,
1854, to 1893; president of the Semi-
nary till 1875; founder of Teachers’
Seminary at Waverly, Iowa, 1879.
Grotius (de Groot) , Hugo, 1583 to
1645; distinguished Dutch scholar; b. at
Delft, Netherlands; practised law 1599;
chose political career; sided with Re-
monstrants (Arminians) and was sen-
tenced to imprisonment for life 1618;
escaped to France 1621 ; returned to na-
tive country 1631, but was banished;
held position of Swedish ambassador at
French court 1635 — 45. In his last ill-
ness, at Rostock, he gave up the govern-
mental theory of the atonement, which
he had originated, and, under the minis-
trations of Dr. John Quistorp, found com-
fort and calm in the Scripture doc-
trine of the substitutional suffering and
death of Christ. Grotius cared little
for dogma and wished to unite all Chris-
tian churches (Way to Peace, Truth of
Christian Religion, etc.) ; approached
historico-philological method in Scrip-
tural interpretation (Notes on Old and
New Testaments) ; excelled as publicist
(Freedom of the Seas, Rights of War
and feace, latter his chief work and
foundation of international law) ; dis-
tinguished himself as Latin poet (A dam
in Exile, etc.) ; etc.
Gruber, L. Franklin; b. 18 — ; au-
thority on Bible translations; studied
at Muhlenberg and Philadelphia; pro-
fessor at Wagner College 1901 — 2; pas-
tor at Utica 1902 — 8, at Minneapolis
1908 — 14, at St. Paul since 1914; wrote;
The Truth about Tyndale’s New Testa-
ment; Documentary Sketches of the
Reformation; The Wittenberg Originals
of the Luther Bible; Whence Came the
Universe? Is the Doctrine of an In-
finite and Unchangeable Deity Tenable?
Gruber, Franz Xaver; b. in Hoch-
burg 1787; d. at Hallein 1863; known
as composer of the music for “Silent
Night, Holy Night,” writing it while ser-
ving as organist and choir director in
Hallein; the melody written in 1818.
Gruenwald ( Gruenewald !), Matthias;
ca. 1470 — 1525; prominent German
painter, the “German Corregio”; exe-
cuted a great many church paintings,
also religious woodcuts; chief work the
altar at Isenheim.
Grundemann, Peter Heinhold; b.
January 9, 1836, at Buerwalde, near
Berlin. Founder of Brandenburg Mis-
sionary Conference. Voluminous writer
on missions. Foremost publication; All-
gem, eincr Missionsatlas.
Grundtvig, Nicolai Frederik Seve-
rin; Danish bishop, poet, and hymn-
writer; b. 1783; d. 1872 at Copenhagen ;
became his father’s assistant in 1811;
was suspended several times for using
impassionate language against prevail-
ing rationalism and against the clergy;
in 1839 appointed pastor of a free church
at Vartan; in 1861, at his fiftieth anni-
versary, the king conferred on him the
title of bishop. He asserted that the
Apostles’ Creed is from the mouth of
Christ Himself, and, as a living word,
is above the Bible. He held a wrong
position on the Scripture.
Gryphius, Andreas ( Greif ), 1616 to
1664; studied at Leyden; was private
tutor; settled in Fraustadt; appointed
syndicus of the principality of Glogau
1650; one of principal poets of Silesia;
wrote; “Erlialt uns deine Lehre.”
Guenther, Martin; b. December 4,
1831, in Dresden, Saxony; his parents
being adherents of Martin Stephan, he
came to America with the Saxon emi-
grants ; studied at Altenburg and at
St. Louis and assiduously applied him-
self to private study ; ordained pastor
in Cedarburg, Wis., in 1853; pastor in
Saginaw, Mich., 1860; of St. Matthew’s
in Chicago 1872; in 1873 he became pro-
fessor of Symbolics, Homiletics, Cate-
clietics, and kindred branches in Con-
cordia Seminary, St. Louis ; while at the
seminary, he founded the church at Kirk-
wood and served it for years. He was
a master of the art of saying much iti.
Gneviclte, H. E. P.
307
Guxtnv Vnsrt.
few words, purl iru iailv of bringing out
the truth of the saving doctrine and of
refuting error in terse and lucid lan-
guage, as may he seen from his editorial
writings in the Lutheraner and in Lehre
und Wehre, from his contributions to the
Homiletisches Magazin, and his Popu-
laere Symbolik, a classic in its field, now
in its fourth edition; he also wrote a
biography of Dr. C. F. W. Walthcr.
h>. June 2, 1893.
Guericke, Heinrich Ernst Ferdi-
nand; b. 1803, d. 1878; strict Lutheran
theologian and opponent of Union in
Prussia; studied at Halle; professor
there in 1829; 1835 deposed from his
professorship on account of his oppo-
sition to the Prussian Union; served
scattered Lutherans as pastor till forbid-
den in 1838; in 1840 reinstated as pro-
fessor by Frederick William IV; in the
same year he founded, with Kudclbach,
the Zeitsohrift fuer die gesamte lutheri-
solie Theologie und Kirehe; wrote: Neu-
testamentliche Imgogik (1807) and Hand-
buck der Kirchengeschivhte (9th ed., 1800),
both of which are considered standards.
Guetzlaff, Karl Friedrich August;
1). in Pomerania, Germany; agent of the
Netherlands Missionary Society to Ba-
tavia, 1827, then to Siam; visited Tien-
tsin 1831; succeeded Dr. Morrison 1834;
d. 1851. Was originator of German mis-
sions in China.
Guidetti, Giovanni, 1532 — 92; pupil
of Palestrina; chorister in papal choir;
worked, with his teacher, on revised
Gradual and Antiphonary; published a
Passion based on a harmony of the gos-
pels.
Guilmant, Alexandre Felix, 1837 to
1911; studied under his father, then
under Lemmens; organist of St. Joseph
at Boulogne, France, at sixteen ; later
choirmaster at St. Nicholas, teacher, and
conductor; in 189(1, organ-professor at
Paris Conservatory; concert tours in
England, Italy, Russia, and in the United
States (last at time of World’s Fair in
1904) very successful; compositions al-
most entirely sacred, modern, and highly
original.
Guizot, Francois Pierre Guillaume,
1787 — 1874; professor of history at the
Sorbonne; filled highest political offices;
leader of French Reformed Church,
stanchly opposing liberal wing; prolific
and brilliant writer.
Guatemala. See Central America.
Gundert, Hermann; b. at Stuttgart
1814; d. in Germany 1893; was a Basel
missionary to the Malabar Coast, India,
1839; active especially in a literary way.
controlling the Malayalam perfectly; his
Bible translations are still valuable.
Gunkel, Hermann, German Protes-
tant theologian; b. 1802 at Springe,
Hanover; professor at Berlin since 1894,
at Giessen since 1907. Writings show
radical viewpoint, applying principles of
comparative religion to Bible.
Gunpowder Plot. A Catholic con-
spiracy to destroy the Protestant govern-
ment of England by blowing up the Par-
liament buildings on November 5, 1005,
the opening day of the session, when the
king, the Lords, and the Commons would
all be present. Fortunately the plot was
revealed, and the ringleaders were exe-
cuted.
Gurney, Joseph John, 1788 — 1847;
English Quaker; b. near Norwich; min-
ister of Society of Friends; promoted
prison reforms, advocated abolition of
slavery; visited United States; wrote:
Water Is Pest; etc.
Gury, J. P., Jesuit; 1801 — 1800; pro-
fessor of moral theology at the College
of Rome and author of the Compendium
Theologiac if oralis, essentially a repro-
duction of the ethical theories of the
older Jesuits.
Gustav Adolf ( Custavus Adolphus),
1594 — 1032; king of Sweden, grandson
of Gustav Vasa, champion of the Lu-
theran cause in Germany during the
Thirty Years’ War. Landing in Pome-
rania in 1630, he repeatedly defeated the
imperial generals and conquered a large
part of Germany, but was killed in the
Battle of Luetzen, November 10, 1032.
Gustav Adolph Society {Gustav-
Adolf - Verein) , a Protestant Society
(unionistic) , organized for the purpose
of subsidizing evangelical churches in
Roman Catholic countries; founded 1832
by Superintendent Grossmann in Leipzig ;
was united in 1842 with a society organ-
ized for similar purposes by Dr. Zim-
mermann in Darmstadt in 1841; en-
larged by receiving Prussian missionary
societies in 1844; was authorized to
organize district societies in Bavaria
(1849) and Austria (1801); soon ex-
tended to Hungary, Switzerland, France,
Russia, Sweden, Roumania, Italy, Hol-
land, and Belgium. Prior to the World
War the Society had more than 3,000
local associations; the benefactions of
the Society amounted to some 40,000,000
marks; the working capital totaled
5,000,000 marks. See Gotteskasten, Lu-
theriseher.
Gustav Vasa; b. 1496; gained the
first favorable impressions of Lutheran-
ism as an exile in Luebeck in 1519 and
Gutenberg;, Johannes
308
Haemtel, Georg; Friedrich
1520. Freeing Sweden from the bloody
tyranny of Christian II of Denmark, he
was elected king of Sweden in 1523 and
strengthened his throne by favoring Lu-
theranism and secularizing the wealth
of the Romish Church. He corresponded
with Luther, made Olaus Petri preacher
at Stockholm and. his brother Laurentius
professor at Upsala, and had Laurentius
Andreae translate the New Testament.
The Reichstag of Westeraes, in 1527,
established the free preaching and teach-
ing of the pure Word of God, while the
Synod of Oerebro, in 1529, considered the
best means of educating good preachers
and teaching the true religion to the
people. In 1559 Gustav sent the first
Lutheran missionaries to the despised
pagan Laplanders. D. in 1560.
Gutenberg, Johannes, 1400 — 68;
German printer. Having some mechan-
ical skill, he either invented or perfected
the modern art of printing and estab-
lished the first printing-press at Mainz
in partnership with Johann Faust, or
Fust. The partnership was later dis-
solved, and Gutenberg was afterward
joined by Peter Schoeifer, with whom he
worked together for many years, his first
large production being a Latin Bible.
Guthrie, Thomas, 1803 — 73; b. at
Brechen, Scotland; Presbyterian minis-
ter; joined Free Church 1843; eminent
pulpit orator, philanthropist, and social
reformer ; founded “Ragged Schools”
(free schools for the poor ) ; edited Sun-
day Magazine ; d. at Hastings, England.
Author.
H
Haas, J. A. W. (General Council) ;
b. 1862, educated at the University of
Pennsylvania, at the Lutheran Seminary
at Philadelphia, and at Leipzig; ordained
1888; pastor in New York; since 1904
president of Muhlenberg College, Allen-
town, Pa. ; wrote; The Gospel of St. Mark,
Bible Literature, Trends of Thought and
Christian Truth; coeditor of Lutheran
Cyclopedia (1899).
Habermann ( Avenarius ) , J ohann ;
d. 1590 as superintendent at Zeitz; re-
nowned Hebraist, but best known for his
little book of prayers, a great favorite
among devout Christians.
Habit. Acquired behavior. There
may be a determined, conscious effort
to acquire a habit; once formed, it oper-
ates much like instinct. The growth of
habit depends, generally speaking, on the
power of retentiveness; the method of
forming habits is continued practise and
iteration. Habits may be physical, men-
tal, moral; they may be faulty or cor-
rect, bad or good. It must always be the
aim of education to improve faulty and
bad habits and to assist the formation
of correct and good habits. Youth is the
formative period of life, and habits then
formed will usually cling to us through
life. See Prov. 22, 6.
Hackett, Horatio Balch, 1808 — 75;
Baptist; b. at Salisbury, Mass.; profes-
sor at Brown, Newton, Rochester (New
Testament Greek) ; d. at Rochester;
wrote Hebrew Grammar; associate edi-
tor of Smith’s Bible Dictionary ; etc.
Haeckel, Ernst; German zoologist
and philosopher; b. 1834 at Potsdam;
d. 1919. Since 1862 professor at Jena.
Popularized Darwinism in Germany, es-
pecially in Natuerliche Schoepfungsge-
schichte, 1868, and expanded and devel-
oped it into a complete philosophical
system. Made contribution to evolution
in “biogenetic law,” according to which
development of the individual is a re-
capitulation of history of the race. In
Weltraetsel, 1899, he took an uncompro-
mising monistic standpoint. Organic
life is evolved from the albuminoid com-
pounds of carbon (“carbon theory”) and
human soul from “soul-cell” of Protozoa.
Denied existence of personal God and
immortality. Exerted great influence,
especially on freethinking masses. Also
wrote Der Honismus, Die Lebenswunder.
See Monism.
Haendel, Georg Friedrich ; 1685 to
1759; talent showed at very early age;
his father persuaded by Duke of Saxe-
Weissenfels to let him study music at
Halle, under Zachau; later studied at
Halle University; in 1703 prominent
member of German opera orchestra;
visit to Italy 1706 — 9, where he came
under influence of Scarlatti; kapellmei-
ster of Elector of Hanover; visited Eng-
land in 1710 and again in 1712, when
he stayed; in 1718 chapelmaster to the
Duke of Chandos and wrote his first
great English oratorio, Esther; director
of the new Royal Academy of Music;
produced many operas, also oratorios
Deborah and Athaliah; turned definitely
to oratorio work in 1741, writing a num-
ber during the next eighteen years;
his greatest work, the oratorio Messiah,
was first produced at Dublin, April 13,
1742; it was also the last composition
at which he was active as a performer,
April 6, 1759.
Haentzacliel, Klemena Ettalus 308
Hamilton, Sir William
Haentzschel, Klemens Esaias; b. in
Meissen, Saxony, February 27, 1837 ;
studied law in Leipzig; served in the
Civil War; was parochial school teacher
in Sheboygan and Fort Wayne; served
sixteen years as professor in the Teach-
ers’ Seminary, Addison; d. October 21,
1890.
Haering, Theodor; b. 1848; edu-
cated at Tuebingen and Berlin; profes-
sor at Zurich; 1889 at Goettingen as
Ritschl’s successor; 1895 at Tuebingen;
theologian of the Ritschlian School.
HafenrefEer, Matthaeus; b. 1561;
d. at Tuebingen, 1619; in 1590 court
preacher at Stuttgart; later professor
at Tuebingen; a man of very extensive
learning in the Old Testament, the
Church Fathers, and also in natural sci-
ences and mathematics; teacher and
friend of the astronomer Kepler; best-
known works: Loci Theologici and Tent-
plum Ezechielis.
Hagen, Peter, 1569—1620; rector of
the Domschule in Koenigsberg; poems in
ancient form; wrote: “Wir danken dir,
Herr, insgemein”; “Freu’ dich, du werte
Christenheit.”
Hagen, W. See Roster at end of
book.
Hagenbach, Karl Rudolf, 1801 — 74;
German-Swiss church historian and theo-
logian; native of Basel; professor
there; endeavored to reconcile culture
and Christianity; prolific writer.
Haggadah. See Talmud.
Hagia Sofia. See Cathedrals.
Hahn, August; b. 1792, d. 1863; at-
tacked Rationalism in 1827 at Leipzig;
1833 called to Breslau as professor and
councilor of the consistory; there sought
to win the “Old Lutherans” for the
“Union”; edited Hebrew Old Testament.
Halacha. See Talmud.
Halevy, Joseph, French Orientalist
and explorer; professor at Paris; b. 1827
at Adrianople; of Jewish parentage;
made researches in Abyssinia and Ara-
bia ; opposed to many conclusions reached
by higher criticism of Old Testament;
d. 1917 at Paris.
Hall, Granville Stanley; b. at Ash-
field, Mass., 1846; graduated from Wil-
liams, College, spent several years in
Germany studying philosophy and psy-
chology; professor and lecturer on psy-
chology at Antioch College, Harvard,
Williams; in 1888 chosen president of
Clark University; an important con-
tributor to educational literature and
a leading authority in that field; wrote:
Aspects of German Culture; Adoles-
cence; Youth: Its Education and Reg-
imen.
Hall, Robert, 1764 — 1831; Baptist;
b. at Leicestershire, England; preacher
at Bristol, Cambridge, Leicester, Bristol
(d. there) ; occupied high rank as ora-
tor; grew somewhat conservative with
age; wrote Modem Infidelity.
Hallel. The song of praise at the
chief Jewish festivals, consisting, in its
entirety, of Pss. 113 — 118.
Hallelujah. Taken directly from the
Hebrew, from the Jewish Passover
liturgy; its meaning, “Praise ye Jeho-
vah,” Rev. 19, 1. 3. 6; sung after all an-
tiphons, psalms, verses, and responsories,
also after the reading of the Epistle-
lesson; omitted in Lent.
Hamann, Johann Georg; b. 1730,
d. 1788; “Magus of the North”; studied
all branches of human knowledge, but
without any system; later on turned to
the study of the Bible and Luther’s
writings and became a brilliant defender
of the realities of the Christian faith in
an age of rationalism and unbelief; was
highly esteemed by Claudius, Jacobi,
Herder, and even Goethe.
Hamilton, James, 1819 — 96 j educated
at Cambridge ; held various charges, the
last at Bath and Wells; writer of un-
usual merit; among his hymns: “Across
the Sky the Shades of Night.”
Hamilton, Patrick; b. ca. 1504 of
royal blood; abbot of Feme when four-
teen; studied at Paris; A. M. in 1620;
professor at St. Andrew’s University in
1623, when M. de la Tour vented Lu-
theran opinions. Lutheran books arrived
in 1624. Hamilton was the first to
preach the Lutheran teaching in 1526;
fled to Wittenberg and Marburg in 1527 ;
the first to defend theses at Marburg,
Patrick’s Places, which prove him a close
student of Luther’s Freedom of a Chris-
tian Man; returned to Scotland in 1627 ;
married; preached; was tried and con-
demned for Lutheranism; burned in
1528, twenty-four years old, — the first
Lutheran preacher and martyr of Scot-
land.
Hamilton, Sir William, Scotch phi-
losopher; b. 1788 at Glasgow; since
1821 professor at Edinburgh; d. there
1856; promulgated the doctrine of nes-
cience; believed in existence of Abso-
lute Being, the Source of the visible uni-
verse, but asserted that knowledge of
this fact is impossible; faith is “organ
by which we apprehend what is beyond
our knowledge” ; greatly influenced
agnosticism of Mill and Spencer ( qq. v . ) .
Hamma, M. W.
310
Harms, Georg Lntiaig
Hamma, M. W., 1836 — 1013 ; promi-
nent preacher of the Lutheran General
Synod; donated $200,000 to Wittenberg
College, Springfield, 0., whose theological
department is now called Hamma Divin-
ity School.
Hammersehmidt, Andreas, 1011 to
1075; organist at Freiberg, then at Zit-
tau for thirty-six years; work marked
by great originality; chiefly sacred mu-
sic, including motets, psalms, and hymns.
Hammond, William, 1719 — 83; edu-
cated at Cambridge; joined Calvinistic
Methodists, later Moravians; very
learned scholar; published Psalms,
Hymns, and Spiritual Songs; wrote:
“Lord, We Come Before Thee Now.”
Handmann, Richard, missionary;
b. 1840 at Oschitz, Silesia; d. December
7, 1912; missionary in India 1862 — 87;
editor of Leipziger Missionsblatt ; wrote
Die Ev.-Luth. Tamulenmission in der
Zeit Hirer N eubegruendung .
Hanover Ev. Luth. Free Church
Mission Society; separated from the
Hermannsburg Mission in 1892. “The
work of this society in Africa remained
unimpaired during and since the World
War.”
Hansen C. J. O. ; b. September 7, 1832,
at Schopflohe, Bavaria; studied theology
at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis; pas-
tor in Carondelet, Mo.; in Boston; 1872
to 1879 Director of Concordia College,
Fort Wayne; pastor of Trinity Church,
St. Louis; resigned 1900, serving, how-
ever, during two vacancies; d. January
10, 1910; member of Board for Colored
Missions and Board for Foreign Mis-
sions; editor of Missionstaube ; con-
tributor to Magazin fuer Ev.-Luth. Ho-
miletik; autobiography: Irrfahrten und
H eimfahrten.
Hanser, W. G. H. ; a brother of the
above; b. in Bavaria, July 13, 1831;
studied theology in Concordia Seminary,
St. Louis; pastor in Canada, Johannis-
burg, near Buffalo, and Baltimore ( St.
Paul’s Church) ; d. July 29, 1885.
Harbaugh, Henry, 1817 — 07; edu-
cated at Marshall College; pastor in
Reformed Church, at Lancaster and
Lebanon, Pa.; later theological profes-
sor at Mercersburg; among his hymns:
“God, Most Mighty, Sovereign Lord.”
Hardeland, August; b. September
30, 1814, in Hanover; Rhenisch mission-
ary to Borneo 1839; returned to Ger-
many 1848; in service of Netherland’s
Bible Society 1849; returned to Borneo
1850; superintendent of Hermannsburg
Mission 1857; in Africa 1859 — 63; re-
turned to Germany 1864. Translated
Bible into vernacular of Borneo; d. 1892.
Hardeland, Julius; brother of the
above; b. 1828 at Hanover; leader in
the mission-work of the Leipzig-Gesell-
schaft, visiting the East Indian field
twice.
Harders, Gust. A. ; b. 1863, d. 1917 ;
sent by the “Rauhe Haus” to Riga,
Russia, to serve in home for destitute
children; educated at Springfield and
Milwaukee seminaries; pastor in Mil-
waukee; resident superintendent of Ari-
zona missions; poet, author of Indian
mission novels: Jaalahn, La Paloma,
Wille wider Wille (German).
Harless, Gottlieb Christoph Adolf
von; b. at Nuremberg 1806; d. at Mu-
nich 1879; conservative Lutheran theo-
logian; first studied philology, law, and
philosophy, especially Spinoza and Hegel,
at Erlangen, then theology at Halle
under Tlioluck’s influence; then found
in Luther’s writings and the Confessions
of the Lutheran Church the truth needed
for his soul; in 1828 was called to Er-
langen, where he exerted great influence
and wrote his Commentary on Ephesians
(1834), his Theological Encyclopedia, and
liis work on Christian Ethics, the last
considered a classic; 1845 professor at
Leipzig; 1850 court preacher at Dres-
den; 1852 president of the Oberlconsisto-
rialrat at Munich, where he exerted great
influence for sound Lutheranism.
Harmonists. See Rappisls.
Harms, Klaus; b. at Fahrstedt,
Schleswig-Holstein, 1778; d. at Kiel
1855; most influential Lutheran theo-
logian in the first part of the 19tli cen-
tury; pastor and preacher. He grew up
under rationalistic influences. At Kiel
he passed from Rationalism to positive
Lutheranism. Influenced by Sclileier-
macher’s Reden ueber Religion, the study
of Scripture brought about his complete
conversion. After several pastorates he
was, in 1816, called as archdeacon to
Kiel; later he was chief pastor and
Oberkonsistorialrat. Being convinced
that the Church had left the faith of the
Reformation, he published for the ter-
centenary jubilee of 1817, together with
Luther’s Ninety-five Theses, Do of his
own against Rationalism and the at-
tempted union between tile Lutheran
and Reformed churches, which caused a
tremendous sensation, calling forth no
less than 200 answers. Author of sev-
eral postils and a Pastoral Theology.
Harms, Georg Ludwig Detlev Theo-
dor, better known as Ludwig Harms;
a Lutheran minister; b. at Walsrode,
Hncnaok, Adolf
311
Uai'ugarl, German Order of
Hanover, 1808; d. at Hermannsburg,
Hanover, November 5, 1865. In 1834 be
founded a missionary society in Lauen-
burg, which affiliated with the unionistic
North German Missionary Society at
Hamburg. Called as his father’s assist-
ant to Hermannsburg in 1844, and suc-
ceeding him in the pastorate at Her-
mannsburg in 1849, he founded the Ev.
Luth. Hermannsburg Missionary So-
ciety. After a preparation of four years
twelve missionaries, accompanied by
eight colonists, were sent out in 1853 on
the Candace, which landed in Natal,
Africa. In the following years other
missionaries were sent out to India, Aus-
tralia, and New Zealand. — At his death,
in 1865, Louis Harms was succeeded as
Director by his brother Theodor Harms,
who, in turn, after his death in 1885,
was succeeded in office by his son Bg-
mont Harms. Theodor Harms separated
himself from the state church of Han-
over, taking his mission with him. A di-
vision in the forces resulted, and a new
missionary society was organized. Since
the death of Theodor Harms a working
agreement with the state church lias
been elfected.
Harnack, Adolf; b. 1851, son of Theo-
dosius Harnaek; educated at Dorpat;
professor at Leipzig, Giessen, Marburg;
1889 at Berlin. He is a man of immense
learning; theologically an exponent of
Ritschlianism, the leader of that school.
A consistent subjectivist, he has cast
overboard the specific Christian doc-
trines, the divinity of Jesus Christ, the
Gospel of the forgiveness of sins, etc.
Among his numerous writings his best-
known work is his Lehrbuch der Dog-
mengeschiohte, which is considered epoch-
making, but is of a negative tendency.
Since 1881 one of the editors of the
Theologische Literalurzeitung .
Harnack, Theodosius; b. 1817 at
St. Petersburg; d. 1889; positive Lu-
theran theologian of modern type; 1848
professor at Dorpat; 1853 at Erlangen;
returned to Dorpat 1866; exerted great
influence on the Lutheran Church in the
Baltic provinces.
Harpster, John Henry; b. April 27,
1844, at Center Hall, Pa.; d. February 1,
1911, at Mount Airy, Pa.; missionary
of the Lutheran General Synod; sent
1871 to Guntur, India; returned to
United States 1874; filled pastorates at
Hays City, Kans., Trenton, N. J., Can-
ton, 0.; returned to India 1893; took
over Rajahmundry station 1902; sepa-
rated from General Synod 1900 to con-
tinue with General Council; was a very
successful missionary.
Harris, Janies Rendel; b. at Ply-
mouth 1852 (?); English Friend; Bib-
lical scholar; professor and lecturer in
American and English universities and
colleges; director of studies of Friends’
Settlement, Birmingham; wrote: Side-
lights on Hew Testament Researches, etc.
Hart, Joseph, 1712 — 68; early life
involved in obscurity; under Moravian
infiucncc in later years; hymns marked
by great earnestness, among them:
“Come, Holy Spirit, Come”; “Lamb of
God, We Fall before Thee.”
Hartwick Synod. Organized Octo-
ber 26, 1830, in Schoharie, N. Y., by the
Western Conference of the New York
Ministerium, the members of which
wanted to satisfy their cravings for re-
vivals more fully than they could in the
mother synod with its increasing con-
servatism. Its territory covered fifteen
counties in Central New York. The
Hartwick Synod acknowledged the Au-
gustana as its confession and joined the
General Synod in 1831. In 1908 it
merged with the Franckean Synod,
which had seceded from it in 1837, and
with the New York and New Jersey
Synod into the Synod of New York
(General Synod). At the time of this
merger the Hartwick Synod numbered
40 pastors, 44 congregations, and 5,686
communicanls.
Harugari, German Order of. His-
tory. This is a secret society, organized
about 1848 (according to some, 1847) in
New York City. The name was adopted
from a supposed order, using the same
name, among the ancient Cimbrians
(haruc — forest) . — Purpose. The ob-
jects of the order are mutual assistance,
social benefits, and practise of the
mother tongue. Motto: Friendship,
Love, and Humanity. The original dec-
laration of principles was very altruistic.
Organization. The supreme officers are
called “bards”; the branch societies,
“lodges”; the members, “brethren.”
Where the order is well represented,
there are State Supreme Lodges. Five
degrees are conferred, of which the ini-
tial degree and the Grand Lodge degree
are the most important. Woman mem-
bers have their own separate lodges, con-
ducted and governed like those for men.
The Harugari Singing Society, an off-
shoot of the order, once numbered 20,000
members. The German Order of Haru-
gari of Illinois is also an offshoot, or-
ganized in 1869. — Character. The usual
objections to secret orders hold good also
with regard to this order. Besides this,
the order is largely controlled by “lib-
erals” and “freethinkers.” — Member-
HasselqnUt, Tavc Nilson
312
Hawaii
ship, ca. 300 lodges and 30,000 men and
women.
Hasselquist, Tuve Nilson; b. 1810
in Sweden, d. 1891; graduate of Lund
University; ordained 1839; emigrated
to America 1852; president and profes-
sor of Augustana Seminary; editor of
Hemlandet, Bet Ratta Hemlandet, Au-
gustana; author; president of Scandi-
navian Augustana Synod.
Hassler, Hans Leo, 1504 — 1012;
studied at Venice; one of the greatest
composers of Lutheran church music,
holding about the same place as Pales-
trina in the Homan Church; organist to
Count Fugger at Augsburg, 1585; court
musician at Prague, then director of
music at Dresden ; published Psalmen
und christliche Gesaenge, Kirchenge-
saenge, Psalmen und geistliche Lieder;
author of many beautiful chorals and
hymn-tunes, such as “Herzlich tut mich
verlangen.”
Hastings, Thomas, 1784 — 1872; grew
up on frontier of New York State;
teacher and editor; strong interest in
church music; finally choirmaster in
New York City; wrote, among others:
“Delay Not."
Hattstaedt, W. G. C. ; b. August 29,
1811, at Langenzenn, Bavaria; sent to
America by Loehe in 1844; located in
Monroe, Mich. ; founded congregations
in Southern Michigan; established con-
nection with Wyneken and the “Saxon”
pastors; charter member of the Missouri
Synod; d. March 22, 1884, as pastor in
Monroe.
Hauck, Albert; b. 1845; first pastor,
then professor at Erlangen; professor
of Church history at Leipzig; an Evan-
gelical of the modern scientific school;
wrote KirchengesclUchte Deutschlands.
In 1880 joint editor of the Herzog-Plitt
Realenzyklopaedie fuer pro test antische
Theologie und Kirche; later its sole
editor; the basis of Schaff-Herzog En-
cyclopedia; d. 1918.
Hauge, Hans Nielsen; b. 1771,
d. 1824; Norwegian lay preacher and
revivalist; converted to a living faith in
Christ through reading Luther’s works
at the age of twenty-five and without
any higher education began to preach the
truth throughout the entire land; for
this he was imprisoned 1804 — 1814. His
work and that of other lay preachers fol-
lowing him did much to counteract ra-
tionalism in Norway. He stood on the
Lutheran Confessions, in the main, “em-
phasized, however, sanctification at the
expense of justification”; a pietist.
Haupt, Paul; Orientalist; b. 1858 in
Goerlitz; studied at Leipzig, Berlin, and
the British Museum; professor of As-
syriology at Goettingen 1883 — 88; at
Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, since 1888;
member of the Society of Friends and
the publisher of the Polychrome Bible
(1898) ; a radical critic.
Hausrath, Adolf; b. 1837 at Carls-
ruhe; d. 1910 at Heidelberg; Reformed
liberal theologian; a moderate adherent
of the Tuebingen school; 1807 profes-
sor of church history at Heidelberg.
Havergal, Frances Ridley, 1830 to
1879; resided principally at Worcester
and Swansea; visited various countries
of Europe; not prominent as poet, but
of distinct individuality; wrote: “I am
Trusting Thee, Lord Jesus,” and others.
Hawaii (formerly the Sandwich Is-
lands), since 1898 a territory of the
United States, 2,100 miles west of San
Francisco, consisting of eight inhabited
and a few very small uninhabited islands.
Area, 0,449 sq. mi. Estimated popula-
tion, 298,500, consisting of Hawaiians,
Caucasians, Chinese, and Japanese. The
natives belong to the Malayo-Polynesian
stock. Capital city, Honolulu. The
islands were discovered by Captain
James Cook in 1778, the natives at that
time practising crude and sanguinary
idolatry and human sacrifices with can-
nibalism. — Missions. A request for
Christian teachers was sent to England
by King Kamehamelia in 1794, but with-
out success. Missionary efforts began in
1820, when the American Board of Com-
missioners for Foreign Missions took
hold of the work. The Christianization
of the islands has since made great
strides. In 18C4 the American Board
withdrew its supervision, having consti-
tuted. a local church organization, the
Hawaiian Evangelical Association. In
1801 the S. P. G. sent two missionaries
to Hawaii; the first person to be bap-
tized by them was the queen. This mis-
sion was later transferred to the Amer-
ican Protestant Episcopal Church. This
Church has also entered upon mission-
work among the Chinese, Japanese, and
Koreans. The Roman Catholic Church
attempted to enter the islands in 1827,
but her priests were banished in 1831.
Another Roman Catholic mission was
opened in 1839 and has operated since.
At Molokai, a small island of the Ha-
waiian group, a leper colony was estab-
lished in I860. Missions: Assemblies of
God, Methodist Episcopal Church, Pente-
cost Assemblies of the World, Protestant
Episcopal Church, Seventh-day Advent-
ists. Statistics: Foreign staff, 142.
Christian community, 12,700.
Httweis, Hugh Reginald
313
Heathenism
Haw els, Hugh Reginald, 1838 to
1001; educated at Cambridge, England;
held several positions in Established
Church; numerous publications; hymn
“The Homeland, 0 the Homeland,” cred-
ited to him, but not on good authority.
Haweis, Thomas, 1732 — 1820; stud-
ied at Cambridge, England; assistant
preacher at Lock Hospital, London, rec-
tor of All Saints, Aldwincle, and chap-
lain in Bath; wrote: “0 Thou from
whom All Goodness Flows,” and other
hymns.
Haydn, Joseph, 1732 — 1809; musical
talent showed at very early age; stud-
ied under Reutter at Vienna, but was
largely self-taught; kapellmeister in
several cities, especially at the Ester-
hazy , chapel ; his immortal work the
oratorio Die Schoepfung.
Hayes, Doremus Almy; b. 1863 at
Russellville, O.; Methodist Episcopal;
held various professorships; now in
Garrett Biblical Institute; wrote: Syn-
optic Gospels and Book of Acts; Great
Characters of the New Testament ; etc.
Hayward. Under this name the hymn
“Welcome, Delightful Morn” was given
in Dobell’s Collection, from which it has
passed into several American hymnals.
Heart of Mary Immaculate. A de-
votion, in the Roman Church, similar
to that directed to the heart of Jesus
(see Sacred Heart), but having for its
object the physical heart of Mary. It
was first propagated in the 17th century.
Heath, George; facts of early life
not known, Presbyterian pastor at Honi-
ton, England, in 1770; d. in 1822; con-
tributed to hymnology and wrote, among
others: “My Soul, Be on Thy Guard.”
Heathenism. A full account of
heathenism in the Roman Empire dur-
ing the first centuries of our era is im-
possible within the limits at our dis-
posal. We can draw attention to only
a few outstanding facts. At no time in
history did heathenism seem to be more
firmly entrenched than at the dawn of
Christianity. There were “gods many
and lords many,” temples and shrines,
cults and worships, in bewildering con-
fusion. Religion was wrought into the
very fabric of ljfe. Besides, since the
days of Augustus it had become an en-
gine of state policy, such as it had never
been before, culminating in the deifica-
tion of the emperor as the incarnation
of the state. Nevertheless there were
evident signs of decay. The world was
losing confidence in its gods. This ap-
pears above all in the syncretistic amal-
gam of gods and cults so characteristic
of the religion of the empire. Literary
testimonies tell the same tale. Greek
philosophy had for centuries acted as a
solvent of popular mythology. Xenopha-
nes scoffed at man-made gods. Aristo-
phanes ridiculed them in his comedies.
Epicurus relegated them to a state of
innocuous desuetude “amid the lucid
interspace of world and worlds,” while
the Stoics reduced them to a pantheistic
abstraction. Among the Romans, Lucre-
tius proclaimed the gospel of irreligion
with burning passion and intense vehe-
mence. The carpenter in Horace deliber-
ates whether he should convert a rude
log into a bench or a god (Sat., I, 7,
1 — 3). Both Cicero and Juvenal treat
the underworld as an old wives’ fable.
The naturalist Pliny is openly atheistic.
But these and numerous other testimo-
nies must not mislead us to the idea
that paganism had spent its force. The
religion of the cultured classes never re-
ilects the religion of the crowd, nor were
all the cultured irreligious. Tacitus
wavered; Plutarch and others were de-
vout pagan believers. Besides, there
were many dual personalities among the
most advanced thinkers, who out of def-
erence to tradition or to the beliefs of
the vulgar duly observed, and even cham-
pioned, superstitious rites and ceremo-
nies which they inwardly despised. And,
as in all ages, there was not a little gen-
uine superstition even among the most
cultivated and enlightened circles. It
need hardly be added that neither the
wisdom of the philosophers nor the
numerous forms of paganism satisfied
the deeper cravings of the soul. On the
vital questions of salvation and immor-
tality the ancient world declared its own
bankruptcy. It remained for Jesus of
Nazareth to bring “life and immortality
to light.” — Turning to the moral side
of pagan life, we may observe that the
dark side of the pictures has naturally
been most emphasized, the monstrous
crimes and hideous vices attracting the
attention of satirists, moralists, and his-
torians; that the virtues of which natu-
ral man is capable had not disappeared
in this period; and that the moral tone
of the second century, for example, was
decidedly more elevated than under the
early empire — owing, no doubt, to the
silent working of the Christian leaven.
Still, the picture of the heathen world
drawn by St. Paul is not overdrawn.
Its vices and crimes, its unbounded
luxury and shameless self-indulgence
have hardly been paralleled, certainly
never exceeded, in the annals of history.
We can here notice only in passing the
extreme laxity of the conjugal tie, which
Ileber, Reginald
314
HetdellterK Cateeliism
elicited from Seneca the remark that
women count their years, not by the
consuls, but by the number of their
husbands; the evils of the slave system
( 60,000,000 slaves in the empire ! ) with
the consequent degradation of labor; the
wild extravagances and luxuries of the
rich, and the abject misery of the poor;
the coarse and inhuman brutalities of
the amphitheater and the fierce passions
of the circus, etc., etc. In short, the
pagan world was in a state of moral de-
cay, with no regenerative power to arrest
its downward course. This was provided
by that despised element of society which
was deemed its greatest foe — the Chris-
tians.
Heber, Reginald, 1783 — 1826; edu-
cated at Oxford; vicar at Hodnet, later
bishop of Calcutta; gift of versification
even in early childhood; wrote: “From
Greenland's Icy Mountains,” composed
before going to India, where he worked
in the territory of Schwartz’s earlier
labors; “Holy, Holy, Holy”; “Brightest
and Best of the Sons of the Morning”;
hymnist of the first rank.
Hebrew. See Ancient Languages.
Hecker, Heinrich Kornelius, 1699
to 1743; pastor at Meuselwitz near Al-
tenburg; neighbor of Christian Loeber;
prolific poet, doctrinal hymns; wrote:
“Gottlob, ein neues Kirchenjahr.”
Hedonism, the grossest form of eude-
monism (q.v.), which makes the pursuit
and enjoyment of pleasure and the avoid-
ance of pain the highest aim in life and
consequently does not recognize any real
ethical values. It was the moral prin-
ciple of the Cyrenaics and some of the
Epicureans. The hedonism of Hume,
Bentliam, and Mill, which makes happi-
ness of all, or at least of the majority,
the criterion, is properly utilitarianism.
Heerbrand, Jakob; b. 1521; studied
at Wittenberg; diaconus at Tuebingen
in 1544; deposed in 1548 for opposing
the Interim; superintendent of Herren-
berg in 1550; ambassador to Trent in
1552; helped Andreae reform Baden;
chancellor of Tuebingen University; re-
signed in 1598 and died in 1600. His
Compend of Theology is the best known
of his writings, even translated into
Greek.
Heermann, Johann, 1585 — 1647; only
surviving child; destined for the min-
istry; studied at Fraustadt, Breslau,
and Brieg; tutor at Brieg and at Strass-
burg; returned to Raudten, his home,
1610; diaconus, later pastor, at Koeben;
retired to Lissa, in Posen, 1638; dis-
tressing scenes and horrors of Thirty
Years’ War made deep impression upon
him; several times lost all his personal
effects; bore everything with great cour-
age and patience; was well trained in
the school of affliction and therefore well
able to write his hymns of consolation ;
ranks with the best liymn-writers of the
century, some regarding him as second
only to Gerhardt; wrote, among others:
“Ach Jesu, dessen Treu’ ” ; “Fruehmor-
gens, da die Sonn’ aufgeht”; “Wir dan-
ken, dir, Gott, fuer und fuer”; “0 Jesu
Christe, walires Licht”; “0 Jesu, du
mein Bracutigam”; “Jetzt ist die Gna-
denzeit”; “So wahr ich lebe, spricht dein
Gott”; “0 Gott, du frommer Gott”;
“Gottlob, die Stund’ ist kommen.”
Hefele, Karl Josef von; eminent
Catholic divine; b. 1809, d. 1893; priest;
professor; voluminous writer; leading
authority on the history of councils;
strenuous opponent of the Vatican de-
crees, though submitting later in the in-
terest of peace. See Old (Catholics.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich,
German philosopher; b. 1770 at Stutt-
gart; professor at Jena, Heidelberg, and,
since 1818, at Berlin; d. 1831 at Berlin.
Main exponent of Absolute Idealism in
modern philosophy. Everything that
exists is the result, ultimately, of the
development of one absolute thought or
idea, or, expressed in terms of religion,
the world, including nature and human-
ity, is only the self-manifestation of God.
Though his philosophy claims to be in
agreement with Christian doctrines and
was hailed by many as the most rational
explanation of Christianity, reconciling
perfectly theology and philosophy, still,
being in reality pantheism, it amounted
to a complete negation of Christianity.
Hegel did not believe in a concrete, his-
torical Jesus, and in the Neo-Hegelian
school his philosophy led to a destruc-
tion of the historical foundations of
Christianity. Wrote : Phaenomenologie
des Oeistes, Wissenschaft der Logik,
Enzyklopaedie der philosophischen Wis-
senschaften.
Hegesippus, a convert from Judaism;
traveler and antiquarian; author of a
collection of Reminiscences of the apos-
tolic and post-apostolic churches in five
books, a work used by Eusebius, the his-
torian, and designed, it would seem, to
combat the Gnostic heresy. Hegesippus
lived during the reigns of Hadrian, An-
toninus, and Marcus Aurelius.
Heidelberg Catechism. One of the
symbolical books of the Reformed
Church, also sometimes styled the Palat-
inate Catechism, from the territory (the
Palatinate) of the prince (Frederick III)
Hein, Carl C.
315
Hell
under whose auspices it was prepared.
Soon after the introduction of Protes-
tantism into tlie Palatinate, in 1546, the
controversy between Lutherans and Cal-
vinists broke out and raged with great
violence in Heidelberg. When Freder-
ick III came into power, he adopted the
Calvinistic view of the Lord’s Supper
and used his authority in favor of that
side. In order to put an end to religious
disputes in his dominions, he laid on
Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar Olevianus
the duty of preparing a catechism, or
confession of faith. Drafts and sketches
were prepared by each, and when the
catechism was finally completed, Fred-
erick III laid it before a synod of the
superintendents of the Palatinate (De-
cember, 1562), and after careful exami-
nation it was approved. The first
edition, entitled Ileidelberg Catechism,
appeared in 1563. A Latin version and
two other editions of the German version
were published in the same year. — The
catechism, in its present form, consists
of 12!) questions and answers. It is di-
vided into three parts: 1) Of the Misery
of Man; 2) Of the Redemption of Man;
3) Of the Gratitude Due from Man
(duties, etc.). On the doctrine of pre-
destination it is so reticent that it was
opposed, on the one hand, by the Synod
of Dort, the most extreme Calvinistic
body, perhaps, that ever assembled, and,
on the other hand (though not without
qualification), by James Arminius, the
greatest of all opponents of Calvinism.
On the nature of the Sacraments the
catechism is Calvinistic, as opposed to
the Lutheran doctrine.
Hein, Carl C. ; b. 1868 in Ilesse-Nas-
sau; active in Joint Ohio Synod as pres-
ident of Western District, vice-president
of Synod since 1918, president since
1925; delegate to Eisenach Lutheran
World Conference 1923.
Heine, Heinrich, German poet; born
1799 at Duesseldorf, of Jewish parents;
to promote his professional career, em-
braced Protestantism 1825; since 1831
in Paris; died there, after many years
of invalidism, 1856. One of greatest
lyric poets. Being man of strange con-
trasts, there were in his character noble
as well as ignoble traits. With bitter
irony he attacked the religious, political,
and social order of his time and preached
“the gospel of the rehabilitation of the
flesh.” In later years his cynicism gave
way to less ignoble sentiments, and it is
even assumed by some that he returned
to theistic beliefs.
• Heinrich Moller von Zuetphen;
b. ca. 1488; Augustinian monk; studied
at Wittenberg; preached at Antwerp in
1522; imprisoned, but forcibly freed by
the people, chiefly women; preached at
Bremen in spite of the clergy, at Mel-
dorp in 1524; burned by fanatic peas-
ants December 11, 1524.
Hejaz {Hedjaz ) , Kingdom of. For-
merly part of the Turkish Empire; in-
dependent since June, 1916, but under
British auspices. Area, 96,000 sq, mi.
Population (estimated), 600,000. Hejaz
contains the chief Islamic sacred cities,
Mecca and Medina. Mohammedanism is
the accepted religion. The capital is
Mecca. Missions have found no footing
there.
Held, Heinrich, 1620 — 59, studied at
Koenigsberg, Frankfurt, and Leyden;
lawyer at Guhrau, his native city;
one of the best Silesian hymn-writers;
wrote: “Gott sei Dank durch alle
Welt”; “Komm, o komm, du Gcist des
Lcbens.”
Helder, Bartholomaeus; b. at Gotha,
d. 1635; pastor in Ramstaedt, near Gotha;
distinguished hymn-writer and composer
of cliurch-tunes, his style marking the
transition from the old classical to the
modern aria; wrote: “Das Jesulein soil
doch mein Trout”; “Du starker Held,
Herr Jesu Christ”; “0 Heil’ger Geist,
du ew’ger Gott.”
Hell. The state of eternal damnation
(everlasting punishment, eternal death).
To the wicked, temporal death is the
transition of a soul spiritually dead into
eternal death. This state is described in
Scripture as one of everlasting shame
and torment of body and soul with the
devil and his angels in the fire of hell.
From other texts it is clear that, while
the punishment of all will be endless
and severe, the degrees of torment will
differ with different degrees of guilt in
different individuals. — There can be no
doubt that, when Jesus Christ appeared
on the earth, the Jewish people, as a
body, thoroughly believed, held, and
taught the doctrine of rewards and pun-
ishments after death. It is evident that
Jesus and His apostles, instead of fram-
ing their discourses so as to oppose or
modify these prevailing ideas, expressed
themselves in the same way and taught
after a manner on this subject which
not only encouraged the general belief
of His day, but tended inevitably to
support it as the truth. Though more
than one-third of the New Testament is
taken up with the pointing out, refuta-
tion, and condemnation of false doc-
trines and misbeliefs, there is not one
syllable to indicate that there was any
mistake of man’s answerableness after
Hell
316
Hell
death for the life he lived upon earth.
On the contrary, the Sadducees were con-
demned for not knowing the Scriptures
nor the power of God when they came
with the question about the seven hus-
bands as an embarrassment to the
Savior’s doctrine of another life. Com-
pare Luke 16, 23; John 5, 28. 29; Matt.
6,22; 23,33; 10,28; 26,31—46. Com-
pare also Rev. 20, 10; 14, 10. 11; Is.
66, 24; Dan. 12, 2. The Day of Judg-
ment is the day of wrath and revelation
of the righteous judgment of God, Rom.
2, 6, on which God will have judgment
without mercy, Jas. 2, 13. After that
day the fire of divine anger will burn
forever, Jer. 17, 4, and unto the lowest
hell, Deut. 32, 22. In that world sin
will not be forgiven. Matt. 12, 31. 32.
That the state of the damned is torment
unspeakable is plainly taught in God’s
Word. No man has ever known in this
life what it is to be completely cut off
from God. The final condition of the un-
repentant soul, in the light of all these
passages, is a condition of unspeakable
loss and tragedy, punishment, and dis-
aster.
The Sacred Scriptures expressly de-
clare that the punishment of the finally
impenitent shall be eternal. Matt. 12,
31.32; 17,8; 26,41.46; 26,24; Mark
3, 29; 9, 43; Luke 12, 10; Eph. 2, 17;
2 These. 1, 9; Heb. 1, 4. 6; 10, 26. 27;
1 John 6, 16; Jude 13; Rev. 9, 3; 14,11;
20, 20. Severe as may seem the doctrine
of eternal punishment, this is not a ques-
tion for us to solve according to our in-
clination. We must ask, with reference
to all matters connected with the future
world, What has God revealed? What
has He declared? The Scriptures are
the ultimate appeal, and these are plain
and positive on the subject. Moreover,
the same abstract arguments which are
often adduced against the everlasting
punishment of sin apply to its present
punishment, and, indeed, against the
fact of sin itself. If God loves man and
loves holiness, why does He suffer him
to sin at all? The duration of future
punishment is most definitely repre-
sented in Holy Scriptures as absolutely
endless. Mark 9, 44 — 50; Rev. 14, 11, etc.
We shall here call to mind only the fact
that those who maintain the contrary
of restorationism can bring forward
numerous and plain statements of the
Lord; and such words as those in Luke
16, 26; Matt. 25, 10. 41; 26, 24 could
hardly be vindicated from a charge of
exaggeration if he who spoke them had
himself seen even a ray of light in the
outer darkness and been able and will-
ing to kindle it before other’s eyes. The
Bible nowhere opens up to us a prospect
of the continuance of the gracious work
of God on the other side of the grave.
In the New Testament the Greek for
hell is either hades or gehenna; one pas-
sage (2 Pet. 2, 4) uses the word tarta-
rus. Gehenna is originally the word for
Valley of Hinnom, the dumping-ground
of Jerusalem, and is exclusively used in
the figurative sense by the New Testa-
ment. HadeB is the equivalent for the
Old Testament sheol. The word hades is
used only by Matthew, Luke, and John.
It occurs nine times: Matt. 11, 23;
16, 18; Luke 10, 15; 16, 23; Acts 2, 27;
Rev. 1, 18; 6, 8; 20, 13. 14. As to the
understanding of Matt. 11, 23 and Luke
10, 15, the opposition of heaven and
hades is decisive; the extremes of hap-
piness and despair are contrasted. In
Luke 16, 23 the Lord’s teaching concern-
ing hades is too plain to leave room for
honest doubt. In Matt. 16, 18 hades,
again by force of contrast, denotes the
spiritual powers of darkness, which Paul
characterizes in Eph. 6, 11 f. Death and
hades, named conjointly in Rev. 1, 18;
6, 8; 20, 13 f., might denote the same
place or state of existence, if they were
not clearly differentiated in 6, 8, and if
20, 14 did not say that all hades waB
cast into the lake of fire. In Acts 2, 27
Peter quotes from Ps. 16, 10 as part of
his argument. For the Old Testament
word “sheol” he uses the Greek “hades.”
It is clear that in the ordinary sense
this word means the place where God’s
judgment overtakes the evil-doers. Ko-
rah’s rebel band went down to sheol,
Num. 16, 30, and all the congregation of
Israel witnessed this shocking spectacle.
To people who provoke God with their
vanities is held up for their warning a
fiery sheol, Deut. 32, 22 : “A fire is kin-
dled in Mine anger and shall burn unto
the lowest sheol.” They that “take the
timbrel and the harp and rejoice at the
sound of the organ,” that “spend their
days in wealth,” go down to sheol in a
moment. Job 21, 13. Sheol “consumes”
those who have sinned. Job 24, 19. Sheol
and Abaddon (hell and destruction) are
joined in the same statement: Job 26, 6;
Prov. 15, 11; 27,20. “The wicked shall
be turned into sheol.” Ps. 31,17. Cp.v. 18.
Those children of Belial who are entic-
ing the God-fearing to join them in their
evil-doings are impersonating death and
sheol. Prov. 1, 12. Sheol is the place for
harlots. Prov. 5, 5; 7,27; 9,18. Beating
a stubborn child with the rod will not
cause him to die, but it will deliver his
soul from sheol. Prov. 23, 13. 14. In all
these passages, what else is meant by
sheol than that which Christians are
Helmbold, Lndwlg
317 Hengrstenbersr, Eru»t Wilhelm
wont to call hell, the place and the con-
dition, or state, of the damned? Com-
pare also Ps. 28, 1; 30, 3; 49, 12 — 15;
55, 15. These and many other texts
speak of final perdition and not simply
of dying.
It is safe to say that a single circum-
stance has caused the consistent render-
ing of “hell” for the Hebrew sheol to
appear inadmissible: sheol in the Old
Testament is also a place to which godly
persons expect to go in the hour of
death. In his passionate grief over the
loss of Joseph, Jacob exclaims: “I will
go down into sheol unto my son mourn-
ing.” Gen. 37, 35. He supposes Joseph
to be in sheol and believes that, dying
of a broken heart, he will soon join him
there. Compare Gen. 42, 38. Job, as the
gloom of despair is settling upon him,
cries out to God: “0 that Thou wouldest
hide me in sheol!” Job 14, 13. It is
plain from these passages that Scripture
recognizes and describes a state of death,
a state of the departed, and that occa-
sionally it employs the term sheol to
designate this state.
Helmbold, Ludwig, 1532 — 98; the
“German Asaph”; held various teaching
positions in secondary schools, later
diaconus and pastor at Muehlliausen;
wrote: “Von Gott will ich nicht lassen”;
“Herr Gott, erhalt uns fuer und fuer”;
“Nun lasst uns Gott -dem Herren.”
Helvetic Confessions. The confes-
sions of faith of the Reformed churches
of Switzerland; the first, framed by a
convention of delegates and adopted in
Basel, 1530; the second, a revision of
the first, by Bullinger, with the aid of
Beza, adopted in March, 1566. The
former was drawn up by Bullinger, My-
conius, and Grynaeus and consists of
twenty-seven short articles. Articles I
to V treat of Scripture, its interpreta-
tion and purpose; VI — XIII, of doc-
trines of salvation; XIV — XXVII, of
doctrines of the Church, the Word, the
Sacraments, and church ordinances. The
latter consists of thirty articles: I and
II treat of the Scriptures, tradition, etc. ;
III, of God and the Trinity; IV, V, of
idols, or images of God, of Christ and
the saints, and of the worship of God
through Christ, the sole Mediator; VI,
of Providence; VII, of the creation of
all things, of angels, devils, man; VIII,
of sin and the fall of man; IX, of free
will; X, of predestination and election;
XI, of Christ as God-man, the only
Savior; XII, XIII, of the Law and the
Gospel; XIV — XVI, of repentance and
of justification by faith; XVII— XXII,
of the Church, the ministry, and the Sac-
raments; XXIII and XXIV, of assem-
blies, worship, feasts, and fasts; XXV
to XXIX, of catechism, rites, ceremo-
nies, etc.; XXX, of the civil magistracy.
Hemerobaptists (Mandeans ; Men-
daeans). The former, so called from
their practise of daily ablution, are pos-
sibly identical with the Gnosticizing sect
of the “Disciples of John” mentioned in
the Clementine Homilies, where John is
called a Hemerobaptist. With these the
Mandeans, to whom the name “Chris-
tians of John” is also sometimes applied,
may have no historical connection. Their
religious system is a wild conglomerate
of pagan, Jewish, and Christian elements,
which, according to Kessler, shows dis-
tinct traces of Babylonian mythology.
A remnant of the Mandeans still exists
in the marshy tracts of Southern Baby-
lonia.
Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm;
b. 1802, d. at Berlin 1869; son of a Re-
formed clergyman, a moderate ration-
alist; first studied under the direction
of his father, 1819, at Bonn; tutor in
1823; in 1824 Privatdoxent (lecturer)
in Berlin; 1825 licentiate of theology;
1826 professor extraordinary; 1828 full
professor. Through private study of the
Bible he had found in Christ his Savior,
and in the Confessions of the Lutheran
Church lie saw the clearest expression of
true Biblical theology. By his work of
the interpretation and defense of the
Old Testament he became the staunch-
est defender against rationalism, union-
ism, and the mediating theology of his
day. As a mouthpiece of his testimony
for the truth he founded in 1827 the
Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, a most
powerful organ in defense of the truth
and in attacking error without fear.
For forty-two years he was identified
with this paper and was its chief con-
tributor. Because of his orthodoxy he
was disliked by the authorities in Berlin,
who made attempts to transfer him to
other places under the guise of promo-
tion; but he refused all calls, looking
upon his position in Berlin as the place
assigned to him by God, and there he
remained to the end of his life. He was
subjected to violent slander and insult
because of his defense of Bible doctrine
and his attacks on error. — It must be
said, however, that in the end he re-
mained within the “Union” (“What God
hath joined together let not man put
asunder”) and refused to break with the
rationalists within the Church. Sternly
opposed to rationalizing, he yet bespoke
a certain measure of freedom for the-
ology. In his later years he adopted a
Henlioefer, Aloys
318
Hciiothciflm
Romanizing view of the doctrine of justi-
fication. — He was a very prolific writer.
His chief works are: Christologie des
Alten Testaments, Beitraege zur Einlei-
tung ins Alte Testament, Evangelium
Johannis, Offenbarung Johannis, Die
Psalmen — all translated into English.
Henhoefer, Aloys; b. 1789 at Voel-
kersbach, Baden, of Catholic parents;
through reading of Martin Boos and
Scripture he began preaching justifica-
tion by faith alone; was excommuni-
cated for this and joined the Evangelical
Church; exerted a great and beneficial
influence in Baden; d. 1862.
Henkel, Wilhelm; b. July 2, 1868,
at Brandenburg; graduate of Northwest-
ern College and Milwaukee Seminary;
Wisconsin Synod pastor 1891 — 1912;
professor at Northwestern; Wauwatosa
Seminary 1920; secretary of Joint Syn-
od’s Educational Commission.
Henkels, The. This family, which
gave a large number of pastors and edu-
cators to the Lutheran Church in Amer-
ica, was descended from Anthony Jacob
Henkel, 1663 — 1728, who had been court
chaplain to Duke Maurice of Saxony, but
was exiled when the duke became a Ro-
man Catholic. Anthony Jacob Henkel
came to America in 1717 with his oldest
son Gerhard (with whom he is often
confounded ) and with his son-in-law,
Valentine Geiger, settled at New Hano-
ver, Pa. Dr. Kline assigns two terms
of service to Anthony Jacob Henkel at
New Hanover, 1717 — 20 and 1723 — 28.
He is regarded as the founder of the old
Lutheran churches in Philadelphia and
Germantown. On August 12, 1728, he
was killed by a fall from his horse; he
lies buried in the shadow of the German-
town church. — James Henkel, the son
of Gerhard Henkel, was the father of
Moses (who became a Methodist minis-
ter), Paul, Isaac, John H., and two
others. Of these, Paul, born in North
Carolina in 1754, educated by J. A.
Krug, ordained by the Pennsylvania Min-
isterium, 1792, was the most prominent.
He was pastor at New Market, Va., Salis-
bury, N. C., and again at New Market,
took part in the organization of the
North Carolina Synod (1803), the Ohio
Synod (1818), and the Tennessee Synod
(1820). He was the great home mis-
sionary of the Lutheran Church in the
early part of the 19th century. In New
Market he established a printery, from
which, in the course of time, many Lu-
theran books were issued, such as Lu-
ther’s Catechism, the Augsburg Confes-
sion, a liturgy, hymn-books, and, later,
the complete Book of Concord. Of the
six sons of Paul Henkel — Solomon,
Philip, Ambrose, Andrew, David, and
Charles - — all became Lutheran ministers
except Solomon, who was a physician
and manager of the printery at New
Market. Philip was pastor in Greene
Co., Va., and was the first to conceive
the plan of organizing the Tennessee
Synod as a protest against the colorless
Lutheranism of the North Carolina and
other synods then forming the General
Synod. He opened a union seminary in
1817, which, however, was of short dura-
tion. Two of his sons, Irenaeus and
Eusebius, were Lutheran ministers, both
locating in Western States. — David,
“the most gifted of the Henkel family,”
a zealous defender of Lutheran truth in
the days of Rationalism, was pastor in
North Carolina, but his missionary jour-
neys extended into Kentucky and In-
diana. As early as 1817 he was re-
quested by the North Carolina Synod to
visit Lutherans in Southeastern Mis-
souri. D. in 1831, at the age of thirty-
six years. — Andrew and Charles were
pastors in Ohio. The latter translated
the Augsburg Confession into English in
1834. — Ambrose was in charge of the
publishing house at New Market, where
he was pastor. • — Of the two sons of
David, Polycarp and Socrates, the latter
was pastor for more than forty years in
New Market, where he was of assistance
in publishing the Book of Concord, while
the former extended his missionary ac-
tivities into Missouri. Solomon was a
distinguished physician and much in-
terested in the publication of good Lu-
theran books. Thus for almost two cen-
turies the Henkels made their influence
felt for good in the Lutheran Church of
America as earnest preachers, tireless
missionaries, faithful educators, and
zealous publicists.
Hennepin, Louis, 1640—1702; French
explorer and missionary; accompanied
Laval to Quebec in 1675; traversed the
region of the Great Lakes; explored the
Upper Mississippi; returned to France
in 1683 and published an account of his
discoveries, in which he claimed credit
unwarranted by the facts ; d. in Holland.
Hennig, Martin; b. 1864; clergyman
in Breslau and Berlin; director of the
Rauhe Hans; d. 1920.
Henotheism. A term employed by
Max Mueller ( q. v. ) , to denote a kind of
monotheistic polytheism as found in an-
cient India, which, while not denying the
existence of many gods, emphasizes only
one tribal deity. By evolutionistic sci-
ence of religion (q. v.) believed to be a
stage between polytheism and monothe-
Henry VITI
319
Herimrt, Jolinnn Friedrich
ism in the upward development of re-
ligion.
Henry VIII, king of England 1509 to
1547. Reign witnessed first step in Eng-
lish Reformation. Henry’s Defense of
the Seven Sacraments, 1521, drew a vio-
lent reply from Luther; won for the
author the papal title of “Defender of
the Faith.” Occasionally Henry favored
Protestantism as a result of policy or de-
sire to please one or the other of his six
successive wives: Catherine of Aragon,
Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of
Cleves, Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr.
Noteworthy events : appointment of Cran-
mer as archbishop of Canterbury 1533;
Supremacy Act 1634; dissolution of mon-
asteries 1535 — 0; promulgation of Ten
Articles 1536; translation of Bible with
royal sanction 1530; enactment of Six
Articles 1539; execution of Cromwell
1540. Luther: “King Henry wants to
kill the Pope’s body [papal authority],
hut to keep his soul [papal doctrine].”
Henry, Duke of Saxony; b. 1473;
won for the Reformation by his wife and
brother-in-law, John the Constant ; joined
the Smalcald League in 1536. His
brother, George the Bearded, would make
him successor on condition of becoming
Catholic, which he spurned as a tempta-
tion similar to the one wherewith Satan
tempted Christ. Matt. 4, 9. On his ac-
cession in 1539 he introduced the Refor-
mation in ducal Saxony with the help of
Luther and others. Old age compelled
him to transfer the government to his
son Maurice, and death came soon after,
in 1541.
Henry, Matthew; Nonconformist;
b. at Flintshire, Wales, October 18, 1662;
Presbyterian pastor at Chester and Hack-
ney; d. near Chester June 22, 1714.
Exposition of the Old and New Testa-
ments (his work to Acts inch), 6 vol-
lumes; has had many editions.
Heortology. The science of the fes-
tivals (heorte, Greek, meaning a festival)
of the Christian Church, concerning it-
self with the origin, meaning, growth,
and history of the festivals and periods,
and their relation to one another.
Hephzibah Faith Missionary Asso-
ciation. See Evangelistic Associations.
Heptasophs, Improved Order of, or
Seven Wise Men. History. The Im-
proved Order of Heptasophs was organ-
ized in Maryland in 1878, when dissatis-
fied members of the Order of Heptasophs,
or Seven Wise Men, left the Original
Order of Heptasophs, an offspring of
Greek Letter Fraternities, founded by
prominent Freemasons at New Orleans,
La., in 1852. — Purpose. The Improved
Order was organized for the purpose of
“uniting fraternally all white men of
sound bodily health, good moral charac-
ter, socially acceptable, engaged in an
honorable profession, between eighteen
and fifty years of age.” In May, 1917,
the new society was merged with the
Fraternal Aid Union of Lawrence, Kans.
-—Organization. The organization of this
secret society is similar to that of other
like fraternities. The Subordinate Con-
claves are under the jurisdiction of
Grand (State) Conclaves, or under the
Supreme Conclave in territories where no
Grand Conclave exists. The Grand Con-
claves are composed of Past Archons
(presiding, and former presiding officers).
The Supreme Conclave is made up of
Past Grand Archons. There are no
auxiliary branches for women. — Char-
acter. The order requires from its can-
didates the profession of a belief in a Su-
preme Being. Its motto is: “In God wc
trust.” It admits both Jews and Chris-
tians on the common ground of mutual
dependence and universal brotherhood
under the “fatherhood of God.” The
order has no oaths or prayers. The
ceremonial is based on Greek history.
Herbart, Johann Friedrich; b. at
Oldenburg, 1776; d. at Goettingen, 1841;
tutor at Interlaken; professor at Koe-
nigsberg and Goettingen; prominent
German educator and psychologist; was
the first to perceive that education was
thoroughly worthy to be a science of it-
self. Developing and sytematizing Pes-
talozzi’s idea of “psychologizing” educa-
tion, he became the first great scientific
exponent of psychological education. Ac-
cording to Herbart the end and aim of
education is to develop moral character.
Character depends upon knowledge, ideas
act as forces, so that the will, desire,
interest, and feeling are all of them
grounded in some sort of intellectual
activity, thus the content of the mind
largely regulates the behavior; hence
the duty of the teacher “to fill the mind”
with dominant thoughts and ideas, and
the necessity of educative instruction,
“erziehender Unterricht.” Reflective
thought makes the mind many-sided, and
the necessary steps in producing this are
clearness, association, system, method,
from which were later developed the
“Five Formal Steps,” preparation, pres-
entation, association, generalization, ap-
plication, according to which the teacher
first prepares the pupil by recalling to
consciousness such ideas as will put the
mind in a receptive mood for the new
material, which is then presented; this
is then associated or compared with
other ideas that may suggest themselves ;
Hertierger, Valerius
320
Heretical Baptism
then the central thought of the lesson is
brought out and applied. These steps
were to Herbart factors in the process of
thinking rather than logical subdivisions
of a lesson period, as was held by some
of his followers. Works: Allgemeine
Paedagogik ; Psychologie.
Herberger, Valerius, 1562 — 1627;
studied theology at Frankfurt and Leip-
zig; master of lower classes in school
at Fraustadt; 1590 diaconus; 1599 chief
pastor ; notable preacher ; published only
few poems; wrote “Valet will ich dir
geben,” written during the siege of the
pestilence in Fraustadt, when every hour
saw death before his eyes, — one of the
finest German hymns for the dying.
Herbert, Petrus; native of Fulnek,
in Moravia; member of the Moravian
Brethren; died 1571 at Eibenschitz; one
of the principal compilers of German
hymn-books; wrote: “Die Naclit ist
kommen.”
Herder, Johann Gottfried; b. 1744,
d. 1803 as general superintendent at
Weimar; one of the great poets and
writers of Germany; Lutheran by birth,
early education, and office; his creed
more humanitarian than Christian.
Hereros. An African Bantu tribe in
former German Southwest Africa, now
under the dominion of the Union of
South Africa. • — The first missionaries
were sent to the Hereros by the Rhenish
Mission Society in 1829, followed by the
Finnish Mission Society in 1870.
Heresy. Originally ( Gal. 6, 20 ; 1 Cor.
11, 19) applied to divisions in the Church;
the later sense of heresy, as found in
Titus 3, 10, is a designation for those
who profess Christianity, but profess it
erroneously. Heresy is a distortion of
divine truth. Heresies have become chal-
lenges to the Church to defend her
views of truth. In this sense every
dogma of the Church, every doctrine
fixed by her Symbols, is a victory over
a corresponding error. Even for a num-
ber of inspired New Testament books the
occasion was a heresy (Gospel of John,
First Epistle of John, Galatians, and
many sections of the Corinthian letters,
Jude, Colossians, Second Peter, etc. ) .
In its definition, heresy is identical with
false doctrine, and all the Scripture-texts
which declare false doctrine a sin apply
to heresies, the term denoting the divi-
sive character of false teaching. — Schism
means, literally, a division, or separa-
tion. One might be a schismatic without
being a heretic, as when one causes divi-
sion in the body of Christendom through
carnal strife; in such a case a sin is
committed against the law of love, even
though intellectually an orthodox stand
is maintained. It is not possible, how-
ever, to be a heretic without being a
schismatic, the multitude of divisions in
the Christian Church being in great part
caused by the introduction of false doc-
trine. The inner unity and true oneness
of the Church is violated through every
teaching of views contrary to the Scrip-
tures. Even when there is no outward
severance of relationship, the existence of
divisions and party strife within the
Church is covered by the definition of
schism (conditions in Corinth when men
caused divisions who did not openly re-
nounce allegiance; Modernist strife
within the Reformed denominations).
Heresy {Roman Catholio Definition).
Any doctrine contrary to the teaching
of the Roman Catholic Church when held
by one who professes Christianity. Va-
rious terms of censure are employed in
condemning “heretical” propositions. If
a proposition contradicts clearly defined
teaching, it is simply “heretical”; if its
logical consequences do so, it is “erro-
neous”; if it contradicts a doctrine not
clearly defined, the proposition “ap-
proaches heresy”; if it contradicts a
doctrine held as probably true, the propo-
sition “approaches error”; if it is not
clearly, but probably, heretical, it “sa-
vors of heresy.” Propositions may also
be “evil sounding,” “offensive to pious
ears,” “rash,” etc., etc. Pertinacious
heresy, according to Roman principles,
should be visited not only with spiritual,
but also with physical punishments, in-
cluding death.
Heretical Baptism, i. e„ baptism per-
formed by heretics outside the pale of
orthodox Christianity, was the subject of
a heated controvery in the Church of the
third century. The question was, Is
heretical baptism, even if administered
in the right form, true baptism, or is it
merely a mock ceremony? Cyprian, the
great African churchman, emphatically
defended the latter position. “How can
one,” says he, “consecrate water who is
himself unholy and has not the Holy
Spirit ?” Thus he made the virtue of the
Sacrament dependent on the religious
status of the administering agent. This
view was shared by the African Church,
which rejected heretical baptism in sev-
eral synods at Carthage (255 — 6). The
Church of Asia Minor took the same
stand. On the other hand, the Roman
bishop Stephen (253 — 7) vigorously de-
fended the validity of heretical baptism,
provided it was administered in the name
of the Trinity. This view ultimately
Hexing;, Hermann Jullun
321
Herold, Max
prevailed. It was sanctioned by the
Council of Nicea in 325, adopted in
North Africa in 348, and championed by
the powerful voice of St. Augustine
against the Donatists. The Augustinian
view, which defends the validity of here-
tical baptism as to form, but denies it
any saving efficacy until the baptized
heretic returns to the bosom of the true
Church, is still held by the Roman Cath-
olic Church, which “bases upon the va-
lidity of heretical and schismatical bap-
tism even a certain . . . claim on all
baptized persons as virtually belonging
to her communion.”
Hering, Hermann Julius, 1838 to
1920; educated at Halle, from 1878 till
his retirement, 1908, professor of prac-
tical theology at Halle; conservative
theologian.
Herman, Daughters of. A social
and beneficiary auxiliary to the Sons of
Herman, which receives woman relatives
of the members of that order. (Cp. the
latter. )
Herman, Nikolaus, faithful friend of
Johann Mathesius, pastor at Joachims-
tal, in Bohemia, and schoolteacher, at
least after 1524; master in Latin school,
also cantor, organist, and choirmaster;
d. 1661; poet of the people, homely,
earnest, and picturesque; very good mu-
sician; wrote: “Lobt Gott, ihr Christen
allzugleich” ; “Erschienen ist der herr-
lich’ Tag”; “Die helle Sonn’ leucht’t jezt
herfuer”; “Hinunter ist der Sonnen-
schein,” and other hymns.
Herman, Order of the Sons of ( Or -
den der Hermannssoehne) . This order
was founded in New York City, about
1840. Attacks upon German-Americans
and political issues between 1835 and
1855 were probably the immediate cause
of its organization. The order was
founded “to foster German customs and
speech and to spread benevolence among
Germans of the United States.” It was
named after the ancient Teutonic warrior
Hermann. The new fraternity followed
in the footsteps of Freemasons, Odd-Fel-
lows, Druids, Foresters, and others in
their secret work and in their caring for
sick and needy members. The order con-
fers no degrees. The National Grand
Lodge of Sons of Herman meets every
four years. The spirit of the order ap-
pears from the symbolic colors, which
have been explained thus : “Together,
the colors are the symbol of German
unity. Black typifies darkness, the out-
growth of ignorance, prejudice, and in-
difference. Red signifies light and en-
lightenment, spread by German culture
and German spirit. &old is emblematic
Concordia Cyclopedia
of true freedom, which man arrives at
through knowledge and labor.” The or-
der is an antichristian organization.
Lodges, 876; members, 62,800. Head-
quarters, New Britain, Conn.
Hermann, Zaeharias, 1643 — 1716;
Namslau, in Silesia, his home town;
pastor and inspector at Lissa in Posen ;
lost several children in succession, which
caused him to write “Wie kurz ist doch
der Menschen Leben.”
Hermannsburg Ev. Luth. Mission-
ary Society, founded by Pastor Louis
Harms (b. 1808; d. 1865) at Hermanns-
burg, Germany ; formerly connected with
the unionistic North German Missionary
Society. Candidates were given a reli-
gious and industrial training. The first
eight missionaries and a colony of lay-
men were sent out in 1853 on the ship
Candace. Louis Harms was succeeded by
his brother Theodor Harms. Since the
World War the field of this society in
India was turned over to the Lutheran
Joint Synod of Ohio. The property is
still held by the Mission Trust of South-
ern India. In South Africa the work of
the society was not disturbed by the war.
Hermeneutics. See Biblical Herme-
neutics.
Hermits ( Anchorites , Eremites.) Men
and women who withdrew from the so-
ciety of their fellow-men for ascetic rea-
sons to live in various degrees of seclu-
sion and solitude. Hermits appeared in
Egypt in the third century, some as re-
cluses (q.v.). The practise soon spread
to other Eastern lands and invaded the
West in the fourth century. Its chief
impetus issued from St. Anthony (q.v.).
Morbid, grotesque, and immoral features
were frequent. Eremitism gradually
gave way to cenobitism (see Monasti-
cism), but sporadic cases have continued
till the present. The influence of Rome
has been cast for cenobitism.
Hernaman, Claudia Frances, 1838
to 1898 ; composed more than 150 hymns,
most of which are for children; also
some translations from Latin and Ger-
man; among her hymns: “Holy Jesus,
We Adore Thee.”
Herrnsehmidt, Johann Daniel, 1675
to 1723; studied at Altdorf and Halle;
assistant to his father, then at the town
church; later preacher at Idstein; then
professor at Halle; wrote: “Lobe den
Herren, o meine Seele.”
Herold, Max, 1840 — ; b. in Ross-
weiler; pastor in Sehwabach, Bavaria;
editor of Siona, a monthly magazine de-
voted to liturgies and hymnology_; his
interest in these fields shown also in his
21
Her 7.1, Theodor
Hierarchy
322
books: l , assah (services for Lent and
Easter), Tesperale (services for the afters
noons of festivals), and Alt-Nuernberg
in seinen Gottesdiensten.
Herzl, Theodor. See Zionism.
Herzer, J. See Roster at end of book.
Herzog, Eduard. Bishop of the
Christian Catholics of Switzerland, for-
merly priest in Bern. See Old Catholics.
Herzog, Johann Friedrich, 1647 to
1699; studied law at Wittenberg; tutor;
pactised law at Dresden ; played the
lute, good musician; wrote: “Nun sicli
der Tag geendet hat.”
Herzog, Johann Georg, 1822—1910;
studied under Bodenschatz and at the
Seminary at Altdorf, Bavaria ; held sev-
eral positions as cantor and organist;
later musical director at Erlangen Uni-
versity, and finally professor, retiring in
1888; brilliant organ virtuoso, many
standard publications, among them Or-
gelsehule, Choraele mit For-, Zwischen-
vnd Nachspielen, and Chorgesaenge fuer
den kirchlichen Gebrauch.
Herzog, Johann Jakob, 1805 — 82;
Reformed theologian; b. at Basel, edu-
cated at Basel and Berlin; professor at
Lausanne 1838, Halle 1847, Erlangen
1854 (d. there) ; important works on
Oecolampadius and The Waldenses;
Church History; editor of a religious
encyclopedia (22 vols., 1853 — 68; 3d ed.
by A. Hauck 1896 — 1909); last English
edition (1908): The New 8 chaff -Herzog
Encyclopedia.
Heshusius, Tilemann; b. 1527;
D. D. at Wittenberg in 1553; superin-
tendent of Goslar; deposed in 1556 for
being conscientious in office; driven out
of Rostock for opposing worldliness ;
professor of theology at Heidelberg; de-
posed for opposing a Lutheran ( ? ) for
preaching the Calvinistic doctrine of the
Lord’s Supper ; superintendent in Magde-
burg; deposed for opposing an edict for-
bidding all polemics and driven out of
town; wrote a work against the Anti-
christ, for which he was driven out of
Wesel; court preacher to Count Wolf-
gang of Pfalz-Neuburg 1565; subse-
quently professor in Jena; deposed and
exiled in 1573 by the Crypto-Calvinists;
bishop of Samland in Koenigsberg; de-
posed 1577 ; finally professor at Helm-
stedt, where he helped to keep Bruns-
wick from accepting the Formula of
Concord; d. 1588. He published com-
mentaries, sermons, and polemical writ-
ings.
Hesychius, an Egyptian bishop men-
tioned by Eusebius as the editor of a re-
vised text of the Septuagint and of the
New Testament. Hesychius would thus
be the first textual critic. Of the char-
acter of his work nothing is known.
Heune, Johann, 1514 — 81; pupil and
friend of Justus Jonas; 1543 to 1546
rector of court school at Pforta; later
pastor at Schweidnitz; wrote: “Ach
liebe Christen, seid getrost.”
Heyer, John Christian Frederick,
first missionary of the Lutheran Gen-
eral Synod to India; b. 1793 in Ger-
many; studied in Philadelphia, Pa., and
in Goettingen; home missionary in the
Middle West 1819—39; appointed mis-
sionary of Pennsylvania Ministerium in
1840; sailing from Boston October 14,
1841, and arriving in India in 1842, he
immediately began work at Guntur,
preaching his first sermon through an
interpreter in August of that year. He
was then nearly fifty years of age; 1846
to 1848 he spent in the United States,
returning to India in the latter year;
in 1850 the mission of the North German
Missionary Society at Rajahmundry was
taken over; in 1857 Heyer again re-
turned to the United States to engage in
home missions in Minnesota; in his
seventy-seventh year he again went to
India, remaining in Rajahmundry over
a year ; d. in America, in November,
1873.
Hicksites. See Friends, Society of.
Hierarchy. The word hierarchy,
which may signify any body of officials
arranged in gradations of rank, is most
familiar as the title of the governing
body of the Roman Church. The follow-
ing canonB of the Council of Trent apply
here: “If any one saith that in the
Catholic Church there is not a hierarchy
by divine ordination instituted, consist-
ing of bishops, priests, and ministers, let
him be accursed.” (Sess. XXIII, can. 6.)
“If any one saith that besides the priest-
hood there are not in the Catholic
Church other orders, both greater and
minor, by which, as by certain steps, ad-
vance is made unto the priesthood, let
him be accursed.” (Can. 2.) “If any one
saith that bishops are not superior to
priests, ... let him be accursed.” (Can. 7.)
A distinction is made between the hier-
archy of order and the hierarchy of juris-
diction. The hierarchy of order, based
on the “sacrament” of order and there-
fore really on the celebration of the Mass
(see Priesthood), consists of the follow-
ing ranks: bishop, priest, deacon, sub-
deacon (major orders; all, except last,
claimed to be of divine institution),
acolyte, exorcist, lector, doorkeeper (mi-
nor orders; admittedly of ecclesiastical
institution ) . The bishop confers the
Higher Criticism
323
Higher Criticism
power to celebrate Mass; the priest
exercises this power; the deacon is the
chief servant at Mass; the members of
the other five orders are in various
stages of candidacy. — As the hierarchy
of order refers to the sacramental body
of the Lord, so that of jurisdiction is
said to refer to His mystic body, the
Church. The hierarchy of jurisdiction is
charged with the general guidance and
control of the Roman Church and exer-
cises legislative, judicial, coercive, and
administrative functions. The most im-
portant dignitaries rank as follows:
1 ) the Pope ; 2 ) cardinals ( q . v. ) ;
3) patriarchs (now only titular and
honorary) ; 4) primates (having only a
preeminence of honor over archbishops) ;
5 ) metropolitans or archbishops ( q. v. ) ;
6 ) bishops ( q. v. ) , and suffragan bishops
(assistants or substitutes). The Pope
exercises his immediate jurisdiction at
a distance through legates, nuncios, and
apostolic delegates (qq.v.). Divine in-
stitution is claimed, in this hierarchy,
only for Pope and bishops. “Neither the
consent nor vocation nor authority of the
people is required” (Council of Trent,
sess. XXIII, chap. 4) for the ordination
of any of these dignitaries, nor, indeed,
for anything else. The hierarchy is su-
preme in the Roman Church and ac-
countable only to itself; the prerogative
of the laity is to listen, to submit, and
to obey. They have abdicated the royal
priesthood with which Scripture credits
them, 1 Pet. 2, 9 ; Rev. 1, 0, as their
“superiors” have forgotten the teaching
of Christ and the apostles, 2 Cor. 4, 5;
1 Pet. 5, 3; Matt. 20, 25—27; 23, 8—11.
Higher Criticism. As distinguished
from Lower, or Textual, Criticism (q. v.),
which is concerned solely with the cor-
rection of the transmitted text according
to the rules of Hermeneutics, Higher
Criticism, by an alleged scientific study
of the origin, the dates, and the literary
structure of the books of the Bible, has
operated with theories which tend to sub-
vert the very foundations of belief in the
Bible. Some of the chief exponents of
Higher Criticism have made statements
like the following: “We no longer be-
lieve that a Bible statement is neces-
sarily true simply because it is a Bible
statement.” “No belief, however Scrip-
tural we may be able to prove it, can
claim the serious attention of thoughtful
men and women to-day merely because
it is Scriptural.” “There is not, either
in Church or in Bible, any infallible
authority for doctrinal truth, and we
should face the fact.” - — History. There
was a time when a certain form of Bib-
lical criticism referred simply to objec-
tive investigations and conclusions re-
garding the authenticity and canonicity
of certain books of the Bible or of sec-
tions of Biblical books. In this sense
Luther himself was a keen Biblical
critic; he did not hesitate to apply the
rule of full agreement in doctrine to
various passages and to several New Tes-
tament books, for which the historical
evidence in his days was rather meager.
In this sense also Hengstenberg, the Ger-
man scholar, and Horne, the English
theologian, may be called higher critics.
Their sole interest lay in establishing the
truth, and in this respect their work
commands attention even to-day. But
the exponents of the Higher Criticism as
we now know it had a different objective.
They were frankly enlisted on the side of
unbelief, and the avowed intention of the
majority of them was to change the at-
titude of believers toward the Bible from
one of trust and confidence to one of
distrust and doubt. In its origin Higher
Criticism was Franco-Dutch, and its
early expressions showed it to be specu-
lative, if not skeptical, from the outset.
The fountainhead of the movement was
Spinoza (q. v. ) , the rationalist Dutch
philosopher. In his Tractatus Theologico-
Politieus (1670) he came out boldly in
an attack on the traditional date and
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch,
ascribing its origin to Ezra or to some
other late compiler. He was followed by
the British philosopher Hobbes, an out-
spoken opponent of the necessity and the
possibility of a personal revelation, who
flatly denied the Mosaic authorship of
the Pentateuch. A few years later a
French priest, Richard Simon of Dieppe,
in his Historical Criticism of the Old
Testament, pointed out the supposed va-
rieties of style as indications of various
authors. In 1685 another Dutchman.
Le Clerk, advocated still more radical
views, maintaining that reason is an in-
fallible guide in judging Biblical mat-
ters. His theory was that the Penta-
teuch was composed by a priest sent from
Babylon ca. 678 B. C., and that there was
a later editor, or redactor, of the whole
book. In 1753 the Frenchman Astruc,
a freethinker of profligate life, brought
out for the first time the Jehovistic and
Elohistic divisive hypothesis and thus
opened a new era. According to him all
the sections of the Pentateuch in which
the name “God” ( Elohim ) occurs alone
were written by one man, called Elohist,
and those in which the name “Lord”
( Jehovah , or Jahveh) is found alone, by
another writer, the Jehovist, their ac-
counts being afterwards edited by a
further writer, a redactor, or editor, On
Higher Criticism
324
Higher Criticism
the basis of his book Conjectures Regard-
ing the Original Memoirs in the Booh of
Genesis, Astruc may be called the father
of the modern documentary theories, as
they have been promulgated with regard
to most of the books of the Bible. — The
man who first spread the vagaries of
Higher Criticism in Germany was Eieh-
horn, of Goettingen, whose Introduction
to the Old Testament was published in
1780. By formulating the documentary
hypothesis in a new way, so as to take
away the sting of outspoken hostility to
the Scriptural truth, he gained a large
following among Biblical scholars. After
him came Vater and later Hartmann
with their “fragment theory,” which also
undermined the Mosaic authorship of the
Pentateuch, reducing the book to a heap
of fragments carelessly joined by a late
editor. In 1806 De Wette, professor of
philosophy and theology at Heidelberg,
published an introductory study, which
followed the principles of Eiehhorn, its
supplemental hypotheses assuming that
Deuteronomy was composed in the age
of Josiah. Hot long after, Vatke and
Leopold Georg declared the post-Mosaic
and post-prophetic origin of the first
books of Moses. Bleek advocated the
idea of a basic writing ( Grundschrift )
and the redactor theory. Hupfeld (1853)
held that the original document was an
independent compilation; Graf declared
that the Jehovistic and the Elohistic
documents were written hundreds of
years after Moses’ time. Professor
Kuenen, of Leyden, Holland, in his Reli-
gion of Israel and Prophecy in Israel
(1 874-— 77), proved himself to be one of
the most advanced exponents of the ra-
tionalistic school. One of the last and
most destructive critics of the Conti-
nental school was Wellhausen (q. ».), who
in 1878 published the first volume of his
History of Israel, thereby making such
a great impression as to get a large fol-
lowing. It was he who introduced the
evolutionistic idea into Biblical criticism.
— Unfortunately the movement spread
also to Great Britain and America. Thus
the work of Davidson, especially in his
Introduction to the Old Testament (1862),
was largely based on the fallacies of the
German rationalists. Robertson Smith
took over the German theories in his
works on the Pentateuch, The Prophets
of Israel, and The Old Testament in the
Jewish Church (1881 — 2), and showed a
strange radicalism, which became even
stronger in his later writings. A man
holding a similar position was George
Adam Smith, whose book Modern Criti-
cism and the Preaching of the Old Testa-
nient (1901) goes very far in the rational-
istic direction. Cheyne, for many years
professor at Oxford, was particularly un-
reasonable and violent in his opposition
to the revealed truth. With him was as-
sociated in some of his work Driver,
Regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford,
who wrote an Introduction to the Litera-
ture of the Old Testament, in which he
took over practically all the theories of
the Continental School. In a similar
manner Briggs, for some time professor
of Biblical Theology at Union Seminary,
New York, advocated the German and
British theories, especially in his Bib-
lical Study (1883), in his Messianic
Prophecy (1886), and in his Higher Criti-
cism of the Hexateuch (1893). Other
names could be added, for the sake of
greater completeness, but those now men-
tioned pretty well represent the leaders
in the movement. In the field of Higher
Criticism of the New Testament the most
radical opponents of the revealed truth
was Baur, of Tuebingen, and his school,
who left only a few shreds of the New
Testament as authentic and canonical. —
Principles. If we ask what were the
basic thoughts or ideas of the higher
critics, we may say that three things
may confidently be asserted of nearly all
those named above. In the first place,
they were men who denied the validity
of miracles and therefore the truth of
any narrative pertaining to miracles.
They considered the inspired account of
the Bible a “legendary exaggeration of
events that are entirely explainable from
natural causes.” In the second place,
these men denied the reality of prophecy
and the validity of prophetic statement.
They take a peculiar delight in calling
the prophetic sections of the Bible “dex-
terous conjectures, coincidences, fiction,
imposture, or accounts following the his-
torical event of which they claim to be
speaking as eventuating in the future.”
In the third place, these men denied the
reality of revelation, namely, in the sense
in which believers of all times have re-
garded the Bible as the inspired Word
of God. The supernatural element was
ruled out by practically every one of
them, in some cases with the hostility of
agnostics and naturalistic evolutionists.
And whether the men were out-and-out
rationalists or belonged to the school of
compromise, the result of their teaching
and writing was the same, namely, the
discrediting of the Bible. — Fallacies.
That the higher critics have been operat-
ing almost entirely with preconceived
notions and theories, constructed in the
interest of unbelief, appears from a sum-
mary of their tenets. We have, in the
first place, their analysis of the Penta-
Higher Criticism
325
Higher Criticism
tench. It lias been shown time and again
that the detection of composite author-
ship is a task exceeding even the bounds
of probability. It has been found flatly
impossible to detect the various contri-
butions where a composition lias been
openly declared to be a collaboration.
How can men accomplish in a dead lan-
guage what they cannot do in their own ?
The argument from a supposed difference
in vocabulary has so often been demon-
strated to be unreliable that its constant
repetition merely emphasizes the weak-
ness of the critical position. In connec-
tion with this we may also consider, as
a second fallacy, the statement that
Deuteronomy was not written by Moses.
The fact that the higher critics read into
the account of 2 Kings 22 the attempt at
a pious fraud alone repels the Christian
believer. And it is hardly conceivable
that our Lord should have chosen the
Book of Deuteronomy, if it was the re-
sult of a deliberate deceit, as His arsenal
in foiling the attacks of Satan. Matt. 4,
1 — 11. A third fallacy is this, that the
Ilible is to be regarded as a natural book,
that is, as a product of mere human
beings working in the field of religious
literature. The divine in the Bible, ac-
cording to these teachers, is merely that
of all men who might be said to be in-
spired in their works in the field of art
and literature. But the difference be-
tween the Bible and other alleged in-
spired religious books is apparent to even
the most superficial critic. And the
Christian knows by the direction of the
Spirit, by the consciousness resulting
from his fellowship with God, that the
Bible is the product of the Holy Spirit.
A further fallacy consists in this, that
the miracles are denied, either by the
critics’ insisting that happenings in the
realm beyond the ordinary laws of na-
ture are impossible or by injecting as
much of the natural into the account of
miracles as to take away the supernatu-
ral essence. But all efforts to set aside
the accounts of the miracles have been
wrecked on the clearness of the authentic
records, and the search for parallels in
the pagan mythologies has weakened the
critics’ own case. To deny the supernatu-
ral in the domain of the Christian reli-
gion is to become unreasonable. A fifth
fallacy of higher criticism denies the
testimony of archeology. It was for-
merly stated that Moses could not have
written the records ascribed to him, be-
cause the art of writing had not yet been
invented. We now know that writing
was a common accomplishment among
the poorer classes in the countries of the
Orient before the time of Abraham. It
was said that Abraham is a mythological
figure. Now the various circumstances
of his life are substantiated by unques-
tioned records of the past, and the name
is found in accounts both contempora-
neous and previous to the time in which
he lived. It may safely be said that
practically every discovery in Bible lands
tends, in one way or the other, to cor-
roborate the Bible narrative. A sixth
fallacy is the statement that the psalms
were written after the Emile. The fact
that the Bible ascribes a great number
of the psalms to David is not accepted
by the higher critics. But they are
quickly confronted by an unanswerable
question: If David and his contempora-
ries did not write the psalms ascribed to
them, who did? There is no indication
that the Golden Age of poetry among
the Hebrews extended to the time much
beyond the Exile. We have individual
psalms which show a later authorship,
but they are, humanly speaking, the ex-
ceptions which confirm the rule. All ex-
ternal and internal reasons point to the
fact that the psalms, with the excep-
tions noted, are of ancient origin. The
last fallacy is this, that the so-called
priestly legislation, the passages found in
Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, was not
enacted until the Emile. This takes the
books away from the Mosaic authorship
and makes them a conglomeration of
material which was fraudulently issued
under his name, besides bringing in the
idea of evolution into the religion of the
Jews. The supposition of forgery, and
of forgery so cunning, so elaborate, and
so minute, is abhorrent. That the reli-
gion of the righteous God must be pro-
moted by such schemes is revolting to
every mind that has ever studied the
books concerned. The very people to
whom the higher critics desire to ascribe
the sections of these books are the most
unlikely authors, since their own writ-
ings would reflect most adversely upon
themselves. — With regard to the New
Testament the radical theories of Baur
had attempted to cut the synoptic gos-
pels to pieces, to deny the authenticity
of the Pastoral Epistles, and to mutilate
practically all the rest of the New Tes-
tament. Fortunately the more careful
investigations of later critics have shed
a flood of light on the New Testament
books, and Biblical criticism has now
turned in the direction of sanity, espe-
cially with regard to the gospels. — Con-
clusions. Such are the chief fallacies of
Higher Criticism. They constitute an
array of impossibilities. And they lead
to Modernism in its most repulsive form,
a position which denies the inspiration
Higher Education
326
Higher Education
of the Bible, the truth of prophecy, the
happening of miracles, including the Vir-
gin Birth, and has placed a stamp of
naturalism on Holy Writ. Higher Criti-
cism is neither intelligent nor scholarly.
Two passages of Scripture have rightly
been applied to the movement: “If the
foundations be destroyed, what can the
righteous do?” Ps. 11, 3. “The wise men
are ashamed, they are dismayed and
taken; lo, they have rejected the Word
of the Lord, and what wisdom is in
them?” Jer. 8, 9.
Higher Education. At the beginning
of the Christian era the pagan world
possessed numerous schools of advanced
learning, the rhetorical and philosoph-
ical schools, the universities of Athens,
of Rome, of Alexandria. Alexandria was
for centuries the intellectual center of
the world, where many of the early
Church Fathers were educated. But as
the danger of pagan learning and phi-
losophy was more keenly realized, the
catechumenal schools ( q. v . ) were devel-
oped into catechetical schools, which
were designed to give a higher educa-
tion to the leaders and ministers in the
Church, One of the first of these was
the school at Alexandria, where Pan-
taenus (179 A. D.), Clement (216), and
Origen (203) taught. Another school
was established by Origen in Caesarea
ca. 231; another about the same time by
Calixtus at Rome, which rapidly devel-
oped into a flourishing school, was pat-
ronized by emperors, and possessed a
large library. Though scholars of all
classes came to these schools, where lit-
erature, history, and science were stud-
ied, they were planned especially for the
training of the clergy under the direction
of the bishop. These schools, later called
episcopal or cathedral schools, spread
over all Europe and continued through-
out the Middle Ages; some of them per-
sist to the present time. As promotion
in the ranks of the clergy soon came to
depend somewhat upon the studies pur-
sued in these institutions, their impor-
tance increased. During the 5th and the
0th century the Church Councils legis-
lated that boys destined for the priest-
hood should be placed in these schools.
As the attendance increased, appropriate
buildings were erected, the teaching staff
was augmented, the course of study regu-
lated, and the life of teachers and pupils
subjected to regular rules and canons.
With the overthrow of Roman culture
by the barbarians also higher education
fell completely into the hands of the
Church. From the 8tli to the 12th cen-
tury the monastic schools were of greater-
importance, but with the expansion of
knowledge and the greater tolerance of
inquiry the rigidity and narrowness of
these schools resulted in the renewed
growth and revived importance of the
cathedral schools. The study of dia-
lectics was emphasized, which stimulated
an interest in intellectual activity and
in the logical formulation and statement
of religious beliefs. Plato and Aristotle
dominated in these schools; the method
was logical analysis of the subject, less
observation and research ; the knowledge
was primarily of a theological and philo-
sophical character. Because of the scho-
lastic movement and the new intellectual
and educational interest, stimulated dur-
ing the Crusades by the contact with
Eastern and Saracen learning, a number
of these cathedral schools developed into
universities. The universities of Naples
(1224), Bologna (1158), and Paris (1180)
became prominent. During the 13th cen-
tury .19 of these chartered institutions
were created by Popes and monarclis ;
during the 14th century 25 more were
added; during the 15th century, 30 more.
These universities enjoyed certain privi-
leges; students were exempt from mili-
tary service and taxation, had their own
internal jurisdiction, and were empowered
to grant degrees, which meant a license
to teach. Masters and students organ-
ized into groups, according to their na-
tional affiliation. The term faculty was,
in the course of time, applied to the va-
rious departments of study, as, the fac-
ulty of theology, of law, etc., and finally
to the instructors who had charge of a
particular department. Method and con-
tent of study were dictated by scholas-
ticism ( q . v.). Education was still one of
books, rather than of research and ob-
servation.
While these schools represent the in-
tellectual and ecclesiastical education of
the age, the institution of chivalry rep-
resents the education which secular
society received, and the training in
knightly ideals and activities formed the
only education of the members of the
nobility. This education was divided
into two distinct periods: that of a
page, which covered approximately the
period from the seventh to the four-
teenth year; and that of a squire, from
the fourteenth to the twenty -first year,
when, after going through some religious
ceremonies, the squire was knighted.
This education was rather a discipline
both for the individual and for the so-
cial class to which he belonged; the in-
tellectual element was very slight. Un-
der chivalry the ideals constituting the
character of a gentleman were more defi-
nitely formulated than in modern ages.
tllgher I'll non! ion 327 Higher Eilncalton
The knight summed up his duties under
his obligations to God, to his lord, and
to his lady. Chivalry performed for the
secular life a service similar to that per-
formed by monasticism for the Church,
inasmuch as both dignified the ideals of
service and obedience.
The Renaissance ( q . v.) vitally affected
the educational ideals of the age. The
“new learning,” the study of classical
antiquity, wedged its way into all schools
and universities. The most important
phase of this revival was the restoration
of the idea of a liberal education as for-
mulated by the Greeks and adapted to
the Romans by Cicero, Quintilian, Taci-
tus, and others. Paulus Vergerius (died
1420) of Padua defines its aim thus:
“We call those studies liberal which are
worthy of a free man; those studies by
which we attain and practise virtue and
wisdom; that education which calls
forth, trains, and develops those highest
gifts of body and mind which enable men
and are rightly judged to rank next in
dignity to virtue only.” The Renaissance
education emphasized the physical ele-
ment and endeavored to influence conduct
and behavior, it was practical and sought
to train for effective citizenship and to
produce practical judgment in every-day
affairs. Its esthetic element found ex-
pression in the study of literature and
became the dominant feature in the work
of the schools. This broad content and
scope of the Renaissance education was
later restricted to the study of the lan-
guages and literatures of the ancients,
which study, formerly but a means to
the end, became the chief end in Human-
istic education. The classics were stud-
ied chiefly for the sake of the language
and less for the sake of their educational
value. In Italian universities the “new
learning” first found a permanent home;
wandering “poets” brought it to the
North. In 1494 a chair of “Poetry and
Eloquence” was established at Erfurt,
and by 1520 the “new learning” was at
least represented in all the German uni-
versities. At Oxford it was introduced
by a group of students from Italy, at
Cambridge by Erasmus. The hostility of
the Church led to the establishment of
many schools embodying the new spirit
under the patronage of monarclis and
of the nobility, such as the court schools
in Italy and the Fuerstenschulen in Ger-
many. The Gymnasium, which has re-
mained to this day, is the best type of
Humanistic secondary schools in Teu-
tonic countries. In many cases it devel-
oped from existing burgher- and church-
schools. The Gymnasium at Strassburg,
organized in 1537 by J. Sturm (q, v.).
exerted the greatest influence of any of
these schools. St. Paul’s School of Lon-
don, 1512, became the model for English
advanced schools in curriculum, method,
and purpose, and the narrow Humanistic
training was continued in them almost
up to 1860. The grammar schools of the
American colonies, as to scope and
method, were fashioned after the English
schools. The Boston Latin School,
founded 1635, has existed continuously
to the present time. But in America
the Humanistic school gave place to a
new type earlier than in any of the
European countries.
The Reformation deeply affected edu-
cational ideas and aims. The interests
of the Renaissance were chiefly literary
and esthetic; the Reformation again
emphasized the religious and the moral
interests. It made use of the “new learn-
ing,” but the knowledge of languages and
the culture they offered was to serve a
higher purpose, the Word of God. Be-
sides the vernacular, Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew were studied; logic, mathemat-
ics, history, science, and music were
added. The work of carrying out the
ideas of Luther was largely left to his
coworkers. Melanchthon became the
Praeceptor Germaniae; he was to Ger-
many as to educational reform what
Luther was with respect to religions re-
form. Wittenberg, from which all these
influences radiated, was remodeled along
Humanistic-Protestant lines and became
the model of many new universities. At
the death of Melanchthon there was
scarcely a city in all Germany that had
not modified its schools according to his
direct advice or his general suggestions.
Many of the universities and schools
threw off their allegiance to the Pope
and transferred it to princes and the
state. But even under state control the
dominant motive was a religious one, and
the school plan was strongly Humanistic.
These schools were early organized into
a system, in Saxony in 1525, in Wuert-
temberg in 1559. The effectiveness of
the Protestant schools as a means of re-
forming social and ecclesiastical evils
and of establishing churches induced the
Roman Church to employ the same
means. Teaching orders, especially Jes-
uits, adopting many of the ideas and
methods of the Protestant schools, made
education their chief aim and controlled
the Roman Catholic institutions. While
from a modern viewpoint their education
was not broad, it was very thorough and
effective.
With the 18th century there came a
very decided movement away from the
dominant theological spirit and from the
Higher Education
328
Hlncmar
formal Humanistic content of education.
Modern education may be described as
rational, psychological, realistic. Ra-
tional, inasmuch as it acknowledges no
other authority than that of reason and
of actual experience. While in other
fields of knowledge it has cleared away
many antiquated theories that were un-
founded in fact or in reason, it has seri-
ously impaired the study of theology and
undermined its very foundation, because
it will not accept unreservedly the teach-
ings of the Bible, but subjects even them
to the test of reason and personal ex-
perience. As to method, education has
developed along psychological lines. The
fundamental idea is that learning and
education are a natural process, which
starts from the natural instincts and
tendencies and leads to action and should
be controlled by principles derived from
the study of the development and func-
tionings of the mind. Educational mate-
rial are facts and phenomena of life and
nature. As to method and material,
psychology plays a very important role
in modern education. Education became
realistic, not only inasmuch as it em-
phasized the study of natural phenomena
and social institutions, the sciences,
rather than languages and literature, but
also inasmuch as its aim was not chiefly
disciplinary, but practical, not merely
desiring to develop the various faculties
of the mind, but to fit the youth for the
actual duties of life. The Realschulen
of Germany, the academies of England,
and the vocational schools in this coun-
try are intended to give to the student
such a realistic education. Besides, the
plan of study in our high schools, col-
leges, and universities is so flexible that
a student may select just such subjects
as will best fit him for his future career.
During the last century, schools for
higher education have multiplied in num-
ber and in kind, and while each country
developed its own system, it may be said,
in general, that the entire school system
of each country may be divided into
primary, secondary, and superior schools.
Primary schools include kindergarten
and elementary grammar schools; the
secondary schools include a large variety
of advanced schools, high schools, acade-
mies, colleges, commercial, and technical
schools; superior schools are normal
schools, medical schools, theological sem-
inaries and universities.
The Lutheran Church has done much
for higher education in our country. The
various Lutheran synods maintain at
their own expense a large number of
seminaries, normal schools, colleges,
academies, and high schools. In 1839
the Saxon immigrants built a log cabin
in Perry County, Mo., which was the
first college of the later Missouri Synod.
Since then the schools for higher educa-
tion of this synod have rapidly multi-
plied : 3 theological seminaries, 2 normal
schools, 11 colleges, 5 high schools. The
Joint Synod of Wisconsin has 1 seminary
and 3 colleges. The Synodical Confer-
ence: 2 colleges for Negroes. And the
aim of the Lutheran Church is to ex-
pand its educational system and to in-
crease its efficiency. See Colleges, Semi-
naries, Universities.
Hilary of Poitiers, “the Athanasius
of the West”; of pagan parentage;
bishop,, though married, ca. 350; devoted
himself to checking the spread of Arian-
ism; banished, he withstood the Arians
and their emperor in the East; return-
ing, he purged Gaul, though not Italy,
of the heresy; his chief work: De Trini-
tate; the first exegete among the Latin
writers ; composed hymns of great beauty
and power; d. 366.
Hillel I, noted Jewish rabbi; b. ca.
75 B. C. ; d. 10 A. D. ; Babylonian by
birth; emigrated to Palestine; became
president of Sanhedrin; in opposition to
his colleague Shammai (g. v.) advocated
more lenient interpretation of the Law;
claimed by Renan to have been Jesus’
teacher, which, however, was disproved
by Delitzsch.
Hiller, Johann Adam, 1728 — 1804;
studied at Goerlitz Gymnasium, in Dres-
den, and at University of Leipzig; con-
ductor of Gewandhaus concerts; later
Musikdirektor of Thomasschule ; origi-
nator of Singspiel; among his composi-
tions a Passion cantata.
HilleP, Philipp Friedrich, 1699 to
1769; pastor and hymn-writer; wrote
several books of devotion, such as Kurze
und erbauliche Andachten, Morgen- und
Abendandachten nach dem Oebet des
Berm.
Hilprecht, Hermann Vollrath, Ger-
man-American Assyriologist; b. 1859 at
Hohenerxleben, Germany; came to Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, 1886; directed
several of the university’s expeditions to
Nippur; wrote Explorations in Bible
Lands during 19th century ; d. 1925.
Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims; b. ca.
806, d. 882; strong, not in dogmatics,
but in statesmanship (adviser of Charles
the Bald of France) and church govern-
ment; upheld the rights of the national
Church against Pope (Nicholas I) and
prince and the assumed rights of the
Metropolitan against the bishops. See
also Predestinarian and Eucharistic Con-
troversies.
Hinduism
329
Hinduism
Hinduism. Collective name for the
religious and social systems of the Hin-
dus. Hinduism is based on Brahmanism
(q.v.) and the old Vedic religion of In-
dia, hut has strong admixtures of popu-
lar religious beliefs and practises. It
developed since the rise of the “great
heresies,” Buddhism and Jainism ( qq . v.),
and is to-day the religion of two-thirds
of the more than three hundred million
inhabitants of India. Though the heret-
ical systems of Buddhism and Jainism
affected the native religion profoundly,
the latter was able to survive, and this
survival, with its later multiform de-
velopments, is designated by the term
Hinduism. As Hinduism is a conglom-
eration of Brahmanism and popular be-
liefs and cults, particularly of the non-
Aryan population, and as there are many
degrees of this compromise, it presents
a great variety of religious forms and an
indefinite number of sectarian parties,
which are on religious levels, varying
from the metaphysical, monotheistic
speculations of the cultured Brahmans
down to the most degraded nature wor-
ship and demonology of the lowest
classes. Hinduism embraces the pan-
theism of the Upanisliads, the specula-
tions of the six orthodox systems of
Brahmanic philosophy (see Brahman-
ism), asceticism and self-torture (see
Yoga and Fakir), magic, a pantheon of
innumerable male and female greater and
lesser divinities, animism and fetishism,
belief in innumerable evil spirits that
must be propitiated or driven away, wor-
ship of celestial bodies, trees, rocks, of
useful animals, particularly of the cow,
whose tail is seized by the dying Hindu,
and of harmful animals, as the snake,
reverence for holy men, the saddhus, of
whom there are at least five million,
pilgrimages to sacred streams, as the
Ganges, whose water is considered espe-
cially holy, to mountains, to Benares and
other holy cities, pronounced phallicism,
gross immorality, and prostitution in
the temples. Hinduism has in common
with the older Brahmanism the funda-
mental doctrines of karma and trans-
migration ( qq. v. ) and the caste system,
the latter in an extremely developed
form. The division into castes is the
basis of the whole social structure of
India. Its beginning goes back to the
time when the Aryan invaders, coming
from the Punjab, pushed to the south
and reduced the non-Aryan population to
a position of servitude. Early in the
Brahmanic period there developed four
castes: the Brahman, or priestly, class,
which is socially supreme; the Kshat-
riya, or warrior, class; the Vaisya, or
agricultural, class ; the Sudra, or servile,
class. These four major castes are now
subdivided into thousands of smaller
groups, each of which is endogamous,
that is, marriage is permitted only
within the group. Even the Brahman
caste is subdivided into many such en-
dogamous groups, and in the lower
classes subdivisions are especially nu-
merous. The chief reason for the forma-
tion of these numerous castes is the dif-
ference in occupations and the mixture
of races in varying degrees. Occupations
are hereditary, and new castes are con-
tinually being formed, mainly because
new occupations, hitherto unknown,
arise. Besides the marriage restrictions
all social intercourse, especially eating
and drinking, with members of a lower
caste is prohibited. Pariahs is the term
applied to some of the lowest castes.
They do not belong to the four original
castes and, though not the lowest, are
lower even than the SudTas. During the
early centuries of Hinduism the worship
of two gods from out of the great pan-
theon of male and female deities, namely,
of Vishnu and Siva, became prominent
and divided the Hindu world into two
great sects, the Vishnuites and the Siva-
ites. Vishnu was orginally an old Vedic
sun-god and now has become the most
popular of the Hindu gods. He exerts
his influence for the maintenance of the
universe mainly through his avatars,
i. e., incarnations, in which he assumes
animal, human, and superhuman forms.
Siva is the old Vedic Rudra. His pres-
ent worship includes many non-Aryan
elements. His symbol is the phallus.
While Brahmanism emphasized knowl-
edge and the performance of the ritual
as the means of salvation, the Vishnuites
and Sivaites lay great stress on the
bhakti, i. e., the personal faith in, and
devotion to, their deity. However, this
bhakti frequently leads to excesses.
Prostitution is common in many Vishnu-
ite temples, and certain Sivaite sects in-
dulge in immoral orgies. The center of
modern Hinduism is Benares, on the
Ganges, with its more than two thousand
temples. Thousands of other temples and
innumerable shrines are found through-
out India. Numerous priests, musicians,
and temple-girls are associated with the
larger temples. In Vishnuite temples
there are images of Vishnu and minor
deities, which every day are awakened,
bathed, clothed, given food, as if they
were human beings. In Sivaite temples
the phallic stone is venerated with
prayers and obeisances. The most im-
portant. sources of our knowledge of the
earlier phases of Hinduism are the two
Ull>l>eii, Joliann Heinrich von 330 Hodge, Archibald Alexander
great national epic poems, the Maha-
bharata and the Ramayana. The Haha-
bharata has 100,000 verses and was of
gradual growth, extending from ca. 400
B. C. to 400 A. D. One of its prominent
heroes is Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu.
Its most important part is an episode
called Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of the
Blessed”), a frequently edited and popu-
lar book, which has exerted great in-
fluence on Hinduism. The Ramayana,
composed several centuries B. C., has for
its subject also an avatar of Vishnu.
An important occurrence in the history
of Hinduism is the rise of the sect of
the Sikhs ( q . v.) . The introduction of
Christianity and European civilization
resulted in several reform movements,
directed against the polytheism, idolatry,
and abuses of the old religion. In 1828
a theistic society, the Brahma Samaj
(“Society of God”) was founded by Ram
Mohan Ray. He was succeeded, 1841, by
Debendra Nath Tagore and, 1865, by
Keshab Chandra Sen. The movement
broke up into several branches, all of
which attempt to unite the best elements
of Hinduism with the monotheism and
spiritual character of Christianity, one
branch even asserting belief in a trinity,
father, son, and spirit. The movement,
which had 6,388' adherents in 1921, is
making little progress. A similar mono-
theistic movement, but holding to the
Veda as divine revelation and pro-
nounced in its . antagonism to Chris-
tianity is the Arya Samaj (“Society of
Nobles”), foundfed 1875, with 467,578
members in 1921, and growing rapidly.
The 1921 census gives the following fig-
ures for the religions of India (including
Burma) : 216,734,586 Hindus, 68,735,233
Mohammedans, 11,571,268 Buddhists
(nearly all in Burma), 9,774,611 Ani-
mists, 4,754,079 Christians, 3,238,803
Sikhs, 1,178,596 Jains, 101,778 Parsees,
21,778 Jews, 17,989 others.
Hlppen, Johann Heinrich von; b. at
Wolilau, Silesia; in 1676 councilor and
chamberlain in Limburg ; wrote : “So
tret’ ich demnach an.”
Hippo Regius, Canon of. In this
city of Numidia, where Augustine ( q . f.)
was bishop for so many years, a council
was held in 393, the first of the African
councils, or synods. (See Carthage , Syn-
ods of.) In 419 A. D. another council
was held at Hippo, and the Carthaginian
Catalog of the Books of Scripture is
found in the canons of this meeting.
This agrees with that of the Third Coun-
cil of Carthage, held in 397, in which all
the present books of the New Testament
are listed, but instead, of the strange cir-
cumlocution of the Carthaginian resolu-
tion with regard to Paul’s writings:
“thirteen epistles of the Apostle Paul,
one epistle of the same to the Hebrews,”
we have here: “fourteen epistles of
Paul.” The resolution is known as the
lirevia/rium Canonum Ripponensium.
Hippolytus, Schism of, occasioned by
the opposition of Hippolytus against the
lax discipline and Patripassian heresy
of Pope Calixtus of Rome (217 — 222),
lasted until the year 235, when, accord-
ing to the chronological catalog of Popes
from 364, a “presbyter” Hippolytus, to-
gether with the Roman bishop Pontianus,
was banished to Sardinia, Thereupon
both parties united in the election of a
new Pope, thus ending the schism.
Hirschberger Bibel. The Bible re-
printed with brief and pointed annota-
tions and parallel references by Ehren-
fried Liebich, pastor at Lomnitz, assisted
by John Fr. Burg, of Breslau. Printed
at Hirschberg, 1756. Good.
History of Doctrines ( Dogmcnye -
schiohte) . The orderly presentation of
the various doctrines making up the
systematic arrangement of Bible dogmas
in their logical relation and especially
in their historical development.
Hobbes, Thomas, English philoso-
pher; b. 1588 at Malmesbury; d. 1679
at Hardwick Hall. By the sensational-
ism of his philosophy (“only source of
knowledge is sensation”), his denial of
miracles and revelation, and, in general,
by his critical, rationalistic attitude
toward religious doctrines, he helped
much to lay the foundations of English
Deism (q.v.).
Hochstetter, C.; b. April 1, 1828, at
Lorch, Wuerttemberg; studied theology
in Tuebingen ; pastor of St. John’s, Fort
Wayne; 1857 Diakonus of Pastor Gra-
bau; joined the Missouri Synod in 1866,
after the Colloquium; served in Pitts-
burgh, Indianapolis, Frohna, Mo., Stone-
bridge, Can., Wolcottsville, N. Y., Jordan,
Can.; d. June 12, 1905; editor of Luth.
Yolksblatt; author of Qeschichte der
M issouri-Synode.
Hodenberg, Bodo von, 1604 — 50; in
the service of the Duke of Lueneburg;
tutor; later chief magistrate and direc-
tor of the mines at Osterrode in the
Harz; wrote: “Vor deinen Thron tret’
ich hiermit.”
Hodge, Archibald Alexander, 1823
to 1886; Presbyterian; son of Charles
Hodge ; b. at Princeton ; missionary in
India ; professor of theology at Alle-
gheny, Pa. ; succeeded his father, at
Princeton (d. there) ; one of the founders
of the Presbyterian Review.
Ilodjse, Charted
331
Itofacker, Indwlg
Hodge, Charles, 1797 — 1878; con-
servative Presbyterian theologian; b. at
Philadelphia; began to teach in his alma
mater, Princeton College, 1820, and was
connected with its faculty until his
death; founded the Biblical Repository
and Princeton Review 1825; wrote Com-
mentary on Romans (among the very
best English commentaries on Romans) ;
Systematic 'Rheology; etc.
Hoe von Hoenegg, Matthias; b. 1580
at Vienna; d. at Dresden 1645; third
court preacher at Dresden in 1602; at
Prague in 1611 as director of the evan-
gelical churches and schools; in 1613
recalled to Dresden, remaining there un-
til his death; a firm defender of true
Lutheranism against both Catholics and
Calvinists.
Hoefling, Johann Wilhelm Fried-
rich; b. 1802, d. at Munich 1853; con-
servative Lutheran theologian; educated
at Erlangen; first pastor at several
places, then professor of practical theol-
ogy at Erlangen; in 1852 supreme con-
sistorial councilor at Munich ; one of the
founders and editors of the Zeitschrift
fuer Protestantismus und Kirche; wrote
an extensive work on Baptism and Kir-
chenverfassung ; originator of a peculiar
theory of the holy office, denying its
divine institution.
Hoelemann, Hermann Gustav;
b. 1809; d. 1886; professor at Leipzig;
conservative Lutheran theologian; most
noted works: Bibelstudien and Die Reden
des Satans in der Heiligen Schrift; held
the orthodox Lutheran view of inspira-
tion.
Hoelter, L., D. D. See Roster at end
of book.
Hoen (Honius) , Cornelius; Dutch
theologian; d. at The Hague 1524; de-
veloped theory that is in words of in-
stitution of Eucharist means signifies;
Carlstadt, Zwingli, and Oecolampadius
adopted, Luther rejected it.
Hoenecke, Adolf; b. February 25,
1835, at Brandenburg; prepared himself
for the university at Brandenburg Gym-
nasium; studied theology at Halle,
where he was favored and influenced by
Tholuck; was in Switzerland some
years; then accepted offer of Berlin con-
sistory to serve a number of years as
pastor in America under an agreement
which the Berlin Missionary Society had
with Wisconsin Synod. His American
service was to count toward a later ap-
pointment in the Prussian Church. Once
in America, Hoenecke found himself.
A return to Germany and its confessional
indifference was impossible to the man
who had become immediately a fiery and
devoted apostle of true Lutheranism.
He did not hesitate to cast his lot with
his new friends, sacrificing personal ad-
vancement. Pastor of the little rural
parish of Farmington, 1863 — 6, he then
came to the seminary at Watertown,
teaching there until 1870. At this time
an agreement with Missouri called for
his service at St. Louis. The state of his
health made acceptance impossible, and
he followed a call to St. Matthew’s, Mil-
waukee, which pastorate he retained un-
til 1890, even after he had assumed the
directorate of the reestablished seminary
in 1878, filling the chair of dogmatics
and homiletics. His learning made him
the spiritual leader of the Wisconsin
Synod to his dying day and left his im-
print on every young pastor sent forth
from the seminary. But it was more
than scholarship that gave him influ-
ence; he was preeminently the ex-
pounder of the Gospel. His brilliant
gifts, shining brightly even in contro-
versies where they were unwillingly em-
ployed, made the Gospel stand out the
more clearly. He was not so keenly con-
cerned with matters of church govern-
ment, though his sound judgment was
ever sought, but rather found his task
in fortifying the heart with the Truth;
the rest, he reasoned, might then care for
itself. For many years he' was editor-in-
chief of the Gemeindeblatt, and under
his directorate the Thealogische Quartal-
schrift was founded, 1903. His many
duties did not prevent his preparing nu-
merous books, only one of which, Wenn
ich nur Dich liabe, a volume of sermons,
was published during his lifetime. Pos-
thumously his lifework, the Dogmatik,
was published, edited by his sons, Walter
and Otto J. R. In the same manner a
volume of Entwncrfe and a volume of
Lenten sermons, Ein Laemmlein geht,
were published. He was made D. D. by
the faculties of Concordia, St. Louis, and
of Northwestern Seminary, Watertown,
Wis., 1903. He died at Wauwatosa, Jan-
uary 3, 1908, generally acclaimed, within
and without his synod, as one of the
great men of the Lutheran Church of
this country.
Hoermann, Arthur; b. November 12,
1869, St. Louis; graduate of Northwest-
ern, Milwaukee Seminary ; Pli. D., Ber-
lin 1902 (history) ; professor of history
at Northwestern, 1903 — 15; pastor at
Honolulu, 1915; author of History of
Northwestern College.
Hofacker, Ludwig; b. 1798, d. 1828;
and Wilhelm, b. 1805, d. 1848 at Stutt-
gart; both very popular and influential
Hoffmann, Gottfried
332
Holiness Chntch
preachers in Wuerttemberg at the time
of the reawakening from rationalism to
living faith in Christ. Ludwig’s book of
sermons has been sold in hundreds of
thousands of copies and has exerted a
very great influence in awakening sin-
ners. Wilhelm’s sermons were more pol-
ished, but less powerful.
Hoffmann, Gottfried, 1658—1712;
studied at Leipzig; conrector, then rec-
tor at Lauban, later at Zittau; most
hymns written for his scholars; wrote:
“Hilf, Jesu, dass ich meinen Naechsten
liebe.”
Hofmann, Heinrich; 1824 — ; a very
popular painter; free departure from
strict classicism, with romantic ten-
dency; among his well-known paintings:
Christ in Gethsemane, Child Jesus in the
Temple.
Hofmann, Johann Christian Kon-
rad von; b. at Nuremberg, 1810; d. at
Erlangen 1877 ; considered the most in-
fluential Lutheran theologian of his type
and time (see Erlangen School) ; edu-
cated at Erlangen and Berlin; first pro-
fessor at Erlangen; 1842 at Rostock;
recalled to Erlangen in 1845, where he
remained to his end. Hofmann’s theol-
ogy is not that of the Lutheran Confes-
sions, which is based entirely on the
revealed Word of God. Hofmann, fol-
lowing Schleiermacher, tries to develop
and unfold his theology from his own
consciousness as a believer. “I, the
Christian, am the proper material of my
science as theologian,” is his own con-
fession. Christianity, according to him,
is the communion of God and man as
mediated by Christ, but Christ in us.
Thus he denied the vicarious atonement,
asserting that Christ suffered on our be-
half, but not in our stead. His foremost
writings are: Weissagung und Erfuel-
lung; Schriftbeweis, Die Heilige Schrift
Neuen Testaments zusammenhaengend
untersucht. Hofmann, to some extent,
dominates modern theology.
Hojer, Konrad (or Hoier), subprior
at Moellenbeck, near Rinteln, beginning
of 17th century; the hymn “Ach Gott,
wie manches Herzeleid” either composed
or altered by him.
Holbach, Paul Heinrich Dietrich,
Baron d’, French philosopher; b. 1723
at Edesheim, Palatinate, of German par-
ents; lived in Paris, where his home be-
came the meeting-place of prominent
freethinkers; was one of the Encyclo-
pedists (q.v.)\ attacked Christian reli-
gion, as based on fraud and ignorance.
His Systbme de la Nature teaches the
crassest atheistical materialism. D. 1789
at Paris.
Holbein, Hans, the father, 1460 to
1524, and the son, 1497—1543; the for-
mer, with all the grace exhibited in his
work, still deficient in grouping and
coloring, although his altar of St. Sebas-
tian in Munich shows independent art
and a new German style; Hans the
Younger soon excelled his father, who
was his teacher, his work showing the
culmination of the German Renaissance;
rose to the zenith of honor and fortune
at the court of Henry VIII of England,
painting a great number of portraits
which are still considered masterpieces
of art, in spite of the fact that his style
was somewhat hard and formal.
Holiness Church. This denomina-
tion was founded in 1880 by the Rev.
Hardin Wallace, a minister of the Free
Methodist Church, who in the southern
part of California and Arizona preached
repentance and forgiveness of sins, em-
phasizing the sanctification or heart pu-
rity of the believers. A considerable
number of persons followed his line of
teaching, and these formed numerous
bands under the name “Holiness Band.”
For some time the members retained
their membership in the churches to
which they belonged. In 1896, however,
they became incorporated under the laws
of the State of California. From Cali-
fornia their work extended into other
States, especially into Kentucky and
Tennessee. The churches in Tennessee
constitute a district assembly of the en-
tire body, but the churches in Kentucky
are included in the corporate body of
California. — Doctrine. The doctrine of
the Holiness Church is Methodist, or
Wesleyan, teaching repentance, restitu-
tion, confession, and the forsaking of
sin, as the part of the sinner, and the
forgiveness of sin and the divine light
received by the repentant sinner, as the
part from God. The Holiness Church
teaches that it is the privilege as well
as the duty of every believer to con-
secrate himself to God without reserve
and that the result of such consecra-
tion is sanctification, meaning by this
term freedom from the “carnal mind”
and the tendency to sin. Specific con-
ditions of church membership are bap-
tism by water - — the mode being left to
the candidate, although immersion is
practised for the most part — and belief
in the second coming of the Lord and in
divine healing by faith. The Church
also emphasizes belief in prohibition,
abstinence from drugs and tobacco, and
from all poisons that are “against the
best for God.” Divorce is allowed only
for adultery, membership in secret so-
cieties is forbidden, and plain dress and
Holland
333
Holland
avoidance of extravagance and jewelry,
especially for show, is inculcated. - —
Polity. Local churches are self-direct-
ing, but there is a board of twelve elders
who care for the spiritual welfare of the
Church. District assemblies are formed
under the care of superintendents, who
are members of the board of elders of
the general assembly. No fixed salaries
are paid, and frequently ministers are
obliged to resort to manual labor to
supply the needs of their families. —
Work. The Holiness Church is mission-
ary in spirit and evangelistic in prac-
tise, carrying on its activities principally
in the States of California, Tennessee,
Kentucky, and Indiana. The expenses of
the work are met by free-will offerings of
the churches, there being no taxation or
assessment. In 1916 this denomination
reported 28 ministers, 33 churches, and
920 members. The Assemblies of God,
founded 1914, had 118 organizations,
with 6,703 members, in 1916 and have
had a strong growth since then. They
call themselves Holiness Churches and
teach Perfectionism. — See also Churches
of God.
Holland (or the Netherlands). The
conversion of Holland was begun under
Dagobert I (628 — 638), continued by
Willibrod and completed by Charlemagne
toward the end of the 8tli century. The
Reformation of the 16th century effected
sweeping changes in this country, so that
in the entire northwestern parts of the
country Protestantism prevailed, Roman
Catholicism having retained its foothold
in the southern part. Among the Prot-
estant churches the foremost is the Re-
formed Church, which took its rise at
the beginning of the Reformation. Its
doctrines and polity took form at the
Synod of Dort (1619). It was not, how-
ever, until the Peace of Westphalia
(1648) that the Reformed religion be-
came the organized religion of the coun-
try, its adherents constituting the na-
tional Church. When William I became
king in 1816, he called a general synod
and offered to support the Church pro-
vided it would accept a constitution
modified to suit his views. The Church
complied, and the older strictly Presby-
terian form of government was greatly
modified. This constitution, accepted in
1816, is still the basis of the existing
church order and the foundation of the
“general regulations of the Reformed
Church made in 1852.” In 1857, under
the influence of the Liberals and the
Romanists, the government banished re-
ligious instruction from the schools, and
in 1876 it changed the theological fac-
ulties in the universities into faculties
of comparative religion. However, when
rationalists secured these professorships,
the orthodox party founded a Free Re-
formed University at Amsterdam in
1880. The same party has secured free
schools all over Holland in which evan-
gelical religion is taught. The public
schools of Holland are non-confessional;
but there are hundreds of private paro-
chial schools supported by Protestants
or Roman Catholics. Two considerable
associations have been formed, one in
1860, another in 1877, to support and
extend such schools. — The Christian Re-
formed Church. At the General Synod,
1816, a change in the subscription form
for candidates aroused a great contro-
versy. The question arose whether the
standards of doctrine were authoritative
because or in so far as they agreed with
the Word of God. The Synod of 1835
wrote to every candidate to decide this
for himself. In consequence of this
change, as well as of oppressive meas-
ures, which interfered with the internal
affairs of the Church, a secession was
resolved upon by the evangelical party.
The seceders organized the Christian
Reformed Church, declaring that they
did not wish to secede from the Church,
but only from the bureaucratic adminis-
trative committee. Large multitudes
soon joined them, and in 1836 their
synodical meeting was held. These
churches, which for a time suffered much
persecution until they secured a legal
standing, adhere to the doctrines and
discipline of the Synod of Dort and thus
are in agreement with the Reformed
Church of America. In 1854 they estab-
lished the Evangelical School at Kam-
pen, and in 1879 higher education was
provided for by the founding of the Free
University of Amsterdam. In 1892 a
union was effected between the Synod of
the Christian Reformed Church and a
certain provisional synod of Dutch Re-
formed churches which had originated in
1886. These united bodies style them-
selves “The Reformed Churches in the
Netherlands” and have more than 700
churches. — The Lutheran Church. The
Lutheran Church gained only minor im-
portance in Holland. The first Lutheran
congregation was established at Woer-
den; it adopted the Augsburg Confes-
sion in 1566. In 1605 a union was ef-
fected among seven Lutheran ministers,
which in 1612 developed into the Lu-
theran Brotherhood. The last Lutheran
synod under the Republic met in 1696.
King William I, in 1818, gave the Evan-
gelical Lutheran Church a new organiza-
tion, which was modified in 1855 and
1859 so as to render the church indepen-
Holla*, Dariil
334 Holy Gliost, Congregation of
dent of all state control. At first tlieir
ministers were all educated in Germany,
but in 1816 a Lutheran seminary was
founded in Amsterdam. Like other Prot-
estant bodies, also this Lutheran Church
was affected by rationalism, and in 1791
a rupture occurred between the ration-
alists and those who insisted upon re-
turn to the old confessions. This “old
Lutheran Church” obtained legal stand-
ing in 1835 and legal confirmation in
1866. The sharp differences between the
two bodies gradually subsided, and in
1874 they were reunited. The Evangel-
ical Lutheran Church in Holland is di-
vided into seven districts. Its seminary
is connected with the University of Am-
sterdam. The revived Evangelical Lu-
theran Church numbers at present about
a dozen congregations. There are also
churches styled the Evangelical Brother-
hood at Zeist and Harlem, and German
Evangelical churches at The Hague, Rot-
terdam, and Amsterdam. — Baptists.
This body is often called “Mennonites”
from Menno Simons. For a long time
they had no central organization, but
in 1650 an organization was effected.
Afterwards, on account of doctrinal dif-
ferences, a division occurred, the ortho-
dox taking the name of Zonists and the
Liberals that of Lamists. In 1801 the
two divisions reunited. This denomina-
tion has no common standard of doctrine,
and infant baptism is rejected. In 1811
a general society was formed for the en-
couragement of theological education and
for the support of the ministry among
the poorer congregations. At the same
time they enlarged the curriculum of
their seminary, founded in 1731. All the
congregations have perfect freedom in
calling ministers and are independent as
to government of their own affairs. —
Remonstrants. This body dates from
about 1618 and has for its aim the
furtherance of Christian life on the basis
of the Gospel, while at the same time
holding fast to freedom and toleration.
The Church of Rotterdam is their prin-
cipal church. The movement is not
sound. See Arminianism.- — Roman Cath-
olic Church. Since the overthrow of the
state church in 1796, the Roman Church,
with renewed interest, . sought to regain
the lost control. The hierarchy was
established in 1853 with a great increase
of priests. In the reconstituted hier-
archy, Holland forms one province,
divided into five dioceses.
Hollaz, David; b. 1648, d. 1713 as
pastor and provost in Jacobshagen, near
Colberg, Pomerania; author of Examen
Theologicum Acroamaticurn, last of the
great text-books of Lutheran orthodoxy,
excellent in arrangement and clearness
of definitions.
Holston Synod. See Synods , Extinct.
Holy Coat of Treves. This famous
relic, preserved in the Cathedral of
Treves (Trier), purports to be the seam-
less garment — tunica inconsutilis —
woven by Mary for the Christ-child,
miraculously extending as He grew, and
worn by the Savior at the crucifixion —
the identical garment over which the
soldiers cast lots. According to one
legend the Empress Helena brought it
to Treves from Jerusalem. Another story
has it that Herod gave the coat to a Jew
because the drops of blood would not
come out. The Jew threw it into the
sea. A whale swallowed it. Orendel, a
son of the king of Treves, on his way to
Jerusalem, caught the monster, rescued
the garment, and carried it to his native
city. - — The “Holy Coat” has played a
conspicuous part in the history of relics.
In the days of Barbarossa, at the close
of the twelfth century, it was the glory
of Treves. On the eve of the Reforma-
tion it was solemnly displayed to the
Emperor Maximilian and the assembled
Gorman princes. During the Reforma-
tion it was repeatedly produced as an
antidote against heretical infection. The
idolatrous veneration accorded the relic
in 1844, when its exhibition attracted a
million and a half pilgrims to Treves,
raised a loud protest, not only among the
Protestants, but also among many think-
ing Catholics. Nevertheless, in 1891,
nearly two million pilgrims passed
through the cathedral to view and ven-
erate the “Holy Coat.” “Miracles,” of
course, are wrought on each exhibition,
a fact which offers no difficulty to mod-
ern psychology. As to the genuineness
of the relic, it is sufficient to add that
there are twenty other coats, equally
“genuine,” in the field.
Holy Ghost. See Holy Spirit.
Holy Ghost and Us Society. A sect
founded 1893 by Frank W. Sandford, for-
mer Free Baptist pastor, with head-
quarters at “Shiloh,” Durham Tp., Me.
Complete community of goods, pro-
nounced millenarianism, baptism by im-
mersion, belief in miraculous healing,
are their main tenets. Evangelistic
tours to African coast and a two-year
Federal penitentiary term for Sandford
for criminal neglect of his followers are
noteworthy events in their history.
Holy Ghost, Congregation of. A con-
gregation of secular priests, formed to
furnish missionaries for the most aban-
doned souls in both Christian and pagan
lands. It has chosen Africa as its main
Holy Grail
335
Holy Sulrlt
field, and more than half of its members
are stationed there. The order has
50 missions and stations in the United
States (1921), including 22 among
Negroes.
Holy Grail. A term properly applied
to the legendary dish used at the Last
Supper of the Lord, said to have been
stolen by a servant of Pilate, used by
him to wash his hands before the mul-
titude, afterward given to Joseph of
Arimathea as a memorial of Christ, and
finally used by Joseph to collect the
blood which flowed from Christ’s body
while He hung on the cross. The name
was afterwards applied to the cup used
at the Last Supper. Many men have
gone in search of the Holy Grail, since
it was said that Joseph of Arimathea
had brought it to England, whence it
was transported to India. The cup found
by crusaders, at the capture of Caesarea,
is now in Genoa. The legend was re-
vived in 1925, after the finding of a very
ancient sacramental cup in Antioch.
Holy Jumpers. A church organiza-
tion which resulted from a false under-
standing of the work and message of
Whitefield ( q . v.) in England, about 1760.
A peculiarity of its members consists in
their jumping and leaping in their reli-
gious meetings, at which time they also
utter shouts resembling the barking of
dogs, for which reason they are some-
times termed “Barkers.” In doctrine and
outward organization they follow Metho-
dist principles.
Holy Spirit (Holy Ghost). Four lines
of proof may be developed from the
Holy Scriptures that the Holy Spirit
is not merely a power or influence, but
is a person, one of the Three Persons
of the Trinity or Triunity. 1) Distinc-
tive characteristics never separable from
personality are ascribed to the Holy
Spirit. There are at least three distinc-
tive marks of personality- — knowledge,
feeling, and will. Any being which
knows, feels, and wills and is endowed
with mind is a person. Now, the Holy
Spirit is He who knows the deep things
of God and teaches them to us. 1 Cor.
2, 10. 11. Will is ascribed to Him 1 Cor.
12, 11; mind, Rom. 8, 27. The Holy
Spirit loves the children of God. Rom.
15, 30. His love has prompted Him to
come into this world, seek out men in
their lost estate, and by the Gospel re-
veal Jesus Christ to them and bring them
to a saving knowledge. The Holy Spirit
is “grieved” by the sins of the saints,
by anything in our acts or thoughts that
has the taint of evil in it; but only a
person can be grieved. 2) Acts are as-
cribed to the Holy Spirit which only a
person can perform. The Holy Spirit
“searches,” 1 Cor. 2, 10; He speaks, Rev.
2, 7, and often; cries out, Gal. 4, 6;
makes intercession for us, Rom. 8, 26;
teaches and testifies, John 15, 26. 27 ;
14, 26 ; leads and directs the work of the
Church. The works of calling by the
Gospel, conversion, and sanctification are
ascribed to him. 3) He is said to re-
ceive treatment which could only be
predicated of a person. He is rebelled
against and is grieved. Is. 63, 10; Heb.
10, 29. If one refuses to listen to divine
truths, he turns his back not only upon
an influence, but upon a divine person.
One cannot insult an influence. One can-
not lie to an influence, Acts 5, 3, nor
blaspheme against it, Matt. 12, 31. 32.
4) He is distinguished from the Father
and the Son as a Person in the Trinity.
He is called God. Acts 28, 25 (Is. 6, 8) ;
Matt. 12, 28 (Luke 11, 20) ; 1 Cor. 3, 16;
6, 19. The attributes of God are ascribed
to Him: He creates, works miracles, in-
spires prophets ; is everlasting, Heb.
9, 14; omnipresent and omniscient, Ps.
139,7. — Viewed in detail, the evidence
for the deity of the Holy Spirit is over-
whelming. “God spake by the prophets,”
says Heb. 1, 1. Peter declares that the
prophets “spake as they were moved by
the Holy Ghost.” 2 Pet. 1, 21. No inter-
pretation of this passage can make the
Spirit a mere influence or attribute of
God. In the Apostolic Benediction,
2 Cor. 13, 14, the Holy Ghost is acknowl-
edged, equally with the Father and the
Son, as the Source of all blessings. The
form of baptism presents further demon-
strative evidence, as did also the events
connected with the baptism of our Lord.
— The relation of the Holy Spirit to the
other Persons in the Trinity is called
procession. The Holy Ghost proceeds
from the Father and from the Son. John
14, 26; 15, 26; Gal. 4, 6; John 20, 22.
This doctrine is emphasized in the con-
fessions of the Christian Church. The
Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, adopted
by the three Ecumenical Councils, To-
ledo, Spain (A. D. 589), inserted the word
“Filioque” (“and from the Son”), an
addition which the Greek Church never
sanctioned and which later contributed
toward bringing about the great Eastern
Schism. Through this resolution of 589
the word “Filioque” entered into the
Nicene Creed. The essential nature of
this procession is as little known to us
as the “generation” of the Son. — For
works of the Holy Spirit see Conver-
sion, Regeneration, Sanctification, Grace,
Means of.
Holy Hi|ld of Kent
336 Honor, Knlgrhta and Ladies of
Holy Maid of Kent, or the Nun of
Canterbury (Elizabeth Barton), pre-
tended to have heavenly visions, which
were widely credited; she predicted dire
calamity for England and a violent death
for Henry VIII if he divorced Catherine
of Aragon and married Anne Boleyn.
She was tried for treason and beheaded
(1534).
Homann, E. ; b. April 25, 1851, at
Linden, Hanover; studied music in
Vienna; graduated in Addison; taught
school in Roundout, N. Y., and Chicago
(Immanuel); 1881 professor in Addison;
resigned 1910; d. January 4, 1912.
Homburg, Ernst Christoph, 1605 to
1681; studied law; practised at Naum-
burg; clerk of assizes and counselor;
friend of Rist; great ability as poet;
wrote: “Jesu, meines Lebens Leben”;
“Ach wundergrosser Siegesheld.”
Home Circle. History. This mutual
benefit society was organized at Boston,
1879, by members of the Royal Arcanum
for the wives, daughters, sisters, and
woman friends of members of the latter
society. Its founders were Freemasons,
Knights of Honor, Odd-Fellows, members
of the Ancient Order of United Work-
men, etc. It was chartered under the
laws of Massachusetts, January 13, 1880.
— Purpose. The society was organized
for mutual aid and social union, and four
benefit degrees were adopted, the candi-
date, after satisfactory medical examina-
tion, being allowed to carry $500, $1,000,
$2,000, or $3,500 protection. — Organiza-
tion. The Supreme Council, which is the
head of the order, makes laws and dis-
burses the Benefit Fund. Grand Coun-
cils are organized in States and prov-
inces having at least 1,000 members and
are composed of their officers, standing
committees, and representatives from
subordinate councils. They have the
general supervision of the order in their
respective jurisdiction. — Character. The
Home Circle has a ritual, based on the
Golden Rule, and teaches “morality and
upright living.” The emblem of the So-
ciety consists of a design formed of the
letter H and a circle.- — -Membership.
The order has a membership of about
8,000. Women compose 30 per cent, of
the membership. Its jurisdiction is lim-
ited to the United States and Canada.
Headquarters are at Boston, Mass.
Home-Finding Societies for Chil-
dren. These are organizations which
make it their business to have children
whose parents are dead or who have
been abandoned by them, adopted into
Christian homes. This is considered
more ideal than the placing of children
in orphanages. When children are to be
adopted, legal advice should be sought,
so that the proper papers are drawn up
and recorded.
Home Missions. See Inner Mission.
Homiletics (or Keryctics). That
branch of theological knowledge which
treats of the preparation and delivery
of sermons, homilies, and other set forms
of doctrinal presentation before a con-
gregation.
Hommel, Friedrich, 1813 — 92; stud-
ied law at Munich, Bonn, and Erlangen;
held various positions as assessor and
counselor; through his acquaintance
with Loehe, v. Tucher, and Layritz
learned to know and appreciate the Lu-
theran music of the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries; published, as a result,
IAturgie fuer lutherische Gemeindegot-
tesdienste, Psalter, fuer den Gesang eim-
gerichtet, Geistliche Volkslieder, his in-
fluence extending even to America.
Hommel, Fritz, German Orientalist;
son of the former; b. 1854 at Ansbach,
Germany; professor at Munich since
1885; wrote numerous works on Assyri-
ology and Arabic philology.
Honduras. See Central America.
Honor, American Legion of. A ben-
eficiary assessment society, founded in
1878, at Boston, Mass. It is governed
by a Supreme Council and receives men
and women. It has the usual ritualistic
and initiatory features of the secret
societies. Some of the founders were
among those who organized the Royal
Arcanum. In August, 1904, a receiver
was appointed for the Supreme Council
of the Legion of Honor. Preuss says of
the order: “It seems to be extinct.”
Honor, Knights and Ladies of. His-
tory. This secret fraternal insurance or-
der was organized in 1877, “being the
first of its kind to admit women on an
equal footing with men.” In 1916 some
old members of the Knights and Ladies
of Honor appealed to the New York State
Insurance Department to protect their
interests, since their assessments had be-
come outrageously high. — Purpose. The
objects of the order are “to unite fra-
ternally all acceptable white men and
women of any reputable profession, to
give all possible moral and material aid
in its power to its members, and to pro-
mote benevolence and charity by estab-
lishing a relief fund.” — Organization.
The business of this order is conducted
through a Supreme Lodge, Grand Lodges,
and Subordinate Lodges. The Supreme
Lodge exclusively conducts the collection
and disbursement of the Relief Fund and
Honor, Knights of
337
Hospices, Christian Inns
has full power to make laws for its own
government. — Character. The order has
a ritual and the usual features of secret
societies. Its emblem is a pendant tri-
angular design with the letters O. M. A.
— Membership. In 1908 the order claimed
to have 100,000 members.
Honor, Knights of. History. This
order is an offshoot of the Ancient Order
of United Workmen, seventeen members
of which, including members of the In-
dependent Order of Odd-Fellows, founded
it in 1873 at Louisville, Ky. Dr. Darius
Wilson, the main promoter, was both a
Freemason and an Odd-Fellow. In 1875
the Supreme Lodge established a side-
degree, entitled, “Degree of Protection,”
to which Knights of Honor and their
women folk were eligible. When, in 1877,
this law was repealed, some of the mem-
bers of this degree left and organized an
independent society for men and women
under the name of “The Order of Pro-
tection of Knights and Ladies of Honor,”
which was subsequently changed to
“Knights and Ladies of Honor.” (See
Knights and Ladies of Honor . ) — Or-
ganization. The government of the Order
is centered in a Supreme Lodge, made up
of representatives of the Grand or State
Lodges, which, again, are composed of
representatives of Subordinate Lodges. —
Character. Every member is required to
profess a belief in God. No oath is ad-
ministered to candidates for initiation.
The order claims to he secret only in so
far as it is “necessary” to keep out in-
truders and unworthy men from its bene-
fits. — Membership. The Supreme Lodge
is made up of representatives of 36 Grand
Lodges, to which are attached about
2,600 Subordinate Lodges, with an aver-
age of 50 members each.
Honter, John; b. 1498 at Kronstadt;
opened a printery and got out Luther’s
Small Catechism in 1545. Luther called
him “the Lord’s evangelist in Hungary”;
d. 1549.
Hooker, Richard, ca. 1553 — 1600;
Anglican defender (moderate) of epis-
copacy; b. at Devonshire; graduated at
Oxford; took orders 1581; received a
living at Bucks; master of the Temple
1585; rector at Boscombe, then at Bish-
opsbourne (d, there) ; not eloquent
preacher, but excellent writer ; wrote
Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity, 4 books
1594; 5th 1597; 3 books published pos-
thumously (answer to Puritanism).
Hooper, John, ca. 1495 — 1555; “Fa-
ther of the Puritans”; Zwinglian; b. at
Somersetshire; on the Continent 1540 to
1549; refused to wear the vestments at
Concordia Cyclopedia
his consecration as bishop of Gloucester
1550; suffered martyrdom at Gloucester.
Hopkins, Mark, 1802 — 87 ; Congre-
gationalist ; educator ; b. at Stockbridge,
Mass.; physician; professor and presi-
dent of Williams College 1830 — 87 ; pres-
ident of American Board of Foreign Mis-
sions; d. at Williamstown; author.
Hopkins, Samuel, 1721 — 1803; Con-
gregationalist; b. at Waterbury, Conn.;
pupil of Jonathan Edwards (elder) ;
pastor at Newport, R. I. (d. there) ;
founder of Hopkinsian theology (rejected
doctrine of imputation of Christ’s right-
eousness).
Horn, E. T., 1850—1915; liturgical
scholar; b. at Easton, Pa.; educated at
Gettysburg; pastor in Philadelphia,
Charleston, S. C., and Reading, Pa. ; pro-
fessor at Philadelphia Seminary (Mount
Airy), 1911 — 5; author of a number of
liturgical works, also of a commentary
on several Pauline epistles and of Sum-
mer Sermons.
Horst, Henry W., general contractor;
b. 1864 at Rendsburg, Germany; member
of Board of Directors of Missouri Synod,
Committee on Buildings; home: Rock
Island, 111.
Hosanna. Taken from the Hebrew
( hoshia-nah ) , meaning : Save ( 0 Lord ) ,
Ps. 118, 25; a part of the great Hallel
(q. v.) ; also used by the people who
went forth from Jerusalem to meet the
Lord, Matt. 21, 9; now applied to the
second part of the Sanctus in the Com-
munion service.
Hosius of Corduba (Cordova) in
Spain, friend and counselor of Constan-
tine; prominent at the Council of Nicea
as a defender of orthodoxy; subscribed
an Arian creed at Sirmium (357), which
he abjured before his death (359).
Hoskins, Joseph, 1745 — 88; Congre-
gational minister at Bristol for ten
years; during last three years of life
wrote 384 hymns, most with little poetic
merit, among them: “Let Thoughtless
Thousands Choose the Road.”
Hospices, Christian Inns. These
are homes in which fellow-Christians
who are strangers in a city may find food
and lodging. The Christians of early
times opened their own homes to such.
While this, to a large extent, is still
being done (guest-room), yet, owing to
the rapid increase of population in the
cities and the changed housing condi-
tions of our day, it has become almost
impossible to accommodate the large
number of fellow-Christians coming to
the cities, and therefore an increasingly
22
Hospitalers, or Knlgrhts ol St. John 338
Hove, EUlug
large number of hospice homes are being
established. These are under the super-
vision of the church or some church so-
ciety (e.g., Walther League Hospices at
Buffalo, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Fran-
cisco, Milwaukee, New York, Omaha,
St. Louis, Sioux City, Washington ; a dis-
trict hospice board is found in almost
every city and in Canada ) . These hos-
pices also serve the purpose of keeping
Christians, especially the young, from
being lost to the Church.
Hospitalers, or Knights of St. John,
a military religious order; founded for
the purpose of caring for destitute and
sick pilgrims at Jerusalem, it added the
monastic and knightly vows in 1118,
with war against the infidels its chief
aim, and added much to the military
strength of the Christians in the era of
the Crusades; later it held the Island
of Rhodes (1309 — 1523) and Malta as
strongholds against the Mohammedan
powers; Malta passing to England in
1798, the old organization was dissolved.
— Hospitalers is also the general name
for organizations devoted to the care of
the sick and poor.
Hospitals. Hospitals, as all elee-
mosynary institutions, are a product of
Christianity and therefore were never
found among the heathen. The inn to
which the Good Samaritan brought the
man who had been wounded and whom
he found by the wayside was for the
time being turned into a Christian hos-
pital. As early as the fourth century
there were many hospitals, erected and
maintained by Christians. Charlemagne
insisted that every cathedral monastery
must have a hospital. The Hospitalers
of St. John were a monastic order dur-
ing the Crusades, giving special atten-
tion to the sick; their hospital in Jeru-
salem had 2,000 beds. The women’s
branch of the Hospitalers also operated
a hospital at Jerusalem: St. Mary Mag-
dalene. After the Crusades we find an
extensive hospital system throughout
Europe, nearly every town of 5,000 in-
habitants or more in Germany, England,
France, Spain, and Italy having a public
hospital. The modern hospital began to
flourish from the days of Lister, whose
antiseptic discoveries did much toward
the development of modern surgery.
Hottentots, an African race allied to
the Bushmen, originally dwelling as far
south as the Cape of Good Hope, now
hardly more than 50,000 strong. Most
of the Hottentots are now semicivilized.
— Missions. Sporadic mission-work was
done by the Dutch in the 17th century.
The first organized mission was that of
the Moravian George Schmidt, in 1744
and again in 1792, followed by the
L. M. S. in 1799 and the Wesleyan Mis-
sion Society in 1816, the Anglican Church
in 1847, the Rhenish Mission Society in
1829, and the Berlin Mission Society in
1838. Most of the Hottentots are now
united with Christian churches.
Hours, Canonical ( Horae canonicae).
A series of daily service hours, modeled
after the hours of prayer in use in the
Apostolic Church, eight in the Orient
and usually seven in the West: Matins
at dawn (usually combined with Vigils),
Prime at 6 A. M., the others following at
intervals of three hours, Terce, Sext,
Nones, Vespers, and Complin; in the
Lutheran Church, Matins, or Morning
Prayer, are a combination of Matins,
Lauds, and Prime, and Vespers or Even-
song a union of Vespers and Complin.
House of David, a small American
communistic sect. The founder, Benja-
min Franklin Purnell (b. 1861, Mayville,
Ky. ), was converted to the teachings of
Joanna Southcott, 1890, by James Jez-
reel, leader of an English Southcottian
sect, The New and Latter House of Is-
rael, during the latter’s visit to America,
and also was a member of the colony of
Michael Mills in Detroit until its dis-
ruption by the police, 1892, because of
immoral practises. Later Purnell brought
a number of Mills’s followers to Benton
Harbor, Mich., where he established the
Israelite House of David, 1903. He called
himself the “Seventh-messenger Angel,”
“Son of Man,” “Younger Brother of
Jesus Christ,” and taught a grossly
materialistic doctrine. He and his con-
verts were the true Israel and would
live forever. While the bodies of “un-
believers” would not be resurrected and
their spirits would be sexless, his con-
verts would be resurrected both in body
and soul and lead a blissful existence as
men and women, as then all previous
restrictions regarding the joys of life
would be removed. When, 1923, Purnell
was accused of fraud and immorality
and the affairs of the colony were in-
vestigated by state authorities, he fled
and disappeared. For other tenets of
the sect, which include abstaining from
meat, keeping the seventh day, wearing
long hair, denying the eternity of hell,
belief that Christ’s second coming has
already occurred, see The Key of the
House of David, The Little Book in the
Hand of the Angel , and the periodical
Shiloh’s Messenger of Wisdom.
Hove, Elling; b. at Northwood, Iowa,
March 25, 1863; graduate of Luther Col-
lege and Concordia Seminary, St. Louis;
How, William Walaham
339
Hnsraenota
pastor; professor at Luther College and
at Luther Seminary, St. Paul.
How, William Walsham, 1823—97 ;
educated at Oxford; held a number of
positions as clergyman, finally that of
Bishop of Wakefield ; wrote, among
others: “0 Word of God Incarnate.”
Howard, John; b. 1726, d. 1790;
prison reformer ; studied nature and
treatment of the plague; published:
The State of the Prisons in England and
Wales, with Preliminary Observations
and an Account of Some Foreign Pris-
ons; An Account of the Principal Laza-
rettos in Europe; d. of the plague.
Howe, John, 1630 — 1705; “Platonic
Puritan”; b. at Leicestershire; chaplain
of Cromwell ; in Ireland 1671 ; at Utrecht
1686; pastor in London 1687 (d. there) ;
wrote The Living Temple, etc.
Hoyer, Otto Daniel August; b. 1849,
d. 1905; educated in Germany and grad-
uated at Northwestern, Watertown, Wis.,
and in St. Louis; member of first class
graduated at Northwestern; pastor at
Neenah, Wis., Wisconsin Synod, and
St. Paul, Minnesota Synod, 1872—85;
Director of New Ulm (college and semi-
nary) until 1893; Director of Saginaw
Seminary; inspector and professor at
Northwestern 1905; editor of Synodal-
bote (Minnesota Synod) and Synodal-
freund ( Michigan Synod ) .
Hoyme, Gjermund; b. in Norway
1847 ; emigrated to America 1851 ; grad-
uated from Augsburg Seminary 1873;
pastor 1873 — 1902; president of the
Norwegian-Danish Conference 1886 — 90
and of the United Norwegian Lutheran
Church in America 1890 — 1902; author;
d. June 9, 1902.
Huber Controversy. Samuel Huber,
b. 1547 at Burgdorf, Switzerland, 1570
Reformed pastor in his native country,
at the Colloquy of Moempelgard (Mont-
bfiliard), in 1586, opposed Calvin’s doc-
trine on predestination, for which he was
deposed from office. He subscribed to
the Formula of Concord and became pas-
tor at Derendingen. His theses on the
sacrificial death of Christ for the whole
human race, in 1592, brought him a call
to the University of Wittenberg as col-
league of Polycarp Leyser and Aegidius
Hunnius, who hoped to find in him an
aggressive opponent of Calvinists and
Crypto-Calvinism. Here he taught and
defended the universality of election to
eternal life and accused his colleagues of
Crypto-Calvinism. When various con-
ferences and negotiations with him failed
to convince him of his error, he was dis-
missed from his professorship. After
wandering from place to place, an “em-
bittered martyr of universalism,” he died
in 1624.
Hubert, Konrad, 1507- — 77; diaconus
at St. Thomas in Strassburg; private
secretary to the Reformed theologian
Buzer; wrote “Allein zu dir, Herr Jesu
Christ, mein’ Hoffnung steht auf Erden.”
Huegli, J. A.; b. January 23, 1831,
in the Palatinate; studied theology in
St. Louis; was ordained 1856; served in
Jonesborough, 111., Pittsburgh, Franken-
muth (as assistant to Rev. Roebbelen ) ,
Saginaw; pastor of Trinity, Detroit,
from 1860 to the day of his death,
April 12, 1904. Organized eight congre-
gations in and near Detroit; one of the
founders of the Deaf-mute Institute;
contributor to Lutheraner ; president of
Northern District of Missouri Synod
1872—75.
Huelsemann, Johann; b. 1602 at
Esens, Ostfriesland; d. at Leipzig 1661;
1629 professor at Wittenberg; repre-
sented Lutheranism at the colloquy of
Thorn 1645; went to Leipzig in 1646 as
professor and pastor of Nicolai; a zeal-
ous Lutheran against Calvinism and
Calixt; his best-known works: Extensio
Breviarii Theologici; Dialysis Apologe-
tica, (against Calixt) ; Calvinismus Ir-
reconciliabilis.
Hugo de Sancto Caro; b. end of
12th century; d. 1263; very active theo-
logical writer; division of Bible into
chapters wrongly ascribed to him.
Hugo of St. Victor (monastery and
school at Paris) ; b. ca. 1097, d. 1141;
founder of the medieval mysticism of
France, . combining mysticism and dia-
lectics in the treatment of theology.
Huguenots, originally a nickname ap-
plied to a party which had its beginning
with the Reformation in Germany, a few
adherents springing up in France. These
French reformers received powerful sup-
port from Margaret of Valois, sister of
the king, and Lutheran societies were
organized by Gerhard Roussel and Jacob
Lefevre. The circulation of Lef&vre’s New
Testament by the thousands through-
out France still further increased the
number of reformers. In 1533 CJalvin
began to preach the new doctrine, and
his efforts furthered the success of the
French Protestants, who now began to be
known by the name of Huguenots. Soon,
however, persecution began, and the Hu-
guenots, headed by Antoine de Bourbon,
the king of Navarre, the Condes, and the
Colignys, formed a strong opposition.
When the Huguenots were prohibited
from preaching, they took up arms to
Humanism
340
H imton, William Lee
achieve religious liberty. With an occa-
sional interval of peace or a hollow
truce, the struggle went on for years.
The most notable events were the Mas-
sacre of St. Bartholomew, August 24,
1572, in which 5,000 Protestants were
murdered in one night in Paris ; and the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Octo-
ber 22, 1685, which culminated in a
systematic persecution lasting about
twenty -four years. Public worship was
prohibited; ministers were to leave
France in fifteen days or embrace Ro-
man Catholicism. Thousands, also some
educated ministers, were sent to the gal-
leys and died of hardship; thousands
died in prison, and hundreds were cruelly
executed. Some hundreds of thousands
turned Catholics, while several hundred
thousand left France despite the fact
that emigration was forbidden. It has
been estimated that about 100,000 found
homes in Holland, 100,000 in England,
Ireland, and America, 25,000 in Switzer-
land, and 75,000 in Germany. In many
parts of France the persecuted people
took all risks and met secretly for wor-
ship. The persecution continued till
about 1787, when an edict of toleration
was secured.
Humanism. See Renaissance.
Hume, David, English philosopher
and historian; b. 1711 at Edinburgh;
d. there in 1776; a skeptic in philosophy
and one of the leading English Deists.
The antichristian movements of the 18th
century were to a great extent based on
his philosophy.
Humphreys, Joseph; b. 1720, year
of death not known; associated first
with the Wesleys, then with Whitefield,
preaching at Bristol and elsewhere;
wrote “Blessed Are the Sons of God.”
Hungary. Originally an independent
kingdom in the Danube basin, then
united with Austria; since 1918 again
independent, but greatly reduced in ter-
ritory. It was occupied by the fierce
Magyars, or Hungarians, toward the end
of the 9th century and opened to Chris-
tianity under Stephen I (995 — 1038),
called “the Saint,” who overthrew hea-
thenism by force and persuasion and at-
tached the rising Church closely to
Rome. During the Reformation period,
Protestantism made such headway that
toward the end of the 16th century the
bulk of the population had accepted the
new doctrines. Luther’s writings were
eagerly read among the German element
of the population, Hungarian students
went to Wittenberg and returned to
spread the teachings of Luther among
their people. On the other hand, the
writings of Calvin found favor with the
majority of the Hungarians proper, and
in 1557 a Calvinistic creed was adopted.
The Saxons of Transylvania adopted the
Augsburg Confession. Thus the separa-
tion between the two churches was com-
plete. The Counter -Reformation, under
the leadership of the Jesuits and abetted
by the Hapsburg rulers, inaugurated a
series of persecutions against the Hun-
garian Protestants, which, according to
some authorities, were even more cruel
and relentless than the persecutions of
the French Huguenots in the days of
Louis XIV. The famous Edict of Tolera-
tion, issued by Joseph II in 1791, granted
the adherents of both the Helvetic Con-
fession and the Augsburg Confession
freedom of worship, although numerous
annoying and humiliating restrictions
were not removed until modern times.
The present population of Hungary is
somewhat less than eight million. Of
these the Roman Catholics number
5,096,729; Greek Catholics, 175,247 ; Lu-
therans, 497,012; Reformed, 1,670,144;
Jews, 493,310. There are also some Mo-
hammedans, Unitarians, and minor sects.
Hunnius, Aegidius; b. December 21,
1550, at Winnenden, Wuerttemberg;
studied at Tuebingen ; professor at Mar-
burg; at Wittenberg; d. April 4, 1603;
composed the Saxon Articles of Visita-
tion as a norm of doctrine for the clergy;
was one of the foremost champions of
Lutheran orthodoxy against Calvinism
(in Marburg), Crypto-Calvinism, Flacius,
Huber, and Romanism.
Hunnius, Nikolaus, son of Aegidius;
b. July 11, 1585, at Marburg; L. Hut-
ter’s successor at Wittenberg; first pas-
tor and superintendent at Luebeck; died
there April 12, 1623. His best-known
work is the Epitome Credendorum Oder
Inhalt christlicher Lehre, published in
many editions and translated into sev-
eral languages.
Hunt, John; b. at Balderton, Not-
tinghamshire, 1812; d. on Fiji Islands
1848; studied at Wesleyan Theological
Institute, Hoxton; went as Wesleyan
missionary to the cannibals of the Fiji
Islands and had great success.
Hunt, William Holman, 1827 — 1910;
belonged to the brotherhood of Preraf-
faelites and aimed at detailed and un-
compromising truth to nature; among
his paintings: “The Light of the World”
(Christ teaching in the Temple).
Hunton, William Lee, 1864 — ; edu-
cated at Thiel College and Philadelphia
Theological Seminary; held several
charges as pastor and professor in Lu-
Itnpfeld, Hermann
341
Hussites
theran Church ; published Favorite
Bymns; literature manager of United
Lutheran Publication House.
Hupfeld, Hermann; b. 1796, d. 1866;
rationalistic Bible critic of a more mod-
erate type; professor at Marburg, later
at Halle; a prolific writer.
Hus, John, a forerunner of the Refor-
mation and martyr for the truth; born
1373 (?) at Husinee, Bohemia; studied
at the university of Prague; became
a priest in 1400 and in 1402 rector of
the university and preacher at' Beth-
lehem Chapel, where the Czech language
was used. A disciple of Wyclif, he saw
the more clearly the need of purging the
Church of popish errors and corruption
and began by denouncing the immorality
of the laity and, particularly, of the
clergy. Wyclifism spreading over the
whole country, the Pope ordered Wyclif’s
books burned and Hus and his adherents
banned. Hus became the bolder in his
accusations of the Church, and the inter-
dict was pronounced against Prague.
Denouncing the crusade preached by
Pope John XXIII against the King of
Naples, a supporter of the antipope, and
the shameless traffic in indulgences in-
cident thereto as sinful, Hus was put
under the great church-ban with all its
curses, 1412. Appealing from the Pope
to the judgment of Jesus Christ, he left
Prague, king and people for him, and
wrote his book On the Church, a repro-
duction of Wyclif’s On the Church; and
the movement spread beyond the borders
of Bohemia. Hus stood for the supreme
and only authority of the Scriptures and
held that the Church is the body of the
elect, consisting not merely of Pope and
clergy, that Christ is its Head, not the
fallible Pope ; that obedience to the Pope
is not necessary for salvation; that ex-
ternal membership in the Church and ec-
clesiastical offices are not infallible signs
of election. Unlike Wyclif he did not
reject transubstantiation nor, absolutely,
the invocation of saints and prayers for
the dead ; and though he preached Christ
as the only Savior, he yet gave a place
to works in the justification of the sin-
ner. Even go the Church of Rome could
not endure his testimony. He was cited
before the Council of Constance, speedily
cast into loathsome prisons despite the
safe-conduct granted by Emperor Sigis-
mund and confirmed by Pope John (“no
faith ought to be observed toward a
heretic”), and after three public hear-
ings, the only object of which was to
bully him into recanting, he was, on
July 6, 1415, condemned as a Wycliffian
heretic and, as the hypocritical formula
runs, delivered into the hands of the
secular power. Protesting to the last:
“In the truth of the Gospel, which I
have written, taught, and preached,
I will die to-day with gladness,” he was,
on the same day, burned alive at the
stake, and his ashes were cast into the
Rhine. “In John Hus the Holy Ghost
was very powerful,” says Luther. Jerome
of Prague, his devoted follower, suffered
the same death, May 30, 1416. Hus
wrote a number of Bohemian and Latin
treatises, numerous hymns, and revised
the old Bohemian version of the Bible.
His work could not effect a Reformation,
but did serve to bring out the great need
of it.
Husmann, IP. W. ; b. November 9,
1807, at Nordel, Hanover; teacher in
Bremen; won through Wyneken’s Ap-
peal; his first colaborer in and near Fort
Wayne; a zealous missionary; first sec-
retary of the Missouri Synod; pastor of
several parishes in Indiana; 1863 pastor
in Euclid, O.; d. May 4, 1881.
Hussites. A general name for the fol-
lowers of Hus. The fierce indignation
aroused throughout Bohemia by the exe-
cution of Hus and Jerome, the refusal
by the Council of Constance of the use
of the cup — introduced during the im-
prisonment of Hus with his approval —
as heretical, and the determination of
the Hussites to defend their faith to the
utmost, resulted in grave disorders and
civil war; and the refusal of the estates
to have Sigismund, “the word-breaker,”
the brother of Wenzeslaus (d. 1419), for
their king and the mobilizing of a cru-
sade by the Pope against the “rebels and
heretics” (1420) brought on the Hussite
Wars. Both parties of the Hussites, the
moderates, called Calixtines or Utra-
quists, who demanded freedom of preach-
ing, communion in both kinds, reduction
of the clergy to apostolic poverty, and
the repression of mortal sins (Prague
Articles), and the radicals, the Taborites,
who, in addition, rejected transubstantia-
tion, the adoration of the saints, inter-
cession for the dead, and, besides this,
every custom not commanded in the
Bible, demanded that the state regulate
its affairs by the Bible, were given to
the Chiliastic and communistic vagaries,
and set out to destroy the enemies of
God with the sword; made common
cause against the invaders, vanquished
them again and again, and carried the
war into the border states. The crush-
ing defeat suffered by the fifth crusading
army in 1431 blighted all hopes of both
Emperor and Pope of subjecting the
Bohemians by force. Negotiations be-
Until, C., 1). D.
342 Hymn, Christian, or Church
tween tlie Council of Basel and the Huss-
ites resulted in the acceptance (1433) by
the Utraquists of the Oompactata of
Prague, which granted the administra-
tion of Holy Communion in both kinds,
conceding the other points of the Ar-
ticles in an illusory manner. The Tabor-
ites rejected the agreement and were
well-nigh annihilated (1434). The ma-
jority of the Utraquists ultimately re-
turned to the Catholic fold; a fraction
merged with the Bohemian Brethren.
Huth, C., D. D. See Roster at end of
book.
Hutten, Ulrich von; b. 1488; prom-
inent Humanist; made known in Ger-
many Valla’s work on the forged Dona-
tion of Constantine, which influenced
Luther; wrote fiercely against Rome;
offered his help to Luther in 1520, which
was declined; entered the service of
Charles V, which he threw up after the
Kdict of Worms became known; declined
pay from Francis 1 of France and fled
to Switzerland after Sickingen’s death;
d. miserably in 1523 after his venereal
disease had broken out anew.
Hutter, Leonhard; b. 1503 near Ulm;
professor at Wittenberg 1590; one of
the foremost representatives and de-
fenders of sound Lutheranism, “Luthe-
rus redonatus”; his best -known works:
Compendium, Locorum Theologicorum (in
numerous editions and translations),
Concordia Concors, and Loci Communes
Theologici ; d. October 23, 1010.
Huxley, Thomas Henry, English
biologist; b. 1825 near London; d. 1895
at Eastbourne; lectured on biology and
related subjects at various London in-
stitutions and held several government
positions; embraced Darwinism and be-
came a skeptic, rejecting Christianity
completely, and engaged in a warfare
against Christian beliefs; wrote: Man’s
Place in Nature (1803); Elementary
Physiology (I860).
Hyacinth, Father ( Loyson Charles ) ,
liberal Catholic theologian of France ;
b. at Orleans 1827; priest; professor of
philosophy and dogmatics; joined suc-
cessively the Dominican and Carmelite
orders; eloquent preacher; highly es-
teemed by Pius IX; broke with Rome in
1869; condemned the papal syllabus of
1864 and the infallibility dogma; tem-
porarily pastor of an old Catholic church
at Geneva; established an independent
“Gallican Church” in Paris; became a
traveling lecturer in 1884; d. 1908.
Hymn, Christian, or Church. A hymn
is a devotional prayer or spiritual medi-
tation in poetical form, sometimes in
rhythmical prose, hut preferably in
verse, adapted for use in private or pub-
lic worship, usually set to music, to be
sung by the individual worshiper or by
the congregation as an expression of
faith and trust in God or as a proclama-
tion of any of His attributes or bless-
ings. The word hymn, generally speak-
ing, has been applied to songs of praise
and prayer at all times, to the Vedic
hymns of India as well as to the chants
used in the religious worship of the
Assyrians, the Egyptians, the Persians,
and other ancient peoples. The Greeks
defined a hymn as a song or poem in
honor of one or more of their gods,
usually in metrical form, including in
the definition songs of war, festal and
marriage poems set to music and sung,
also dirges, lamentations, and incanta-
tions of woe. In the New Testament the
verb hymnein and the noun hymnos are
frequently used: of Jesus and the apos-
tles in singing the great Hallel on the
night before His death; of Paul and
Silas at Philippi, Acts 10, 25; in admo-
nitions, 1 Cor. 14, 15; Eph. 5, 19; Col.
3, 16. Certain New Testament passages
are considered parts of ancient hymns,
as Eph. 5, 14; 1 Tim. 3, 16; 6, 15. 10;
2 Tim. 2, 11. 12; Rev. 1, 4—8; 5, 9—14;
21,10 — 14. — At the time when hymns
came into general use in the Christian
Church, Augustine defined this form of
sacred poetry as a song with praise of
God, his idea apparently being that the
anthem must be addressed directly to
God in order to be acknowledged as a
hymn. Originally the hymns composed
for devotional purposes were intended
for general, popular use, the complaint
of Kphraem the Syrian being, for in-
stance, that certain Gnostic heresies
were sung into the hearts of men by
means of hymns containing the false doc-
trines. In the course of time the sing-
ing of hymns in public worship became
an almost exclusive function of the
choir, in whose hands many of the ser-
vice books were, such as the Qradualia,
the Troparia, and others. Since the
Reformation, in most Protestant denomi-
nations, especially in the Lutheran
Church, the singing of hymns in congre-
gational worship is done by the congre-
gation. Their importance in this con-
nection is readily apparent from the fact
that they are the expression, either sub-
jectively or objectively, of the faith and
trust of the believers. The impression
made by certain hymns has been an im-
portant factor in the work of the Gos-
pel in many places. The hymn may,
however, never be placed on a level with
the proclamation of the Gospel in the
llymnodyt Christian
343
Hymnody, Christian
sermon nor with the administration of
the Sacraments in public worship, since
it does not belong to the Sacramental,
but to the sacrificial acts of public wor-
ship. — There is an essential difference
between a hymn and a spiritual folk-
song (g eistliches Volkslied), because the
latter is a lyrical poem or prayer, char-
acterized by its individuality, which hin-
ders it from being adopted as the prop-
erty of the Church, since, although often
set to music, it lacks the universal, ob-
jective appeal, the element of the gen-
eral expression of the Church’s faith, as
in the case of “Der Mond ist aufgegan-
gen”; “Mein Vater, ieh bin muede”;
“Dies ist der Tag des Herrn.”
Hymnody, Christian. (Historical.)
From the evidence of the New Testa-
ment, psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs
were in use in the Christian Church
from the beginning. Eph.5,19; Col. 3, 16.
But we have no evidence of the actual
composition of hymns for use in public
worship until the second century, when
several writers refer to them. The very
earliest extant hymn seems to be that
quoted by Duffield, a stanza to the Trin-
ity: “My hope is God, my refuge is the
Lord, My shelter is the Holy Ghost : be
Thou, 0 Holy Three, adored!” Another
very ancient hymn is that whose trans-
lation is now in common use: “Shepherd
of Tender Youth.” It was in the second
and at the beginning of the third cen-
tury that Bardesanes and his son Hono-
rius tried to spread their Gnostic specu-
lations by means of hymns. To counter-
act the influence of this heretical move,
Ephraem the Syrian, a little more than
a century afterward, wrote many thou-
sands of hymns, a fact which caused him
to bo called “Lyre of the Holy Ghost.”
A hymn by him which is still in use is
one “On the Nativity of Our Lord.”
Other writers of the Oriental Church
whose hymns are still known and in use
were Clement of Alexandria, Methodius,
Gregory of Nazianzen, Synesius, later
St. Andrew of Crete, St. John of Damas-
cus, St. Cosmas, St. Theodore, and others.
Greek hymnody is characterized by its
objectiveness and by its faculty of sus-
tained praise. — The Latin Church, from
about the fifth century to the Reforma-
tion, produced a, great number of singers,
some of whose hymns are in common use
to this day, also in translations and
paraphrases. The choir is opened by
Hilary of Poitiers, whose best-known
hymn is Lucis Largitor Splendide (“Thou
Splendid Giver of the Light”). Then
follow Ambrosius, who wrote O Lux
Beata Trinitas (“0 Trinity of Blessed
Light”) ; Ennodius, with his Ohriste,
Salvator Omnium (“0 Christ, the Savior
of All” ) ; Caelius Sedulius, whose IIo-
stis H erodes Impie (“Why Fear the Im-
pious Herod’s Might”) is still a favo-
rite; Fortunatus, by whom we have
Vexilla Regis Prodeunt (The Royal Ban-
ners Forward Fly”) ; and Gregory the
Great, whose best hymn seems to be
Rex Christe, Factor Omnium. (“0 Christ,
the Heaven’s Eternal King” ) . In the
Middle Ages at least a few names stand
out prominently. Beda Venerabilis wrote
Hymnum Canamus Gloriac (“Let Us
Sing a Hymn of Glory”) ; some poet of
the ninth century, possibly Rhabanus
Maurus, Veni, Creator Spiritus (“Come,
God Creator, Holy Ghost”) ; King Robert
of France, Veni, Bancte Spiritus (“Come,
Holy Spirit” ) ; Bernard of Clairvaux a
number of poems to the suffering Savior,
one of which, Salve, Caput Cruentatum,
proved an inspiration to Paul Gerhardt
for his “O Bleeding Head and Wounded.”
Adam of St. Victor was the author of
Quem Pastores Laudavere (“Whom the
Shepherds Praised with Gladness” ) ;
Thomas of Celano, of the overwhelming
Dies Irae, Dies Ilia (“Day of Wrath,
Thy Fiery Morning Earth Consumes”) ;
Thomas Aquinas, of the beautiful se-
quence Lauda, Sion, Salvatorem (“Zion,
Lift Thy Voice and Sing”) ; and Jaco-
ponus da Todi, of the appealing Stabat
Mater Dolorosa (“At the Cross, Her Sta-
tion Keeping”). 'Many hymns of the
Middle Ages were translated or para-
phrased at the time of the Reformation
and later, the best ones being found in
various hymnals to this day. — Although
the official language of the Church in the
medieval period was Latin, hymns in the
vernacular had been in use in Germany
and the surrounding countries for sev-
eral centuries. Among such Leisen, as
they were called, because they ended with
Kyrieleis (Lord, have mercy), we have
“Christ ist erstanden,” “Gelobet seist
du, Jesu Christ,” and others. But the
movement begun by Luther and his co-
workers put hymns in the vernacular
into the mouths of the entire congrega-
tion. Luther ‘himself wrote thirty-seven
hymns and spiritual songs, issued his
first hymnal in 1524, encouraged others
to write hymns, and fostered the cause
of congregational singing in every pos-
sible way. The result was that thou-
sands of hymns were written before the
end of the century, many of them of ex-
traordinary beauty and power, among
the foremost singers being the Nuern-
berg school, with Spengler at their head,
those of Southern Germany, among
whom were Huber and Schalling, those
Hymnology
344
Iconoclastic Controversy
of Central and Northern Germany,
among whom Decius and Ringwaldt take
high rank. Other poets, such as Mathe-
sius, N. Herman, Herberger, and Nicolai,
followed. The second great era of Lu-
theran hymn-writing came in the seven-
teenth century, with Heermann, Rist,
and Rinckart leading the van, and Paul
Gerhardt reaching the highest stage
since Luther. Later came men like Neu-
mark, Homburg, and Albinus. Since the
time of Pietism but few hymns in the
real Lutheran objective style have been
produced, some of the foremost authors
being Scriver, Rodigast, Herrnschmidt,
and Crasselius. Protestant hymnody in
England produced some veritable gems,
especially at the time of the Wesleys,
the most popular in common use being
noted under the respective authors. In
America the sweet singers of Israel have
also not been silent, the most prominent
among them being Doane, Coxe, Muhlen-
berg, Phillips Brooks, Dwight, Alex-
ander, Dexter, Wolcott, Harbaugh, Be-
thune, and a number of authors in the
Lutheran Church, who have produced
both original hymns and very acceptable
translations, such aB C. P. Krauth, Mrs.
Spaeth, Schaeffer, Welden, Seiss, Loy,
Schuette, Crull, and others. The lyre
of Lutheran singers in America has but
been tuned, but its songs are increasing
at a creditable rate.
Hymnology. The study or science of
hymns, everything pertaining to their
history, their use in the Church, their
classification, and all information con-
cerning hymn-writers. See Hymnody,
Hymns, and the names of the various
hymn-writers.
Hypatia, head of the Neoplatonic
school at Alexandria; one of the most
eloquent advocates of heathenism;
mobbed and murdered by a band of
Christian fanatics in 415.
Hyperdulia. See Latvia.
Hypostatic Union. Prom hyposta-
sis, equivalent to person, in the discus-
sion of the Trinity. The hypostatical
union is the subsistence of two natures
of one person ki Christ. The Scriptures
establish that in Christ there existed two
whole and perfect natures, the divine
and the human, united into one person.
By virtue of the hypostatic union the
communion of attributes takes place in
the person Christ, so that divine acts
and qualities are predicated of the
human nature, while, e. g., the acts and
sufferings of the human nature were
truly those of the divine. See Christ,
Person.
I
Icaria. See Communistic Societies.
Iceland was visited by Irish monks
ca. 800, and Dicuil, in 825, speaks of
“Thyle ultima.” But Norwegians wiped
out all traces of Christianity. About 980
Thorwalds Kodranson brought Bishop
Friedrich from Saxony, who preached
for five years and then had to return.
Under King Olaf Tryggvason, 995 — -1000,
many missionaries came by way of Nor-
way, and in 1020 Christianity became
the state religion under the Archbishop
of Hamburg-Bremen, later under Lund,
since 1152 under Nidaros. In 1261 Nor-
way conquered all of Iceland, which fell
to Denmark in 1387. Gizur Einarsson
studied at Wittenberg and in 1540 was
made Bishop of Slataholt and reformed
the country according to Bugenhagen’s
Church Order for Denmark. Oddr Gott-
schalkson rendered the New Testament
into Icelandic in 1540. Christian III of
Denmark pushed the work with force.
The Bishop at Reykjavik has under him
nineteen provosts, and 180 pastors labor
in 308 parishes. Observers tell us the
Icelanders surpass all other European
peoples in widely spread mental and
moral education. — Home rule since
1874; practically independent since 1918.
The national church is the Lutheran;
complete religious liberty. The popula-
tion is made up of 94,220 Lutherans
(1921) and 288 Dissenters (1910).
Iconoclastic Controversy. A quarrel
between members of the Eastern and the
Western Church arising from the fact
that church images, especially statues,
were used for purposes of adoration,
pagan concepts, customs, and forms of
worship being introduced. As a conse-
quence the opposition to image-worship
became acute, particularly under Leo the
Isaurian (emperor 717 — 41), whose edicts
of 726 and 730 attempted to put an end
to the existing abuses by preventing all
veneration of the icons and the super-
stition connected with them. When the
emperor met with opposition, more se-
vere measures were proposed. In the
West the movement was emphatically
opposed by Popes Gregory II and Greg-
ory III. When parts of Northern Italy
broke with the emperor, Leo struck back
by annexing Illyricum to the see of Con-
stantinople and confiscating the papal
revenues in Southern Italy. A synod
held at Constantinople, in 754, supported
Icons
345
Idolatry
Emperor Constantine V, condemning all
image-worship. Under Leo IV a period
of toleration ensued, and under Irene,
the guardian of her infant son Constan-
tine VI, the images, or icons, were prac-
tically restored. At the Council of Nieea,
in 787, iconoclasm was officially con-
demned, the resolution declaring that
the images were to be regarded with re-
spectful reverence, but that true worship
was to be reserved for God alone. The
controversy broke out once more in the
ninth century, especially during the
reign of Theopliilus, but the early death
of the emperor restored peace.
Icons. See Ikon.
Idealism, the monistic system of phi-
losophy which ascribes existence to ideas
or thought perceptions rather than to
material objects. The essence of the
world as a whole and of its various
parts does not consist in the phenomena
that can be perceived with the senses,
hut in the “ideas” of these external per-
ceptions. The philosophy of Plato was
idealistic. The metaphysical idealism
of Plato holds that there existed in the
divine mind ideas, patterns, according
fo which individual things are formed.
Reality proper does not belong to the
individual tree, but to the archetype of
the tree, the idea, of which the tree is
hut a perishable copy. The degree of
reality attributed to any phenomenal
form is to be measured on the scale in
which it embodies the original idea.
Modern psychological idealism endeavors
to answer the question, Do things exist
in themselves (realism), or do only the
ideas we have of them exist? There is
no reality independent of consciousness.
A person cannot be sure of the reality
of the tree in the yard, but only of his
personal perception, mental picture, idea,
of the tree. — Modern idealism was devel-
oped especially by German philosophers:
Leibnitz, Kant (critical or transcenden-
tal idealism), Fichte (subjective ideal-
ism), Schelling (objective idealism),
Hegel (absolute idealism) ( qq.v .). Ideal-
ism is opposed to realism, which asserts
that objects exist independent of a con-
scious subject. One phase of realism is
materialism ( q. v. ) .
Idolatry. An act of false worship by
which a person reveres and serves a
strange god in place of, or in addition
to, the one true, Triune God, as revealed
in the Bible. This idolatry may take
various forms. It may consist in this,
that a person believes in, worships, or
fears, false gods, or idols, without ever
having known anything about the one
true God. Gal. 5, 20. In this instance
the heathen do not even try to follow the
remnant of the natural knowledge of God
•in their hearts, Rom. 1, 21, or they re-
tain only a dim consciousness of one
Supreme Being, who ought to be wor-
shiped all alone. Cp. Acts 17, 27. Others,
like the children of Israel, having known
the true God, deliberately left Him and
His worship for the sake of idols, mak-
ing themselves molten images and wor-
shiping the host of heaven. 2 Kings 17,
9 — 18. In this way they replaced the
worship of Jehovah by the service of
false gods, thereby becoming guilty of
gross idolatry. A peculiar form of idol-
atry, closely connected with the last
variety, is that by which men presume
to know and to worship the true God,
but at the same time serve also other
gods or creatures, which take the place
of God in one way or another. We read
of the people of Samaria, shortly after
the king of Assyria had placed settlers
from various Asiatic provinces there :
“They feared the Lord and served their
own gods, after the manner of the na-
tions whom they carried away from
thence.” 2 Kings 17, 33. The Lord plainly
states: “I will not give My glory unto
another.” Is. 48, 11. He will suffer no
other god beside Him, in His place and
in addition to Him. — A further form of
idolatry is the practise of having a pic-
ture, a statue, or some other representa-
tion which is intended to be a visible re-
minder of God and is honored with a
worship more or less honestly having
as its object God Himself. Of such a na-
ture seems to have been the golden calf
cast by Aaron. A similar idea may have
attached to the two golden calves of
Jeroboam. 1 Kings 12, 28 — 30. It was
clearly the idea which possessed the
heart of Micah of Mount Ephraim when
he had a graven image and a molten
image cast for himself and caused a Le-
vite of Bethlehem-Judah to become his
priest. Judg. 17. It shows that a per-
son may, with what seems to him a good
intention, set up an image in the place
of the true God and yet be fully guilty
of gross idolatry in the sight of God.
Thus the giving of divine honor to saints
is a form of idolatry, also the substi-
tuting, in prayer, of some imaginary
deity, such as the “Supreme Architect of
the Universe” and similar lodge idols. —
The last form of idolatry is that known
as “fine” idolatry. It includes every
form of behavior by which a creature is
given the respect, the love, or the adora-
tion which belong to God alone, as when
people put their trust in wealth, in
honor and advancement, when they think
too highly of relatives, friends, and ac-
Tfi'nntius
346 Illinois, Synod of Northern
quaintances, or in any other way trans-
gress the requirement that we are to
fear, love, and trust in, God above all
things.
Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in Syria
at the close of the first and the begin-
ning of the second century; suffered
martyrdom under Trajan at Rome, where
he was thrown to the lions in the Colos-
seum ( 107 ) . During his transportation
to Rome he wrote letters to various
churches in Asia Minor and one to Poly-
carp. These have come down in three
recensions, two Greek and one Syriac.
Critical investigation has yielded the
general result that the second, or shorter,
Greek version, containing seven epistles,
deserves the preference for originality
and integrity. As seen from these let-
ters, the celebrated bishop and martyr
manifests a surpassing interest in main-
taining the divinity of Christ, in com-
bating Judaistic and docetic heresy, and,
particularly, in exalting the episcopate.
“Follow the bishop, all of you, as Jesus
follows the Father, and the presbytery,
as if it were the apostles. . . . Let that
be a valid Eucharist which is celebrated
by the bishop, or by one whom he ap-
points. ... It is not lawful to baptize
without the bishop. ... It is good to
know God and the bishop. He who does
anything without the knowledge of the
bishop, is serving the devil.” These
ideas he constantly and persistently
presses home; but there is no trace in
Ignatius of a diocesan episcopacy.
Ihmels, Ludwig Heinrich; b. 1858;
educated at Leipzig, Erlangen, Goet-
tingen, Berlin; pastor till 1894; direc-
tor of studies at Kloster Loccum till
1898; professor of systematic theology
at Erlangen, 1903 at Leipzig; lately
made Bishop of Saxony. Ihmels is re-
garded as a conservative Lutheran theo-
logian of the modern positive type of
the Erlangen school; editor of Theolo-
gisches Literaturblatt.
I. H. S. The initial letters of the
words lesous Ilemon Soter (Jesus, our
Savior), in Greek; later explained as
those of the Latin phrase Iesus Homi-
num Salvator (Jesus, Redeemer of man-
kind). The letters are widely used as
ornaments.
Ikon (Icon). A holy picture, usually
in miniature, mosaic, statuette, or the
like, in the Greek Church, usually repre-
senting Christ, the Virgin Mary, or some
saint, and profusely ornamented with
jewels; used in a superstitious manner.
Illinois Synod I. Organized Octo-
ber 15, 184G, at Hillsboro, 111.; one of
the three bodies growing out of the
Synod of the West; joined the General
Synod in 1848. When it united with the
General Council in 18G7, some of the
ministers withdrew and organized the
Synod of Central Illinois. The Illinois
Synod severed its connection with the
Council because the utterances of that
body on the “Four Points” were not
satisfactory to Illinois. In 1872 the
Illinois Synod helped to organize the
Synodical Conference. It lost its identity
about 1875 by merging with the Mis-
souri Synod.
Illinois Synod 11(1920). See United
Lutheran Church.
Illinois, Synod of Central. Organ-
ized August 24, 18G7, at Mount Pulaski,
111., by men who wished to remain with
the General Synod after the Synod of
Illinois I had joined the General Council.
Rev. Eplir. Miller was its first president.
The German ministers withdrew in 1875.
and organized the Wartburg Synod.
From 1897 to 1901 the Central Illinois
Synod was combined with the Synod of
Southern Illinois and in 1918 entered
the United Lutheran Church. On June
10, 1920, it merged with the Northern
and the Southern Illinois and part of the
Chicago Synod into the Illinois Synod
of the U. L. C. At the time of this
merger it numbered 25 pastors, 29 con-
gregations, and (1,535 communicants.
Illinois, Synod of Central and
Southern. Formed by a union of the
synods of Central and Southern Illinois
at Hillsboro, 111., October 14, 1897. In
1901 the two synods resumed their sepa-
rate existence.
Illinois, Synod of Northern. Organ-
ized September8, 1851, at Cedarville, 111.,
by 8 pastors and 6 laymen formerly be-
longing to the Franckean and the Illi-
nois Synod I. Rev. E. Miller was its first
president. Its territory covered parts of
Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. It in-
cluded a number of Scandinavians. It
was greatly interested in the Illinois
State University at Springfield, an in-
stitution belonging to the Pennsylvania
Ministerium (and afterwards to the Mis-
souri Synod as its practical seminary).
In I860 the Scandinavians withdrew and
formed a separate synod. In 1918 the
Northern Illinois Synod entered the
United Lutheran Church, and on June-
10, 1920, with the Central and the South-
ern Illinois Synod and a part of the Chi-
cago Synod merged into the Illinois
Synod II of the U. L. C. At the time of
this merger it numbered 54 pastors,
GO congregations, and 6,575 communi-
cants.
Illinois, Synod of Southern
347
linages
Illinois, Synod of Southern. Organ-
ized November 7, 1856, at Jonesboro, 111.,
by 8 pastors formerly belonging to the
Synod of the Southwest. It belonged
to the General Synod. Its territory in-
cluded parts of Missouri and Tennessee,
ltev. D. Jenkins was the first president.
In 1879 the pastors living in Tennessee
formed the Middle Tennessee Synod
(q.v.). From 1897 to 1901 the Southern
Illinois Synod was combined with the
Synod of Central Illinois. In 1918 the
Southern Illinois Synod affiliated with
the United Lutheran Church, and on
June 10, 1920, it merged with the Cen-
tral and Northern Illinois synods and
parts of the Chicago Synod into the Illi-
nois Synod II of the U. L. C. At the
time of this merger it numbered 10 pas-
tors, 17 congregations, and 3,518 com-
municants.
Illuminati. Name of various re-
ligious societies in Europe from the
15tli to the 18tli century. Most noted
of these is the Illuminatenorden, founded
1776 by Adam Weishaupt, ex-Jesuit and
professor at Ingolstadt; a secret society,
modeled after the Jesuit order and since
1780 connected with Freemasonry, aim-
ing to propagate political and religious
enlightenment. It soon spread to most
European countries, with a membership
of 2,000, including Goethe, Herder, Baron
v. Knigge, and other noted men ; but in
1784 it was expelled from Bavaria, and
soon thereafter it collapsed.
Image of God. God created man in
His own image. Gen. 1, 27 : “So God
created man in His own image; in the
image of God created He him; male and
female created He them.” Man, as all
the creatures of God, was created good,-
“very good.” Yet man was distinguished
from and above all other creatures on
the face of the earth hy a manner of ex-
cellence peculiar to him alone. While
plants and animals were made each after
its kind, man was made after the image
of God. By a creative act, God called
into being the human soul in personal
union with the body, which He formed
of the dust of the ground. And by this
entire creative process, God made man
after His likeness. This image was not
of the essence of man’s nature, nor was
it a gift bestowed upon man after his
creation, but a concreated quality.
What, then, was the image of God in
which man was created? Since the
image of God was lost, Adam begat chil-
dren not in the likeness of God, in which
he was created, Gen. 5, 1, but in his own
likeness, after his image, Gen. 5, 3, and
it is evidently for the sake of contrast
that the two statements are here placed
in such close proximity. What Adam
transmitted to his children was not the
image and likeness of God. It is only by
a renewal, by which man is made a new
creature, 2 Cor. 5, 17, a new man. Col.
3, 10, that the image of Him that cre-
ated him can he restored to man. Hence
nothing that is in natural man can he
the image of God. The upright body
and the rational soul with its human
understanding, affections, and will, while
woefully corrupt in consequence of sin,
are still the constituent elements of
human nature and therefore must not he
considered as being the divine image or
a part thereof. Conscience, too, the re-
ligious and moral sense in man, and the
Moral Law, inscribed in the human
heart, whereby man is distinguished
from brutes in his present state, cannot
be subsumed under the image of God.
“The image of God is, in short, nothing
whereby man is man as distinguished
from inferior creatures, but it is that
whereby man was in conformity with
God, though being man and not God.
The divine image in man was a true re-
flection of God in the entire nature, es-
pecially the intellectual and moral na-
ture of man. There was in primeval
man a true and thorough knowledge of
God, which was lost in the Fall, but is
from day to day being restored to the re-
generate in the renewal of the image of
God; and when that image shall have
been completely renewed in us, ‘we shall
be like Him; for we shall see Him as
He is.’ 1 John 3, 3. As holiness is the
absolute conformity of God with His
divine nature, so the image of God in
primeval man was holiness, the con-
formity of man and all his qualities and
faculties with God, of man’s will with
the will of God, his affections with the
corresponding attributes of God, the in-
tegrity and purity of his body and soul
with the integrity and purity of God.”
( A. L. Graebner.) And thus the renewal
of the image of God is sanctification, the
putting on of the new man, which after
God is created in Righteousness and
true Holiness, Eph. 4, 23. 24; cf. Col. 3,
5 — 4, 6. Yet all this as a' result of man's
possession, of the divine image and not
as the image itself.
Images. The grossest form of idol-
atry consists in the worship of images.
The human mind, when unenlightened
by divine revelation, lias always shown
a strong tendency to represent the Deity
in visible forms. To the ignorant mass
of the people such images soon ceased to
be representations and themselves be-
came gods or, at least, habitations of
Images
348
Immanuel Synod
gods. Israel was surrounded by idola-
trous nations, against whose idols the
prophets found it necessary to wage un-
ceasing, though not always successful,
warfare. The primitive Christians were
charged with- atheism because they had
no images. They gloried in their ab-
sence, and some of the early Fathers
even condemned painting and sculpture
as wicked arts. With the decadence of
the Church in the fourth century, how-
ever, images of Christ, the Virgin Mary,
and the saints were brought into the
churches and set up as objects of, vener-
ation. This practise has continued in
the Roman and Greek Churches. Rome
has been careful, in its official utter-
ances, to avoid the charge of open idol-
atry, but it deliberately fosters the cult
of images by solemnly consecrating them,
by prescribing prayers to be used before
them, by offering indulgences for their
veneration, etc. The Council of Trent
(Sess. XXV) decreed: “The honor which
is shown them is referred to the proto-
types which those images represent, in
such wise that by (per) the images
which we kiss, and before which we un-
cover the head and prostrate ourselves,
we adore Christ; and we venerate the
saints, whose similitude they bear.” This
definition finds a strange parallel in the
defense of the heathen against the early
Christians, as preserved by Lactantius:
“We do not fear the images themselves,
but those beings after whose likeness
they were fashioned and by whose names
they were consecrated.” Prominent Ro-
man theologians go far beyond the defi-
nition of Trent. Bonaventura says:
“Since all veneration shown to the image
of Christ is shown to Christ Himself,
the image of Christ is also entitled to
be prayed to.” ( Gultus Latrine, 1. Ill,
dist. 9, art. 1, qu. 2.) Bellarmine even
teaches plainly: “The images of Christ
and the saints are to be adored not only
in a figurative manner, but quite posi-
tively, so that the prayers are directly
addressed to them, and not merely as the
representatives of the original.” (De
Imaginibus, 1. II, c. 10.) These words
leave nothing to be desired for clearness:
they are a frank defense of idolatry.
When Rome, however, neither accepts
nor officially condemns such propositions
advanced by her theologians, she is justly
charged with tolerating them; nor is it
surprising if ignorant laymen fail to ob-
serve the laborious distinction between
veneration and adoration and become
guilty of idolatrously worshiping, and
trusting in, the images set before them
and commended to them by their
Church. See also Ikon.
Immaculate Conception. On De-
cember 10, 1854, Pope Pius IX defined
that “the most blessed Virgin Mary was,
in the first instant of her conception, by
the singular grace and privilege of Al-
mighty God, in view of the merits of
Christ Jesus, the Savior of the human
race, preserved free from every stain of
original sin.” That Mary committed no
actual sins had been taught long before.
Thus the dogma of the immaculate con-
ception of Mary was incorporated in the
Roman system of doctrine, though not
a single passage of Scripture can be ad-
duced in proof with even a show of right.
Nor does tradition, the usual refuge of
Romanists, serve much better. “The
older Fathers,” admits the Catholic En-
cyclopedia, “are very cautious; some of
them even seem to have been in error on
this matter.” The dogma, in fact, is
purely an outgrowth of Mariolatry
(q.v.), a logical consequence of the semi-
divine position assigned to Mary. Aqui-
nas, Bonaventura, Bernard of Clairvaux,
and other famous teachers declared
against the doctrine; Scotus espoused it.
At the Council of Trent the Franciscans
urged adoption, while the Dominicans
protested. The Council struck a com-
promise. Subsequently the movement
for adoption, led by the Jesuits, steadily
gained ground, till it was victorious. —
It is hardly necessary to point out that
the Scripture knows of only One who
was immaculate (2 Cor. 5, 21) and de-
clares all others sinners (Rom. 3, 9 — 12;
5, 12 ) , so that Mary also needed a Savior
(Luke 1,47). — The Feast of the Im-
maculate Conception, which originated
in monastic circles about the eighth cen-
tury, is celebrated on December 8.
Immanuel Synod of the Ev. Luth.
Church in North America. Founded in
Wall Rose, Pa., 1885, by “a number of
Lutheran ministers and churches desir-
ing to secure greater freedom in church
life than was possible in some of the
synods.” “Liberal in regard to the secret
society question.” Territory: Ohio, In-
diana, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, and District of Columbia.
The movement never gained strength.
In 1917 the Immanuel Synod dissolved
by formal resolution. Rev. J. Frederick
gathered a remnant about himself, which
retained the name of Immanuel Synod
and resolved to adopt the slogan, “Lu-
theran pulpits for Lutheran pastors,
Lutheran altars for Lutheran communi-
cants, and Lutheran cemeteries for de-
parted Lutherans.” It disbanded soon
after Frederick’s death, in 1921, some of
the pastors joining other synods,
Immortality
349
Impanatlon
Immortality. The persistence of the
human personality after death. The
Old Testament does not so much teach
the soul’s immortality as take it for
granted. God is called the God of Abra-
ham, Isaac, and Jacob, thus implying
their continual existence, since God could
not be a God of the dead, but only of
the living. Because Enoch lived a pious
life, “God took him.” Death as a state
is referred to in terms that imply con-
tinual existence. The dead “go to their
fathers,” “are gathered to their people.”
Compare also Heb. 11, 13 — 16 with refer-
ence to the patriarchs. In the New Tes-
tament, immortality is used in the sense
of eternal life, the life of glory. That
the believers after death are dwelling
with Christ in bliss is the consonant doc-
trine of the New Testament. That im-
mortality, however, is not a gift be-
stowed upon the believers, but a natural
endowment of man is clear from the fact
that also the wicked will, according to
a like consonant teaching, persist after
death. Those who deny the immortality
of the wicked are forced to interpret all
passages referring to hell, eternal pun-
ishment, eternal death, eternal destruc-
tion, etc., as signifying that the wicked
will cease to exist. But this is a decid-
edly false construction of the texts in
which these terms occur. Matt. 8, 12:
“The children of the Kingdom shall be
cast out into outer darkness; there shall
be weeping and gnashing of teeth.”
After a man is annihilated, how could
he weep and gnash his teeth? Matt.
11, 23 f. : “It will be more tolerable for
the land of Sodom in the Day of Judg-
ment than for Capernaum.” How can
this be if the inhabitants of both cities
are annihilated? Temporal death does
not annihilate the body; spiritual ■ and
eternal death does not annihilate the
soul. The Scriptures plainly assert that
the punishment of the dead never ceases.
2 Thess. 1, 9 indeed speaks of “everlast-
ing destruction,” but this term is care-
fully defined as “destruction from the
presence of the Lord and from the glory
of His power.” It means everlasting
separation from God. The eternal dura-
tion of punishment is taught as plainly
as human words can teach it in Rev.
20, 10: “And the devil, that deceived
them, was cast into the lake of fire and
brimstone, where the beast and the false
prophets are, and shall be tormented day
and night forever and ever.” And Rev.
14, 11: “The smoke of their torment as-
cendeth up forever and ever, and they
have no rest day and night.” How
clearly the finality of destiny is set forth
in those words with which Jesus con-
cludes His discourse on the Last Judg-
ment: “And these shall go away into
eternal punishment, but the righteous
into eternal life” ! It is absurd to argue
that the adjective aionios has one sense
in the first clause and a different sense
in the second. Annihilationists give
Dan. 12, 2 a wide berth: “And many of
them that sleep in the dust of the earth
shall awake, some to everlasting life, and
some to shame and everlasting con-
tempt.” The doctrine of conditional im-
mortality has no ground in Scriptures.
Most of the texts quoted by Adventists
to support annihilationism refer to eter-
nal death, which is by no means the
same as non-existence. Others refer to
temporal punishment or to temporal
death, for instance, Ps. 37, 10. 20; 62,3;
16; 104, 35. Such texts might be con-
strued, by one ignorant of the Scriptures,
as saying that death terminates exist-
ence. But they cannot be so employed
by the Adventists, who teach annihila-
tion, not through death, but in the Judg-
ment, — to which, however, there is not
the remotest reference in the texts
quoted. The teaching of the Scriptures
is that, as one spiritually dead yet ex-
ists, so those swallowed up by the sec-
ond death, eternal death, likewise exist,
and exist forever. — As for the im-
mortality of the soul, we may urge that
it has been asserted by men in all ages
and countries. We scan in vain the
pages of pagan literature to find the
idea that man’s life is extinguished at
death presented as the normal thought
of the race. The view disregards funda-
mental human instincts. Like Plato, the
common man always thinks of himself
as continuing to exist. This is a neces-
sity of human nature. Plutarch says
that “the idea of annihilation was in-
tolerable to the Greek mind.” The per-
sistence of personality after death is an
inborn cognition of the race. While not
demonstrable by philosophy, it is never-
theless proved by the resurrection of
Christ from the dead. Nor does the
Bible indicate by so much as a syllable
that immortality is a later gift of grace.
Man is immortal by nature.
Impanation. A term denoting the
doctrine which seeks to define the Real
Presence in the Sacrament. It was
stated during the Middle Ages by Rup-
precht of Deutz as follows: “The Word
of the Father comes in between the flesh
and the blood which He received from
the womb of the Virgin, and the bread
and wine received from the altar and of
the altar, and of the two makes a joint
offering. When the priest puts this into
the mouth of the believer, bread and
Impedimenta of Marriage
350
Imputation
wine are received and are absorbed into
t!ie body, but the Son of the Virgin re-
mains whole and unabsorbed in the re-
ceived, united to the Word of the Father
in heaven. Such as do not believe, re-
ceive, on the contrary, only the material
bread and wine, but none of the offer-
ing.” Accordingly, while the Roman
Church taught transubstantiation, or a
change of the substance of bread and
wine (which retain only their accidental
qualities) into the body and blood of
Christ, the doctrine of Impanation re-
gards the visible elements as retaining
their substance and as including within
that substance the body and blood of
Christ. The error here is the assump-
tion that there is in the Sacrament a
local inclusion of the divine elements in
the visible. The Formula of Concord
declares that the “mode of union between
the body of Christ and the bread and
wine is a mystery” and does not decide
positively what that mode is, but only
negatively, what it is not : “It is not
a personal union, nor is it consubstan-
liatio; still less is it a union in which
change of substance is wrought ( trans-
substantiatio) nor a union in which the
body and blood of Christ are included
in the bread and wine (impanatio) , but
a union which exists only in this Sacra-
ment and therefore is called sacramen-
tal.” See also Lord’s Supper.
Impediments of Marriage. Circum-
stances which render a marriage unlaw-
ful or invalid. To the impediments
raised by Scripture and by nature the
Roman Church has added a number of
her own. Roman theologians distin-
guish two kinds of impediments : prohib-
itory, which render a marriage unlaw-
ful, but do not nullify it; and diriment,
which make it null and void. Set-
ting aside prohibitory impediments con-
stitutes an ecclesiastical offense and re-
quires that an expiation or reparation
be made. Such prohibitory impediments
are : 1 ) the prohibition against mixed
marriage, that is, marriage of a Roman-
ist to a baptized member of another
Christian body (but see “clandestinity”
below) ; 2) previous betrothal to an-
other person; 3) the closed times, mar-
riages being forbidden between the first
Sunday in Advent and Epiphany and
between Ash Wednesday and the Sunday
after Easter. — Diriment impediments
are: I) defect of age (boys must be
fourteen; girls, twelve; 2) impotency
or insanity; 3) solemn vows (see Vows)
and ordination; 4) certain crimes, e.g.,
adultery with promise of marriage when
free; 5) blood relationship (Biblical,
three degrees; Roman, four degrees) ;
0) affinity, the relationship to the kin
of the spouse (also four degrees) ;
7) spiritual affinity, which is contracted
in baptism by the sponsors and the min-
ister of the Sacrament (who may be a
child, in emergency) with the baptized
child and its parents; 8) disparity of
worship : marriage of a baptized with
an unbaptized person; 9) clandestinity:
according to the decree Isle Temere (Apr.
18, 1908), a marriage in which even one
party is, or has been, a Roman Catholic
is null and void unless celebrated before
a priest and two witnesses. — Dispen-
sations {q.v.) may be obtained from
bishop or Pope when the impediments
are admittedly of ecclesiastical origin.
A dispensation for a mixed marriage is
given only on condition that the Roman
Catholic party is guaranteed free exer-
cise of religion and promises to seek the
conversion of the other, and that all off-
spring is reared in the Roman Church.
Imprimatur. See Index of Prohib-
ited Books.
Improperia. A section of the Ro-
man ritual for Good Friday, the name
“reproaches” referring to the fact that
the text of this group of antiphons and
responses is based upon Lam. 1, 12.
Imputation. A term employed in
Scripture with reference to the sin of
Adam and the righteousness of Christ.
The sin of Adam is so attributed to
every man as to be considered, in the
divine counsels, his own and as render-
ing him guilty of it. Again, the right-
eousness of Christ is so attributed to
man (a believer) as to be considered his
own, and that he is therefore justified
by it. Adam’s sin was the sin of us all.
It was not only the sin of a man, a
human individual, but of man in gen-
eral, of mankind, the human race, all of
whose members existed substantially in
their first ancestor, from whom all of
them have their being, their nature,
their fallen nature, which alone Adam
could, and which alone he did, propa-
gate. Adam had disobeyed God. That
was his sin; but not his alone. Rom.
5, 19: “Through the disobedience of that
one man the many were constituted
sinners.” All the millions of Adam’s
children were accounted sinners because
in Adam they had as truly, though not
in the same manner as if they had in in-
dividual personal existence transgressed
the Law of God, been implicated in an
act of disobedience. Hence, when judg-
ment was passed over Adam because of
the sin he had committed, that judgment
was transmitted from Adam to his chil-
dren; men are damned, not only be-
Incarnation
351
Incarnation
cause of their particular sins committed
after the beginning of their personal
lives, nor only because of their inherent
sinfulness inherited from their immediate
and remote ancestors, but also because
of the sin Adam had committed in Para-
dise. Though imputation does not agree
with the laws of human justice, we be-
lieve in it and its justice because Scrip-
ture so teaches. Again, as Adam’s dis-
obedience had been the act of one man,
Adam, so Christ’s obedience, though per-
formed by Him alone, had its signifi-
cance, its blissful consequences, not for
one, but for many. Rom. 5, 19b: “By
the obedience of One shall many be made
righteous.” In this there is an analogy
between Christ and the first Adam,
which, though also an act of one, the
first transgressor, had its significance,
its deplorable consequences, not for him
alone, but for “the many.” There could
be an escape from death only by full
atonement for the sins of the world,
Adam’s sin and the sins of all his chil-
dren. And since such atonement has
actually been made, there is now a way
of escaping death as the penalty of sin.
See also Atonement, Christ, Faith-, For-
giveness, Justification, Redem,ption.
Incarnation. The incarnation of the
Son of God, according to the Scriptures,
consists in the assumption of a human
body and soul by the Second Person of
the Holy Trinity. The doctrine is stated
in its simplest form by John in his gos-
pel: “The Word was made flesh,” chap.
1, 14; by Paul in Col. 2, 9: “In Him the
fulness of the Godhead dwelt bodily,” and
1 Tim. 3, 10: “God was manifest in the
flesh”; by Luke, in his announcement of
Christ’s birth: “That Holy Thing which
shall be born of thee shall be called the
Son of God,” Luke 1, 35, and is asserted
by our Lord Himself in His citation of
Ps. 110, 1 (Matt. 22, 42 f.). Prophecy
points to this union of God with human-
ity in the Protevangel, Gen. 3, 15, and in
the Immanuel (God with us) of Is. 7, 14.
By this mysterious union, Jesus Christ
was able to be Mediator between God and
man. “Thus it is that, though the two
natures personally united in Christ are
and remain essentially distinct, each re-
taining its own essential properties or
attributes, its own intelligence and will,
so that His divinity is not His humanity
nor a part thereof, nor His humanity
His divinity, that, while there is in Him
no mixture or confusion of natures, there
is in Christ a communion. of natures, so
that the divine nature is the nature of
the Son of Man and the human na-
ture the nature of the Son of God.”
(A. L. Graebner. — -See also Christ, Per-
son of.) — Inseparably connected with
the doctrine of the Incarnation is the
article, now fiercely assailed, of the Vir-
gin Birth. The birth of Jesus from the
Virgin has always, of course, been an
offense to rationalism. Yet its rejection,
as Prof. James Orr rightly contends,
“means the mutilation of the Scriptures,
the contradiction of the testimony of the
Church which existed at the time when
the Gospel was made known, and com-
plete surrender into the handB of the ad-
vocates of a humanitarian Christianity.”
These men have argued that only two of
the four gospels make any reference to
the Virgin Birth; that only the first
chapters, in either case, speak of the
miracle; that Paul in his epistles at
no time asserts it as a part of his own
faith; that the early Christian writers
had no place for it in their theology. It
is to be noted, however, that Mark, in
his gospel, purposes to relate the events
of Christ’s public ministry, beginning
with His baptism by John, on to His
resurrection. The first word of his gos-
pel is the key-note: “The beginning of
the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of
God.” As for John, his effort was to
supplement the work of the other three
gospels, and his design was not to nar-
rate the earthly origin of Jesus. And
with reference to Paul, we cannot over-
look such passages as Rom. 1, 3 : “ ‘which
was made of the seed of David according
to the flesh’; Phil. 2, 7 : ‘was made in
the likeness of men’ ; Gal. 4, 4 : ‘born of
a woman, made under the Law.’ These
prove conclusively that Paul held the
truth of the Virgin Birth.”- — As for the
testimony of the early Church to the
Virgin Birth, it is abundant. Apart
from the Ebionites and some of the
Gnostic sects, there were none who did
not believe in the Virgin Birth of Christ.
The greater Gnostic sects accepted it as
a tenet. The Apostles’ Creed, which has
been placed as far back as 100 — 150 A.D.,
in its very oldest form contains 'these
words : “who was born of the Holy
Ghost and the Virgin Mary.” The gen-
eral belief in this as an article of faith
is attested by Irenaeus, Ignatius, and
the Apologists, by Justin Martyr, and
many other Christian writers. — The
power of Jesus to save is yoked with the
Virgin Birth. Some have stated openly
that the Virgin Birth throws no light
upon the sinlessness of Christ; that in-
nocence is not guaranteed so long as He
had even one human parent. In answer-
ing this suggestion, Dr. Orr asks the
question : “Does a sinless life like
Christ’s not imply a miracle in His
origin? He confesses no fault and places
Incarnation
352
Independent Churches
Himself as Savior over against all other
human beings. Those who knew Him
best found no sin in Him. Paul has
well said, ‘He knew no sin.’ The sinless-
riess of Jesus, the presence of an abso-
lutely Holy One, is a fact by itself. How
did it come about? Is there any instance
of one whose birth by ordinary genera-
tion resulted in sinlessness?” As a mat-
ter of fact, all who deny the Virgin
Birth are very reticent about His sin-
lessness. They evade the question. They
know that to affirm Christ’s sinlessness
is to affirm a miracle in His origin.
Some will say, “Yes, a miracle; but in
His soul, not a physical miracle.” But
this separation of the physical from the
spiritual is impossible. The spiritual
and the physical are so intimately re-
lated that they cannot be disunited.
The miracle of Christ’s case is not like
sanctification. We do not think of
Christ as sanctified. He is the Sancti-
fier. The miracle is deeper than sancti-
fication; it must be placed in the begin-
nings of His life as man.
As soon as human reason begins to
speculate about this mystery, it dis-
covers a multitude of difficulties. This
is not to the discredit of the divine mys-
tery, but rather a proof of its character
as such; how could human reason ever
hope to understand such a tremendous,
transcendent act of God as the Incarna-
tion? As a rule, the ineptness of ration-
alistic objections is easily apparent.
Reasoning from the postulate that in-
carnation involves a change in the
divine nature of Jesus Christ, Rational-
ists will argue that the process would
have destroyed the Godhead. While
they would admit the statement that the
Son of God assumed our flesh, they re-
fuse to accept at full value the declara-
tion of John that the Word was made
flesh, arguing that the latter is just as
impossible as though one were to say
that the soul becomes the body. Against
such reasonings the following consider-
ations are decisive: In the Incarnation
the divine nature is the active, as the
human nature is the passive, factor;
any change, therefore, which results
from the act will affect the human na-
ture, not the divine. The Logos did not
cease to be God when He became flesh;
for we are told that He was made man,
not that He was changed into man, and
the Scriptures continue to speak of the
Logos incarnate in such a manner that
each nature must be understood as re-
taining all its essential characteristics.
The reference to the relation existing be-
tween body and soul as an analogy is
particularly weak. The body does not
exist in the personality of the soul, but
soul and body are parts of the one per-
sonality, two incomplete parts being
united to make a complete one; in
Christ, however, two complete natures
are united in the personality of one of
them. The generation of the man Jesus
and the union of the two natures were
simultaneous. The human nature of
Christ did not for a moment exist by it-
self. It is obvious that this human na-
ture was not produced from the divine
essence of the Holy Ghost, but, by His
creative energy, from the substance of
Mary’s body. When we say, “born of
the Virgin Mary,” the proposition de-
notes the material; when we say, “con-
ceived by the Holy Ghost,” it denotes the
efficient energy. While it is idle to spec-
ulate upon the nature of the supernatu-
ral act of the Holy Ghost, it may safely
be described from its effects as a segre-
gation of one living germ cell in the Vir-
gin; its purification from all taint of
inherited sin ; the propagation and trans-
plantation of a soul from the substance
of the mother’s soul; and the successive
development of the child’s body. Yet
Mary was the true mother of Jesus, even
as He is true man.
In Coena Domini, Bull. Formerly
issued by the Pope annually on Maundy
Thursday, to be pronounced on that day
and on Ascension Day and the Festival
of Peter and Paul. It formulated the
condemnation of numerous heresies, the
Lutherans being included in 1524, and
subsequent condemnations being added
from time to time (1536, 1566, 1578 to
1583, 1609, 1627). The publication at
Rome was discontinued by Clement XIV,
in 1770, on account of the protest of
secular powers, and the bull was finally
withdrawn by Pius IX, in 1869, by the
constitution Apostolicae Sedis, although
this publication is, in some respects, a
repetition of the original bull.
Indefectibility. See Church, Roman
Catholic Doctrine of.
Independent Churches. Under this
head are presented, 1 ) those single
churches which are not identified with
any ecclesiastical body and have not even
such affiliation as would entitle them to
inclusion under a special name; 2) those
churches, variously called union, feder-
ated, community, etc., which represent
the movement toward denominational
fellowship and the consolidation of
church life for the purpose of securing
more effective church- work; 3) such
churches as use a denominational name,
but for one reason or another are not
included in denominational lists and are
Independent*
S5S
India
not reported by the denominational offi-
cers. In 1916 these numbered 579 organ-
izations, 462 church edifices, and 54,393
members.
Independents, now a name given to
certain bodies of Christians who assert
that each Christian congregation is in-
dependent of all others and from all
ecclesiastical authority except its own.
However, this is not the meaning which
the name originally implied. After the
reformation of religion in England the
greater part of Protestants adopted the
episcopal form of church government,
and finally this became the established
religion of England. The smaller body
of Protestants, who opposed episcopacy
and dissented from the established re-
ligion, were called Non-conformists, and
to this class belong the Independents.
Independency gradually spread through
England and later attained a prominent
place among the church powers. In 1668
they adopted and issued a Confession of
Faith and Discipline, called the Savoy
Declaration. After the Restoration of
Charles II, in 1660, the Independents suf-
fered from illiberal enactments, espe-
cially from the Act of Uniformity. In
spite of these persecutions they still con-
tinued to subsist, until, in 1689, under
the Act of Toleration, the Independents,
who had by this time styled themselves
Congregationalists, were finally allowed
to enjoy liberty of worship.
Index of Prohibited Books. A cata-
log of books which have been condemned
by papal officials on religious or moral
grounds and which members of the Ro-
man Church are forbidden to read or
possess. Before the invention of print-
ing there was no established censorship;
books that were adjudged dangerous were
burned ( e. g., the writings of Hus by the
Council of Constance). The papal bull
Exsurge, Domine (June 15, 1520) for-
bade the reading of all writings of Lu-
ther, even such as he would write in
future, under pain of excommunication.
The advent of the printing-press and its
great influence in spreading the Refor-
mation led the Roman Church to estab-
lish a formal censorship. A committee
of the Council of Trent considered the
whole matter and submitted its findings
to Pope Pius IV, who, in 1564, published
his Index Librorum Prohibitorum. New
titles were added to this list from time
to time by the Congregation of the Index,
and some extreme provisions were modi-
fied. In 1897 Leo XIII established a new
set of rules and defined the classes of
prohibited books. Such are: all books
Concordia Cyclopedia
defending “heresy” or attacking Roman
doctrine or practise; the original text of
Scripture when published by non-Catho-
lics and all unapproved translations of
Scripture, even by Catholics (except to
those engaged in theological studies; see
Bible Reading); obscene books, except
expurgated classics; books of magic; un-
authorized devotional hooks, etc. Leo XIII
also published a new edition of the Index.
The prohibitions are binding on all mem-
bers of the Roman Church, including the
learned. Whoever deliberately reads,
keeps, or prints heretical books thereby
(ipso facto) excommunicates himself;
likewise, whoever prints books of Scrip-
ture or notes or commentaries on it,
without the approbation of the ordinary
(Bull Officiorum et Munerum, chap. V,
47. 48). Permission to read prohibited
books may be granted by special license.
Romanists are bound to submit to the
ordinary ( q. v . ) , before publication, all
books concerned with religion and mo-
rality. These are examined by a censor,
who approves them with the words
Nihil obstat (“Nothing is in the way”),
whereupon the ordinary gives license to
print, with the word Imprimatur (“Let
it be printed”). This license is inserted
at the beginning of the book. — There is
no doubt that harmful books constitute
one of the gravest menaces to faith and
morals and that it is the duty of every
Church to warn its members against such
books. The methods of Rome, however,
are purely legalistic, and their chief
purpose and effect is to prevent the dif-
fusion of Scriptural truth among Ro-
manists, while the use of excommunica-
tion in this connection is a perversion
of the office of the Keys.
India, a colonial Empire of Great
Britain. Area, 1,802,629 sq. mi. Popu-
lation, 319 millions, being a strange mix-
ture of aboriginal Dravidian, Kolarian,
Negrito, Aryan, Scythian, Mongolian, and
Mongoloid peoples. Spanish, French,
and English immigration since Vasco da
Gama, 1498, discovered a sea-passage to
India has increased the mixture. It is
commonly accepted that 200 millions, in
25 groups, speak the Aryan languages,
100 millions speak the Dravidian lan-
guage groups, and 15 millions the Kola-
rian and other dialects. Specific Indian
culture was introduced by the Aryans.
Many hill tribes, possibly numbering
70,000,000, still cling to their aboriginal
religion and customs. Their languages
have not even been reduced to writing.
Great educational strides have been made
since 1854, but in spite of all efforts the
masses are still illiterate, as less than
23
India
354
India
six out of every hundred are learning
to read and write. The chief religions
in India are the Hindu, professed by
217.000. 000, and the Mohammedan, pro-
fessed by 67,000,000. Buddhism is prac-
tised, chiefly in Burma and Ceylon, by
11,600,000; Sikhs number possibly
3.200.000, Jains 1,200,000 and Parsees
101,100. There are said to be 4,800,000
professing Christianity. The caste sys-
tem separates and yet unites the people
of India. It is both a religious and a
social, civil institution, whose age is not
known. The great Indian castes are the
Brahman, or priestly class; the Kshat-
riya, or military class; the Vaisya, or
farming and merchant class ; the Sudra,
or servile class. However, there are, in
addition, many millions of people who
have no membership in the foregoing
castes, being of a still lower social order,
who yet have caste laws among them-
selves and are bound by them with iron
fetters. These are commonly called the
Pariahs, or Panchamas. Each of the
upper castes is again divided into a
great number of sections, classified by
their employment and even by geograph-
ical situation, evidenced by the fact that
the Brahmanic caste alone is divided
into some 2,000 separate families or
trades, of whom many cannot intermarry
or eat food cooked by the other; neither
are they all of Aryan stock, some being
colored and even black. Caste rules
hermetically separate the members from
other castes; being born into the caste,
one cannot pass into another caste ;
neither can entrance into a caste be
bought or conferred. Caste is lost by
offending against caste rules of food or
dress or observances. To be an “out-
caste” is the worst punishment an In-
dian can imagine. The Hindu doctrine
teaches the transmigration of souls and
of Karma, namely, that in a chain of
later rebirths a person inexorably re-
ceives rewards or punishments for good
or evil deeds in earlier existences, the
condition in life, whether one be of a
high social station, or a Pariah, or an
animal of some kind, or even a woman,
being a result of Karma. Each caste is,
in a sense, a trade-guild, a mutual in-
surance society, and a religious sect. The
caste exercises a very palpable super-
vision over its members from the close
of childhood until death.
There are distinct traces that Chris-
tianity came to India very early, pos-
sibly already in the second century.
Historical evidence that St. Thomas
evangelized India has not been found.
The “Thomas Christians” in Southern
India would appear to be traceable to
Persia. They are divided into four sec-
tions : 1 ) Orthodox Syrians, or simply
Syrians, who are Monophysites ; they
are subordinate to the Patriarch in
Mardin, Chaldea. Frequently they are
called Jacobites. 2) Romo-Syrians, who
are in connection with the Roman Catho-
lic Church. 3) Christians of St. Thomas,
an independent Church, since 1880, in
connection with the English Church Mis-
sionary Society. 4) The Syro-Chaldeans,
who separated from the Romo-Syrians in
1880; they are Nestorians. Together
these Syrian churches have some 700,000
members, largely in Travancore. It is
unfortunate that they are practically a
part of the Indian caste system. — The
opening of the sea-passage to India by
Vasco da Gama (1498) gave an impetus
to Romish missions. The Portuguese
merchant marine usually carried priests
and monks in large numbers. In 1634
Goa was made a bishopric and the center
for popish missionary endeavor. Out-
standing Roman Catholic missionaries
were the Jesuits Francis Xavier (1542
to 1652) and Robert de Nobili (1605 to
1656), whose seemingly great missionary
successes were owing to typically Jesu-
itic methods, which were even condemned
by a popish bull (1744). In 1815 Abb6
Dubois wrote that in spite of all earlier
successes he could not say that during
the twenty-five years of his activity in
India he had found an upright and sin-
cere Roman Catholic Christian. — Prot-
estant missions, begun by Frederick IV
of Denmark in 1706, are generally
known as the Lutheran Danish-Halle
missions in Tranquebar. The most
prominent men were Bartholomew Zie-
genbalg, H. Pluetschau, Philip Fabricius
(1742 — 91), and Chr. Fr. Schwartz (1750
to 1798), all of whom labored success-
fully. The rationalism of Germany
worked such havoc in the mission that
it was discontinued in 1825. The mis-
sion came into the hands of the English
S. P. G. Meanwhile William Carey, the
great Baptist missionary, had come to
India under the auspices of the Baptist
Missionary Society, and finding the doors
closed against missions by the powerful
East India Company, he and his col-
leagues, Marshman and Ward, went to
Danish Serampur. Here their Serampur
Brotherhood began an unexcelled liter-
ary activity of Bible translation, pro-
ducing some thirty translations of the
whole Bible or of parts of the Bible in
languages some of which they had to
fix grammatically and lexicographically.
Missionaries and agents were sent by
them as far as Benares, Agra, Delhi,
Bombay, Burma, the Moluccas, and Java.
India
355
Indiana, the E. L. Synod of (I)
In 1816 the Brotherhood separated from
the Baptist Mission Society, but most of
their work ultimately was continued by
that organization. In 1797 W. J. Ringel-
taube, a graduate of the Halle school,
was sent to Calcutta by the S. P. C. K.
Two years later he entered the service of
the London Missionary Society in Trav-
ancore, where he worked with great
success until 1815. Chr. Fr. Schwartz
had begun some work in Tinnevelly.
This was continued by Karl Rhenius
(1814 — 38), a product of Jaenicke’s
school at Berlin, in the service of the
C. S. M. This society has extended itB
work over all India, recently having no
less than 400 missionaries and a Chris-
tian community of over 300,000. — In
the early part of the nineteenth century
the American Board (A. B. C. F. M. )
sent Judson, Newell, Hall, and Rice to
India, who took hold of Madura and the
Tamil country. Judson joined the Bap-
tists, which brought the American Bap-
tists to India, beginning first in Burma,
since 1837 to the Telugu district in the
south, and finally to Assam. — A second
period of the mission history of India
begins with the coming of Dr. A. Duff,
a missionary of the Established Church
of Scotland, who pointed the way to mis-
sionary higher institutions of learning,
opening the first high school at Calcutta.
This plan has been largely copied by
other missionary societies, also by the
government of India, which since 1854
has evolved a very generous scheme of
national education, enlisting also the
missionary societies by what is termed
grants-in-aid. — The Leipzig Lutheran
Missionary Society, founded in 1836,
took over some of the remnants of the
Danish-Halle Mission after much had
been absorbed by the C. S. M. The Basel
Missionary Society, founded in 1815, en-
tered India at Mangalore. The Gossner
Missionary Society took over the work
of Pastor Gossner of Berlin, chiefly
among the Kols at Chota Nagpur, one of
the most promising mission-fields in
India. Since the World War this mis-
sion has constituted a native Lutheran
Church. The United Lutheran Church
in the United States has conducted mis-
sions in the Telugu country in India
since 1841 and 1874, respectively. The
Ev. Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio,
and Other States has been working in
the North Arcot District (and in Trav-
ancore) for some thirty years. The
Joint Synod of Ohio took over the Her-
mannsburg Mission in 1920. — Of recent
years the missionary societies engaged in
the various sections of India have in-
creased so rapidly that it is impossible
to enumerate all of them here (21 An-
glican, or Episcopal, societies, 13 Baptist,
7 Congregational, 12 Lutheran, 8 Metho-
dist, 25 Presbyterian, 49 unclassified mis-
sions, besides 28 societies having their
headquarters in India). — One effect of
the World War was that it seriously
disturbed the work of the German mis-
sionary societies in India; most of the
missionaries were interned and later re-
patriated. Recent developments warrant
the hope that they may be permitted to
return to their fields in the near future.
A distinct branch of modern missions
in India is the Zenana and the Medical
Mission. The condition of the women in
India is incomprehensible to the Western
mind. There are more than 40,000,000
Indian women confined in the zenanas
(women’s apartments). There are mil-
lions of widows, who by caste rules are
prohibited from remarrying, many thou-
sands of whom are still in their teens,
all the women in India, according to
Hindu teaching, being considered so im-
pure that it is a curse to be a woman.
Who can adequately describe . their un-
happy condition 1 Hindu custom, fur-
thermore, forbids a male physician to at-
tend upon a woman. This unspeakable
condition has induced most of the mod-
ern mission societies to set apart women
fitted to do zenana and medical work.
Recent statistics report more than 3,000
female workers in the zenanas.
India, Religions of. See, Brahman-
ism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Mo-
hammedanism, Parsees, Sikhs.
Indian Philosophy. See Brahmanism.
Indiana, the E. L. Synod of (I). The
conflict between the “Generalists” and the
“Henkelites” was carried beyond the Al-
leghanies in the third decade of the nine-
teenth century, and the Indiana Synod (I)
was organized August 15, 1835, at
St. John’s Church, Johnson Co., Ind., by
6 pastors and 7 laymen, representing
10 congregations, in opposition to the
“Generalists,” who had banded together
in Kentucky in 1834. Three generations
of the Henkels had visited Indiana on
their missionary tours — Paul, his sons
David and Philip, and his grandson
Eusebius S., the last-named being one of
the founders of the Indiana Synod. This
synod adopted the same doctrinal basis
as the Tennessee Synod, but in the course
of time was strongly affected by the
waves of infidelity, Universalism, re-
vivalism, and annihilationism, which car-
ried away some of its leaders. A divi-
sion came in 1849, the “Miller Faction,”
which the courts adjudged the real
Synod of Indiana, opposing the liberal-
Indiana Synod (II)
356
Indulgence*
ism of the leaders. This faction, how-
ever, having exhausted its strength in
lawsuits, soon disbanded. The other fac-
tion continued under the old name until
1859, when it was dissolved at demand
of Rev. E. Rudisill. At the time of its
greatest strength the Indiana Synod had
about 2,500 communicants. See Union
Synod.
Indiana Synod (II) was organized
October 23, 1871, at East Germantown,
Ind., by men formerly belonging to the
Union Synod and the English District of
the Joint Ohio Synod who desired union
with the General Council. It consisted
of 8 pastors and 23 congregations which
adopted the doctrinal basis of the Gen-
eral Council. When the Illinois Synod (I)
joined the Synodical Conference, the In-
diana Synod (II) branched out into
Illinois and, since its interest centered
about the Chicago Seminary, established
by the General Council in 1891, adopted
the name Chicago Synod in 1895.
Indiana, Synod of Northern, organ-
ized October 27, 1855, at Columbia City,
Ind., by former members of the Olive
Branch and Wittenberg synods. Its ter-
ritory included also Michigan. It united
with the General Synod in 1857 and with
it entered the United Lutheran Church
in 1918. On June 10, 1920, it united
with part of the Chicago Synod in form-
ing the Michigan Synod (III) of the
U. L. C. At the time of this merger it
numbered 53 pastors, 77 congregations,
and 7,128 communicants.
Indianapolis, the German E. L.
Synod of, was formed in 1846 and form-
ally organized in 1848 by a number of
pastors who disagreed with the liberal
tendencies of the Synod of the West.
Rev. J. F. Isensee was president, Dr. 0.
C. Hunger, secretary, and Rev. F. W.
Wier, treasurer. In 1848 it numbered
5 ordained and 4 licensed ministers,
10 congregations, and 1,572 communi-
cants. It was absorbed in the early
fifties by Ohio and Missouri.
Individualism, philosophic, holds that
only individual things have independent
existence, and that the universe is but
a collection of individuals, while Uni-
versalism holds that the universe exists
as a compact organized whole and in-
dividual things are but dependent parts
thereof. Political Individualism regards
society and the state as an artificial de-
vice, whose value is gaged by its con-
duciveness to the good of individuals.
The individual does not live for the state,
but the state exists for the individual.
Economic Individualism means free com-
petition, resulting in the survival of the
fittest, the state and other combines to
keep hands off the economic machinery.
Ethical Individualism holds that each
man’s ideals are the measure of his
morality, that everything is right that
the individual believes to be right. Ac-
cording to this it is not a sin to trans-
gress a law of God, but it is a sin to
act contrary to one’s own conviction and
individual character.
Indo-China. See French Indo-China.
Indulgences. The roots from which
grew the Roman doctrine of indulgences
are indicated in the article on Peniten-
tial Discipline (q.v.). As the peniten-
tial system changed its character and the
sacrament of penance evolved, penance
was no longer regarded as a mere ex-
pression of sorrow for sin or even as the
discharge of church penalties, but as
something that pleased God, had merit
in His eyes, and was offered Him as a
compensation for sin. As such it was
held to remove, according to the degree
of its merit, a portion of that temporal
punishment of sin (chiefly purgatory)
which could not be removed by absolu-
tion. Commutations of penance, or in-
dulgences, therefore became commuta-
tions of divine punishment and were
much sought after. By giving money to
churches and monasteries, by pilgrim-
ages, sometimes by direct payment to the
priest, the account with God could be
balanced. Contrition, or at least attri-
tion (q.v.), was, in theory, necessary to
gain an indulgence, but this condition
was often held in the background. The
Crusades marked an epoch in the history
of indulgences, for each Crusader re-
ceived a plenary indulgence (see below).
These are the first plenary indulgences
on record, and they proved so attractive
that they were later offered in the cam-
paigns against the Waldenses and other
“heretics” and even in the petty Italian
squabbles of the Pope. Here again com-
mutations were permitted; for one who
could not fight in person might gain the
precious indulgence for a cash equiva-
lent. The Church’s ability to grant in-
dulgences in abundance became estab-
lished when it was discovered that it
had on hand an unlimited treasure of
superfluous good works, which, for a con-
sideration, could be transferred to the
account of those who had a shortage of
their own (see Opera Supererogationis) .
It remained for Boniface VIII, however,
to discover the true financial possibilities
of indulgences through the jubilee of the
year 1300 (see Jubilee s). The new vein
was industriously worked till Boniface IX
took another step forward and sold pie-
Indulgences
357
Infallibility
nary indulgences outside of Rome. This
avaricious Pope also seems to have been
the drat to give indulgences “from guilt
and punishment” (a poena et culpa), or
as “a full indulgence of all sins,” terms
which cause modern Roman scholars
much embarrassment. In the 15th cen-
tury, indulgences began to be sold also
for the dead in purgatory. Though the
Pope was held to have the power, as
custodian of the “treasure of the Church,”
to release all poor souls from purgatory
at one stroke, no such wholesale delivery
was undertaken, but only those souls
were relieved whose friends or relatives
bought indulgences for them. The pur-
chase price was called “alms to the
Church.” The traffic in indulgences as-
sumed ever greater proportions and be-
came more and more shameless, a mere
mercenary transaction, in which the
Church sold freedom from purgatory for
a fixed sum of money. Hus, Wyclif, and
others raised their voices in vain. At
last God, in His providence, used this
barter of souls as the means of stirring
up Luther and through him setting afoot
the Reformation. Luther’s exposure of
indulgences convinced many of the cor-
ruption of the Roman Church and pre-
pared them to welcome the restored Gos-
pel; even sincere Romanists were filled
with shame and horror. Yet Rome would
not divorce itself of the practise. The
Council of Trent made the questors of
alms (preachers of indulgences) the
scapegoats and “utterly abolished” their
name and office ( Sess. XXI, chap. 9 ) , but
enjoined “that the use of indulgences, for
the Christian people most salutary, is to
be retained in the Church,” that, how-
ever, “moderation be observed,” and
“that all evil gains for the obtaining
thereof be wholly abolished” (Sess. XXV,
Deer. 4 ) . Hence the Roman Church has
to this day a bewildering profusion of
indulgences. These may be plenary, re-
mitting all the temporal punishment due
to sin, or partial, e. g., for forty days,
for a year, etc., which means the equiva-
lent of that period of canonical penance,
not of that period of purgatory. Some
indulgences can be gained only at par-
ticular places or at certain times ; others
are attached to objects, such as crosses,
medals, scapulars. (NB. When such ob-
jects are sold or given away, the indul-
gence does not go along.) Certain
prayers and devotional acts are heavily
indulgenced (names of Jesus and Mary,
25 days; sign of the cross, 50 days; the
same, with holy water, 100 days; “My
Jesus, mercy!” 100 days; “Sweet Heart
of Mary, be my rescue!” 300 days). In-
dulgences play an important part in the
life of the children of Rome. Much of
their zeal and charity flows from a de-
sire to gain indulgences, more, if pos-
sible, than they need themselves, so that
they may transfer the surplus. — Rome
denies that God remits all punishment to
those who trust in Christ (see 1 John
1,7; Titus 2,14; Rom. 8, 33) and then
bids her followers escape the punish-
ment of God and gain indulgence of Him
by kissing consecrated medals or wear-
ing scapulars. Matt. 15, 9.
Indult. A license from the Pope, per-
mitting bishops and others to dispense
from ecclesiastical laws, e.g., fasting in
Lent.
Industrial Homes. See Rescue Homes.
Inebriates, Asylums for. Inebriates
have at all times presented a serious
problem and have caused governments to
resort to special measures of prevention
and reform. Among other things, asy-
lums or inebriate reformatories have
been established to which inebriates are
committed by laws, which in different
States and countries assume a variety of
forma.
Infallibility. The Roman dogma of
infallibility was defined as follows by
the Vatican Council (July 18, 1870) :
“We teach and define that it is a dogma
divinely revealed that the Roman Pon-
tiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, —
that is, when, in discharge of the office
of pastor and doctor of all Christians,
by virtue of his supreme apostolic au-
thority, he defines a doctrine regarding
faith or morals to be held by the uni-
versal Church, by the divine assistance
promised to him in blessed Peter (Luke
22,32), — is possessed of that infalli-
bility with which the divine Redeemer
willed that His Church should be en-
dowed for defining doctrines regarding
faith and morals, and that therefore
such definitions of the Roman Pontiff
are irreformable of themselves and not
from the consent of the Church.” The
dogma of papal infallibility, as appears
from this, is based on two other Roman
dogmas : 1 ) that Christ established a
visible Church, to which He promised in-
fallibility in doctrine (see Church, Ro-
man Catholic Doctrine) ; 2) that the
Pope is the head and ruler of that
Church and its mouthpiece (see Primacy
of Pope). From these premises the con-
clusion is drawn that, when the Pope
speaks officially on doctrine, his words
are infallible. Since both premises are
unscriptural, the conclusion cannot be
otherwise. All Christians except Roman-
ists reject it as blasphemous. That no
such inerrancy was conceded the Popes
Ingersollf Robert Green
358
Innocent VIII
or even arrogated by them for many
centuries, is evident from history. The
councils of Pisa, Constance, and Basel
acted as superiors over the Popes. The
Sixth Ecumenical Council condemned
and excommunicated Pope Honorius I
as a heretic, and many later councils
and Popes endorsed the action. Several
other Popes were heretics, Liberius and
Felix II, e. g., being tainted with Arian-
ism. John XXII denounced an opinion
of Nicholas III and Clement V as heret-
ical. — The beginnings of the doctrine
of infallibility appeared in the Middle
Ages, in connection with the Pseudo-
Isidorian Decretals. The idea steadily
gained ground in the Roman Church, the
Jesuits being especially zealous pro-
moters. Yet many of the ablest mem-
bers of the Vatican Council opposed the
adoption of the dogma, and more than
a hundred left the council to avoid vot-
ing. Most of these submitted later, while
others, in protest, formed the Old Cath-
olic Church. It is evident that this
dogma is the master-stroke of papal pre-
tension, for it places the Pope above
Christ and the Scriptures and delivers
to him all that accept the dogma, bound
hand and foot. It is idle to say, as does
the Catholic Dictionary, that the Pope’s
power of definition is limited by the con-
stitution of the Church, the definitions
of his predecessors, etc.; for he has the
power also to “define” his own limits
most infallibly. Besides being the mas-
ter-stroke of papal pretension, the dogma
of infallibility is also the finishing stroke
that identifies the papal portrait with
the likeness drawn by the Holy Spirit.
2 Thess. 2, 3. 4.
Ingersoll, Robert Green, American
lawyer and lecturer; b. 1833 at Dres-
den, N. Y. ; d. 1899 at Dobbs Ferry,
N. Y. ; Union colonel in Civil War ; as
avowed agnostic he attacked Christian
beliefs in his printed public lectures.
Inner Mission. The term used in
Germany and other European states to
denote Christian work among the phys-
ically and bodily needy of all descrip-
tions in the homeland. The term origi-
nally does not connote what is called
Innere Mission by Lutherans in the
United States. Innere Mission in the
American-Lutheran sense of the term is
distinctly Gospel-mission work among
the Lutherans and other religionists who
have immigrated into the States from
European countries. Its purpose is to
bring them the Gospel of Jesus Christ
and to gather them into Lutheran
churches. This form of mission-work is
also called Home Missions. Inner Mis-
sion in the European sense attempts all
kinds of charitable and institutional
work, purposing the reclamation of those
who have lapsed and the strengthening
of such as are weakening, but extending
help also in all cases of ills of body and
mind. The earliest and most outstand-
ing promoters of Inner Mission were
J. H. Wichern (b. 1808, d. 1881) ; Theo-
dore Fliedner (b. 1800, d. 1864) ; Wil-
helm Loehe (b. 1808, d. 1872).
Inner Mission Institutes. See Hos-
pitals, Orphanages, Magdalene Homes,
Prison-gate Mission, Deaconess Mother-
houses, Home-finding Societies for Chil-
dren, Hospices, etc.
Innocent III. Pope 1198—1216;
b. ca. 1160; received his early education
at Rome, then studied at Paris and Bo-
logna; was rapidly advanced in the
Church; wrote a number of books,
among them De Contemptu Mundi (“Of
the Contempt of the World”). Upon his
accession to the papal throne he took
steps to restore the prestige of the
papacy in Rome and Italy and then to
liberate the country from foreign, Ger-
man, rule, soon being regarded as the
protector of • national independence.
When conditions in Germany seemed to
warrant his interference, he cleverly took
advantage of the situation, acknowledg-
ing Otto IV as German king and future
emperor and throwing all his influence
in favor of the Guelphs (the party of
Otto IV ) . When, a few years later, the
opposite party, that of the Hohenstau-
fens, rose to power, Innocent III man-
aged to have the decision in the difficult
matter transferred to his jurisdiction.
When Philip of Swabia (Hohenstaufen)
was murdered, Otto IV was formally
elected king, submitted himself to the
Pope, and was by him crowned emperor
in 1209. In the same manner Innocent
managed to control the affairs of France
and Spain, until he had jurisdiction in
practically all important matters. He
was especially zealous in promoting the
first Crusades ( q.v .). The resolutions
of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215)
strengthened his position still more, un-
til he held absolute power in the ad-
ministration of the Church and the con-
trolling power in the government of
Western Europe. Many of his sermons
were collected, as were the decretals of
his rule.
Innocent VIII. Pope 1484 — 92;
b. in Genoa in 1432; studied at Padua
and Rome; became cardinal in 1473.
As Pope he immediately interfered in the
matters of several countries, notably
England, where he declared Henry VII
In Partibus Infldelinm
358
Inqufiltlon, The
the rightful king, and in Austria, where
he confirmed the election of Maximilian
as king of the Romans. He strength-
ened the inquisition in Spain and
preached a crusade against the Walden-
ses. He was guilty of simony in various
instances, so that his rule is regarded as
one of the darkest of the later Medi-
eval Age.
In Partibus Infidelium (“in the
lands of the unbelievers”). Words for-
merly used to designate titular bishops
(see Bishop), e.g., N., Bishop of Tyre,
in partibus infidelium (or simply, in par-
tibus). The term was abolished by the
Congregation of the Propaganda in 1882.
Inquisition, The, also called the
Holy Office because of its supposedly
sacred function in maintaining the in-
tegrity of the Roman Catholic faith,
was an institution established for the
detection and punishment of heresy, that
is, all dissent from the accepted teach-
ings and rites of the Church. It repre-
sents the culmination of the pernicious
principle of applying the thumbscrew to
the conscience, of resorting to force and
violence to uphold religious uniformity
and “orthodoxy.” In carrying out this
principle, the Inquisition has earned for
itself the notorious distinction of being
perhaps the most horrible engine of op-
pression that history knows of. Its
record is a revolting chapter of fierce
fanaticism and bigotry, of unspeakable
atrocity and refined cruelty, of sovereign
contempt and glaring defiance of the
elementary canons of justice — all under
the shield of Rome and in the sacred
name of religion. In outlining the his-
tory of the Inquisition, we shall say just
a few words about its historical ante-
cedents. Intolerance in the Christian
Church began in the days of Constan-
tine. It was embodied in the laws of,
and energetically put into practise by,
Emperors Theodosius and Justinian,
who persecuted both heathens and here-
tics. The method of Charles the Great
in “converting” the Saxons is a matter
of familiar knowledge. Charles the
Bald, in 844, enjoined upon the bishops
ut populi errata inquirant et corrigant
(that they should inquire into — hence
the word Inquisition — the errors of the
people and correct them ) . This is men-
tioned here because of the ill-omened
term inquirant. It was reserved, how-
ever, for the later Middle Ages to de-
velop an organized inquisitorial system
to guard the Church against the inroads
of heresy. Synods and councils (Tours,
1103; the Third Lateran, 1179; Verona,
1184, and particularly Toulouse, 1229),
seconded by secular rulers (Frederick
Barbarossa and Frederick II), addressed
themselves to the task of providing the
legislative machinery and putting it into
operation. This eventuated in the estab-
lishment of the Episcopal Inquisition.
The Synod of Toulouse, 1229, which
gave this stage of the institution its
final form, enacted that the bishops
should appoint a priest and one or two
laymen to hunt out heretics in their
sees and bring them to trial before the
episcopal tribunal. Princes were ordered
to destroy the homes of heretics, even if
they were underground. Any one giv-
ing aid and comfort to a heretic was
liable to lose his office and his property.
To escape the charge of heresy, all the
inhabitants were bound to present them-
selves at least once a year at the con-
fessional and to declare under oath,
every two years, their allegiance to the
Church. Undue lenience on the part of
the bishops in enforcing these regula-
tions induced Pope Gregory IX, in 1232,
to take the trial and punishment of
heresy out of the hands of the bishops
and to entrust it to the Dominican
friars, who had been replacing the bish-
ops ever since they received papal sanc-
tion (1215). This marks the second
stage in the history of the Inquisition.
Inasmuch as the Dominicans were imme-
diately responsible to no one but the
Pope, with whom they communicated
through the Inquisitors-General, the In-
quisition may now be called the papal
or the Dominican. Henceforth its activi-
ties were carried on on a wider scale and
with greater stress and rigor. It was
introduced into France against the pro-
test of the Gallican Church, which re-
sented it as a menace to its liberties. It
was established in Spain, Northern and
Central Italy, Germany, the Netherlands,
and later (to combat the Wyclifite
movement) in England. To describe its
work in anything like detail is, of course,
impossible here. But a few facts must
be noticed. The inquisitors were exempt
from all jurisdiction, religious or sec-
ular, amenable only to the authority of
the Pope. Thus there was nothing to
check their activity (except lynch law,
which in not a few cases was called into
play). The inquisitor might be police,
prosecutor, and judge at the same time.
The slightest rumor, a vague suspicion,
was deemed sufficient to warrant the
arrest and trial of, perhaps, a wholly
innocent person. At the trials the
names of the accusers were never re-
vealed. In short, the ordinary laws of
justice did not seem to exist for the
authorized guardians of the faith. As
Inquisition, The
360
Insurance
to the penalties inflicted, they ranged
from fines, seizure of property, banish-
ment, and imprisonment to hanging,
drowning, or burning, according to the
measure of adjudged guilt. Naturally,
the confiscation of the heretic’s property,
a portion of which usually fell to the
inquisitors, became a powerful stimulus
(Lea says the most powerful) in the
heresy-hunting business. The exact num-
ber of victims will, of course, never be
known. Sufficient data, however, are
preserved to enable us to form an idea
of the extensive activities of the system.
As early as 1243 the number of those
sentenced to life imprisonment in France
was so great that there were hardly
stones enough to erect prison buildings.
A single Inquisitor-General, Bernard de
Caux, sentenced from eight to ten thou-
sand persons during his four years of
office (1244—48). On May 12, 1234, six
boys, twelve men, and eleven women
were burned at Toulouse. In Germany
the names of sixty-three Inquisitors-
General have been preserved. Of these,
Konrad of Marburg, called by Greg-
ory IX the “Lord’s watch-dog,” made
himself so odious that after a short and
bloody reign of terror he was murdered.
Our limits forbid further details. — But
a word must be said about the Spanish
Inquisition, which represents the latest
and most horrible stage of the institu-
tion. As to its origin and essential
character the Spanish Inquisition was
papal, but the control and administra-
tion were in the hands of the Spanish
government. So far it was “Spanish.”
Attempts to exonerate the Papacy of the
guilt and infamy incurred by the Span-
nish tribunals are vain. As the Spanish
writer expresses it: “The Inquisition
fused into one weapon the papal sword
and the temporal power of kings.”
The Spanish Inquisition was established
in 1480 and was not abolished until
1835. It was directed primarily against
the oonversos, sometimes called the new
Christians, that is, such “converts” from
the Jews and Moors as were suspected
of secretly abiding by their ancestral
faith. The motives which prompted
Ferdinand and Isabella to introduce and
maintain the Inquisition were threefold:
They desired to purify their kingdom of
heresy, to strengthen the compactness of
their realm politically, and to share in
the division of the spoils. During the
first year of its activity the Inquisition,
according to the Spanish historian Ma-
riana, burned no less than 2,000 persons
in the archbishopric of Seville and the
bishopric of Cadiz. In 1483 Torque-
mada, whose name has become a by-
word for fierce and relentless fanaticism,
gave the institution its full organiza-
tion. Also, about this time a code of
thirty-nine articles was drawn up to
regulate the procedure of the Holy Office.
By a flagrant perversion of justice the
Inquisition proceeded on the presump-
tion that the accused was guilty until
he had proved his innocence. And since
this was rarely possible, with the whole
inquisitorial process, including the most
refined and fiendish torture, against the
defendant, it is no wonder that the lurid
glare of the auto da fS was long a
familiar spectacle in Spain. According
to Llorente the first Inquisitor-General
Torquemada, during the eighteen years
of his administration (1480 — 1498),
burned 8,800 persons alive and 6,600 in
effigy and sentenced 90,004 to other
forms of punishment. Further statis-
tics must be sought elsewhere. The In-
quisition was introduced into the Span-
ish dependencies. It was abolished in
Mexico in 1820 and in Peru in the same
year. Prior to its abolition in Europe
it had been losing its force. The num-
ber of burnings steadily diminished. In
the eighteenth oentury, torture was aban-
doned. Napoleon struck off the heads of
the hydra wherever he could. Though
revived after his death, the Inquisition
was in its last gasp. Its last victim
was a schoolmaster in Spain, who was
accused of deism and was hanged in 1826.
Insane Asylums. Governments have
established institutions (state hospitals)
to which insane people, after their case
has been duly established, are committed
for care, treatment, and safe-keeping.
Violent patients are placed in so-called
maniac wards, while others are given
more freedom and, if possible, are use-
fully employed in some way. When in-
sane patients have sufficiently recovered,
they are dismissed. The percentage of
cures varies in different institutions in
accprdance with the classes of cases
there treated. Insane asylums are also
maintained by some church-bodies. The
number of cases of insanity is increasing.
The forms of mental disease are varied.
The causes are : inherited predisposition,
the nervous strain of modern life, sexual
sins, severe illness, or excessive use of
alcohol, opium, and the like, injuries of
the head, worry, etc.
Inspiration, Doctrine of. See Bible,
Inspiration.
Inspirationists. See Amana Society.
Insurance. The act of insuring or
assuring against damage or loss; ordi-
narily a contract by which a company,
in consideration of a sum of money paid,
Insurance
361
Insurance
technically known as a premium, be-
comes bound to indemnify the insured
or his representatives or beneficiaries
against loss by certain risks, as fire,
shipwreck, etc. “Insurance is essentially
a contract, or agreement, whereby one
party, in consideration of a price paid
by another party, guarantees to that
other that he shall not suffer loss or
damage by the happening of certain
specified contingencies. In fire and ma-
rine insurance the principle is entirely
that of indemnity. In no circumstances
may the insured recover more, and he
may recover less, than what he has actu-
ally lost. Since the value of a life can-
not ordinarily be exactly ascertained,
the doctrine of indemnity is not applied
to life insurance.” {Bigelow.) — Kinds
of insurance. There are many kinds or
forms of insurance, the oldest being
marine insurance, which has been in use
since the twelfth century; next comes
fire insurance, which was carried on by
an American company as early as 1752;
and the third main division is life in-
surance, which has been in use in
America since the middle of the last cen-
tury. Other kinds of insurance are ac-
cident insurance, working men’s insur-
ance against accidents in their business
or an insurance against harm which one
may encounter when traveling; guar-
anty insurance of the fidelity of em-
ployees, usually taken out by owners of
a big business for the safeguarding of
their interests against unfaithfulness or
defaulting on the part of managers and
cashiers; plate glass insurance; burglar
insurance, to indemnify in cases of burg-
lary; tornado and hail insurance, and
many other common kinds. There is
hardly a department of industry and
sports to-day which is not amply cov-
ered by some form of insurance, as when
prize-fight promoters insure their under-
taking against the possibility of rain, etc.
All kinds of insurance, with the excep-
tion of the freak forms sometimes found,
may be divided into two classes, indem-
nity insurance and non-indemnity insur-
ance. To the former class belong fire
and marine insurance and all insurance
pertaining to property; to the latter
class belongs life and, in a measure, acci-
dent insurance. It will be advisable to
consider these two groups at some
length. — Property insurance. The laws
and practises regarding the various
forms of insurance coming under this
heading approach much nearer to uni-
formity than those of the other group.
The various fire insurance companies
are distinguished as stock companies and
mutual companies as to organization;
and in point of operation the field of fire
insurance, of marine insurance, and of
other property insurance is usually dis-
tinguished. In many large cities the
various fire insurance companies com-
bine to provide an annual fund with
which fire insurance patrols or salvage
corps are maintained to cooperate with
local fire departments and to represent
the interests of the companies in the case
of losses. The liability of the companies
is fixed by law, the stipulations appear-
ing somewhere on the face of the policy,
although not always interpreted to the
full extent of their strictest understand-
ing. Marine insurance proper covers the
ship, the cargo, the freight that the ship
earns, and the profits that the cargo
brings. The policy contracts usually
specify the various risks against which
insurance may be written, and these, in
general, are the perils of the sea, fire,
barratry, theft, piracy, arrests, and de-
tentions. The policies are very specific
and detailed, and probably the most im-
portant part of the whole business is in
the warranties, that is, the pledges given
by the insured that certain things do or
do not exist or shall or shall not be
done. — Life and accident insurance. Ac-
cident insurance may be either for a
short time, for the period of one journey
or voyage, or it may be taken out like
the regular life insurance policy. In
this form of insurance a person desiring
to become insured may make his choice
from among whole-life, term, endowment,
joint-life, annuity, tontine, and a few
other varieties of policies. The method
of paying premiums and their amount
varies according to the form of insur-
ance chosen. A whole-life policy is pay-
able at the death of the insured. A term
policy is one given for a specified num-
ber of years and amount and is paid only
when death occurs within the specified
term. An endowment policy is paid at
death during the term or to the in-
sured if living at the end of the term.
A simple annuity policy provides that
in consideration of the payment at one
time of a specified gross sum the com-
pany will pay to the annuitant annually
a stipulated sum, either for a stated
term or during life. A tontine policy ,is
similar in form to the ordinary life,
limited payment life, or endowment
policy. If the insured die before the
completion of the tontine period (or
term of years specified in the policy ) ,
the beneficiary will receive only the sum
indicated in the policy; but if the in-
sured survive the period, he will share
with all other members of his class in
the dividends, or he may surrender his
Integrity
362
Interim
policy for a cash payment or its equiva-
lent by the company. A great many
people of moderate means use some
form of life insurance to serve them as
a savings plan, the weekly or monthly
payments being small enough to be met
readily, and the feature of compulsion
being just strong enough to cause them
to keep up their payments. The prac-
tise of taking out survivorship annuity
policies in business, by a debtor for a
creditor, and otherwise for a business
security, guarantees the payment of a
stated sum to the person named by the
person taking the policy during the
period in which the nominee survives
the insured. A still simpler form of
this transaction consists in assigning
a policy to a creditor or in using it as
collateral in securing a loan. It should
be noted that all forms of insurance are
liable to abuse, this being particularly
true of life insurance, partly, as Bigelow
correctly says, because the value of a life
cannot ordinarily be exactly ascertained,
wherefore the doctrine of indemnity is
not applied to life insurance, partly be-
cause the factor of hazard or gambling
is prominent. Each case, however, must
he considered on its own merits, the
question therefore pertaining to the do-
main of casuistics.
Integrity. As applied to the books
of the Bible, that attribute according to
which no part of the original manuscript
is wanting and all the parts now inclu-
ded in the Book belong to it as first
drafted.
Intellectualism, Philosophical (Mod-
ern), teaches that we learn to know the
essence of things not through the senses,
sensationalism, but through the pure
concepts inherent in the very nature of
the mind. Learning is but a recollec-
tion of inborn ideas through suggestion
of their imperfect copies in the phe-
nomenal world. The intellect is the basis
and the support of all existence (Ideal-
ism ) . Principles of ethics are grounded
in reason, not in feeling. In theology
the term is sometimes used over against
mysticism, which unduly emphasizes the
religious feeling, to point out the im-
portance of a clear intellectual knowl-
edge of revealed Scripture doctrines.
However, such intellectual knowledge,
though a prerequisite, is not yet faith.
Intention of Priest. See Sacraments,
Roman Doctrine.
Interchurch World Movement. This
was a movement, prior to the World War,
for the purpose of Christianizing the
world by heroic interdenominational
efforts. Large sums of money were
spent, but finally the effort proved a
failure. See Men and Religion Forward
Movement.
Interdict. A form of censure or pun-
ishment in the Roman Church by which
people are debarred from public worship,
the Sacraments, and Christian burial.
General interdicts were pronounced, in
the Middle Ages, against cities, prov-
inces, and even nations (Prance in 1200;
England, 1208 — 13), the innocent suffer-
ing with the guilty. The Papacy found
the interdict a powerful weapon to bring
public pressure to bear on refractory
rulers. The original rigor of the pro-
visions was gradually relaxed. General
interdicts practically ceased several cen-
turies ago because they could no longer
be enforced, though as late as 1909
Pius X placed the town of Adria, North-
ern Italy, under an interdict for fifteen
days. Interdicts of individuals and
smaller groups are still in vogue. Origi-
nally, an interdict was considered equiv-
alent to excommunication, but now those
under its censure are not supposed to be
given over to damnation. The practise,
in all its forms, is a corruption of the
Scriptural doctrine of excommunication
(see Keys, Office of), in perfect keeping
with the legalistic spirit of the Roman
Church.
Interim was a temporary agreement
in religious matters until the next Gen-
eral Council should make a permanent
settlement. The Augsburg Interim was
made at the Diet in 1548 after Charles V
had crushed the Smaleald League at
Muehlberg in 1546 and placed the Elec-
tor John Frederick of Saxony and the
Landgrave Philip of Hessen in captivity.
The authors were the bishops Julius von
Pflug of Naumburg, Michael Helding of
Mainz, and John Agricola, then court
preacher of the Elector Joachim II of
Brandenburg at Berlin. Though the
twenty-six articles compromised the Ref-
ormation truths all along the line, the
document was accepted by the Electors
Joachim II of Brandenburg and Fred-
erick II of the Palatinate, the Duke of
Wuerttemberg, and the Landgrave Philip
of Hessen, if given his freedom, but the
captive John Frederick of Saxony mag-
nanimously rejected it, as did others,
and most of the cities of the realm, es-
pecially Magdeburg, which became the
asylum of true Lutherans. In Southern
Germany Charles V enforced it by the
atrocities of his troops; Lutheran
preachers were driven out, for instance,
Wolfgang Musculus, who had to flee
from his wife and eight children at
Interlude
363 Internat’l Apoatol. Holiness Gh>
Augsburg. The Interim was not to be
binding on the Romanists, but only on
the Lutherans. — Not satisfied with the
Augsburg Interim, Maurice of Saxony
had it modified in November, 1548, by
Melanclithon, Bugenliagen, George of An-
halt, Paul Eber, Jerome Weller, Anton
Lauterbach, George Major, and Joachim
Camerarius, and it became the law of
Saxony in December at Leipzig, hence
Leipzig Interim. It compromised the
article of justification by faith; it
pledged the clergy to obey the Pope and
the bishops; it brought back the Rom-
ish ceremonies at baptism, confirmation,
extreme unction, and Corpus Cliristi;
the laws of fasting were placed into the
hands of the Kaiser. Flacius and Ams-
dorf vigorously opposed Agricola and
Melanchthon for betraying the truth
(see Adiaphoris tic Controversy) . Mau-
rice was to punish Magdeburg for its
resistance. He gathered an army and
then suddenly warred on the Kaiser at
Innsbruck and forced from him the
Treaty of Passau, which ended the In-
terim and gave religious liberty to the
Lutheran governments.
Interlude. A passage or interval for
instruments only between stanzas of a
hymn or between portions of the liturgy,
oifering a breathing pause to the singers
or congregation; should conform to the
character of the hymn or section of the
liturgy.
Intermediate State. The interval of
time which to human reckoning elapses
between the decease of the believers of
present and past ages and the revival of
their bodies at the general Judgment has
given rise to various speculations, all of
which agree in the assumption of an
intermediate state. Such are the theo-
ries of a state of sleep or insensibility
(see Psyehopanny chism) , the theory of
a purgatory (see Purgatory), and the
theory of a middle state or intermediate
place. None of these theories are
grounded in Scripture. There is no
state intermediate between faith and
the bliss of heaven or between final un-
belief and the state of eternal perdition.
Luke 16, Lazarus is immediately enjoy-
ing the bliss of paradise, while Dives is
immediately in torment. On the cross
the Savior promised to the malefactor:
“To-day shalt thou be with Me in para-
dise.” According to Acts 1, 25 Judas
went “to his place.” In answer, ap-
parently, to a query that had been ad-
dressed to the apostle by, or on account
of, certain curious or captious persons,
Paul tells us 1 Thess. 4, 15. 17 : “We
[or those] which are alive and remain
unto the [final] coming of the Lord
shall not prevent [precede] them which
are asleep. . . . We [or those] which
are alive and remain shall be caught
up together with them in the clouds.”
None shall have any advantage in point
of time over the rest; and this would
not be true if some must pass long cen-
turies of waiting, while others are trans-
lated suddenly from earth to heaven.
According to Scripture the soul im-
mediately, after passing out of the body,
enters upon a condition of conscious
happiness or misery. There is, to the
soul, while disembodied, no cognizance
of the passage of time. Noah, who died
thousands of years ago, shall not seem
to himself to pass a longer period of
expectation in the grave, or rather, in
the spirit world, than the last saint who
is interred just as Gabriel’s trump shall
reawaken his undecayed corpse, or than
those who then shall be living on the
globe. See also Heaven, Hell. — The
term “intermediate state” is also used
by some synergists to designate an at-
titude of mind which is favorable to the
acceptance of Christ, while conversion
has not yet taken place. Scripture
teaches clearly that conversion is a di-
rect change from spiritual death to
spiritual life, and the doctrine of an
intermediate state finds no support in
the Bible.
International Apostolic Holiness
Church (formerly, International Apos-
tolic Holiness Union). This denomina-
tion was organized in 1897, in Cincin-
nati, 0., by the Rev. Martin W. Knapp,
who previously had been a minister of
the Methodist Episcopal Church, but
withdrew from that denomination be-
cause he believed that the Methodist
Church was no longer completely Wes-
leyan in teaching and practise. He de-
clared also that the Holiness Movement
in America was becoming theoretical
and manifested a growing tendency to
rule out of camp-meetings, conventions,
and work generally such doctrines as
the healing of the sick, the second ad-
vent of Christ, and the evangelization
of the world. The word “apostolic” as
used by them simply implies a desire to
approach as nearly as possible to apos-
tolic practises, methods, power, and suc-
cess. Since 1906 the form of organiza-
tion has been somewhat changed, and
the term “church” has been substituted
for union. This has not, however, af-
fected the general type or purpose of the
denomination. — Doctrine. The doctrine
of the organization emphasizes the sanc-
tification of believers as a definite sec-
ond work of grace instantaneously re-
ceived by faith, the healing of the sick
International S. S. Committee 364
Iowa Synod
through faith in Christ, the premillen-
nial reign of Christ on earth, and the
evangelization of the world as a step in
hastening the coming of the Lord. The
Lord’s Supper, to which admission is
general, is observed as often as a con-
gregation deems proper. The mode of
baptism is left entirely to individual
option. — Polity. The government of the
churches corresponds closely to that of
the Methodist Episcopal Church. The
home missionary work is carried on
through the state councils and local
churches in the mountains of West Vir-
ginia and North Carolina and in Kan-
sas, Idaho, and Montana. Camp-meet-
ings under the charge of the state and
district organizations are held annually,
during the summer season in the North
and during the winter season in the
South. The churches choose their own
pastors, and the pastor continues to
serve the church as long as the relation
is mutually agreeable. They are sup-
ported by free-will offerings, and very
few have any regular salary. The for-
eign missionary work in 1916 was car-
ried on in Africa, the British West In-
dies, South America, Japan, and Korea
under the supervision of the Oriental
Missionary Society. In 1916 this de-
nomination numbered 170 organizations
and 5,276 members.
International Sunday-School Com-
mittee. Its purpose is to prepare Sun-
day-school lessons for all denominations
in accordance with accepted principles
of religious teaching.
Internationale, Bed. See Marx, Karl.
Intinction. One of the modes in
which the Sacrament of the Altar is
administered to the laity of the Eastern
Church, viz., by breaking the conse-
crated bread into the consecrated wine
and giving to each communicant the
two elements together in a spoon, “to
prevent the possibility of a loss of either
element.” Intinction is now contem-
plated for introduction also by seme
Protestant denominations.
Intonation. In chanting, the notes
leading up tp the reciting-tone and the
act of intoning after such an intro-
ductory, indicating the proper pitch.
Introduction, Biblical. See Bib-
lical Isagogics.
Investiture, Struggle about. In-
vestiture is the ceremony of inducting
an abbot or a bishop into office. This
right became the subject of a long con-
tention during the Medieval Age, with
the Papacy on the one side and various
secular rulers on the other. Before the
fall of the Homan Empire the imperial
influence was the stronger, and no im-
portant office was filled without the
direct sanction of, often not without
actual nomination by, the emperor. But
when the power of the Papacy grew,
the traditions respecting the rights of
the emperors were often set aside. The
struggle was especially severe in Ger-
many, lasting there for about a century
and a half (1050- — 1198). The matter
was finally adjusted by means of the
Concordat of Worms, which amounted to
a compromise. See also Concordat and
Gregory VII.
Iowa and Other States, Ev. Luth.
Synod of. This synod was organized
August 24, 1854, at St. Sebald, Iowa, by
the emissaries of Loehe in Neuendet-
telsau, Revs. G. M. Grossmann, John
Deindoerfer, Candidate (later Dr.) S.
Eritschel, and one lay member. In the
forties Loehe had directed the men whom
he sent to America to minister to the
scattered Lutherans to the Saxons in
Missouri, thus promoting the founding
of the Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and Other
States. A breach between Loehe and the
Missourians, caused by a difference in
regard to the doctrine of the Church and
the ministry, seemed to have been healed
by the visit of Walther and Wyneken to
Germany in 1851. However, Grabau’s
visit to Loehe two years later seems to
have induced Loehe to found a new
synod, which was to mediate between
Grabau and the Missourians. It was
with Loehe’s consent that Grossmann
and Deindoerfer, with a party of twenty
Loehe adherents, left the Franconian
colonies in Michigan, in the fall of 1853,
and migrated to Dubuque, Iowa. Gross-
mann and five students of the seminary
of which he had been the head in Sagi-
naw, Mich, remained in Dubuque, while
Deindoerfer and others went 60 miles
farther northwest and founded St. Se-
bald, where, in 1854, also the Iowa
Synod was founded. At the request of
Grabau, who visited Dubuque in 1855,
the young synod took charge of the Buf-
falo Synod congregations around Madi-
son, Wis., Detroit, and Toledo. But the
statement of Iowa’s attitude to the Lu-
theran Confessions in the first number
of the Kirohenblatt alienated Buffalo’s
affections. The Wartburg Seminary,
founded in Dubuque in 1854, was trans-
ferred to St. Sebald in 1857. Prof. S.
Fritschel raised enough money on a trip
to Europe to pay the debt resting on it.
In 1874 the seminary was moved to Men-
dota, 111.; in 1889 back to Dubuque.
Iowa’s attitude toward the Confessions,
the chiliastic tendencies of the majority
Iowa Synod
365
Iowa Synod
of its members in the early days, and its
teachings concerning the Church and the
ministerial office were the cause of a
doctrinal controversy with the Missouri
Synod, which extended over many years.
While Iowa did not adopt a formal con-
stitution at its organization, the first of
its “guiding principles” reads: “Synod
accepts all the Symbolical Books of the
Evangelical Lutheran Church because it
believes that all their symbolical deci-
sions of disputable questions which had
arisen before or during the time of the
Reformation were made in accordance
with the Word of God. But because
within the Lutheran Church there are
different tendencies, synod declares itself
in favor of that tendency which, by
means of the Confessions and on the
basis of the Word of God, strives toward
a greater degree of perfection.” In 1867
the Iowa Synod declared at Toledo :
“There never has been absolute doctrinal
unity in the Church, and it should not be
made a condition of church-fellowship.”
At the same convention, Iowa resolved
to ask Missouri for a colloquium. The
Missouri Synod gladly assented, and the
colloquy was held at Milwaukee, Novem-
ber 13 — 18, 1807, in view of the fact that
some ministers of the Iowa Synod were
favorably disposed toward Missouri. At
this conference the attitude of both
synods to the Confessions and to “open
questions” and some points of escha-
tology were discussed. Time did not
permit discussion of the doctrine of the
Church and the ministerial office, on
which the two synods had originally
separated. No agreement was reached
except in minor points. Iowa would not
admit that the doctrine concerning Sun-
day, the first resurrection (Rev. 20), and
Antichrist must be considered symboli-
cally fixed by the Lutheran Church and
classed as articles of faith. For the
term “open questions” Iowa was willing
to substitute that of “problems”; yet
no agreement was reached as to what
should be counted as problems. In
1879 Iowa stated its doctrinal position
as follows: “Our Synod was from its
very beginning persuaded to make a dis-
tinction between such articles in the
Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran
Church as are necessary articles of faith
and such other doctrines as are not doc-
trines necessary for salvation; and our
synod has considered it one of her duties
very earnestly and emphatically as an
important truth . . . that there are doc-
trines, even doctrines of the Bible, con-
cerning which members of our Church
may hold different views and convictions
without thereby being compelled to re-
fuse each other church-fellowship. . . .
In such matters unity should indeed be-
sought; but it is not absolutely required
as in the doctrines of faith.” In the
controversy on election and conversion
between Missouri and Ohio the Iowa
Synod stated its position as follows:
“The Lutheran Church has ever consid-
ered it Calvinistic error ... to speak of
election as having been made without
reference to the conduct of man, merely
in accordance with the pleasure of the
divine will, and to denounce as an error
that God made His election in respect
to the faith which He foresaw, because,
according to the doctrine of the Lutheran
Church, God, in His eternal divine
counsel, has decreed that He would save
no one except those who would know
Christ, His Son, and truly believe in
Him.” And Deindoerfer, in his History
of the Iowa Bynod, declared: “Although
in former years the difference between
us and the Missouri Synod did stand in
the way of church-fellowship, the differ-
ence now existing in the doctrine of
election is of such a nature that there
can no longer be any church-fellowship.”
In recent years the points of difference
have been under discussion by an inter-
synodical committee, and the prospects
for a mutual understanding are good. —
After the disruption of the General
Synod in 1866, Iowa had participated
in the meetings that led to the founding
of the General Council and approved of
that body’s doctrinal basis. It was pre-
vented from joining, however, by the
General Council’s unwillingness to de-
clare itself in a satisfactory manner on
the Four Points ( g. v . ) . Still Iowa con-
tinued to maintain friendly relations
with the Council and was represented in
an advisory capacity in its meetings. In
1876 Pastor Schieferdecker, who had left
the Missouri Synod in 1869 on account
of his chiliastic teachings, returned to
Missouri, and J. Klindworth led an ex-
odus of twenty ministers into the Wis-
consin Synod. — r The Iowa Synod was in
a strategic position for attending to the
spiritual needs of the immigrants from
Lutheran countries that poured into the
Northwest in the second half of the
nineteenth century, and its home mis-
sionaries are scattered over the territory
between the Alleghanies and the Pacific
coast. In its earlier days it also main-
tained a mission among the Indians in
Idaho. In 1896, through the influence
of G. J. Fritscliel, the larger part of the
Texas Synod (founded 1861) joined the
Iowa Synod as a district. All the
districts of the Iowa Synod: Iowa,
Northern, Southern, Western, Wiscon-
Iowa', Synod of
366
Iceland
sin, South Dakota, North Dakota, and
Texas (Synod), meet annually, while
the whole synod meets as a convention
of delegates every three years. Its for-
eign mission work was carried on in
former years in connection with the
General Council, Neuendettelsau, Her-
mannsburg, Leipzig, etc. Since the
World War the Iowa Synod is conduct-
ing the mission in former German New
Guinea in conjunction with the United
Ev. Luth. Church in Australia. Six
missionaries were sent over in 1922.
The synod is also, since 1921, taking
care of the Tanganyika mission in former
German East Africa. Beside the Wart-
burg Seminary at Dubuque it maintains
the Wartburg Normal School at Wa-
verly, Iowa, Wartburg College at Clin-
ton, Iowa, an academy at Eureka,
S. Dak., and Martin Luther Academy at
Sterling, Nebr. It has orphanages at
Waverly and Muscatine, Iowa, and at
Toledo, O. At Muscatine and Toledo
there are also homes for the aged. —
The Iowa Synod operates the Wartburg
Publishing House, Chicago, publishes
the Kirchenblatt, the Lutheran Herald,
the Kirchliche Zeitsehrift, and the Wart-
burg Lesson Helps Series. The leading
men of the Iowa Synod were (and are)
the Fritschels, (Gottfried, Sigmund,
John, Max, and George J. ) , G. M. Gross-
mann, J. Deindoerfer, E. Richter, J. M.
R»u. In 1925 the Iowa Synod numbered
587 pastors, 966 congregations, and
137,318 communicants, plus 5,600 in
New Guinea.
Iowa, Synod of (General Synod).
See United Lutheran Church.
Ireland (Celtic, Erin , or the western
isle, called by the Romans Hibernia and
in the early Middle Ages Scotia) has
had a religious history differing materi-
ally from that of any other European
country. Though in their early history
the people of Ireland developed a pecu-
liar type of Christianity, untouched by
Roman influence, they have become the
most devoted adherents Of Roman Cath-
olicism. Though they witnessed the de-
struction of their liberties by a con-
queror (Henry II of England) acting
under the warrant and sanction of a
papal bull, they have bowed submissively
under the yoke of papal supremacy. On
the other hand, since the Reformation
their attachment to Rome has involved
them in a bitter conflict, reaching al-
most to our own day, against the glar-
ing anomaly of a Protestant state church
established in their midst and main-
tained at their expense.- — In the light
of available evidence the beginnings of
Irish Christianity may be traced to
about the end of the fourth century. In
431 Palladius was sent by Pope Coeles-
tine V as “the first bishop to the Scots
[i. e., Irish] believing in Christ.” Be-
yond this notice there is no record of
any papal interference in the affairs of
the Irish Church for several centuries.
The mission of Palladius failed. The
great missionary of early Ireland is
St. Patrick, called “the Apostle of Ire-
land.” We know little of his life. His
death is placed between 465 and 493. In
less than a century after Patrick’s death,
Ireland was covered with churches and
with convents for men and women.
When continental Europe was threat-
ened with barbarism during the migra-
tions, the Irish monasteries were centers
of learning and missionary zeal. “Ire-
land dreamed of converting heathen
Europe.” Usually traveling in bands of
twelve, with a thirteenth as leader, the
missionary monks labored in Scotland,
Northern Britain, France, Italy, Switz-
erland, and Germany (doing here the
pioneer work for St. Boniface) . This
missionary period of Irish church his-
tory extended over centuries. It ceased
with the loss of Irish independence
through the Norman conquest and the
establishment of Roman rule. With re-
gard to the latter it must be added that
already prior to the political subjuga-
tion the Papacy had been making not-
able progress in bringing the distant
island under its jurisdiction. Pope Ho-
norius, in 629, addressed a letter to the
Irish clergy, urging them to adopt the
Roman custom of keeping Easter. Be-
fore the end of the century the Roman
practise was generally introduced. Greg-
ory VII, as might be expected, boldly
demanded of both clergy and laity of
Ireland obedience to the blessed Vicar of
St. Peter (i.e., himself) and presented
himself as the arbiter in all matters
under dispute (1084). The archbishops
of Canterbury, Lanfranc and Anselm, ex-
ercised a decisive influence in shaping
the organization and ritual of the Irish
Church in favor of Rome. The goal was
reached when Pope Adrian IV — the
only Englishman who ever sat on the
papal throne — encouraged “his dearest
son in Christ,” King Henry II, to in-
vade Ireland with the laudable purpose
of “enlarging the borders of the Church”
and “extirpating the nurseries of in-
iquity from the field of the Lord.” Ire-
land came under British and papal rule
in 1171 (and that was the beginning of
woe ) . Adrian’s successor, Alexander III,
in three letters, addressed, respectively,
to Henry, the Irish kings and nobles,
Ireland
367
Irenics
and. the hierarchy, enjoined obedience of
Ireland to England and of both to the
Holy See. Norman and Celt refused to
mix, and for centuries after the conquest
Ireland remained in a state of anarchic
confusion. As has been said, the En-
glish power in Ireland has been “like a
spear-point embedded in a living body
and inflaming all around it.” This fes-
tering spear wound was rendered doubly
poignant when in the Reformation period
the English government endeavored to
force Protestantism upon the staunch
Irish Catholics by establishing the An-
glican Church in their midst, with all
the evils and iniquities that this policy
entailed (surrender of church property,
payment of tithes, deprivation of civil
and political rights). The details of
Irish history since the Reformation must
be sought elsewhere. Our space will
permit us to say but this, that it is
a melancholy record of English tyranny
(religious, political, and economic), op-
pression, violence, extortion, and exploi-
tation, on the one hand, and of Irish
degradation, suffering, and wretchedness,
outbursts of fury, plots, uprisings, re-
bellions, agitations, etc., on the other —
the logic of events, however, with the
progress of more liberal ideas, leading
to the gradual redress of accumulated
wrongs in modern times. In 1829 the
Catholic Emancipation Act was passed
by the British Parliament. This meas-
ure restored civil rights to all the
Catholics of the realm. In 1869 the
Episcopal state church in Ireland was
disestablished. This measure relieved the
Irish Catholics of the odious obligation
of contributing toward the maintenance
of a religious establishment which they
justly regarded as the symbol of their
subjection and vassalage. Various other
reforms designed to improve the con-
dition of the Irish peasantry do not fall
within the scope of this article. The
Irish problem, not only as concerning
the relation between Ireland and En-
gland, but also as relating to the an-
tagonism between the North and South
of Ireland itself, seems recently to have
reached what may prove to be a perma-
nent solution. In 1922 a separate Par-
liament and executive government were
established for Northern Ireland (six
counties, prevailingly Protestant ) , while
in 1921 a treaty was signed by which the
Irish Free State is to have the same con-
stitutional status as any self-governing
dominion of the empire. The new do-
minion embraces twenty-six counties, in
which the Catholic religion prevails.
The northern, or Protestant, counties
are known as Ulster, from the Presby-
terian county of that name; the south-
ern, or Catholic, as Orange.
Ireland, John, American Roman Cath-
olic prelate (1838 — 1918); b. in Ire-
land; at the age of eleven brought by
his parents to St. Paul, Minn.; educated
for the priesthood in France; ordained
in St. Paul 1861; archbishop in 1888;'
for many years a commanding figure in
the Catholic Church of America. In
1891 the movement known as Cahen-
sleyanism, which contemplated the ap-
pointment of other than English-speak-
ing priests to minister to the needs of
foreign-born Catholics ignorant of En-
glish, called forth Ireland’s emphatic
protest on the ground that such a plan
tended to faction and division. Hence
he is regarded as the typical represen-
tative of Americanism in the Catholic
Church of the country. It must be
added, however, that there are at present'
many parishes in the United States in
which German, French, Polish, and
Italian Catholics are served in their na-
tive tongues.
Irenaeus ( the Peaceful ) , the most
eminent teacher of the Church in the
second half of the second century;
b. probably at Smyrna between 116 and
125 A. D., pupil of Polycarp; taught for
a time at Rome ; sent as a missionary to
Southern Gaul, where, during the perse-
cution under Marcus Aurelius ( 177 ) , he
was a presbyter in the church at Lyons.
After the martyrdom of Bishop Pothi-
nus, Irenaeus became his successor (178)
and labored zealously for the spread of
Christianity and the defense of its doc-
trines. Concerning the later facts of his
life we have no authentic information.
A doubtful tradition has it that he suf-
fered martyrdom ( 202 ) . — Irenaeus was
an uncompromising foe of all heresy and
schism, the great champion of orthodoxy
against Gnostic speculation. Though
mainly legalistic, his conception of
Christianity is the soundest among the
ante-Nicene fathers. Among his numer-
ous writings his Refutation of Gnosti-
cism ( Adversus Haereses) is the most
important.
Irenics. That part of systematic
theology, closely related to dogmatics,
which aims to bring about a peaceable
acceptance of the truth without the ag-
gressive methods of direct attack used
in polemics. See also next article.
Irenics. Also called Irenical Theol-
ogy, a term used to designate the labors,
attitude, or methods of the peacemakers
of the Christian Church. Making peace
implies a previous warfare. Hence iron-
ies presupposes polemics (see Polemics),
Irish Massacre
368
Italy, Catholic Chnrch In
which in its true character should have
no other aim than irenics, but should be
a struggle for peace. The “bond of
peace,” Eph. 4, 3, embraces all Christians,
and “speaking the truth in love,” v. 15,
deserves to be emphasized at all times.
However, be who truly seeks an eccle-
siastical peace well-pleasing to God will
find himself under necessity of carrying
on controversies. True irenics, there-
fore, does not exclude polemics, hut is
another mode of gaining the same end.
The conciliation of differences and the
reunion of those who have been separated
by schism and heresy (see Heresy) has
in the Christian Church at all times
walked side by side with polemics. As
the danger of polemics lies in the direc-
tion of separatism and the magnifying
of unessential differences, so irenical
efforts are prone to degenerate into syn-
cretism and unionism. Love of revealed
Truth will ever guard against one as
well as against the other.
Irish Massacre. A terrible outburst
of fury and fanaticism on the part of
the Irish Catholics against the oppres-
sive measures of the English govern-
ment. Beginning in Ulster (1041), the
revolt spread like wildfire over nearly
the entire island, and the aim was eom-
f lete extermination of Protestantism,
t is needless to describe the atrocities
committed (burning, drowning, even
burying alive, etc.). The number of vic-
tims is estimated at from 40,000 to
400,000. A few years later (1649)
Oliver Cromwell took fearful vengeance
for the Irish massacre, executing what
he thought “a righteous judgment of
God” on the “barbarous wretches” who
had shed so much innocent blood.
Irons, Genevieve Mary, 1865 — ;
member of a family noted for poetical
ability; contributed poems and hymns
since 1876; her best hymn: “Drawn to
the Cross, which Thou hast Blessed.”
Irons, William Josiah, 1812 — 83;
educated at Oxford; held a number of
charges in the Established Church, also
noted lecturer; ranks with first of
modern hymn-writers; translation of
Dies Irae: “Day of Wrath, That Day of
Mourning.”
Irvingites, followers of the Rev. Ed-
ward Irving (b. at Annan, August 15,
1792; d. 1834). In 1819 Irving became
assistant to the celebrated Dr. Chalmers
in St. John’s Church, Glasgow. In July,
1823, he was chosen pastor of a small
Scotch Presbyterian congregation in
Cross Street, Haddon Garden, where he
attracted crowds of eminent people. In
1829 he removed to Regent Square, to a
spacious church, which had been built
for him. In October, 1831, the gift of
speaking in unknown tongues was al-
leged to have been bestowed upon some
people in his congregation, and he be-
lieved that the miracle recorded in Acts
2, 4 — 11 had occurred again and that
Pentecostal times had returned. The
more sober-minded of his flock and his
ministerial brethren thought differently
and vigorously opposed his views. His
views regarding the human nature of
Christ were also deemed erroneous, and
on May 3, 1832, it was decided that he
was unfit to retain the pastorate of
Regent Square Church. On March 15,
1833, the Presbytery of Annan, which
had licensed him as a preacher, deposed
him from the ministry. The official
designation of the denomination which
he founded is “The Holy Apostolic
Church,” though they are often popu-
larly called “Irvingites.” As church
officers they have apostles, angels, proph-
ets, etc. In 1851 they had 30 chapels in
England, and in 1854 their chapel in
Gordon Square, London, was their lead-
ing place of worship. See also Catholic
Apostolic Church.
Isaac, Johann Levita, eminent Ger-
man-Jewish scholar; b. 1515 atWetzlar;
d. 1577 at Cologne; became Rabbi, but
forsook Judaism in 1546 and a few years
later embraced Roman Catholicism;
since 1551 professor of Hebrew at Co-
logne.
Isidore of Seville, Archbishop of Se-
ville, Spain, and encyclopedist; b. ca. 560,
d. 636; of distinguished parentage and
with a learning which embraced the en-
tire range of the arts and sciences; wrote
Libri Sententiarum, a book of dogmatics,
and Etymologigrum sive Originum Libri
Viginti, a great encyclopedia.
Israelite House of David. See
House of David.
Italy, Catholic Church in. The pur-
pose of this article cannot be, within the
allotted Bpace, to give, even in outline,
the entire history of the Roman Cath-
olic Church in Italy from the earliest
times to the present day. The gradual
rise of the Papacy ; the invasion of Odo-
acer, of Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, of the
Lombards (all Arians; see also Italy,
Religious History to Reformation) ; the
Franco-papal alliance to check the power
of the latter; the coronation of Charles
the Great by the Pope and its far-reach-
ing consequences; the establishment of
■the Holy Roman Empire on a German
basis and the long conflict which this
anomaly drew in its train; the endless
tumults, upheavals, and complications of
Italy, Catholic Church In
369
Italy, Catholic Church In
medieval Italian politics; the rise of
city -republics and of petty despotisms;
the Renaissance movement and its in-
fluence on Italian thought and life — all
these things and many more besides we
must pass over. Giving some notice to
the Reformation in Italy and its suppres-
sion, we shall dwell chiefly on the Cath-
olic Church of Italy as it exists to-day.
The Reformation in Italy had made not-
able progress before the papal reaction
effectually checked it. Under fictitious
names nearly all the writings of both
the German and Swiss Reformers were
widely circulated in Italy. The leading
Italian cities were centers of budding
Protestantism. This is true of Ferrara,
Modena, Florence, Bologna, Venice, Pa-
dua, Verona, and particularly of Naples.
Caraffa (afterwards Pope Paul IV) in-
formed Paul III that “the whole of Italy
was infected with the Lutheran heresy,
which had been exclusively embraced
both by statesmen and ecclesiastics.”
“Whole libraries,” says Melanchthon
ca. 1540, “have been carried from the
late fair into Italy.” In Venice and
Naples the Protestants were organized
with their own pastors and held their
services in secret in order to escape the
vigilance of the ecclesiastical authori-
ties. But these fair beginnings soon en-
countered the dreadful enginery of papal
repression and reaction. The Inquisi-
tion, reorganized by Paul III (1542) at
the recommendation of Caraffa, was first
established in the papal states, and al-
though resistance was offered in Venice
and elsewhere, it gradually extended its
sway over the entire peninsula. Tor-
ture, imprisonment, flames, the deep sea,
were henceforth the fate of Protestant
heretics. Many fled the country and
found refuge in Switzerland and else-
where. The persecution was directed
against books as well as men. The in-
quisitorial detectives discovered no less
than sixty printers, all of whose publi-
cations were condemned. Others were
obliged to undergo a ruinous sifting of
their stock. In fine, so thorough-going
and relentless was the work of the In-
quisition that by the end of the six-
teenth century the last vestige of Prot-
estantism had disappeared from the soil
of Italy. And it was not until 1870 that
Protestant worship was tolerated within
the precincts of the “Holy City.” This
does not mean a change of attitude and
principle on the part of the Church; it
means the extinction of the intolerant
papal regime by a liberal secular govern-
ment. In other words, the Church has
undergone a radical change in her legal
status. This calls for a few words of ex-
Concordia Cyclopedia
planation. In 1870 the papal states
were incorporated with the united king-
dom of Italy. The sovereignty of the
Pope as temporal ruler was at an end.
Since then the Italian government ex-
tends its protection to all, regardless of
creed, even in the hub of Roman Cathol-
icism. As to the present relations be-
tween the Papacy and the secular gov-
ernment of Italy, there is about as much
cordiality and harmony as between fire
and water. It must be conceded that
the “Papal Guarantees” reflect credi-
tably on the generosity of the govern-
ment. The Pope has been assigned the
Vatican palace (11,000 rooms) with its
museums, libraries, galleries, and gar-
dens as his residence, where, free from
all government interference, he may ex-
ercise the functions of his office, enjoy-
ing private post and telegraph arrange-
ments, maintaining a body-guard, and
receiving the accredited agents of for-
eign governments. Besides, an annuity
of about $600,000 (which, however, has
never been accepted) has been granted
him by the state. As to the papal atti-
tude toward the government, a few
words will suffice. On the occasion of
the fiftieth anniversary of his ordination
to the priesthood Leo XIII refused to
accept any congratulatory message from
the king of Italy or any gift from the
same source other than the keys of
Rome. Pius X spoke of the Italian king
as “he who usurps our place.” Sulking
as a “prisoner” in the Vatican, — which
voluntary imprisonment has brought
large returns in sympathy and cash, —
the Pope, through his agents, has been
unweariedly busy in embarrassing the
government by fanning and fomenting
disaffection and sedition. In power, the
Catholic Church is largely a political
institution; out of power, it becomes a
political conspiracy. Ghieaa libera in
libero stato (a free Church in a free
State), a maxim attributed to Cavour,
however ideally correct, was found ut-
terly impracticable in Italy. To guard
itself against the political agitations of
the Church, the Italian government has
barred all priests from the public
schools, from the universities, and from
chaplaincies in the army. It has penal-
ized the abuse of the pulpit for political
ends, and passed enactments against
priestly interference in the matter of
education (some Catholics send their
children to Protestant schools) and in
the making of wills. Regarding the
Catholic Church of Italy in its purely
religious aspect, it is simply a continua-
tion of medievalism. It is medieval in
the ignorance, hypocrisy, and immo-
24
Italy, Religions History of
370
Itinerancy
rality of its priesthood, in its dead
formalism and ritualistic inanity, in its
impotence to reach the hearts and lives
of its adherents, in its traffic in saints
and their relics, and particularly in its
Mariolatry. The severest judgments are
passed by Italians themselves. It has
been called “the antithesis of Christian-
ity” by a celebrated Italian professor.
“The Pope’s shop” (because of its mer-
cenary character) is a current designa-
tion of the Church in papers and maga-
zines. A church offering “salvation in
sin” is another Italian characterization.
Roman Catholicism is like its head. Pio
Nono declared: “He who talks of re-
forming me means to get rid of me.” —
According to the latest available statis-
tics (1911), there are in Italy 32,983,644
Catholics, or about ninety-five per cent,
of the population, and 123,253 Protes-
tants, distributed among various organi-
zations.
Italy; Religious History to Ref-
ormation. At what time Christianity
was first introduced into Italy is un-
known, though there is abundant evi-
dence that it was at an early date. In
49 — 50 Claudius expelled the Jews and
Christians from Rome; in 57 the church
at Rome was known “in the whole
world,” Rom. 1,8; in 64 the Christians
in the capital were a “vast multitude”
(mgens multitudo) . At the time of Con-
stantine, Christianity had taken firm
root, and paganism was losing its hold.
During this first stage the religious his-
tory of Italy did not differ essentially
from that of the empire in general,
though the commanding position and in-
fluence of the church of Rome and the
germs of the Papacy, already manifest,
lend it a somewhat distinctive character
and indicate its subsequent trend. From
the time that Constantine transferred
the seat of empire to the Bosporus, and
especially since the barbarian invasions,
the religious history of Italy becomes
virtually the history of the Papacy. It
is the Papacy alone that gives a sem-
blance of unity to the story of Italy
during the Middle Ages. We can here
only glance at a few outstanding facts.
The Teutonic invaders, who professed
Arianism, for the most part made no at-
tempt to force their creed upon their
new subjects. Odoacer and his con-
queror, Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, were
both tolerant, while the Lombards, who
entered Italy as a nation in 568 and all
but succeeded in establishing a perma-
nent kingdom, though combining mar-
tial despotism with religious intoler-
ance, not only eventually adopted the
religion of Rome, but politically suc-
cumbed to the diplomacy of the Roman
bishop and the weapons of his Frankish
ally. The coronation of Charles the
Great by Leo III in 800 formed the natu-
ral culmination of this alliance, while,
at the same time, it resulted in a per-
manent separation between the East and
the West. Unconsciously also the Pope
and the emperor prepared the ground
for that fierce and protracted struggle
between the spiritual and temporal
powers which occupies so much space in
the annals of the following centuries.
Without giving details, suffice it to say
that from the days of Otto I (crowned
at Rome 962) to the age of Hildebrand,
the emperors, generally speaking, had
the upper hand in this conflict, while
from the rise of Hildebrand (afterwards
Gregory VII) to the overthrow of the
Hohenstaufen house the Popes asserted
their supremacy. From the beginning
of the fourtenth century the power of
the Papacy began to decline, though it
abated none of its pretensions. Its
slavish dependence on the French kings
during the “Babylonian captivity,” the
schism of forty years that followed, the
authority assumed by the councils, show
clearly that the palmy days of Greg-
ory VII or of Innocent III were gone for-
ever. It was left for the Reformation
to proclaim full liberty to the captives.
Itinerancy. A word expressing one
of the most characteristic features of
Methodism. The system of itinerancy
was established by Wesley in England.
It was designed to meet the need of pas-
toral service regularly in all districts
which the limited number of pastors
could not supply. Wesley’s religious
plans made it necessary for him to
travel from town to town. He usually
stayed only a day or two in any place.
Unable, as he thought, to win the un-
godly and sinful from the church pulpit,
he, with a few others, began field-
preaching. Seeing that with so small a
number they could not do all the work
necessary for carrying out their plans,
Wesley openly approved lay-preaching,
and finally men called “helpers,” who
were not episcopally ordained, were per-
mitted to preach and do pastoral work.
This itinerancy has also been adopted
in America. The length of time that
each itinerant preacher may retain his
charge has varied at different times and
is now limited to three years.
Jackson, Sheldon
371
Jamaica
J
Jackson, Sheldon ; b. May 18, 1834,
at Minaville, N. Y. ; d. May 2, 1909, at
Asheville, N. C.; Presbyterian mission-
ary to Choctaw Indians, 1859 — 60; mis-
sionary superintendent in Iowa and Ne-
braska, 1879; superintendent of Alaska
missions, 1882; editor of Presbyterian
Home Missionary, 1882; superintendent
of missions in Sitka, 1884; since 1877
in governmental employ in interest of
schools in Alaska.
Jacobi, John Christian, 1670 — 1750;
keeper of the Royal German Chapel,
St. James’s Palace, London; published
several collections of hymns; translated,
among others: “God, who Madest Earth
and Heaven.”
Jacobs, Chas. M. ; b. 1875, son of
H. E. J.; studied at University of Penn-
sylvania and Leipzig, Schieren Professor
in Philadelphia Seminary since 1913;
translator of Luther into English, editor
(with Preserved Smith) of Imther’s Let-
ters.
Jacobs, H. E.; leading theologian of
the General Council; b. November 10,
1844; son of Dr. Michael Jacobs; edu-
cated at Gettysburg Lutheran College
and Seminary; professor there 1864 — 83,
with an interruption of three years,
when he served congregations near Pitts-
burgh; in 1883 professor of systematic
theology in the Philadelphia Seminary,
succeeding Dr. Krauth. He edited the
Lutheran Church Review, 1882 — 96;
supervised the editing of the Lutheran
Commentary (1895 — 98) and the Lu-
theran Cyclopedia (1899). Among the
many works from his prolific pen are the
following: The Lutheran Movement in
England, History of the Lutheran
Church in America, Elements of Religion,
Commentary on Romans and First Co-
rinthians, Life of Martin Luther, The
German Immigration to Pennsylvania,
1709 — 171/0, Summary of the Christian
Faith, and A Translation of the Book of
Concord, with an Introduction and An-
notations. He also wrote The Doctrinal
Basis of the United Lutheran Church in
America.
Jacobites. See Monophysites.
Jacobite Church in America. Since
the Jacobites are an offshoot of the
Syrian Monophysites, some adherents
may be found among the Syrian emi-
grants to America. Their chief centers
are New York and Chicago, and they are
organized as the Jacobite Assyrian
Apostolic Church.
Jacoponus da Todi ( Jacobus de Bene-
dictis) ; noted hymn-writer of the 13th
century; b. in Umbria; after death of
his wife withdrew from world; lay
brother in the Order of St. Francis till
his death, 1306; fearless in his attacks
on abuses of his day; among his hymns
Cur Mundus Militat (Why Should This
World of Ours Strive to Be Glorious),
but especially the sequence, surcharged
with the feelings of an anguished heart,
Stabat Mater Dolorosa.
Jaebker, G. H. ; b. November 13, 1821,
at Wimmern, Hanover; emigrated to
America 1842; taught school; was pre-
pared for the ministry by Wyneken and
Sillier; served the church at Friedheim,
Ind., from his ordination to his death,
1847 — 77 ; charter member of the Mis-
souri Synod.
Jaeckel, Theo.; b. 1829, d. 1906;
pastor at Silesia, Wis., 1864, and at
Winchester; Muehlhaeuser’s successor at
Grace, Milwaukee; secretary and treas-
urer of Wisconsin Synod; bequeathed
substantial sums for his synod’s work
(endowments) .
Jaenicke, Johann; b. at Berlin 1748;
d. there July 21, 1827; pastor of Beth-
lehem Church, Berlin; founded mission
seminary 1800, from which 81 foreign
missionaries were sent out.
Jainism. A religious system of India,
founded in sixth century by Vardhamana
(also called Mahavira, i. e., “Great Hero,”
and Jina ), a contemporary of Gotama
(q.v.). Jainism arose in opposition to
Brahmanism (q. v. ), as did Buddhism
(q.v.), but, unlike the latter, prescribed
asceticism as means of attaining salva-
tion. Noteworthy also is the doctrine of
non-killing. Jains spare all animal life,
even vermin, and support hospitals for
domestic animals, rats, etc. The sect
consists of lay members and two monas-
tic orders, one the Swetambra (“white-
robed”), wearing clothes, the other, the
Digambara (“sky-clad”), declaring com-
plete nudity to be a requisite. The lay
members are mostly wealthy and in-
fluential tradespeople, who have built
many costly and beautiful temples, espe-
cially at Mount Abu. The sect numbered
1,178,596 in 1921.
Jamaica, the largest of the British
West India Islands, discovered by Colum-
bus in 1494. Area, 4,431 sq. mi. Popu-
lation, 900,000, chiefly blacks, 163,000
colored. Under the 150 years of Spanish
rule more than 1,500,000 native Arawaks
James, William
372
Jansenlsts
perished, Negro slaves from Africa tak-
ing their place. Emancipation was en-
acted in 1833. The English Slave Code
of Jamaica (1090) required Christian in-
struction of the slaves. — Missions. The
S. P. G. financed missionary endeavor
from 1703 to 1805. The C. M. S. began
mission-work in 1825. Moravians sent
missionaries in 1754. The Wesleyan M. S.
opened stations in 1789. American Bap-
tists entered in 1814, transferring their
work to the English Baptists in 1831.
At present, missions are carried on by
14 societies. Total foreign staff, 231.
Christian community, 133,579. Commu-
nicants, 79,593.
James, 'William. American psy-
chologist and philosopher; b. 1842 at
New York, N. Y.; d. 1910 at Chocorna,
N. H.; many years professor at Har-
vard; originated doctrine of Pragma-
tism (g. v. ) ; wrote Principles of Psy-
chology, 1890; Pragmatism, 1907.
Jamieson, Fausset, and Brown.
Commentary on the Bible, practical and
explanatory. One of the best commen-
taries in the English language; four
volumes or complete in one volume.
Jansenism. A reformatory move-
ment within the Catholic Church of
France, inaugurated by Cornelius Jansen,
bishop of Ypres (d. 1038), and supported
by many of the most learned and earnest
men of the nation (among them Pascal,
Arnauld, Tillemont, Quesnel). It was a
serious attempt at reviving the Augus-
tinian doctrine of sin and grace as a
means of counteracting the baneful in-
fluence of Jesuitism and of quickening
the spiritual life of the French Church.
Jansen’s book Augustinus was imme-
diately attacked by the Jesuits, who
secured its condemnation by Urban VIII
in the bull In Eminenti (1042). Anton
Arnauld’s attack upon the opus opera-
turn theory of the Sacrament and the lax
moral theology of the Jesuits was met by
the bull Cum Occasione of Innocent X
(1653), which explicitly condemned five
propositions from Jansen’s work. When
the Jansenists protested that the propo-
sitions in question were not taught by
Jansen in the sense in which they were
condemned, Alexander VII (Innocent’s
successor) boldly declared that they con-
tained the exact meaning which Jansen
intended to express. At the same time
he demanded of the Jansenists that they
subscribe to a formula of submission to
Innocent’s bull. The refusal of the Jan-
senists to yield to such wilful proceed-
ings brought the combined powers of
Pope and king against them. The Pope
abolished the convent of Port Royal.
The building was destroyed by order of
“the most Christian King” Louis XIV,
the church itself demolished, and even
the bones of the dead were torn from
their graves. Many of the Jansenists
either fled the country or were banished.
But the end was not yet. What may be
called the second stage of the Jansenist
movement was introduced by the publica-
tion of Quesnel’s New Testament with
devotional comments, a work approved
by Noailles, the Archbishop of Paris, and
recommended by the French bishops.
But the work provoked another out-
burst of Jesuit wrath and another papal
bull, the famous Constitution Unigenitus
(1713) of Clement XI (characterized by
Harnaek as a '‘trauriges Machwerk,” a
wretched performance), condemning one
hundred and one allegedly Jansenist
propositions in Quesnel’s book. The
quarrel that ensued rent the French
clergy into two factions, the Acceptants
and the Appellants (those who appealed
from the Pope to a general council). But
the papal ban (1718) and the secular
power ultimately crushed the spirit of
Jansenism. Many Jansenists sacrificed
their convictions (among them Noailles),
others fell a prey to wild fanaticism,
still others found an asylum in Holland,
where a separatist community survives
to the present day.
Jansenists. Adherents of Jansenism,
so called from its founder, Cornelius
Jansen. This religious movement origi-
nated in a controversy on the doctrine of
grace. As the gulf between the Roman
Catholic Church and the churches of the
Reformation became wider, the spirit of
Semi-Pelagianism in life and doctrine
grew in the Roman Catholic Church, and
the theology of the Church degenerated
into a lifeless scholasticism. Cornelius
Jansen and Duvergier de Hauranne (gen-
erally known by the name Cyran),
through constantly studying the writ-
ings of St. Augustine, came to the con-
viction that the Roman Catholic theo-
logians had deviated from the doctrine
of the primitive Church. Seeing the evil
workings of the Jesuits and marking the
inroads which that system was making
on all doctrinal truth and practical
morality, they resolved to work for re-
form. In 1621 Jansen and Cyran met
at Louvain with a view to bringing about
a change in the Church. They divided
the work among themselves, Jansen tak-
ing the field of doctrine and Cyran that
of organization and life. What Jansen
accomplished was this, that in spite of
the Jesuits and the “Holy Office,” he was
made Professor of Sacred Literature at
Louvain. At his instigation the Univer-
Japan, Religions of
878
Jesuit Churches
sity of Louvain excluded Jesuits from
positions as teachers. He wrote a com-
prehensive work, called Augustinus, em-
bodying the work of twenty-two years’
study of St. Augustine’s writings, in
which, according to his own statement,
he determined to exhibit, expound, and
illustrate, not his own views, but the
exact views of the celebrated Church
Father. The work was published several
years after his death, in 1638. In 1642,
in spite of much resistance on the part
of bishops, universities, and provincial
estates, the Jesuits succeeded in having
a bull issued against it in the Spanish
Netherlands and its subscription en-
forced. At this time the Jesuits were
actively at work to effect the condemna-
tion of the Jansenist principles. In 1654
the Pope declared that the condemnation
of the teachings of Jansen would have to
be subscribed on pain of deprivation.
Under these circumstances hundreds of
the “party of grace” signed the condem-
nation. — The doctrines of Jansenism
left no permanent trace in Belgium or
France, but in Holland there has been
for more than two centuries a church
popularly called Jansenist.
Japan, Religions of. See Shintoism,
Buddhism.
Java. An island in the Dutch East
Indies, belonging to Holland. Area,
48,68(3 sq. mi.. Population, 30,000,000,
chiefly of Malay stock. Ancient religion
is Buddhism, supplanted to a great ex-
tent in the 15th century by Islam. Mis-
sions in the 17th century by the Dutch,
who often used questionable methods to
obtain converts. Modern missions in
the Netherlands Indies, to which Java
belongs, are conducted by 17 societies,
chiefly Dutch. Statistics: Total foreign
staff, 693. Christian community, 779,893.
Communicants, 475,848.
Jehovah Conference, founded 1893
by emissaries of the Lower Hessian Mis-
sion Association at Melsingen. Rev. Wm.
Hartwig was the first to come over (1886)
and was the president for many years.
The Jehovah Conference rejects all Lu-
theran Confessions except the Augustana.
It has five ministers in Michigan and
one in Maryland (1925) and numbers
about 925 communicants.
Jeremias, Alfred, German Lutheran
theologian; b. 1864 near Chemnitz; pas-
tor of the Lutherkirche, Leipzig, and
lecturer at the university; wrote on
Assyriology and related subjects.
Jerome. One of the fathers of the
Church; b. 331 at Stridon, on the fron-
tiers of Dacia; d, near Bethlehem, in
420; of Christian parentage, but was
not baptized till 360, when he studied
rhetoric and philosophy at Rome; lived
in Gaul, then at Aquileia, on the Adri-
atic, till 373. After living at Antioch
in Syria for a number of years, he de-
voted himself to the things of God,
taught at Antioch, among the hermits
of Chaleis, and studied at Constantinople
and Rome. Becoming a close counselor
of Pope Damasus, he undertook the re-
vision of the Latin Bible then in use on
the basis of the Greek New Testament
and the Septuagint. This work occupied
the scholar for many years, with some
interruptions caused by other duties. He
visited Antioch once more, also the va-
rious sections of the Holy Land and
Egypt. In 386 he settled down in a her-
mit’s cell near Bethlehem, where he spent
the rest of his life in intense literary
activity. To the last thirty-four years
of his life belong the most important
works of his career: his version of the
Old Testament in Latin on the basis of
the original text, the best of his Scrip-
tural commentaries, his catalog of Chris-
tian authors, and the dialog against the
Pelagians (q.v.). To this period belong
also his passionate polemical writings,
which distinguished him among the early
Fathers. Jerome was buried at Beth-
lehem, but his remains were later re-
moved, the church of Santa Maria Mag-
giore in Rome claiming the greater part
of his relics. Among Jerome’s works,
besides the Bible translation noted above,
now known as the Vulgate (“the com-
mon,” since it was intended for the use
of all men), are to be mentioned a book
describing the chief places of interest in
the Holy Land, several original commen-
taries on the Old Testament (chiefly
Isaiah, Daniel, and Ezekiel), and some
New Testament commentaries. He also
published some educational treatises.
His theological position was not strong,
since a clear exposition of doctrine
caused him great difficulty, but his writ-
ings show much poetical skill. His great
importance is due to the incalculable in-
fluence exerted through his Latin version
of the Bible upon all subsequent theo-
logical development.
Jessup, Henry Harris; b. at Mont-
rose, Pa., April 19, 1832; d. April 28,
1910, at Beirut, Syria, was a graduate
of Union Theological Seminary, N. Y. ;
sent out by the American Board (A. B.
C. F. M.), 1855, first to Tripoli, then to
Beirut; since 1870 he worked under the
Presbyterian Board of Foreign Missions
as professor in the Syrian Theological
Seminary; author of note.
J esuit Churches. The Jesuits adopted
both the Baroque and the Rococo in their
Jesuits and Jesnitlsm
374
Jesuits and Jesuitism
churches, many of which are overorna-
mented ; they also, in many cases, changed
the orientation of their churches, with
the altar at the western end.
Jesuits and Jesuitism. The Refor-
mation was followed by the Counter-
Reformation. The latter, again, like all
Catholic revivals and reactions of earlier
periods, was signalized by the appear-
ance of new orders, chief among which
is the Society of Jesus. Its founder, Ig-
natius Loyola (b. 1491), while a student
of theology at Paris, gathered about him
a few kindred spirits, and after taking
the customary vows they volunteered
their services to the Pope. Paul III,
after much hesitation, confirmed the new
order (1540). Immediately Loyola’s so-
ciety was on the scene of action, and for
two centuries and more (until its sup-
pression in 1773) it was a potent and
mischievous force in European history.
As to its general character we insert here
the words of Kurtz: “Never has a hu-
man society better understood to try the
spirits and to assign to each individual
member that position and to use it for
that purpose for which it is best quali-
fied. Never, on the other hand, has a
system of mutual supervision been so
thoroughly and so consistently carried
out. Everything that is dear and sacred
to man was merged in the interest of
the society, in unconditional obedience
to the superior. Country, relatives, in-
clination or aversion, even personal judg-
ment and conscience, are nothing; the
order is all. Besides, it made every
means that the world affords, science,
scholarship, art, secular learning, and
(in connection with heathen missions)
even colonization, commerce, and in-
dustry, subservient to its end. It gained
control of the education of youth among
the higher ranks and trained for itself
loyal and powerful patrons. By preach-
ing, by the cure of souls, by the estab-
lishment of numerous brotherhoods and
sisterhoods, it exercised its power over
the people, took princes under tutelage
in the confessional, forced itself into all
relations, into all secrets. And all these
manifold means, all the eminent forces
and talents [with which it operated],
united under a single will, served one
purpose: positively, the promotion and
expansion of Roman Catholicism; nega-
tively, the suppression and extirpation
of Protestantism.” These remarks give
us, apart from all else, the essential
feature in the constitution of the order,
namely, blind obedience. We add some
further details. All applicants for ad-
mission to the order must be at least
fourteen years of age. A novitiate of
two years’ duration and of rigid dis-
ciplinary drill, calculated to crush the
will and the individuality, was followed
by the promotion to the grade of “scho-
lastics.” Besides taking the three vows
of poverty, chastity, and obedience, the
novices now spent four or five years in
liberal studies and then the same period
of time as teachers of junior classes.
Then followed a course in theology cover-
ing another four or five years, on the
completion of which admission was given
to the rank of “spiritual coadjutors.”
These constituted the bulk of the order.
This class furnished the missionaries, the
preachers, and the teachers; but they
had no share in the government of the
society. This was reserved for the “Pro-
fessed of the Four Vows,” who, in addi-
tion to the ordinary vows, took a vow
of special allegiance to the Pope. This
group, always a small minority, were the
6lite of the society, closely associated
with the general, who was clothed with
absolute authority and controlled the
entire machine. The general was repre-
sented in the various countries by the
provincials, to whom the superiors of all
houses and rectors of colleges were bound
to report at stated intervals. To safe-
guard the powers of the general, reports
were often sent to him directly, without
the knowledge of the provincial. Indeed,
a system of espionage and delation, to
which even the general himself was sub-
ject to some extent, permeated the whole
society. The Jesuit organization has not
inaptly been compared to the chariot in
Ezekiel’s inaugural vision : “ ‘The spirit
of the living creatures was in the wheels ;
wherever the living creatures went, the
wheels went with them; wherever those
stood, these stood; when the creatures
were lifted up, the wheels were lifted up
over against them ; and their wings were
full of eyes round about, and they were
so high that they were dreadful.’ So the
institution of Ignatius — one soul swayed
the vast mass; and every pin and cog
in the machinery consented with its
whole power to every movement of the
one central conscience.”
Jesuit theology, while at first conform-
ing to the Thomistic type of doctrine,
which, in its turn, was modeled after
that of St. Augustine, especially in the
matter of sin and grace, soon shifted its
position in the direction of Pelagianism
in order to secure a leverage of attack
upon the fundamental tenets of Protes-
tantism. The hostility to Augustine be-
came apparent in the Ratio et Institutio
SUudiorum Societatis Jem of Aquaviva,
the fifth general of the order, in 1586,
was especially fierce during the Jansenist
Jesuits and Jesuitism
375
Jesuits and Jesuitism
controversy of the next century, and
finally led to the dethronement of the
ancient father in the days of Liguori
(1699 — 1787). The latter; canonized in
1829, has, in the words of Harnack, taken
the place of Augustine in modern Cathol-
icism. On the other hand, the Jesuits
were the most zealous advocates of papal
absolutism. Only the papal power is de-
rived from God, that of the secular gov-
ernment from the people, who therefore
have the right to depose, banish, and
even kill a tyrannical or heretical ruler.
But it is for its ethical teachings that
Jesuitism is notorious. ProbabiUsm, in-
tentionalism, or expediency, mental res-
ervation, and equivocation, as set forth
and defended by Jesuit moralists and
casuists, simply reduce all moral cate-
gories to chaos and reveal a license, an
audacity, on the part of the authors,
a mischievous refinement in the treat-
ment of ethical questions, that has pos-
sibly never been equaled. What is meant
by probabilismt In the words of Barth
de Medina it is this : “Si est opinio pro-
babilis, licitum est earn sequi, licet oppo-
sita sit probabilior.” That is to say, no
guilt attaches to an action, though done
contrary to one’s own moral judgment,
provided such action is supported by
reasonable grounds (whatever these may
be) or by the authority of some repu-
table teacher. Such “grounds” and such
“authority render the moral opinion pro-
babilis. In short, the voice of conscience
is replaced by other considerations, espe-
cially by obedience to external authority.
Into the different shadings of probabil-
ism we cannot here enter. Intentional-
ism, or the doctrine of expediency, is the
maxim that the moral quality of an
action is not 1 determined by the action
in itself, but by the end and aim which
the action pursues. If the end is worthy
and justifiable, the action employed to
attain it is also worthy and justifiable,
though it may be reprehensible and dam-
nable in itself. Says Busenbaum (whose
manual of moral theology went through
more than fifty editions) : “ Gum finis
est licitus, etiam media sunt licita”
(“When the end is legitimate, the means
are also legitimate” ) . Layman : “Cui
concessus est finis, concessa etiam sunt
media ad fine m ordinata" (“To whom
the end is permissible, to him are also
permissible the means ordained to attain
the end”). Very succinctly Wagemann:
“Finis determinat probitatem actus ”
(“The end determines the probity of an
action”). Mental reservation and equivo-
cation may be illustrated by examples
from Liguori, the founder of the Ite-
demptorist Congregation, but an expo-
nent of Jesuit casuistry and since 1871
an accepted Doctor of the Church. Says
Liguori: “A confessor may affirm with
an oath that he is ignorant of a crime
which he heard in confession, meaning
thereby that he is ignorant of it as a
mere man, though not as a minister of
religion.” An adulteress questioned by
her husband may deny her guilt by de-
claring that she has not committed
“adultery,” meaning “idolatry,” for
which the term “adultery” is often em-
ployed in the Old Testament. In simi-
lar fashion, theft, fraud, breach of prom-
ise, perjury, may be whitewashed. Like
the ancient sophists, the Jesuits made
“the worse appear the better reason” or,
in the words of Isaiah, called “evil good
and good evil, put darkness for light
and light for darkness, bitter for sweet
and sweet for bitter.” Small wonder
that the Jesuits were in their day the
most popular confessors. Small wonder,
too, that they ultimately became a jest,
a byVord, and a reproach.
The educational system of the Jesuits
was a marked advance upon anything
previously known in the Catholic Church
and became one of the most powerful
factors in the Catholic reaction. It did
not include primary education, but strove
from the first to secure as many chairs
as possible in the institutions of higher
learning. In 1710 the Jesuits controlled
the philosophical and theological studies
in eighty universities, to say nothing of
their influence in minor institutions.
For about three hundred years they were
accounted the best teachers in Europe,
though the very nature of their society
discouraged the habit of original and in-
dependent thought.
Immediately upon their confirmation
by the Pope the Jesuits opened their
campaign against the Reformation. They
were a controlling influence at the Coun-
cil of Trent and determined the severely
anti-Protestant position of that body.
They were largely instrumental in sup-
pressing the Reformation in Italy, in-
deed in all Southern Europe. In Ger-
many they worked with marked success
from various centers, instigating Catho-
lic princes to exterminate Protestantism
by force. They were active in Austria
(since 1551), Hungary, Tyrol, Silesia,
Poland, Moravia, and even entered Rus-
sia in an attempt to convert the Czar.
They were a powerful force in Spain and
Portugal. Belgium was saved for Ca-
tholicism through their labors. Their
entrance into France (1561), though ex-
citing the jealousy and suspicion of the
Parlement of Paris and the French
clergy, was soon followed by a marked
Jesuits and Jesuitism
376
Jewish Missions
change of popular sentiment in favor of
Catholicism. The horrors of St. Bar-
tholomew-tide and the assassination of
Henry IV are laid to their charge. They
denounced the Edict of Nantes, which
granted a measure of toleration to the
Huguenots, and they were in hearty ac-
cord with, if not actually responsible
for, its revocation (1685) and all the
horrors that followed. In England they
kept up a secret propaganda for more
than a century. They made repeated at-
tempts on the life of Queen Elizabeth
and were implicated in the Gunpowder
Plot. With the fall of the Stuarts their
influence ceased. Even in Sweden a
Jesuit won the confidence of Christina,
the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus,
and two Jesuit emissaries from Rome
smoothed the way for her return to the
Catholic fold. — The Jesuits not only
endeavored to recover lost ground, but
broke new ground in foreign mission
fields. With a zeal, a courage, and a
consecration unsurpassed they planted
their mission -stations in India, Japan,
China, and Abyssinia; among the mines
of Peru, on the Mexican plateau, in the
wilds of the Rocky Mountains, and in
the shades of Canadian forests. Their
missionary, methods ( accommodations to
heathen usage ) were not as commendable
as their devotion and even provoked
papal censure.
The decline and (temporary) abolition
of the Society of Jesus are traceable to
its vicious ethical system, its constant
intermeddling in politics, its increasing
worldliness, and, above all, its extensive
commercial activities. The Jesuits were
banished from Portugal in 1759, from
France in 1767, from Spain and all her
dependencies in the same year. So strong
was the pressure of public sentiment and
of the Catholic courts of Europe that
Clement XIV, in the famous bull Domi-
nus ac Redemptor (July 21, 1773), sup-
pressed the Jesuit Order. This did not
mean permanent extinction. Many Jes-
uits changed their names, but not their
principles and joined other orders. Many
more found an asylum in the territories
of the freethinking sovereigns Fred-
erick II of Prussia and Catherine II of
Russia. The need of a new force to in-
vigorate the Church after her severe
trials during the French Revolution in-
duced Pius VII to reverse the decree of
Clement XIV, and by the bull Sollicitudo
Omnium Eoolesiarum the Jesuits were
reinstated (1814). Since then the order
has been gradually gaining in power;
it has practically controlled the papacy
and has succeeded in pushing ultramon-
tanism to its logical conclusion, the proc-
lamation of papal infallibility as a
dogma of the Church. Naturally, it has
again, since its restoration, frequently
quarreled with the secular governments.
It has not changed its character essen-
tially.
Jesus, Paintings of. Pictures of
Jesus are found even in the catacombs,
the frescoes showing the Good Shepherd,
the Awakening of Lazarus, the Adora-
tion of the Magi, and other scenes from
His life. In the period after Constantine
pictorial and plastic representations be-
came more numerous, a statue being ex-
tant of the Good Shepherd, which is
dated by scholars as of the third century.
The representation of Christ is very com-
mon in mosaic work, as the Baptism of
Christ in the cupola of the Dome at
Ravenna, and Christ before Pilate and
Christ Blessing in St. Apollinare of Ra-
venna. During the Middle Ages the rep-
resentation of Christ turned to strange
ways, His character as Redeemer being
relegated to the background, while all
other considerations came to the front.
Some of the subjects found at that time
are Christ in the Glory of the New Jeru-
salem, Christ in His Majesty as Teacher,
Christ on the Clouds of Heaven, Christ
on the Globe of the World. The Renais-
sance paid more attention to the mother
of Jesus than to the Savior Himself,
although Mantegua painted a Crucifixion
of Christ, da Vinci his immortal Last
Supper, and Reni his Ecce Homo. Since
the Reformation, Jesus is again receiv-
ing the attention to which His person
and office entitles Him. With Duerer
opening the line, and with Hofmann,
Plockhorst, Thoma, Gebhard, Uhde, and
Carolsfeld contributing during the last
century, some notable work has been
done in bringing the picture of Jesus,
the Savior, before the eyes of men. The
so-called portrait painting of Jesus ac-
cording to Publius Lentulus is not
authentic.
Jewish Missions. It is commonly
believed that there are more than
12,000,000 Jews in the world, of whom
more than 2,500,000 are in the United
States and over one half of these in the
city of New York. The Lutheran
Church, from the days of the Reforma-
tion, attempted to call them to Christ,
Luther making especial efforts in this
direction. Missionary societies for work
among the Jews have been organized in
large numbers, the first in modern times
being the British Society for Propaga-
tion of the Gospel among the Jews,
1842. The first missionary appointed
by the Lutheran Missouri Synod to work
Joan of Arc
377
John of Wesel
among the Jews in the United States was
Daniel Landsmann. The work is being
continued with one missionary stationed
in New York City.
Joan of Arc, or Jeanne d’Are, the
Maid of Orleans, a French peasant girl,
1412 — 31. On the basis of visions which
she claimed to have had, she donned a
special military dress and placed herself
at the head of an army of 6,000 French
soldiers, her spirit causing the French to
shake off the British oppression. Be-
trayed to the English, she was tried and
burned at the stake.
Job, Johann, 1664 — 1736; born at
Frankfurt a. M. ; city councilor and
building contractor at Leipzig; known
for his learning; wrote: “Prange, Welt,
mit deinem Wissen.”
John XXIII. (Baltasare Cossa).
Pope 1410 — 16. A Neapolitan who was
legate to Bologna and chamberlain to
Boniface IX, became Pope against con-
siderable opposition. He promised to re-
sign if Gregory XII and Benedict XIII
would do likewise; when, however, his
conditions were met, he reassumed the
office of sovereign pontiff, but was soon
deposed and imprisoned. His life affords
some illustrations connected with the
affairs of the Council of Constance and
the period of antipopes.
John Frederick the Magnanimous,
Elector of Saxony, son of John the Con-
stant; b. 1603. One of the first acts of
his reign, in 1532, was to improve church
affairs. He would like to have kept
peace with the Kaiser, but when the
Nuernberg Religious Peace was seen to
have been granted in bad faith, he ex-
tended the Smaleald League for ten
years and kept aloof from the diets. The
Kaiser was angered still more when John
Frederick pushed aside the legally elected
Julius von Pflug and made Amsdorf
bishop of Naumburg. He ignored the
rights of his cousin Maurice of Saxony
when taxing and reforming the city of
Wurzen. Philip of Hessen prevented
war, it is true, but Maurice remained
bitter and opposed the Smaleald League.
When asked at the Reichstag of Regens-
burg, in 1646, about concentrating troops
from Italy and the Netherlands, Karl
replied: “I wish to chastise disobedient
princes.” On this the Smaleald League
mobilized; it was crushed by Alva in
the Battle of Muehlberg, April 24, and
the wounded Elector was taken prisoner.
He listened calmly to the sentence of
death and then quietly kept on playing
his game of chess with the Duke of
Brunswick. When John’s electoral hat
was given to Maurice in the market of
Augsburg, the prisoner looked on un-
moved. He was brutally treated, even
exhibited for money to the curious mobs.
He would not recognize the Council of
Trent nor the Interim, and his fortitude
impressed even the stolid Kaiser, who
nevertheless deprived the prisoner of his
Bible. After five years the Passau
Treaty, in 1652, brought freedom; death
came to him on March 3, 1554.
John of Damascus (called Chrysor-
rhas, that is, the Golden Speaker), b. be-
fore 700, most likely in Damascus, d. 754
at Mar Saba, near Jerusalem. Although
the country was even then Mohammedan,
John grew up as a Christian, becoming
a monk shortly after 730. He was or-
dained priest soon afterwards, but de-
clined further honors and advancements.
He spent most of his time in study, giv-
ing all his writings a careful revision
before his death. Among his earliest writ-
ings are the three Apologetio Treatises
against Those Decrying the Holy Images,
which brought upon him the wrath of
Emperor Leo (see Iconoclastic Contro-
versy). John did not brand the views of
his opponents as heretical, but he defends
his position with regard to the value of
images on the basis of tradition and of
inherent value. John’s chief dogmatic
work was his Fount of Knowledge, for
centuries the standard of the Eastern
Church. The third part of this work
was by John himself divided into a hun-
dred chapters and called an Exposition
of the Orthodox Faith. John of Damas-
cus was important also as a hymn-writer,
composing, as a rule, both words and
music; among his best works in this
field being sacred poems in iambic meter
for Christmas, Epiphany, and Pentecost.
He was also very skilful in acrostic
work. Many of the minor writings for-
merly ascribed to John are now under
dispute, the contention being that some
of his contemporaries wrote in his style.
John of God (Doth), really Juan
Ciudad, 1495 — 1550; after an early life
of dissipation founded an order in Gra-
nada called the Brothers of Charity, de-
voting himself chiefly to the nursing of
the sick of the poorest classes and of the
insane. The order was expanded after
the death of John, and there are still
more than a hundred houses in existence.
John of Wesel, reformer before the
Reformation; studied at Erfurt, where
he afterwards became rector ; later canon
at Worms, then professor at Basel, then
again preacher at Worms, and finally at
Mainz, where he was tried for heresy,
for denying the authority of the Pope
and of councils; he recanted; d. 1479
in the Augustinian monastery at Mainz.
John Sigismund
378 Joseph II and Josepliinism
John Sigismund, Elector of Branden-
burg, 1608 — 19; educated as a strict
Lutheran, but embraced Reformed faith
1613 and became aggressively active in
behalf of Calvinism; fell heir to Duchy
of Prussia 1618. Since Sigismund the
union of the Lutheran and Reformed
churches became a settled policy of the
Berlin court.
John the Constant, Elector of Sax-
ony; b. in 1468; educated at the court of
his uncle, Emperor Frederick III; ruled
with his brother, Frederick the Wise,
since 1486, and alone since 1525. He
remained constant to the Reformation
against all attempts to draw him over
to Rome. With Philip of Hessen he
formed the Torgau Bund to defend the
Reformation against the Dessau Bund,
had the churches visited and reformed in
1528 and 1529, headed the historic Pro-
test against the tyrannical Romanists at
Spires in 1529, stood up courageously
against the aggression of the papists at
Augsburg in 1530, refusing to take part in
the Corpus Christi procession requested
by the Kaiser, standing firm against
the threats to depose him. When the
theologians offered to present the Augs-
burg Confession without him, he replied:
“I, too, will confess my Christ.” When
Kaiser Karl asked for the reading of the
Augsburg Confession in Latin, John ob-
jected: “We are Germans and on Ger-
man soil, and so Your Imperial Majesty
will also permit us to speak the German
language,” — which was done. While
Philip of Hessen decamped, John boldly
remained at Augsburg till the end. That
was his own Augsburg Confession in ac-
tions; he took seriously his motto:
Verburn Dei manet in aeternum (“The
Word of God remains in eternity”), the
initials of which he had put on the livery
of his servants. He was the founder of
the Smalcald League, but gladly granted
the Nuernberg Religious Peace of 1532
to the Kaiser, who was hard beset by
France and the Turk. D. August 16,
1532.
Jommelli, Nicola, 1714 — 74; mem-
ber of the “Neapolitan School”; lived as
composer and director in several Italian
cities ; later for fifteen years Kapell-
meister to the Duke of Wuerttemberg;
his sacred music justly famous.
Jonas, Justus, 1493 — 1555; studied
at Erfurt and Wittenberg; canon at Er-
furt, later professor and then rector of
the university; probst at All Saints of
Wittenberg 1521; professor of church
law; one of the most active colaborers
of Luther; later first evangelical super-
intendent in Halle, finally superintendent
at Eisfeld, in Saxe-Meiningen; a learned
theologian with sound views, noted also
as hymn -writer; wrote stanzas 4 and 5
of “Erhalt uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort” ;
“Wo Gott der Herr nicht bei uns haelt.”
Jones, Samuel Porter, 1847 — 1906;
Methodist Episcopal; “Mountain Evan-
gelist”; b. in Alabama; soldier in Civil
War; lawyer; drunkard; converted, or-
dained 1872; pastor; agent of orphan-
age in Georgia; revivalist.
Josenhans, Joseph; b. February 9,
1812, at Stuttgart, Wurttemberg; d. De-
cember 25, 1884, at Leonberg. Inspector
of the Basel Mission 1850; visited India
in 1851 and reorganized all departments
of the work; resigned 1879 and retired
to Stuttgart.
Joseph of the Studium (of Thessa-
lonica), among the foremost hymn-
writers of the Eastern Church; author
of the Canons in the Pentecostarion, to
which his name is prefixed; not to be
confounded, as Neale does, with St. Jo-
seph the Hymnographer, who wrote
“Stars of the Morning.”
Joseph II and Josephinism. Jo-
seph II of Austria (1780 — 1790), imbued
with the principle of the sovereignty of
state rights, attempted a readjustment
in the mutual relation of Church and
State, so as to make the former sub-
ordinate and subservient to the latter.
The scheme also included practical sepa-
ration of the Church from the authority
of Rome. The introduction of the new
system was attended by incisive reforms,
the most important of which was an
Edict of Toleration (1781), granting to
Lutherans and Reformed freedom of wor-
ship as well as access to civil offices.
In addition, the following measures were
enacted: 1. The language employed in
the service of the church is to be the
vernacular instead of Latin. 2. All re-
ligious orders not engaged in teaching
or in spiritual work are to be suppressed.
3. All pilgrimages outside the national
boundaries are prohibited. 4. All Aus-
trian subjects are forbidden to study at
Rome. 5. No papal bull or any papal
communication, except as approved by
the government, has any validity in the
Austrian dominions. — These measures
raised a storm of protest among the
majority of the Austrian clergy. Pope
Pius VI, in 1782, paid a personal visit
to Joseph, but he was powerless to
change the emperor’s headstrong policy.
But the disturbances that arose both in
Austria and in her Netherland posses-
sions induced him to revoke part of his
legislation, while after his death his suc-
cessors did the rest, and the Josephine
Jox, J. If .
379
Jndgment, Final
regime, established in hot haste and
based on a wholly false theory, came to
naught.
Jox, J. H.; b. December 18, 1831, near
Giessen, Hesse-Darmstadt; studied the-
ology in the Practical Seminary at Fort
Wayne; pastor in Freistadt, Wis., Lo-
gansport, Ind., 1865; vice-president of
the Central District; founded numerous
congregations in the vicinity of Logans-
port; d. March 21, 1893.
Jubilation. A special section, or
coda, which was often sung on festival
occasions at the end of the gradual, car-
rying the final syllable of the hallelujah
with which the gradual closed.
Jubilees. In 1300 Pope Boniface VIII
announced in a bull that “not only full
and copious, but the most full pardon
of all their sins” should be granted all
the faithful who would come to Rome
that year, penitently confess their sins,
and make a stated number of daily
visits to the churches of St. Peter and
St. Paul. A daily average of 200,000
pilgrims came to gain the precious in-
dulgence. Two papal clerks were busy
night and day raking in money. The
people of Rome likewise reaped a golden
harvest. Little wonder that the year of
jubilee, which was intended for every
hundreth year, was celebrated again in
1350, then in 1390 and since 1450 was
set for every twenty-fifth year. Jubilees
last from one Christmas to the next and
begin with the ceremony of opening the
“holy door.” In the 15th century the
Popes, through various devices, realized
enormous sums of money from the jubi-
lees. All other indulgences were sus-
pended; but those who could not come
to Rome, were enabled to gain the jubi-
lee indulgence at home by fulfilling cer-
tain conditions and giving an “alms.”
Here, as elsewhere, the Reformation im-
posed changes, and later jubilees were
no longer a source of revenue. The only
jubilee in the last century was held in
1825. Those of the year 1900 and of
1925 were not very successful.
Judgment, Final. The Scriptures
declare that there is to be a final Judg-
ment. “When the Son of Man shall
come in His glory and all the holy angels
with Him, then shall He sit upon the
throne of His glory, and before Him shall
be gathered all nations; and He shall
separate them one from another as a
shepherd divideth the sheep from the
goats; and He shall set the sheep on the
right hand, but the goats on the left.”
Matt. 25, 31 — 33. “We must all appear
before the judgment-seat of Christ, that
every one may receive the things done in
his body, according to that he hath done,
whether it be good or bad.” 2 Cor. 5, 10.
This Judgment does not decide the ques-
tion of eternal life or eternal death.
That was determined by conversion.
This Judgment will pronounce sentence.
There will be no need of evidence for
this purpose in the judgment of the Last
Day. For to the Judge of the quick and
the dead all things are known. Neither
will there be any need of first determin-
ing questions of law before judgment can
be rendered in that court. For the rule
which shall then and there be applied
has long since been laid down in plain
terms by the Judge Himself, the Son of
Man, Jesus ChriBt, who said: “He that
believeth and is baptized shall be saved,
but he that believeth not shall be
damned.” Mark 10, 16. There being,
then, neither questions of fact nor ques-
tions of law to be investigated and
settled, the Judge will at once proceed
to the judgment, the judicial separation.
This separation will be final. To be
placed on the right hand of the Judge
will be a declaration of righteousness,
as to be placed at His left hand will be
a declaration of unrighteousness, — in
either case a judgment of which there
will be no revision and from which there
can be no appeal. This judgment ren-
dered, all will be ready for the sentence.
— As faith or unbelief will then be, as
it now is, invisible to created eyes, the
outward fruits of both, whereby they
manifested themselves before men, will
then be made to bear witness. “The
works of love, by which the faith of the
elect was active, will be brought forward,
not by the righteous, to prove their right-
eousness, but by the Judge, to prove His
righteousness, the righteousness of His
judgment. In like manner the failure of
the unbelievers to bring the fruits of true
faith, their uncharitable conduct toward
their fellow-men, will also be called to
witness to the unbelief which was in
them and by which they not only failed
to do good works, but also rejected the
saving grace of God in Christ Jesus and
are therefore justly condemned. Matt. 25.”
(A. L. Graebner.) — The Judge will
award to the believers the kingdom pre-
pared for them, not by themselves, but
by Himself, and not as remuneration
for their works, but as an inheritance,
which comes to them as heirs, being the
children of God by faith in Christ Jesus.
Gal. 3, 26. And the evil works of the
wicked will testify that, having done the
works of their father, they are of their
father, the devil, John 8,41. 44; and it
is meet and right that they should share
his abode. — Judgment having been ren-
Judson, Adonlram
380
J aatlflcation
dered and the sentence pronounced, exe-
cution will immediately follow. There
will be no revision of the judgment, no
modification of the sentence, no suspen-
sion of the execution, no more mercy,
Jas. 2, 13, forbearance, and long-suffer-
ing, but prompt and speedy execution.
The condemned shall go away into ever-
lasting punishment and the righteous
into life eternal. Matt. 25. And the an-
gels of God shall execute the judgment
of the Son of Man. Matt. 13, 49.
Judson, Adoniram, missionary; born
August 9, 1788, at Malden, Mass.; died
April 12, 1850, near Burma. Through
his devotion to foreign missions the
American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions (Congregational) was
finally organized. Sent out by this
Board together with Nott, Newell, Hall,
and Rice to India, he separated from his
friends in Calcutta in 1812, joining the
Baptists. He arrived at Rangoon 1813,
where Carey ( q. v. ) was working. The
American Baptists founded the American
Baptist Missionary Society (1814) and
gave him their support. During the
Burmese war with England he suffered
much in prison. The Burmese trans-
lation of the Bible is his work.
Juelicher, Gustav Adolf; b. 1857;
1889 professor of New Testament Exe-
gesis and History at Berlin and at Mar-
burg; liberal theologian; wrote an In-
troduction to the New Testament and on
the parables of the Lord.
Jugoslavia. A kingdom on the eastern
shore of the Adriatic, formed as a con-
sequence of the World War, comprising
a part of the former Empire of Austria-
Hungary, together with Serbia, Herzego-
vina, and Montenegro, inhabited chiefly
by Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
Julian the Apostate, Roman emperor
(361 — 363), occupies a notorious place
in history through his attempt, as fool-
ish as it was vigorous, to reestablish
paganism as the religion of the empire.
Brilliantly gifted, he was educated for
the clerical order and for a time served-
as lector in the church of Nicomedia.
Probably he never was a Christian at
heart. At the death of Constantius (361)
and his own accession to the throne he
threw off the mask and openly declared
it his purpose and mission to restore the
worship of the gods. To this end he re-
instated at public expense the pagan
eultus, rebuilt temples, recalled heathen
priests, and was unweariedly active in
promoting the cause of the “old faith.”
To impart vigor and life to the move-
ment, he adopted many features of Chris-
tianity, such as strict discipline among
the priesthood, sermonic instruction for
the edification of the multitude, choir-
singing in the temples, etc. While he did
not actually persecute the Christians, he
deprived them of civil rights, oppressed
them with taxes, placed the state schools
under the direction of heathen teachers,
and prohibited the Christians from teach-
ing the arts and the sciences, mocked and
ridiculed them, and encouraged apostasy.
The end of the entire reactionary move-
ment was : “Thou hast conquered, O Gali-
lean,” which exactly represented the sit-
uation, though it is doubtful that Julian
himself uttered these words.
Julian, John, , for many years
vicar of Topcliffe, Yorkshire, prebendary
of Fenton in York Minster, and canon
of York; noted for hymnological re-
search work, resulting in A Dictionary
of Bymnology, the second edition of
which had two reprints.
Julius Africanus (d. 240), author of
a chronography, or universal history, be-
ginning with the creation and carried
down to 221. The work was much used
by Eusebius and became the foundation
of medieval historiography.
Julius II (Qiuliano Revere), Pope
1503 — 13; b. near Genoa 1443; d. in
Rome 1513; became cardinal in 1471;
was legate to the French King Louis XI,
1480 — 81. At the time of Pope Alexan-
der VI he was obliged to flee to France,
a reconciliation taking place in 1498.
After his election to the pontificate he
proceeded to enlarge the papal state by
force of arms, the Venetians being his
enemies. His league with Germany and
France, in 1504, caused the Venetians to
lose, but afterwards the crafty diplomat
arrayed himself against France on the
side of Venice. Things came to such a
pass that an antipapal council was con-
vened at Pisa. Julius called the Fifth
Lateran Council at Rome, in 1512, and
founded the Holy League. Julius was
known for his interest in art. He was
Pope at the time when Luther made his
visit there, in 1510 — 11.
Junior Societies. See Boys' and
Girls’ (Hubs.
Jurisdiction, Spiritual. See Absolu-
tion, R. O. Doctrine.
Justification. The chief and fore-
most benefit of Christ is that perfect
righteousness which by His vicarious
atonement He, the Redeemer of mankind,
has procured for Adam and all his sinful
descendants. — Christ knew no sin. In
Him there was no sin. 1 John 3, 5.
When God made Him sin for us, 2 Cor.
5, 21, it was by imputation. And this
Justification
381
Justin martyr
imputation of our sin was so real, so
earnest, that it led to the condemnation
of Him to whom it was imputed and to
the execution of the judgment of con-
demnation, the infliction of the penalty
of sin according to Law. Rom. 6, 23.
But by the same judicial act by which
He pronounced Him guilty who was the
world’s Substitute, God acquitted and
absolved the world, whose sins and guilt
He laid to the charge of the Mediator.
2 Cor. 6, 19. By the resurrection of
Christ, God from His judgment- throne
pronounced His Son’s obedience unto
death a perfect atonement and propitia-
tion for all the sins which were imputed
to Him, the sins of the world. Rom. 4, 25.
- — -From all this it appears that this ob-
jective justification of the world is by no
means identical with the work of redemp-
tion. “The redemption of the world was
a sacrificial work; the justification of
the world is a judicial act. By His vica-
rious atonement, His propitiatory sacri-
fice, Christ is our Righteousness, Jer.
23, 6. God’s judicial imputation of this
righteousness to the sinner is our justi-
fication, Rom. 5, 25. The payment of a
debt is one thing, and giving credit to
the debtor is another thing, and to con-
found the latter with the former is to
disregard the nature of both.” — There
is righteousness for sinners in Christ,
but in Christ only. He who rejects
Christ rejects the righteousness of God.
On the other hand, he who accepts Christ
accepts the Lord, His Righteousness.
And the acceptance of Christ and His
benefits is faith. Acts 10, 43; Rom.
10, 10. But this righteousness which
comes by faith is imputed righteousness.
We are justified by faith. Gal. 2, 16. The
verb “to justify,” in all the thirty-eight
instances in which it occurs in the New
Testament, is a forensic term, meaning
to hold or declare righteous. “Not for
sin inherent or residing in Him, but for
sin imputed to Him was Christ Jesus,
the Holy One, condemned. And, like-
wise, not for righteousness inherent or
residing in us, but for righteousness im-
puted to us, are we, the ungodly, justi-
fied. (A. L. Graebner.) When God thus
accounts, or imputes, faith for righteous-
ness, this is the particular, subjective
justification of the individual believer.
Our works have no place whatever in
our justification, neither as a cause nor
as a means; 'for faith is the means with
the express exclusion of works, and the
causes of our justification are Christ and
the grace of God in Him. We are justi-
fied by grace, which is “that aspect of
God’s goodness according to which He
confers His blessings regardless of the
merits or demerits of the objects of His
benevolence.”
Justification is never limited or re-
stricted. God simply justifies the sinner,
holds and pronounces him righteouB.
There is no such thing as partial right-
eousness before God. The alternative is
either justification or condemnation.
And we are expressly told that God has
forgiven us all trespasses. Col. 2, 13.
The prophets say: “Thou wilt cast all
their sins into the depths of the sea,”
Micah 7, 19; “Thou hast cast all my
sins behind Thy back,” Is. 38, 17. — The
justification of the sinner, being justifi-
cation by faith, is, furthermore, constant
and enduring. Faith is not only the
momentary act of accepting what the
Gospel offers, but, as a state of faith, is
the continued tenure and possession of
the benefits of Christ, the Redeemer, by
enduring confidence in Him and reliance
on the promises of the Gospel. “Even as
we pass through the gates of death,
through grave and corruption, this jus-
tification will endure and will follow us
to the judgment-seat of Christ, where we
shall stand as the righteous, though
knowing of no righteousness of our own,
receiving, not as a reward of our merit,
but as an inheritance, the kingdom pre-
pared for us from the foundation of the
world.” (A. L. Graebner. )
Justification, Roman Catholic Doc-
trine. See Works, Merit of.
Justin Martyr, famous apologist and
philosophical theologian; b. ca. 100 at
Flavia Neapolis (now Nablus), in Sa-
maria ; suffered martyrdom at Rome
under Marcus Aurelius 166. The son of
heathen parents, he received a Hellenic
education and earnestly sought for truth
among the current systems of philosophy.
After many disappointments he finally
embraced Platonism, which seemed to
bring him near the coveted goal — the
vision of God and the eternal verities.
At this juncture, however, while walking
in silent meditation by the seashore, he
encountered a venerable old Christian,
who, engaging him in conversation, shook
his confidence in all human wisdom and
directed him to the prophets and apostles
as true teachers come from God. The
ardent young Platonist became a Chris-
tian and, retaining his philosopher’s
mantle, devoted his life to the spread
and vindication of Christianity. An un-
ordained lay preacher, he traveled from
place to place, combating heathen, Jews,
and heretics. Besides, he wielded a vig-
orous, if unpolished, pen. His principal
works are his two Apologies, the Dialog
with the Jew Trypho, not to mention
Justinian I
382
Kaftan, Julius
doubtful or spurious works under his
name. The central idea in Justin’s the-
ology, strongly biased by Platonic and
Stoic speculation, is his Logos doctrine.
The Logos, or universal Reason, familiar
to the thought of the Stoa and the Acad-
emy, Justin boldly identifies with the
historic Christ, in whom the divine Rea-
son became incarnate. He interprets
Christ in terms of heathen philosophy.
Indeed, Christianity is to Justin the true
philosophy and the highest reason.
Moreover, the preincarnate Logos scat-
tered seeds of truth, not only among the
Jews, but among Greeks and barbarians
as well. “The footsteps of the Logos are
to be traced throughout the ages, faintly
luminous among the Greeks, brighter
among the Hebrews, shining with full
effulgence only at the advent of our Sav-
ior.” Thus Socrates, Heraclitus, and
others, according to Justin, were Chris-
tians in fact, if not in name. On the
practical side, Christianity is to Justin
essentially a new law. Justin had no
proper conception of sin and grace.
“His theology is legalistic and ascetic
rather than evangelical and free.”
Justinian I ( Flavius Anicius Julia-
nus), emperor of the East; b. 483 at
Tauresium, in Macedonia; d. 565 at Con-
stantinople; showed great military
ability at an early age; consul in 521;
emperor from 527 ; a man of unusual
capacity for work; did much to restore
empire to former glory; his religious
policy governed by the conviction that
the unity of the empire presupposed
unity of faith; the code of Justinian
aimed at the suppression of Hellenism
and the strengthening of Christian
propaganda; missions were supported
strongly; made the Niceno-Constanti-
nopolitan Creed the sole symbol of the
Church and accorded legal force to the
canons of the first four Ecumenical
Councils (q. v.) ; in spite of all efforts
he did not succeed in averting the grow-
ing estrangement between the Oriental
and the Occidental Church.
K
Kaaba, originally an ancient heathen
Arabic shrine in the heart of Mecca.
Mohammed made it the chief sanctuary
of Islam, object of pilgrimages prescribed
by him, and keblah, or place in the direc-
tion of which Moslems face when pray-
ing. Built of gray stone and of irregular
proportions, it resembles a gigantic
forty-foot cube. Set into the southeast
corner, at a height convenient for kiss-
ing, the famous Black Stone is the main
object of veneration.
Kabbala (neo-Hebraic, “reception,”
then, “received by tradition”) ; the eso-
teric system or philosophy of the Jews,
developed during the Middle Ages. Unit-
ing the Bible with Hellenistic Judaism
and Neoplatonic and Gnostic systems of
emanation, it endeavored to solve the
most profound problems concerning God
and the universe, such as the nature of
God (who is called En Sof, the “Infi-
nite”), the origin of the visible universe
(believed to be a pantheistic emanation
of the divine essence), the reconciliation
of the imperfection of the world with
the perfection of God, the origin of evil,
the atonement of sin. The Kabbalists
based their doctrines on Scripture, not,
however, by taking its literal or even
its allegorical sense, but by ascribing
deeply hidden meanings to figures, let-
ters, and words. The names of God were
believed to possess great magic powers,
especially the Tetragrammaton (see
Shemhammephorash) . All this led to
the most absurd jugglery of words and
figures. The Kabbala spread widely
during the twelfth century and gained
friends even among Christian scholars
in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
{e. g., John Picus and John Reuchlin).
The most important kabbalistic works
are the Sefer Y ezirah (6th century) and
the book Zohar (Spain, 13th century).
Kaehler, Martin Karl August; born
1835; d. 1912; professor of systematic
theology and New Testament exegesis in
Halle since 1879; positive theologian of
the Prussian Union.
Kaeppel, G. C. A. See Roster at end
of book.
Kaeppel, John Henry Christian.
B. at Cleveland, O., September 15, 1853;
studied at Port Wayne Concordia; grad-
uated at St. Louis Seminary 1874; edu-
cator and pastor; president of St. Paul’s
College, Concordia, Mo., 1888; d. Feb-
ruary 3, 1925, at Kansas City, Mo.
Kaffirs, the chief native race in South-
eastern Africa, a branch of the Bantu
family. Missions were conducted by the
Wesleyan Mission Society, the Berlin
Mission Society I, and the Church of
Scotland Mission.
Kaftan, Julius; b. at Leif, 1848,
d. ; German Protestant theologian,
educated at Erlangen, Berlin, Kiel; pro-
fessor of theology at Basel, since 1883 at
Berlin. A representative of Ritschlian
theology, he emphasized the mystic ele-
Kaftan, Theodor
383
Kautzscli, Emil Friedrich
ment in Christianity, regarded the Chris-
tian religion as the revealed religion
(Offeriba/rungsreligion) , in which, what-
ever in other religious systems is found
merely as impulse and want, is gratified.
Wrote: Truth, of the Christian Religion;
Christianity and Philosophy.
Kaftan, Theodor; b. 1847 ; 1886 gen-
eral superintendent of Schleswig-Hol-
stein; retired, in Baden; conservative
Lutheran theologian of the modern type;
wrote: Modeme Theologie des alten
Qlauhens.
Kahnis, Karl Friedrich August;
b. 1814, d. 1888; one of the most promi-
nent modern Lutheran theologians; Pri-
vatdocent at Berlin; professor extraor-
dinary at Breslau, then professor at
Leipzig. Kahnis was at first a staunch
defender of confessional Lutheranism;
later in life he adopted latitudinarian
views in regard to the Trinity (subordi-
nationism), Scripture, person of Christ,
and the Lord’s Supper. His chief works
are: Der innere Gang des deutschen
Protestantismus and Die lutherische Dog-
matik, historisch-genetisch dargestellt.
Kaiser (Kaeser) Leonard; vicar at
Waizenkirehen; publicly declared for
Luther in 1524; imprisoned; recanted,
troubled in conscience and went to Wit-
tenberg in January, 1525; returned in
1527 on news of father’s illness at
Passau; fell ill; was imprisoned and
tried under John Eck; burned at the
stake August 16, 1527.
Kaiserswerth. See Fliedner.
Kameroons. See Cameroun.
Kansas, Synod of. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Kant, Immanuel, German philoso-
pher; b. 1724 at Koenigsberg; since
1770 professor there; d. there 1804.
Exerted profound influence on modern
philosophy. In Kritik der reinen Ver-
nunft, which is of a critical, destructive
nature, he attempted to show that the
transcendent world, the existence of God
and the immortality of the soul, are
unknowable to pure reason. In Kritik
der praktischen Vernunft, which has a
constructive purpose, he endeavored to
rebuild what he had destroyed. Freedom
of man, immortality of the soul, exist-
ence of God (the three great principles
of the “Enlightenment,” q. v. ) are pos-
tulates of the practical reason, i. e., of
conscience. Prominent in his ethics is
his “categorical imperative” (q.v.). In
Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der hlos-
sen Vernunft he asserts that morality is
the essence of religion. Saving faith is
identical with a God-pleasing life.
Kapff, Sixt Karl. Prominent Prot-
estant pastor; b. at Gueglingen (Wurt-
temberg), October 22, 1805; d. in Stutt-
gart, September 1, 1879. In 1833 he
became pastor of the colony of Pietists at
Kornthal, near Stuttgart; 1843 Dehorn,
at Muensingen, 1847 at Herrenberg; in
1850 transferred to Reutlingen and in
1852 to Stuttgart, where he was Praelat
and pastor of the Stiftskirche. Pub-
lished sermons and devotional books.
Karaites, a Jewish sect which rejects
rabbinical tradition and the Talmud, ac-
cepting the Old Testament as sole
authority; founded by Anan ben David
in the 8th century in Bagdad, from
where it spread to Syria, Egypt, and
Europe, flourishing especially in the 12th
century. They now number 12,000 to
13,000, most of whom live in Southern
Russia.
Karlstadt, Andreas Bodenstein von,
1480 — 1541; revolutionist of the Refor-
mation. Supported Luther’s theses 1517 ;
participated in Leipzig Disputation;
rushed reforms at Wittenberg; rejected
the Real Presence at Orlamuende and
encouraged incendiary methods of refor-
mation; was expelled from Saxony and
wandered from place to place; became
professor at Basel and gave up political
agination.
Karma (Sanskrit, “deed”), name of
Hindu doctrine of moral reward and
punishment, based on the doctrine of re-
incarnation and designed to explain why
there are such inequalities in human con-
ditions — wealth and poverty, health and
sickness, happiness and misery. It is
Brahmanic in origin and found special
development in Buddhism. Souls have
been transmigrating for ages, and what-
ever happiness or sorrow an individual
experiences is the unalterable recompense
for good or evil deeds in former incarna-
tions, and whatever good or evil deed an
individual does will result in happiness
or sorrow in future existences. Reincar-
nation continues until all acts of the
present and previous existences have
worked out their consequences. This
may lead to an untold number of rein-
carnations. Salvation, i. e., release from
this contiuous round of rebirths, can be
attained only by being freed from the
power of karma. The various Indian re-
ligions have each their own way in which
this may be accomplished. See Trans-
migration, Brahmanism, Buddhism.
Kautzsch, Emil Friedrich; b. at
Plauen 1841; d. 1910; professor of Old
Testament exegesis at Basel 1872, at
Tuebingen 1880, at Halle 1888; noted
Hebraist and grammarian.
Kaweran, Peter Gustav
384
Kenosls
Kawerau, Peter Gustav; b. 1847 at
Bunzlau; pastor and professor at Kiel
and Breslau; provost at Berlin in 1907;
one of the foremost writers on Luther;
coeditor of Weimar edition of Luther’s
works; d. 1918.
Keble, John, 1792 — 1866; educated
at Oxford, graduating with highest
honors ; took orders and held various
positions as clergyman, the last, after
his marriage in 1835, being that of
parish priest at Hursley; devoted and
indefatigable in his work; wrote many
hymns in the wider sense of songs of
adoration, among them: “Sun of My
Soul, Thou Savior Dear”; “My Shep-
herd Is the living God.”
Keewatin. See Canada.
Keil, Johann Karl Friedrich; born
1807 at Oelsnitz, Saxony; d. 1888; 1833
professor of Old and New Testament
exegesis at Dorpat; removed to Leipzig
1859 and devoted himself to literary
work and practical affairs of the Lu-
theran Church. In collaboration with
Franz Delitzsch he wrote a commentary
on the Old Testament. Among his other
writings the most valuable is his Intro-
duction to the Old Testament. Keil be-
longed to the orthodox conservative
school of Hengstenberg and reganded
modern development of so-called scien-
tific theology as a passing phase of error.
Keim, Karl Theodor; b. 1825, d. 1878;
modern critical theologian; studied at
Tuebingen, influenced by F. C. Baur;
1860 professor of historical theology at
Zuerich, 1873 at Giessen.
Keimann, Christian, 1607 — 62; stud-
ied at Wittenberg ; conrector, afterwards
rector, at Zittau; distinguished teacher
and scholar; hymns genuinely poetical
and deeply spiritual; wrote: “Freuet
euch, ihr Christen alle”; “Meinen Jesum
lass’ ich nicht.”
Kelly, Thomas, 1769 — 1854; trained
for the legal profession, but later, hav-
ing left the Church of England, became
free preacher; man of great and varied
learning; wrote: “Through the Day Thy
Love has Spared Us.”
Ken, Thomas, 1637 — 1711; educated
at Winchester and Oxford; held a num-
ber of positions as clergyman before be-
coming bishop of Bath and Wells in
1685; imprisoned in tower three years
later and deprived of office; a most
eloquent preacher; author of Morning,
Evening, and Midnight Hymns; wrote,
among others: “Awake, My Soul, and
with the Sun”; “Glory to Thee, My
God, This Night,” both of which close
with the “Common” Doxology.
Kennicott, Benjamin, 1718 — 83; An-
glican Biblical scholar; b. at Totnes;
canon of Christ Church, Oxford; died
there; life-work: study of Hebrew
manuscripts of Old Testament. Hebrew
Bible; first volume, 1766; second, 1780.
Kenosis. A Greek term signifying
the act of emptying or of exinanition,
employed in the history of Christology
to express the manner of Christ’s volun-
tary humiliation.. It is borrowed from
Phil. 2, 7 : “But made Himself of no
reputation,” literally, “emptied Himself.”
This is explained in the same passage by
saying that Christ, being endowed with
divine glory, did not look upon this maj-
esty communicated to His human nature
in a spirit of selfishness, He did not
count it as a prize to be on an equality
with God, but looked upon it to our
gain. He assumed the form of a servant
and became obedient unto death. The
great outstanding feature of the humil-
iation, or kenosis, was the voluntary ex-
change of the “form of God” for the
“form of the servant.” The same self-
abasement is indicated in other passages
of Scripture; e. g., the Son laid aside
the glory which He had with the Father
before the world was (John 17, 5) and
became poor (2 Cor. 8, 9). Now, this
kenosis was not equivalent to a separa-
tion of the incarnate Logos from the
divine attributes. Just this, however, is
in some form or other maintained by
modern, naturalistic theologians. Mod-
ern kenosis undeifies Christ. The New
Theology maintains that, in order to do
justice to the true humanity of Jesus
Christ, it is necessary consistently to
carry out the self-emptying act of the
Logos, so that the Son of God, in the act
of the incarnation, laid aside the divine
attributes of omnipotence and omnis-
cience, together with His divine self-con-
sciousness, and regained the latter grad-
ually, in the way of a really human
development. Thomasius, the father of
this new kenosis, sees the renunciation
in the giving up, in humiliation, of the
relative divine attributes, i. e., those of
Christ’s relation to the world, as omni-
presence, omniscience, and in the retain-
ing of the immanent attributes of truth,
love, holiness, etc., which could be re-
vealed in humanity. The central thought,
the renunciation of divine nature, is
maintained by nearly all modern theo-
logians. Over against such perversion of
the Scriptural doctrine of the kenosis,
Lutheran theology maintains that the
divine nature, bodily in Christ, did not
then fully and publicly wish to use and
prove the majesty, glory, and power in
the assumed human nature and through
Kentucky Synod
S85
Keys, Office of the
it. The Formula of Concord asserts (Art.
VIII, Gone. Trigl., 821) that in the state
of humiliation Christ abstained from di-
vine majesty, “truly grew in all wisdom
and favor with God and men; therefore
He exercised this majesty, not always,
but when it pleased Him.” And, indeed,
the possession of the divine attributes is
attested by every miracle which Christ
performed. The human nature of Christ
did not merely furnish the service of
voice, hands, and feet; if this were true,
the man Jesus Christ would have been
no better endowed than were the proph-
ets and apostles. Kenosis rather con-
sisted in giving up the mode of existence,
the deiformitas, which His human nature
might have enjoyed. In the “form of a
servant” He abstained from the full and
continuous use of His divine majesty as
given to His human nature. — It has
been alleged as an objection to the Scrip-
tural doctrine that “to assume any self :
limitation on the part of God is incon-
sistent with the unchangeableness of the
Divine Being.” But God’s immutability
is that perfection by virtue of which His
will and nature remain in constant har-
mony. As a matter of course every
change must be rejected that would bring
God’s will or nature in conflict with each
other. But any act on the part of God
affecting His existence internally or ex-
ternally that is in harmony with the
divine will and being is consistent with
the divine immutability. Even if by
the Lutheran doctrine of the personal
union of the divine and the human na-
ture in Christ human reason should be-
come offended, we would prefer confess-
ing the unfathomable depth of this
mystery to any philosophical solution of
the problem which we could not fully
reconcile with the plain teachings of the
Word of God. — See Christ, States of.
Kentucky Synod. As early as 1821
Rev. Henry A. Kurtz petitioned the Ten-
nessee Synod for aid in establishing a
synod in Kentucky. A convention was
held in Harrison Church, Nelson Co.,
September 28, 1822, at which fourteen
lay delegates from as many congrega-
tions in Kentucky and Indiana were
present. A second convention was held
in 1823. But the emissaries of the Gen-
eral Synod, Jenkins, Gerhart, and Yea-
ger, counteracted the influence of the
“Henkelites” and on October 11, 1834,
founded the Synod of the West (q. v . ) ,
which was originally called the Kentucky
Synod. — Another Kentucky Synod was
formed out of the Synod of the South-
west in 1854. It joined the General
Synod, but was absorbed, in October,
Concordia Cyclopedia
1865, by the Olive Branch Synod of
Indiana.
Kentucky, Synod of Central. See
Synods, Extinct.
Kenya Colony and Protectorate,
formerly British East Africa. Area,
246,822. Population, 2,807,000, chiefly
Arabs, Swahilis, Bantu, Somali, and al-
lied tribes. Mombasa is the largest city.
The prevailing religion is animistic.
Islam has a great following. Mission-
work is conducted by twelve societies.
Statistics: Total foreign staff, 262.
Christian community, 47,248. Commu-
nicants, 8,769.
Keryctics (Kery sties). See Homi-
letics.
Keswick Conferences. Annual sum-
mer reunions, lasting one week, which
have been held since 1875 at Keswick,
England, chiefly to promote practical
holiness by means of prayer, discussion,
and personal intercourse. The meetings
are held in a large tent and are attended
by several thousand people, including
representatives from foreign countries.
During his lifetime Canon Harford-Bat-
tersby presided over the conferences ;
after his death, Mr. Henry Rowker, and,
after him, Mr. Robert Wilson. The Kes-
wick movement is distinctly evangelical
in character and is supported chiefly by
the evangelical branch of the Church of
England. The convention takes an ac-
tive interest in missions and maintains
a number of missionaries in foreign
fields. The weekly organ of Keswick
teaching is the Life of Faith (London,
1879 sqq. )
Ketteler, W. E., 1811—77, “the Fight-
ing Bishop of Mainz,” so called because
of his conflict with the governments of
the Upper Rhine (Baden, Hessen, Nassau,
Wurttemberg) in the endeavor to secure
larger liberties for the Catholic Church.
He was also a “fighter” against the
dogma of papal infallibility, but after
its formal promulgation he laid down
his arms and came to terms.
Keyl, Ernst Gerhard Wilhelm;
b. 1804 at Leipzig; studied at the uni-
versity there; pastor at Niederfrohna in
1829; an adherent of Stephan; emi-
grated with the Saxons and was their
first pastor at Frohna, Mo. He later
ministered to congregations in Milwau-
kee, Baltimore, and at other places; an
indefatigable student of Luther and pub-
lished Katechismusauslegung and other
works; d. 1872.
Keys, Office of the. The authority
given the Church to absolve and to ex-
communicate. Neither the ministry
25
Keys, Office of the
386
Kiessling', Johann Tobins
nor the Church has any arbitrary power
by which the guilt or innocence of any
member shall be established. On the
other hand, absolution is more than a
form or mere churchly act. The expres-
sion “power of the keys” is based on
Matt. 16, 19 and on the parallel passages,
Matt. 18, 18 and John 20, 23. On the
text first quoted the Roman Church rests
its claim of the primacy for the Bishop
of Rome as visible head of the Church.
On it, too, the Roman Church rests its
doctrine that only its own priests can
pronounce valid absolution. The Lu-
theran position is thus set forth in the
Smalcald Articles ( Triglotta , p. 511) :
“But over and above all this we are to
confess that the keys belong, and have
been given, not to one man alone, but to
the whole Church, as this can be clearly
and satisfactorily proved. For just as
the promise of the Gospel belongs to the
whole Church, originally and imme-
diately, so also do the keys belong to
the whole Church immediately; for the
keys are nothing else than the office
through which those promises are com-
municated to every one who desires them.
It is evident, then, that the Church, in
effect, has the power to appoint her min-
isters. And Christ in these words:
‘Whatsoever ye shall bind,’ etc., clearly
indicates to whom He has given the keys,
namely, to the whole Church, when He
says : ‘Wheresoever two or three are
gathered together in My name, there am
I in the midst of them.’ ” The Lutheran
Catechism says: “The Office of the Keys
is the peculiar church -power which
Christ has given to His Church on earth
to forgive the sins of penitent sinners
unto them, but to retain the sins of the
impenitent, as long as they do not
repent.”
It is by no means to be conceded, over
against the claims of the papacy, that
the Office of the Keys was a power con-
ferred upon Peter as a prerogative not
enjoyed by the other disciples. The argu-
ment against the Roman claims is very
fully stated in the Smalcald Articles.
Luther has summed up the matter in a
nutshell by saying: “We are all Peters
if we believe like Peter.” The paral-
lels Matt. 18 and John 20 make this
conclusion unescapable. According to
John 20 the keys of the Kingdom are
a gift to such as have received the Holy
Ghost, to true believers, to the Church. —
The Office of the Keys is exercised when-
ever the Christian congregation admon-
ishes its members, excommunicates them,
or absolves them and restores them to
fellowship. It is, in fact, exercised when-
ever the Gospel is preached, a savor of
life unto life for some and a savor of
death unto death for others. For the
public exercise of this office the Chris-
tian congregation has its public ministry,
whose incumbents are “stewards of the
mysteries of God.” 1 Cor. 4,1. Through
its possession of the keys of the king-
dom of heaven the congregation of be-
lievers is originally and immediately
commissioned to preach the Gospel to
every creature and to administer the
Sacraments, possesses all spiritual power,
and is entrusted with the power of call-
ing ministers who in their name exer-
cise the Office of the Keys by preaching,
baptizing, absolving. — See Absolution;
Ministerial Office; Priesthood, Universal.
Keyser, Leander S., a leading theo-
logian in the General Synod; b. March 13,
1856; educated at Indiana University
and Wittenberg Seminary; pastor at
Elkhart, Ind., 1883, Springfield, O., 1889,
Atchison, Kans., 1897, Dover, 0., 1903;
professor of systematic theology in
Hamma Divinity School, Springfield, O.,
since 1911. Keyser is the author of a
number of books, among these: A Sys-
tem of Natural Theism (tinged with evo-
lutionism) ; A System of Christian Evi-
dences; In the Redeemer’s Footsteps ; In
the Apostles’ Footsteps; Contending for
the Faith; The Problem of Origins; also
wrote many books on birds.
Khorassan, Dramatic Order of
Knights of. This is a side branch of
the Knights of Pythias, founded in 1894.
Only Knights of Pythias are eligible. It
is presided over by a “Most Worthy and
Illustrious Imperial Prince.” The meet-
ings are held in “temples.” At a meet-
ing held in Cleveland, O., in 1896, thirty
“temples” of Knights of Khorassan were
represented, with a membership of about
9,000. See Knights of Pythias.
Kieckhefer, Carl, 1814— -1901, Mil-
waukee business man, member of St.
John’s; active layman during formative
period of Wisconsin Synod; member of
first board of Northwestern College.
Kierkegaard, Soeren Aaby; b. 1813
at Copenhagen; d. there 1855; Danish
religious philosopher and author; stud-
ied theology, but never took office; at-
tacked the Established Church, both
clergy and lay members, because of their
worldliness; his Christianity, however,
was of a morbid, melancholy nature ;
a Christian, to him, is an isolated in--
dividual, alone with God, and in contact
with the world only through suffering.
Kiessling, Johann Tobias, 1742 to
1823; a layman who was one of the
founders of the Christentumsgesellsehaft
(later, Basel Mission Society). He was
Klldahl, John Nathan
387
Kingdom of God
a benefactor of the poor of Nuernberg
and of the Christians who were scattered
throughout Austria (diaspora congre-
gations ) .
Kildahl, John Nathan; b. 1857,
d. 1920; graduate of Luther College and
Luther Seminary; pastor; president of
Red Wing Seminary, later of St. Olaf
College; professor at United Norwegian
Church Seminary and at Luther Theo-
logical Seminary; secretary and vice-
president of the United Norwegian
Church; vice-president of the Norwe-
gian Lutheran Church; wrote a number
of doctrinal monographs.
Kimchi, David, noted Jewish philolo-
gist and exegete; b. ca. 1160 at Nar-
bonne; d.therel235; wrote Hebrew gram-
mar and lexicon, which were author-
ities for centuries; also Old Testament
commentaries, some of which contained
polemics against Christianity.
Kingdom of God. The “Gospel of
the Kingdom” brought the good news
revealed through Jesus regarding the
kingdom of God, or of heaven, which he
proclaimed. In brief, the Gospel was
that the kingdom of heaven is opened
to all believers. The New Testament
message porclaims that the kingdom of
God is not for a select class or nation,
but for all. Publicans and sinners, not
only the Pharisees; the entire Gentile
world, not only the Jews, are to walk in
its light; not only the wise and rich, but
all who will become as little children.
The kingdom of God as preached by
Jesus offered the highest conceivable
good to all men. In that kingdom,
Christ Himself is King. It is the glo-
rious reign of the Messiah foretold in
prophecy. — The idea of the kingdom of
God is rooted in the prophecies of the
Old Testament, where the coming of the
Messiah and His triumphs are foretold.
In the Psalms, in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and
Daniel the reign of the Messiah is fig-
uratively described as a golden age, when
the true religion, and with it the Jewish
theocracy, should be reestablished in
more than pristine purity and universal
peace and happiness prevail. All this
was doubtless to be understood in a spir-
itual sense; and so the devout Jews of
our Savior’s time appear to have under-
stood it, such as Zacharias, Simeon,
Anna, and Joseph. But the Jews at
large gave to these prophecies a tempo-
ral meaning and expected a Messiah who
should come in the clouds of heaven, and,
as king of the Jewish nation, restore the
ancient religion and worship, reform the
corrupt morals of the people, free them
from the yoke of foreign dominion, and
at length reign over the whole earth in
peace and glory. It was the point of
many of Christ’s discourses to dispel
this carnal notion of the Kingdom. —
Comparing all that the New Testament
says concerning the kingdom of heaven,
we find that it is, in essence, the rule
of Jesus by His Word upon earth. By
this rule a body of believers is gathered
into spiritual unity. These are called
the sons of God. They are the com-
munity of those who receive Jesus as the
Savior and who, united by His Spirit
under Him as their Head, rejoice in the
truth and live a holy life in love and
in communion with Him. This spiritual
kingdom has both an internal and an ex-
ternal form. As internal and spiritual,
it already exists and rules in the hearts
of all Christians and is therefore present.
Rom. 14, 17 ; Matt. 6, 23. As external, it
is clearly embodied in the visible Church
of Christ and in so far is present and
progressive. Matt. 6, 10; Luke 13, 18 ff. ;
Acts 19, 8. It is to be perfected in the
coming of the Messiah to Judgment and
His subsequent spiritual reign in bliss
and glory, in which view it is future.
Mark 14, 25. In the latter view it de-
notes especially the bliss of heaven, eter-
nal life, which is to be enjoyed in the
Redeemer’s kingdom. 1 Cor. 6, 9 ; 2 Tim.
4, 18.
The kingdom of God is distinguished
from all earthly governments by the fact
that it is spiritual. It is governed, not
by physical force, but by the Spirit of
Truth, operating through the divine
Word. It is not to be extended by
military power, law, or any form of
physical or moral compulsion. John 18,
36. 37. In this kingdom the ruler is a
heavenly Father. The bond that unites
Him with His subjects is love. Here is
fulfilled what was spoken through the
ancient prophets: “I will be their God,
and they will be My people.” Here God
and man meet in a living communion, so
that man’s dependence on God should no
longer be one of compulsion, but of free
and joyful self-consecration, and that the
sovereignty of God over man should no
more appear as tyranny, but as a rule
which we love and bless. Under this rule
the merits of Christ are imputed to men,
sins are forgiven, and lives are sanctified:
This is the essence of the Kingdom. Its
chief marks are inclusiveness and spir-
ituality. — The perverted Jewish views
of the kingdom of God have been re-
ferred to. Because Jesus did not fall in
with these notions, many of His own
disciples turned against Him, and the
rulers of the Jews caused Him to be
crucified. A modern Judaism is found
King's Daughters
388
ltitto, John
in the Roman Catholic definition of the
Kingdom. According to it, the kingdom
of God is an organization with a visible
head, the Roman Catholic Church and
the Pope. There is a great body of laws,
established by the councils of the Church
and by the Roman Pontiff. Its means
are coercion and temporal power. It
claims the right of persecution with ref-
erence to all those who refuse to bow to
its dominion. It has an insatiable
hunger for temporal possessions and
political influence. It is, as an organiza-
tion, the kingdom of Antichrist, antipo-
dal in every point to the spiritual rule
of Christ. — The Reformed view of the
Kingdom is to-day what it was with
Zwingli and Calvin. Whereas Luther, as
early as 1520, wrote: “The kingdom of
God will be within us when we are not
ruled by any sin, but place all our affec-
tions into the service of God, so that not
we live, but He lives in us,” the Swiss
theologians, in theory and practise, mixed
the spiritual and the political domains,
Church and State. From their day to
this the Reformed churches have in
greater or less degree made of the king-
dom of God a matter of meat and drink.
The political powers are employed to
carry into effect the regulations of the
Church regarding morals and conduct.
(Prohibition legislation, Sabbatarianism.)
The New Theology has made of
Christ’s spiritual kingdom a rule of
moral principles among men. Sanctifica-
tion and the work of the Holy Spirit
through the Gospel are given a secondary
position. According to Albrecht Ritschl
the kingdom of God is humanity organ-
ized according to the law of Christ. This
mistaken view of the kingdom of God
completely divests of their native mean-
ing the spiritual ideas of the Atonement,
of Conversion, Justification, and Sancti-
fication and is the source of those modern
errors which are summed up in the word
“social gospel.” Nearly all the aberra-
tions of the modern churches from Scrip-
tural practise and teaching are to be
traced to this fundamental error re-
garding that which constitutes the king-
dom of God, or kingdom of heaven. See
Gospel, Church.
King’s Daughters. Founded Janu-
ary 13, 1886, by Mrs. Margaret Bottome.
Interdenominational in character. It
is found in North and South America;
in Great Britain, Germany, France, and
other countries of Europe; in China,
Japan, India, Australia, etc. The society
seeks to influence “first the heart, next
the home, then the church, and after that
the great outside.” The Silver Cross is
the official weekly organ.
Kingsley, Charles, 1819 — 75; Angli-
can; b. in Devonshire; rector; profes-
sor of modern history at Cambridge;
canon of Westminster; d. at Eversley.
Versatile writer: sermons, novels, con-
troversy with Newman (q.v.), works on
social questions, the novel Hypatia, etc.
Kinner, Samuel, 1603 — 68; studied
at Breslau; later court physician at
Brieg, in service of Duke of Liegnitz-
Brieg; wrote fine communion hymn:
“Herr Jesu Christ, du hast bereit’t.”
Kirchenordnungen (Church Orders).
Regulations and directions for the gov-
ernment of the congregations, the instruc-
tion of the young, the order of worship,
the maintenance of discipline, etc., as
published for various German countries
and districts during the era of the Refor-
mation in order to purge out the Roman
leaven; usually divided in the ultracon-
servative, which show Romanizing ten-
dencies, the genuinely Lutheran, and the
Reformed type (texts published by Rich-
ter and Sehling).
Kirchner, Timothy; b. 1533; deposed
from his parish at Herbsleben in 1661,
for opposing Strigel’s (q. v.) false doc-
trine; professor at the new University of
Helmstedt in 1576; assisted at the final
revision of the Formula of Concord; was
deposed in 1579 for criticizing his prince
for consecrating his son as bishop of
Halberstadt according to a Romanizing
ritual; worked on the Apology of the
Formula of Concord at Erfurt; profes-
sor at Heidelberg, deposed in 1683 ; d. in
1587 as superintendent at Weimar.
Kirn, Otto; b. at Heslach, near Stutt-
gart, 1857; d. at Leipzig 1911; studied
at Tuebingen; first professor at Basel;
1895 professor of dogmatic theology at
Leipzig ; modern theologian.
Kittel, Johann Christian, 1732 to
1809; J. S. Bach’s last pupil; organist
in Langensalza, later in Erfurt, but W’ith
starvation salary; published Neues Cho-
ralbuch for Schleswig-Holstein and some
chorals.
Kittel, Rudolf; b. 1853; since 1898
professor of Old Testament exegesis at
Leipzig; modern theologian; critic; has
written extensively on Old Testament
subjects, especially on the History of
Israel ; editor of an excellent edition of
the Hebrew text.
Kitto, John, 1804 — 54; writer on
Biblical subjects; b. at Plymouth; deaf
at thirteen ; trained as printer at mis-
sionary college, Islington; Malta 1827;
traveled 1829 — 33; d. at Cannstatt,
Wurttemberg; Pictorial Bible, etc.
Klein, Bernhard
389
Knox, John
Klein, Bernhard, 1793 — 1832; stud-
ied at Paris under Cherubini; musical
director at Cologne Cathedral ; then
teacher at the Royal Institute, Berlin;
among his compositions three oratorios
and many psalms, hymns, and motets.
Kliefoth, Theodor F. D. ; b. 1810,
d. 1895 at Schwerin; influential Lutheran
theologian; 1840 pastor at Ludwigslust;
1844 superintendent at Schwerin; 1886
president of the superior ecclesiastical
court. Kliefoth exerted a far-reaching
beneficial influence in the Lutheran
Church of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and be-
yond; wrote especially on church polity
and liturgies, also exegetical works.
Klinger, Max, 1857 — ; modern Ger-
man exponent of extreme realism, al-
though an artist of great ability; among
his paintings : The Crucifixion, Christ
on Olymp.
Klingmann, Stephan; b. 1833 in
Baden, educated at Basel; one of the
organizers of the Michigan Synod; pas-
tor at Adrian, Monroe, Scio; president
of Michigan Synod, 1867- — 81, then vice-
president; leader in synod at all times;
standing delegate to General Council un-
til his constantly unheeded protests led
to separation; d. 1891.
Kleppisch, C. S.; b. in Baltimore,
December 11, 1838; instructor in Con-
cordia College, Fort Wayne, 1860 — 81;
studied theology in St. Louis ; pastor in
Holstein, Mo., in Waterloo, Belleville,
Troy, 111.; d. September 19, 1885.
Klopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb; born
1724, d. 1803; one of the great German
poets of the 18th century; author of the
Messiah, in which, in an age of Ration-
alism and infidelity, he gives expression
to his faith in Christ.
Kluge, Joseph; printer in Witten-
berg at time of Luther; printed first
Lutheran Choralbuch, Geistliche Lieder
zu Wittenberg, 1543, containing practi-
cally all of Luther’s hymns.
Knak, Gustav; b. 1806 in Berlin,
Germany; d. 1878 at Duennow, near
Stolpmuende, Germany; successor to
Gossner (q. v.) as pastor of the “Bohe-
mian” Lutheran Church, Berlin; a warm
friend of missions; author of “Lasst
mich gehn,” which became a favorite
song all over the world.
Knapp, Albert, 1798 — 1864; edu-
cated at Maulbronn and Tuebingen;
held a number of charges as clergyman,
for almost thirty years at Stuttgart,
where he was Btadtpfarrer at St. Leon-
hard’s; as poet he was distinguished
both by unusual talent and by striking
originality ; his spiritual lyrics have the
east of spiritual folk-songs rather than
hymns; wrote: “Eines wuenseh’ ich mir
vor allem andern,” “Wenn ich in stiller
Fruehe,” and others.
Knipstro, Johann Karl, b. 1497; op-
posed Tetzel at Frankfort 1518; preached
Luther’s doctrine and fled to Stettin ;
preacher in Stralsund; superintendent
of Wolgast; professor at Greifswald;
opposed the Interim and Osiander’s false
doctrine; d. 1556.
Knoke, Karl; b. at Schmedenstedt
1841; d. 1920; German Lutheran theo-
logian and pedagog; president of normal
school in Wunstorf; professor of the-
ology in Goettingen 1885; wrote: Out-
line of Practical Theology ; Outline of
Pedagogy and Its History; Luther’s
Small Catechism according to the Oldest
Editions in High and Low German and
in Latin.
Knoll, Christoph, 1563—1650; stud-
ied at Frankfurt; assistant at Sprottau;
then diaconus and finally archidiaconus ;
later pastor at Wittgendorf, where he
died; wrote: “Hcrzlich tut mich ver-
langen.”
Knorr, Christian, Baron von Rosen-
roth, 1636 — 89; studied at Leipzig and
Wittenberg; Orientalist; prime minister
of Palsgrave Christian August of Sulz-
bach; wrote: “Morgenglanz der Ewig-
keit.”
Knox, John, 1505 or 1513—72;
founder of the Presbyterian Church in
Scotland ; b. at Giffordgate ( ? ) ; at-
tended university; priest ca. 1540; tu-
tored; accompanied Wisbart, a Scottish
Evangelical clergyman on preaching
tour ; accepted call from Protestant con-
gregation of St. Andrews, 1546; upon
the capitulation of St. Andrews Castle to
the French became a galley-slave for
nineteen months; acted as chaplain to
Edward VI and had some influence on
the English Reformation; served a refu-
gee English congregation at Geneva for
nearly three years and associated with
Calvin; issued his famous Blast against
the Monstrous Regiment of Women and
an elaborate treatise on predestination;
returned to Scotland in 1559. Through
his influence the free Parliament of 1560
adopted the Confession of Faith (com-
piled by Knox and his fellow-preachers)
and the First Book of Discipline and
established the Reformed Kirk. In the
struggle between Mary Queen of Scots
and her Protestant subjects Knox had
frequent dramatic encounters with her.
Exposed to many dangers, sometimes
driven into privacy, again stepping for-
ward and assailing wickedness, he at-
tended to his duties as minister of the
Knubel, F. H.
390
KoepHl, Wolfgang
great parish-church of Edinburgh and at
the same time ordered the affairs of *tlie
national church. In all his reformatory
efforts politics and religion were closely
intertwined. D. at Edinburgh. Chief
work: History of the Reformation in
Scotland.
Knubel, F. H.; first president of the
United Lutheran Church in America,
since 1918; b. 1870 in New York City;
educated at Gettysburg and Leipzig ;
pastor in New York 1896; chairman of
the National Lutheran Commission for
Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Welfare during the
World War, 1917—18.
Knudsen, Hans; b. 1813 in Copen-
hagen; d. February 16, 1886; sent as
missionary to Tranquebar in 1838, where
he did excellent work; returned to
Europe in 1843; pastor there of two
congregations and then of the Deacon-
esses’ Home at Copenhagen ; resigned
this position in 1872 and founded the
“Society for the Care and Education of
Crippled Children,” in which work he
was a pioneer.
Koch, Eduard Emil, 1809 — 71; stud-
ied at Tuebingen; pastor in various
cities, longest in Heilbronn; prominent
in the field of hymnology, especially
through his Oeschichte des Kirchenlieds
und Kirchengesangs der christlichen, ins-
besondere der deutschen evangclischcn
Kirche.
Kocherthal, Josua, “der IIoch-Teut-
schen in Nord -America ihr Josua”; had
been pastor in Eschelbroen, Bavaria,
where he and his flock suffered much
from the ravages of war. In 1704 he
visited England with a view of finding
a refuge for his people in America. With
53 souls he came to New York, Janu-
ary 1, 1709, and settled them on land
granted by Queen Anne in Newburg on
the Hudson. Leaving his congregation
in Falckner’s (q. «.) care, he brought over
several thousand immigrants more in
June, 1710. TheSe also made their home
on the Hudson (East and West Camp).
Kocherthal continued to minister to
these Lutherans until his death, June 24,
1719. His remains are buried beneath his
epitaph in the church at West Camp.
Koehler, August; b. 1835, d. 1897;
in 1868 professor at Erlangen as succes-
sor of Delitzsch; his chief work: Lehr-
buck der biblischen Geschichte Alten
Testaments ; his doctrine of inspiration
not that of the Lutheran Church.
Koehler, John Philip; b. 1859 at
Manitowoc; graduated at Northwestern
College and at St. Louis ; pastor at Two
Rivers 1882 — 88; inspector and profes-
sor of Northwestern College; professor
of New. Testament exegesis, hermeneutics,
liturgies, and music at Wauwatosa Semi-
nary 1900; president since 1920. His
scholarship is a comprehensive and com-
prehending survey of life, thought, and
emotion. Preeminently, however, he is
a historian, who reads the record of the
Gospel in history in its widest sense, in-
cluding the wide field of art, on which
his views are, therefore, refreshing and
illuminating. His aim in teaching and
writing may be stated in these words of
his: “The Gospel of Christ, the Savior
of sinners, is that truth, that one truth,
on which rests all true understanding in
heaven and on earth.” Author of Paul
to the Galatians , Milwaukee, 1910;
Church History, 1917; History of Joint
Synod of Wisconsin, 1925; all German.
Koehler, Philip, father of preceding;
b. 1828, d. 1896; educated at Barmen;
pastor in Wisconsin since 1855; leader
in cause of sound Lutheranism; refused
to sign petition for collection in Landcs-
lcirche; charter member of Northwestern
board.
Koenig, Friedrich Eduard; b. 1846;
Privatdozent and associate professor of
Old Testament exegesis at Leipzig; pro-
fessor at Rostock (same subject) ; now
at Bonn; one of the leaders of conserva-
tive theology in opposition to extremes
in higher criticism; wrote: Historisch-
kritisehes Lehrgebaeude der hebraeischen
Sprache, H ebraeischcs und aramaeisohes
Woerterbuch, and a number of cxcgetical
and critical works.
Koenig, G. F. J. ; b. September 23,
1825, at Haynholtz, Hanover; studied
theology in Goettingen; sent to America
by the “Stader Missionsverein” 1851;
pastor in Cincinnati, 0., 1872; pastor of
Trinity, New York; Visitor; member of
Immigrant Mission and Jewish Mission
boards and of Electoral College of Mis-
souri Synod; d. November 17, 1891.
Koenig, Johann Balthasar; Musik-
direktor in Frankfurt a. M. about 1738,
when his Harmonischer Liedersohatz oder
allgemeines evangelisches Choralbuch was
published.
Koenig, J. F. ; b. 1619, d. 1664; pro-
fessor at Greifswald and Rostock; wrote
Theologia Positiva Acroamatica, which
formed the basis of most of the dogmatic
lectures of the 17th century, especially
of Quenstedt’s Theologia Didactico-
Polemica.
Koephl, Wolfgang, printer in Strass-
burg at the time of the Reformation, also
composer of several tunes now in use;
published Psalmen und geistliche Lieder,
1537, Ein neu auserlesen Gesangbueeh-
lein, 1545, and others.
Ivoerner, Christoph
391
Korea
Koerner, Christoph; b. 1518; pro-
fessor of theology at Frankfurt a. 0.;
worked on the Formula of Concord at
Torgau in 1576 and at Bergen in 1577 ;
“the Eye of the University”; wrote com-
mentaries on the Psalms, Romans, Gala-
tians, and on all the orations of Cicero;
judged Major and Strigel mildly; d.1594.
Koestering, J. E. ; b. February 20,
1830 at Dahlinghausen, Hanover; grad-
uate of Concordia Seminary, Fort Wayne,
1853; pastor in Allen Co., Ind., Franicen-
thal, Iowa, Arcadia, Ind., Altenburg, Mo.,
St. Paul’s in St. Louis; d. January 1,
1908; wrote Die Auswanderung der
saechsischen Lutheraner.
Koestlin, Heinrich Adolf, 1840 — ;
studied theology at Tuebingen; was
tutor and chaplain; organized the Wurt-
temberg Evangelical Kirchengesangver-
ein, conductor of its festivals ; pastor and
conductor at Friedrichshafen (Oratorio
Society) ; pastor at Stuttgart; profes-
sor at Friedberg; finally pastor at Darm-
stadt; published Die Oeschichte der Mu-
sik im XJmriss, Die Tonkunst.
Koestlin, Julius Theodor; b. 1826,
d. 1902; professor at Goettingen, Bres-
lau, and Halle; since 1877 also consis-
torial councilor; leader, together with
Beyschlag, of the Mittelpartei, mediating
between Confessionals and Liberals. His
works on Luther rank very high.
Kohn, W. C. See Roster at end of
book.
Kolde, Theodor Hermann Fried-
rich; b. 1850; since 1881 professor of
church history at Erlangen; one of the
most noted historians of the Reformation
period and defender of Luther against
Catholic attacks; d. 1913.
Kolrose, Johann ( Rhodanthracius ) ;
little known of his life; teacher and
pastor at Basel, where he died either
1558 or 1560; wrote a Scriptural play
and the hymn “Ich dank’ dir, lieber
Herre.”
Kols. A collective name for aboriginal
tribes in mountainous Chota Nagpur,
Bengal, India. The language is a dia-
lect of the Gond. Missions were begun
by the Gossner Mission Society in 1845.
In 1858 the C. M. S. granted £1,000 to
this mission. In 1868 the S. P. G. en-
tered the field. In 1891 the Dublin Uni-
versity Mission was established. The
Roman Catholic Church, using her custo-
mary questionable tactics, came in 1880.
Since the World War the Gossner mis-
sions were taken over by the Anglicans
(C.M.S.).
Koran (Arabian, “reading”), sacred
book of Mohammedanism ( q . v.), the
source of Mohammedan faith and law,
written in Arabic and containing the
"revelations” of Mohammed, laws, warn-
ings, remonstrances, promises, legends,
gathered by Caliph Abu Bekr (632 — 34)
and finally edited by Caliph Othman
(644 — 56). It consists of 114 chapters,
or suras, of greatly varying length and
placed in non-chronological and illogical
order, with the fatiha, a much-used
prayer, at the beginning. It is believed
to be of divine origin and to have been
revealed by the angel Gabriel to Moham-
med, piece by piece, from the original
which existed in heaven from eternity.
The book contains, in addition to Mo-
hammed’s own material, old heathen
Arabic tribal traditions and legends, as
well as Jewish and Christian elements,
the latter often much distorted.
Korea, or Chosen, since 1910 a part
of the Japanese Empire in Eastern
Asia. Area, 87,738 sq. mi. Population,
17.400.000, the Japanese numbering about
150.000. The country is mountainous,
but has some broad, fertile plains. Keijo,
or Seoul, is the capital. Since early
times two languages have been in use:
the spoken Korean vernacular, which be-
longs to the Mongol-Tatar family, and
the written (ideographic) language of
China. The early religion was animistic,
with ancestor and nature-worship. Bud-
dhism entered from China, developing
a strong hierarchy. Confucianism also
has a large following. — Missions were
begun by the Roman Catholic Church in
the 18tli century, which resulted in vio-
lent persecutions. However, the Roman
Catholic Church now has obtained a firm
footing. Protestant missions were at-
tempted by Guetzlaff in 1832. The Lon-
don Missionary Society sent Mr. Thomas
in 1866, but he died before he was able
to begin work. The United Free Church
of Scotland made an attempt through
J. Ross, who was missionary at Mukden.
The New Testament was translated by
him into Korean and spread in Korea
clandestinely. Korea was opened to for-
eigners by the United States in 1882, and
foreign missionary societies immediately
grasped the opportunity. In rapid suc-
cession the American Presbyterian and
the Methodist Episcopal Missions in 1884
entered there. Dr. H. U. Allen of the
American Presbyterian Church (North)
was given charge of a hospital, where he
did such successful work in allaying the
suspicion and opposition of the Koreans
that evangelistic work could be intro-
duced already in 1885. The work in-
creased so rapidly that strong self-
supporting churches could be organized
from Kang-Kei to Fusan. More than
Keren, TJlrik Vilhelm
392
K ran tli, Charles Philip
50,000 converts have already been bap-
tized by this mission. A theological
school has been established at Pyengyang.
The American Methodist Episcopal Mis-
sion has had such success that it was
able to organize more than 115 churches
in the Seoul and Chemalpo districts.
Medical missions of the Presbyterians,
Anglicans, and Methodists have done
much to prepare the way for evangelistic
work. Severance Hospital in Seoul, which
is connected with the Presbyterian and
the S. P. G. missions, has a flourishing
medical training-school, the students of
which must be Christians. Missions are
now being conducted by 15 societies. —
Statistics: Foreign staff, 1,253. Chris-
tian community, 277,377. Communicants,
112,059.
Koren, TXlrik Vilhelm; b. in Norway
December 22, 1826; graduate of Kristi-
ania University, 1852; emigrated 1853;
pastor at Washington Prairie, Iowa,
1853 — 1910; the first Norwegian pastor
to settle west of the Mississippi; pro-
cured campus for Luther College, De-
corah; taught there 1874 — 75; held
many offices in the Norwegian Synod:
secretary, Iowa District president, vice-
president, president; author of poems,
articles, and books; during the predesti-
nation controversy the chief champion of
the true Lutheran doctrine of conversion
and election; 1903 created D. D. by Con-
cordia Seminary, St. Louis; d. December
19, 1910.
Kottwitz, Baron Ernst v. ; Pietist;
founder of an institution to provide work
for the poor; rich philanthropist; the
“patriarch” in Tholuck’s Die wahre
Weihe des Zweiflers.
Kowalke, Erwin Ernst; b. August
31, 1887, at Kaukauna, Wis.; graduate
of Northwestern College and Wauwatosa
Seminary; pastor at Tomahawk, Wis.,
1811 — 13; professor at Northwestern
College, Wisconsin Synod; its third
president, since 1919.
Kraft, Adam; ca. 1450 — 1507; rose
from the position of stone-mason to that
of sculptor; simple, but effective work;
noted for his Seven Stations on the way
to the Cemetery of St. John in Nuernberg.
Kraft, Johann Christian, 1784 to
1845; German Reformed; b. at Duis-
burg; tutor at Frankfort; pastor at
Weeze; professor at Erlangen 1818
(d. there) ; exercised vivifying influence
on Bavarian Protestant Church.
Kramer, Moritz, 1646 — 1702; b. at
Ammerswort, Holstein ; pastor at Marne ;
a very decided opponent of the pietistic
movement; wrote hymn for Pentecost:
“Gott, gib einen milden Regen.”
Krauss, Eugen Adolf Wilhelm;
b. June 4, 1851, at Noerdlingen, Bavaria;
graduate of the Augsburg Gymnasium ;
studied theology at. Erlangen and Leip-
zig 1869 — 73. A student of the Mis-
sourian writings, he severed, for con-
fessional reasons, his connection with the
state church before he graduated; was
received into the Missouri Synod and ac-
cepted a call to Cedarburg, Wis., 1874.
In 1875 he returned to Germany to serve
a congregation at Sperlingshof, Baden,
which had withdrawn from the state
church. He proved himself a fearless
and able champion of sound Lutheranism.
In 1880 he was elected director of the
Teachers’ Seminary at Addison, 111.; he
was successful in impressing upon his
students the great importance of the Lu-
theran day-school and in deepening their
love for it. In 1905 he was called to
teach Church History and Propaedeutics
at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis. “He
possessed a commanding knowledge of
the literature of the Lutheran Church
and its opponents in the age of the Ref-
ormation and the centuries that followed,
down to our times, and was not only an
instructive, but also an entertaining
speaker on any subject he chose to dis-
cuss.” His articles in Schulblatt, Luthe-
raner, and Lehre und Wehre, bis doc-
trinal essays in the Synodical Reports
and his LebensMlder aus der Geschichte
der christlichen Kirche reveal his stu-
pendous learning and are highly edify-
ing to the lover of Lutheranism. North-
western College, Watertown, Wis., con-
ferred the title of Doctor of Theology
on him. He died October 9, 1924.
“Firm and uncompromising on any issue
involving the Christian faith and the
Lutheran Confessions, he was neverthe-
less a humble believer with something
like a childlike, implicit faith ; unassum-
ing, free from ambition, always willing
and ready to serve. He was a good col-
league and an exemplary member of our
Synod.”
Kraussold, Lorenz, b. 1803; at the
time of his death pastor and Konsisto-
rialrat at Baireuth; besides work in
catechetics prominent in liturgies; pub-
lished: Zur Altarliturgie ; Theorie des
Kirchenliedes ; Altwragende, etc.
Krauth, Charles Philip, 1797 — 1867;
b. in Pennsylvania; first studied medi-
cine, then theology under Dr. D. H.
Schaeffer; professor at Gettysburg 1833
to 1867; editor of the Evangelical Re-
view 1850 — 61. In the controversy over
the “Definite Platform” ( q . v.) he was
an exponent of mild confessionalism,
pleading for peace and mutual toleration.
Krauth, Charles Porterfield 393
Knhn, Albert
Krauth, Charles Porterfield, for
twenty years one of the most prominent
theologians of the General Synod and,
since 1866, the leader and most conserva-
tive and influential theologian of the
General Council. Krauth was “a star of
the first magnitude in the Lutheran
Church of America” (Dr. Bente), “the
most eminent man in the English Lu-
theran Church of this country, a man of
rare learning, . . . whole-heartedly de-
voted to the pure doctrine of our Church
as he had learned to understand it, a
noble man and without guile” (Dr. Wal-
tlier). He was the son of Charles Philip
Krauth, b. March 17, 1823, while his
father was pastor at Martinsburg, Va.
He studied at Gettysburg College and
Seminary, was licensed in 1841, and
ordained in 1842. Till 1861 he served
congregations in Canton (Baltimore),
Shepherdstown and Martinsburg, Va.,
Winchester, Va., St. Thomas, W. I. (a Re-
formed congregation in the absence of its
pastor), Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia.
In 1861 he resigned in order to devote his
time to editing the Lutheran and Mis-
sionary, which in his hand became
a strong weapon against the excrescences
of the “American Lutheranism” then
rampant in the General Synod. At first
he, like his father, was in favor of peace
and mutual toleration in the battle over
the Lutheran Confessions. But later
a study of these Confessions led him to
a more soundly Biblical position. When
the Philadelphia Seminary was estab-
lished (1864), Krauth was appointed pro-
fessor of Dogmatics. He was the leading
spirit in the establishment of the General
Council and the author of the Funda-
mental Articles of Faith and Church
Polity, adopted at Reading in 1866, of
the Theses on Pulpit- and Altar-fellow-
ship, 1877, and of the constitution for
congregations, 1880. He was president
of the General Council 1870—80. In
1868 he was appointed to the chair of
philosophy at the University of Penn-
sylvania, maintaining his chair at the
seminary. Besides being editor of the
Lutheran, the Lutheran Church Review,
and Fleming’s V ocabulary of Philosophy
(1860), he was the author of many books.
The most important of these is The Con-
servative Reformation and Its Theology
(1872). D. in Philadelphia, January 2,
1883. (Cf. A. Spaeth, Charles Porterfield
Krauth, D.D., LL.D., 2 volumes.)
Kremmer, Karl Friedrich; h. 1817
at Schmalkalden, Germany; d. 1887 at
Tranquebar, India; attended Dresden
Mission Institute 1843 — 46 ; Leipzig mis-
sionary to India 1846; Madras 1848 — 58
and again 1865 — 75; excellent Tamil
scholar; founded Cuddalore and Madura
stations; senior of Leipzig Mission in
India.
Kretzmann, F. E., Ph. D., D. D. See
Roster at end of book.
Kreuz, Blaues. See Blaues Kreuz.
Kromayer, Hieronymus; h. 1610 at
Zeitz, d. 1670 as professor at Leipzig;
wrote Theologia Positivo-Polemica against
Rome, Calvinism, and syncretism.
Krotel, G. F., “one of the most in-
fluevMal men in the General Council”;
b. 1826 in Wurttemberg; came to Phila-
delphia 1830; graduated from Pennsyl-
vania University 1846; studied theology
under Dr. Demme and was ordained in
1850; served congregations in Philadel-
phia, Lebanon, Lancaster, and again at
Philadelphia, where he was also pro-
fessor at the seminary, 1864 — 68; be-
came pastor in New York 1868 and pres-
ident of the New York Ministerium.
Because the latter refused to take a pos-
itive stand on the “Four Points,” he
rejoined the Pennsylvania Ministerium,
repeatedly serving it and the General
Council as president. He succeeded
Dr. Krauth as editor of the Lutheran
and was widely known as a pulpit orator.
D. in New York 1907.
Kuder, Calvin F., Lutheran mission-
ary to India; b. April 10, 1864, at
Laurys, Pa.; commissioned to India by
General Council 1891, arriving at Ra-
jahmundry November 14, 1891; given
charge of seminary 1892; returned to
the United States 1898; resigned 1899;
sent out again 1908; returned to the
United States April, 1913.
Kuebel, Robert Benjamin; b. 1838,
d. 1894 as professor of systematic the-
ology at Tuebingen; claimed to he in-
dependent, but was influenced by Schleier-
macher and Beck; had leanings to
positive Lutheranism.
Kuegele, F. ; b. April 16, 1846, at
Columbiana, 0. ; studied theology at
Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, graduat-
ing 1870; missionary in Nebraska; pas-
tor at Cumberland, Md.; served the En-
glish Church (Ohio Synod) at Coyners
Store and Waynesboro, Va., 1879 to
April 1, 1916, the date of his death.
Charter member of Concordia Synod;
first president of the English Missouri
Synod; regular contributor to the Lu-
theran Witness; author of Country Ser-
mons (5 vols.) and of Book of Devotion.
Kuhn, Albert; b. 1835 in Switzer-
land; educated at St. Chrischona; came
to Trinity, St. Paul, as assistant 1865;
then pastor at Woodbury, Mankato, and
Greenwood, all in Minnesota; president
Knlturkampf
394
Kyle, Melvin Grove
of Minnesota Synod 1876 — 83; champion
of sound Lutheranism; active in the
movement that led to affiliation with
Synodical Conference and later to forma-
tion of the Joint Synod of Wisconsin and
Other States; wrote: History of Minne-
sota Synod, 1910 (German) ; d. 1915.
Kulturkampf (“quarrel for civiliza-
tion,” so called by Virchow), a violent
collision between the Prussian govern-
ment and the Roman Catholic Church;
an outburst, under new conditions, of
the long historic conflict between Church
and State. The principal facts are as
follows: The star of Catholic Austria
sank at Sadowa (1866) before the rising
power of Protestant Prussia. Catholic
Prance was humbled at Sedan (1870) by
the same power. French help withdrawn,
the last remnant of papal sovereignty
was swept away in the same year. To
crown all, the seat of empire was trans-
ferred to Berlin and a hereditary Protes-
tant dynasty created. The Catholic world
took alarm and immediately pursued a
reactionary policy. Even before, and im-
mediately after, his proclamation as em-
peror, William I was approached with
the preposterous petition to use his new
power in the interest of the papacy by
the restoration of the papal states. The
government’s refusal to consider such a
request, the consequent disappointment
and agitation on the part of the Ultra-
montane Party, the open denunciation of
the Protestant government from Catholic
pulpits, created a situation which was
bound to end in open conflict. This ac-
tually happened when the government
espoused the cause of certain anti-in-
fallibilists, who had been excommuni-
cated by the Church. The Kulturkampf
was on. “We shall not go to Canossa,”
said Bismarck. A series of anticlerical
enactments was passed to uphold the
sovereignty of the state. The so-called
“May Laws” (May 11 — 14, 1873; May
20, 21, 1874) were a vigorous assertion
of German nationalism, severely re-
trenching the Church’s powers. Clerical
education and clerical discipline were
put under state control. Indeed, as the
struggle proceeded, the Church was re-
duced to a state of helpless vassalage.
These measures were met with stubborn
passive resistance. Fines, banishment,
imprisonment, deposition of refractory
priests and bishops availed nothing.
Nor was there any prospect of reaching
an understanding during the pontificate
of Pius IX, whose obstinacy and arro-
gance increased with age. When Leo XIII
ascended the chair of St. Peter, a more
conciliatory policy was inaugurated.
Long negotiations followed, and the ob-
noxious laws were modified or repealed.
Bismarck at least partly went “to
Canossa.” The greatest statesman of the
nineteenth century found his match in
the wily successor of St. Peter. The
Kulturkampf was ended in 1887. — The
lesson it points is : Separation of Church
and State.
Kunth, Johann Siegmund, 1700 — 79;
studied theology at Jena, Wittenberg,
and Leipzig; d. as pastor and superin-
tendent at Baruth, near Jueterbogk,
Brandenburg; wrote: “Es ist noch eine
Ruh’ vorhanden.”
Kunz, J. G., principal of Immanuel
Lutheran School, St. Louis; composed
several tunes for hymns; published Im-
manuel-Saengerbund.
Kurtz, Benjamin, 1795 — 1865; pas-
tor in Baltimore; wielded great in-
fluence in General Synod as editor of
Luth. Observer 1833 — 61; leader in edu-
cational work of General Synod; col-
lected $12,000 for Gettysburg Seminary;
was an ardent champion of the “Definite
Platform” ( q. v . ) ; reformed in his the-
ology and Methodistic in his practise.
Kurtz, Johann Heinrich; b. 1809,
d. 1890 at Marburg; eminent church his-
torian and conservative Lutheran of
modern type; studied at Halle and
Bonn; from 1850 to 1870 professor at
Dorpat; the rest of his life spent in
literary labors; principal work: Lehr-
buck der Kirchengeschichte. In his
works on the Old Testament he makes
too many concessions to modern higher
criticism.
Kurze, Guenther; b. August 8, 1850;
d. January 21, 1918, at Bornshaim, Sax-
ony; pastor at Bornshaim from 1889 to
his death; Kirchenrat; voluminous and
well-informed author on missions; con-
tributor to the Allgemeine Missionszeit-
schrift ; founder of the Thueringen-Mis-
sionskonferenz.
Kusel, Daniel; b. 1811, d. 1905;
Watertown, Wis., business man; one of
founders of St. Mark’s ; member of first
board of Northwestern College of Wis-
consin Synod; was instrumental in se-
curing present site of college; as trea-
surer was often called upon to furnish
funds for professors’ salaries when other
resources failed; active and most helpful
when above-named college was erected.
Kyle, Melvin Grove, 1858 — ; United
Presbyterian; Egyptologist; b. in Ohio;
minister 1886; president of Board of
Foreign Missions; professor of Biblical
Theology and Archeology at Xenia Semi-
nary; editor-in-chief of Bibliotheca
Sacra; author.
Labadle, Jean de
395
Labor and Capital
Labadie, Jean de, 1610 — 74; French
mystic; b. at Bourg; Jesuit, priest,
preacher; Protestant 1650; pastor at
Montauban, etc.; founder of sect in Am-
sterdam 1009; expelled; died at Altona,
Germany. Some Labadists settled on the
Hudson.
Labor and Capital. In the discus-
sion of this question a number of factors
ought to be considered, all of them sug-
gested by the Word of God. In the first
place, there is the principle of the dis-
tribution of wealth and the division of
mankind into stations according to the
government of God. It is written: “The
Lord maketh poor and maketli rich; He
bringeth low and lifteth up.” 1 Sam.
2, 7. Of the uncertain quality of riches
the psalmist writes : “Be not thou afraid
when one is made rich, when the glory
of his house is increased; for when be
dieth, he shall carry nothing away; his
glory shall not descend after him.” Ps.
49, 10. 17. A short and satisfactory
statement is that of the wise Solomon:
“The rich and poor must meet together;
the Lord is the Maker of them all.”
Prov. 22, 2. And again : “The poor and
the deceitful man [man of oppressions]
meet together; the Lord lighteneth both
their eyes.” Prov. 29, 13. Therefore
St. Paul writes to Timothy: “Charge
them that are rich in this world that
they be not high-minded nor trust in
uncertain riches [in the uncertainty of
riches], but in the living God.” 1 Tim.
6, 17. — In the second place, the need
and the dignity of labor should be kept
in mind, as it is pointed out in the
Bible. The psalmist sings : “Thou shalt
eat the labor of thine hands; happy shalt
thou be, and it shall be well with thee.”
Ps. 128, 2. The wise Solomon writes:
“In all labor there is profit.” Prov.
14,23. And again: “The hand of the
diligent maketh rich.” Prov. 10, 4. “The
slothful man roasteth not that which he
took in hunting, but the substance of
a diligent man is precious.” Prov. 12, 27.
The same facts are emphasized in the
New Testament. St. Paul writes : “Study
to be quiet and do your own business and
work with y.our own hands, as we com-
manded you.” IThess. 4, 11. And again:
“Even when we were with you, this we
commanded you, that if any would not
work, neither should he eat. For we
hear that there are some which walk
among you disorderly, working not at
all, but are busybodies. Now, them that
are such we command and exhort by our
Lord Jesus Christ that with quietness
they work and eat their own bread.”
L
2 Thess. 3, 10 — 12. And again: “Let him
that stole steal no more, but rather let
him labor, working with his hands the
thing which is good that he may have
to give to him that needeth.” Eph. 4, 28.
Both the dignity and the worth of labor
are emphasized in Scriptures. The work-
man is worthy of his meat. Matt. 10, 10.
The laborer is worthy of his hire. Luke
10, 7 ; cp. 1 Tim. 5, 18. — In the third
place, the Bible speaks to the rich men,
especially such as are employers of labor,
in a manner which allows of no mis-
understanding as to their duty toward
those who are dependent upon them.
Even the Law stated: “Thou shalt not
defraud thy neighbor, neither rob him;
the wages of him that is hired shall not
abide with thee all night until the morn-
ing.” Lev. 19, 13. This refers, of course,
to the day-laborer, who was hired by the
day and had to have his money at eve-
ning. “He that oppressetli the poor to
increase his riches . . . shall surely come
to want.” Prov. 22, 16. Especially im-
pressive is the word of the prophet Jere-
miah: “Woe unto him that buildeth his
house by unrighteousness and his cham-
bers by wrong; that useth his neighbor’s
service without wages and giveth him
not for his work,” Jer. 22, 13; and that
of the last prophet of the Old Testa-
ment: “I will be a swift Witness . . .
against those that oppress the hireling
in his wages,” Mai. 3, 5. The same is
stated in the New Testament: “Go to
now, ye rich men, weep and howl for
your miseries! . . . Behold, the hire of
the laborers who have reaped down your
fields, which is of you kept back by
fraud, erieth; and the cries of them
which have reaped are entered into the
ears of the Lord of Sabaoth.” Jas. 5,
1. 4. — And in the last place, the matter
is adjusted with respect to both par-
ties in two fine passages of St. Paul’s
letters : “Servants, obey in all things
your masters according to the flesh; not
with eye-service, as men-pleasers, but in
singleness of heart, fearing God; and
whatsoever ye do, do it heartily, as to
the Lord, and not unto men. . . . Masters,
give unto your servants that which is
just and equal, knowing that ye also
have a Master in heaven.” Col. 3, 22 to
4, 1 ; cp. Eph. 0, 5 — 9. W T hile this is
written of the relation of masters to
bond-servants or slaves, it applies, with
due modification, to all similar social
relations.
The history of economics shows that
the relation between labor and capital,
between the laborer and him who hired
Labor and Capital
396
Labor and Capital
him, was not always in agreement with
the Lord’s will as expressed in the pas-
sages adduced above. While it is true
that slavery in itself is not incompatible
with the divine will, it is also true that
slavery, or involuntary servitude, has
been abused from the beginning, the
master taking advantage of his slave in
every possible manner, and the slave tak-
ing his revenge by unfaithfulness, waste-
fulness, theft, and other transgressions.
Wherever serfdom or peonage has been
found, even in modern times, it has been
attended by evils which were so preva-
lent as to seem inseparably connected
with the system. The struggle which
marked the Medieval Age was that be-
tween the feudal lords and the serfs or
tenants. While the conditions of serfdom
greatly varied, there can be no doubt
that its tendency was to depress the free
and raise the servile cultivators to some-
thing like a common level. In the course
of the fourteenth century serfdom began
to pass away in England. Its disappear-
ance was followed by enactments for the
regulation of labor in the interest of the
ruling classes. The first and one of
the greatest examples of this was the
“Statute of Laborers,” occasioned by the
scarcity of labor following the plague of
the Black Death. The main object of
this statute, which was passed in 1349
and was repealed only in the early years
of Elizabeth, was to fix the amount of
wages; and it was superseded by a stat-
ute of Elizabeth, which, besides ordain-
ing an apprenticeship of seven years,
empowered the justices in quarter ses-
sions to fix the rate of wages both in
husbandry and handicrafts. This act of
Elizabeth was not repealed till 1814. In
other European countries similar condi-
tions obtained, and the situation was, in
some measure, reflected in America, al-
though the spirit of freedom would never
permit the oppressions which marked the
feudal system elsewhere. — Toward the
close of the eighteenth century the effect
of the industrial revolution and the
rapidly increasing number of inventions
in the industrial world was to organize
labor in large factories and similar
undertakings. It was not long before
trade-unions or labor-unions and coop-
erative societies were formed, and the
emphasis of the laws was shifted from
the viewpoint of the protection of the
capitalists to the more equitable treat-
ment of the workers. Laws for the regu-
lation of labor are now intended, not to
fix wages, as formerly, but to protect the
rights of workers. Such are the Factory
Acts of England and the many laws in-
sisting upon safe and sanitary buildings
for factory purposes, as the employers’
liability acts and the workmen’s com-
pensation laws of the several States. To
some extent the formation of trusts and
corporations has counteracted the move-
ment in behalf of the workers; but, on
the whole, conditions are much more en-
durable in the field of labor than they
have ever been in the economic history
of the world.
The Christian viewpoint may be ap-
plied easily enough if every one con-
cerned applies the supreme law of love.
The capitalist may not grind down his
workmen to the lowest pittance, taking
no interest in them beyond forcing out
of them the maximum of labor. If he
does, his selfish and grasping disposition
is one of the most fruitful causes of
strikes and other forms of unrest among
the working people. The employer should
treat his employee justly and equitably,
neither stinting him in his wages nor
holding him back. On the other hand,
the laborer owes just duties to the man
or the company for whom or which he
works. He should not envy his em-
ployer; for the spirit of envy is incom-
patible with the best service. Much of
the labor trouble in the industrial world
is due to jealousy, suspicion, and in-
efficiency on the part of many of the
working men. Much depends, on both
sides, on the proper appreciation of the
dignity of labor; for so it is regarded
in the Bible. It is a disgrace to be idle,
to be a parasite, whether one is in a posi-
tion to live without work or not; for the
parasite of society is overlooking the
necessity of service as a condition of the
highest welfare of society. Whether a
man works with his brawn or with his
brain, he should strive for the highest
attainment of unselfish service in all
that he does. The worker, no matter
where he may be employed, as long as
he is doing useful work in the world,
need never apologize for his occupation.
“If the law of simple justice, permeated
by love, should prevail in the economic
sphere, there would be no occasion for
labor troubles; for then the relations
between workmen and their employers
would be characterized by mutual good
will, forbearance, and sympathy. The
capitalist who despises labor and the
laborer who hates capital are actuated
by the same unethical temper, being
alike impelled by selfish and unjust
motives. If real peace and prosperity
are to prevail in the industrial world,
there must arise the spirit of mutual-
ity between employers and employees.”
( Keyser. )
Labor, Knlgiifs of
397
Latnez
labor, Knights of, known as “White-
caps.” A secret political organization in
New Mexico to resist the encroachments
of the Republicans. It is now extinct,
some of its elements having been ab-
sorbed by the Ku Klux Klan. Refer-
ence : Cyclopedia of Fraternities, 2. ed.,
pp. 422. 426.
labor, Order of the Knights of.
The most important secret society in the
United States organized in the interest
of industrial workers. Founded by
Uriah S. Stephens at Philadelphia 1809
under the title of “Noble Order of the
Knights of Labor of America,” suggested
perhaps by the “International Associa-
tion of Workingmen,” known as “The In-
ternational,” which was organized in
London 1864. Its purpose was to amal-
gamate all trades into one great brother-
hood for the amelioration of the material
condition of the laborer, the mechanic,
and the artisan. The ritual of the order
had many of the features of speculative
Masonry, especially in the forms and
ceremonies observed. Its principal em-
blem was an equilateral triangle within
a circle, the meaning of which was known
only to members. The secrecy thrown
about the order was so profound that its
growth was slow. In 1872 a period of
prosperity commenced. In 1877 and
1878 Catholic members formed a faction
to modify the secret work so as to re-
move the opposition of the Church.
Changes were made, which Stephens op-
posed, but was unable to overcome, where-
upon he resigned his office in 1879.
Little of the order remains to-day. The
order reached its zenith in 1886, when it
reported 729,677 members.
Labor Unions. See Labor wnd Capital.
Labrador. A dependency of New-
foundland, Dominion of Canada. Area,
120,000 sq. mi. Population, about 3,600,
about equally Indians and whites. Mis-
sions were begun by the Moravians as
early as 1752, but real footing was not
found until 1771, when Nain was founded.
Since 1884 more progress was made.
Now nearly all of the natives are Chris-
tianized. Dr. Grenfell {q.v.) established
the Labrador Medical Mission.
Lackmann, Peter, 1659 — 1713, at the
time of his death chief pastor at Olden-
burg in Holstein; wrote hymn full of
fervent piety: “Ach, was sind wit ohne
Jesum?”
Lactantius, the “Christian Cicero”;
an Italian by birth; pupil of Arnobius;
professor of rhetoric at Nicomedia; con-
verted to Christianity ca. 301. Principal
works : Divinae Institutiones, an exposi-
tion and vindication of Christianity;
De Mortibus Persecutorum, in which the
punitive justice of God is shown to have
overtaken the persecutors. D. ea. 330.
Ladies’ Aid Societies (Women’s So-
cieties). While the Lord in His Word
bars women from the pulpit and from
the management of the Church, 1 Cor.
14, 34. 35; 1 Tim. 2, 11 — 14, yet women
are in duty bound to take an active in-
terest in the Church and its work. The
privileges and the obligations of the
Christian priesthood, except where the
Lord Himself has restricted them, are
the privileges and obligations of all
Christians, both men and women. At
all times Christian women have been ac-
tively engaged in furthering the interest
of the Church. The so-called ladies’
societies in Lutheran churches are volun-
tary organizations of women of a congre-
gation for the purpose of fostering Chris-
tian fellowship and of promoting certain
Christian objects, not, of course, arbi-
trarily doing such work as properly
ought to be done by the congregation or
the synodical organization, but rather as-
sisting in such work, under the guidance
of the congregation and its pastor. Even
as in former years, so to-day societies of
Christian women are formed for the
prosecution of such special objects as
the care of orphans, of the sick, and of
-destitute children, the support of indi-
gent students, and the like. The meet-
ings of a ladies’ society in a congregation
also afford the pastor an excellent oppor-
tunity to acquaint the women with the
general and special work which the
Church is doing (home work of the con-
gregation, mission-work of Synod, synod-
ical institutions) . The dues paid in such
a society ought to be given in addition
to the regular contributions paid to the
church. Nor should a congregation de-
pend upon its ladies’ society or any
similar organization to pay its expenses.
It goes without saying that membership
in the ladies’ society dare not be looked
upon as a special mark of advanced
standing in the Church; therefore mem-
bership in the ladies’ society should not
be legalistically enforced.
Ladrones Islands. See Polynesia.
Lainez, 1512 — 65; famous Jesuit, one
of the original members who joined Igna-
tius Loyola in Paris; second general of
the order, dominated the Council of Trent
and determined, in large measure, its un-
compromising anti-Protestant policy, be-
sides advancing the cause of papal in-
fallibility; in scholarship, adroitness,
and worldly wisdom easily superior to
Loyola (q.v.) .
Laity
398
La ml) ill ode, Louis
Laity. The division of church-mem-
bers into clergy and laity is a valid one
if the words simply stand for the dis-
tinction of those who have been called
by the Church into the ministry of the
Word from those who have not been so
called. However, with the rise of the
sacerdotal system, which culminated in
the papacy, the idea that the priesthood
formed an intermediate class between
God and the Christian congregation be-
came prevalent, and both terms, clergy
and laity, were thereby vitiated. — The
doctrine of justification by faith alone
abolished human mediation between man
and God. Luther fully recognized the
New Testament idea of the priesthood of
all believers and proclaimed it with all
the force of his eloquence. His language
on this subject is very explicit: “Every
Christian man is a priest and every
Christian woman a priestess, whether
they be young or old, master or servant,
mistress or maid-servant, scholar or il-
literate. All Christians are, properly
speaking, members of the ecclesiastical
order, and there is no difference between
them, except that they hold different
offices.” By the inculcation of this fun-
damental principle the laity recovered its
position in the Church of Christ, and lay
representation again became possible.
“The restoration,” says Litton, “in the-
ory at least, of the laity to their proper,
place in the Church was in immediate
consequence of the Reformation. By re-
asserting the two great Scriptural doc-
trines of the universal priesthood of
Christians and of the indwelling of the
Spirit, not in a priestly caste, but in the
whole body of the faithful, Luther and
his contemporaries shook the whole fab-
ric of sacerdotal ursurpation to its base
and recovered for the Christian laity the
rights of which they had been deprived.
The lay members of the body of Christ
emerged from the spiritual imbecility
which they had been taught to regard
as their natural state and beeame free,
not from the yoke of Christ, but from
that of the priest.-”
Lamaism, Name of the form of Bud-
dhism (q.v.) prevailing in Tibet, Mon-
golia, and Manchuria and introduced into
Tibet in the 7th century A. D.; derived
from lama, i. e., “superior one,” designa-
tion originally of Tibetan abbots, then
extended, by courtesy, to all monks. At
the head of this hierarchical and partly
political, religious system, which num-
bers more than 10,000,000 adherents, are
two lama popes, the Dalai Lama at Lassa
and the Tashi Lama at Tashi-lhunpo, the
former also being the real ruler of Tibet.
Its highly developed ritual offers many
analogies to Roman Catholic rites, vis.,
choirs, processions, adoration of saints
and images, rosaries, incense, holy water,
bells. Monasticism is developed to such
an extreme that there is one monk to
every three of the lay population.
Lambert, Francis, of Avignon;
b. 1487; Franciscan; his spiritual con-
flicts ended by reading Luther; one of
the first French Protestants; translated
writings of Luther into French and
Italian; suffered want and persecution;
finally, 1520, professor at the new Uni-
versity of Marburg; prominent in estab-
lishing the Reformation in Hesse; was
at the Marburg Colloquium, but re-
mained silent, for he had come to enter-
tain the Zwinglian view; d. 1530.
Lambeth Conferences ( Pan-Anglican
Synod ) . The first Pan-Anglican Synod,
consisting of British, colonial, and Amer-
ican Protestant bishops, met at Lambeth
Palace from September 24 to December
10, 1867, to discuss various questions
affecting the organization and work of
the Episcopalian communion as a whole.
Similar conferences were held in 1878,
in 1888, in 1897, in 1908, etc. The great-
est general interest attaches to the Pan-
Anglican Synod of 1888, since this synod
sanctioned and adopted the definition of
what is fundamental in the Christian
system and might thus serve as a basis
of a possible reunion of Christendom put
forth by the General Convention of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in Chicago
in 1886. These articles were intended as
an invitation to church union and a
basis for it. The fundamentals of the
articles (called the “Quadrilateral” be-
cause four in number) were: “The Holy
Scripture of the Old and New Testament
as containing all things necessary to sal-
vation and as being the rule and ulti-
mate standard of faith; the Apostles’
Creed as a baptismal symbol and the
Nicene Creed as a sufficient statement of
the Christian faith; the two Sacraments
ordained by Christ Himself, Baptism and
the Supper of the Lord, administered
with unfailing use of Christ’s words of
institution and of the elements ordained
by Him; the historic episcopate locally
adapted in the methods of its administra-
tion to the varying needs of the nations
and peoples called of God into the unity
of His Church.”
Lambillotte, Louis, 1797 — 1855, or-
ganist at Charleroi, then at Dinant;
later member of the Jesuit order, resid-
ing at various monasteries; prolific com-
poser of church music; also published
the Gregorian Antiphonary.
Lamentations
399
Larsen, Peter Lanrentius
Lamentations. A section of the ser-
vice for Good Friday in the Roman
Church, that portion being introduced
with the Tenebrae faotae sunt (“And
there was darkness”), the music being
set to a text taken from the Lamenta-
tions of Jeremiah.
Landsmann, Daniel; b. 1837 in Rus-
sia; d. May 13, 1896, in New York City.
Landsmann was of Jewish extraction.
Before his conversion and baptism his
name was Eliezer Bassin. Educated to
be a teacher, he removed to Jerusalem,
where he was converted to Christ by Mis-
sionary Stern. At Jerusalem, Lands-
mann suffered much for the sake of his
faith; his wife divorced him, his chil-
dren were taken from him, and he was
persecuted even unto wounds. Later he
went to Constantinople as a Christian
missionary. Having come to the United
States, he was brought into contact with
the Missouri Synod, which had resolved
to begin a Jewish mission. After spend-
ing nine months in the theological semi-
nary at Springfield, 111., he was appointed
missionary to the Jews in New York
City, beginning work among them in
July, 1883. Here he labored unremit-
tingly, faithfully, and successfully, en-
countering much opposition from the
Jews, until he was called to the rest of
his Lord.
Lange, C. H. R. ; b. June 4, 1825, in
Polish Wartenberg, Prussia; received a
classical education; studied theology
under guidance of private instructors;
was induced by Pastor Loehe to come
to America 1846; continued his studies
in the Fort Wayne seminary and com-
pleted them in the Altenburg seminary;
pastor in St. Charles, Mo., 1848; pro-
fessor of English and philosophy in Con-
cordia College and Seminary, in St. Louis
1858, in Fort Wayne 1861; pastor in
Defiance, 0., 1872; of Immanuel’s, Chi-
cago, 1872 — 78; from 1878 to October 2,
1892, the day of his death, professor
of theology in Concordia Seminary,
St. Louis. He was a profound thinker,
thoroughly familiar with ancient and
modern philosophy. He was in charge
of the English work at the seminary,
giving his lectures on philosophy, logic,
exegetics, homiletics, etc., in the English
language. He was the first one of the
first generation of the Missourians to
pay special attention to the English lan-
guage, wrote text-books on English which
were widely used at the time, and
through his work at the Seminary at
St. Louis wisely and successfully pre-
pared the way for the present transition
period. Besides contributing as assso-
ciate editor to the other periodicals of
Synod, he edited the St. Louis Theolog-
ical Monthly, published upon the out-
break of the controversy on election and
conversion. In 1878 he was elected Vice-
President of Synod.
Lange, Joachim; b. 1670, d. 1744 as
professor in Halle ; a leader of the
Pietists; violent controversialist; wrote
against the orthodox Lutherans, espe-
cially against V. E. Loescher ; also against
the Aufklaerer, Thomasius, Wolff, and
the Wertheim-Bibel. His voluminous
works have no permanent value. He
recommended Ziegenbalg and Pluetschau
as missionaries to India.
Lange, Johann Peter, 1802 — 84;
German Reformed; b. near Elberfeld;
pastor; professor at Zurich 1841; re-
futed D. F. Strauss ( q. v. ) at Bonn 1854.
Commentary on the Holy Scriptures
(new English edition 1886), etc.
Lange, Theodore. B. October 26,
1866, at St. Louis, Mo. Publisher,
banker; manager of Louis Lange Pub-
lishing Co., of Abendsohule fame; served
on Board for Young People’s Work of
Missouri Synod.
Langhans, Urban, a native of Schnee-
berg, Saxony, in the 16th century; Dia-
conus at Glauchau from 1546 to 1554,
then at Schneeberg; wrote the delight-
ful hymn “Lasst uns alle froehlich sein.”
Langton, Stephen, d. 1228; Arch-
bishop of Canterbury; his appointment
by Pope Innocent III led to the humilia-
tion of King John; to facilitate citation,
he divided the Bible into chapters.
Lao-Tse. See Taoism.
Lapland. An immense stretch of Arc-
tic country in Northern Europe, belong-
ing to Russia, Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden. Area, 150,000 sq. mi. Popula-
tion, estimated, 30,000. In 1559 Gustav
Wasa, King of Sweden, originated mis-
sionary work among them, which was
continued by Karl IX and Gustavus
Adolphus. From 1716 to 1722 Thomas
von Westen (d. 1727) carried on earnest
missionary work, which was resumed by
Stockfleth (d. 1866) in the 19th century.
Lapsed ( Lapsi ). Members of the
early Church who denied the faith under
the stress of persecutions.
Lardner, Nathaniel; b. at Kent 1684;
d. there 1768; Non-conformist; assist-
ant minister (Presbyterian) in London
1729 — 51; became deaf; wrote: Credi-
bility of Gospel History.
Larsen, Peter Laurentius; b. in Nor-
way August 10, 1833; graduated at
Kristiania University; emigrated 1857;
lias Casas, Bartolome de
400
Last Times
pastor; professor at Concordia Semi-
nary, St. Louis; professor at Luther Col-
lege, Decorah, Iowa, and its president;
vice-president of the ‘Norwegian Synod;
president of the Synodical Conference;
editor of Maanedstidende and Kirke-
tidende ; 1903 created D. D. by Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis; knighted by King
Haakon VII 1908; d. March 1, 1915.
Las Casas, Bartolome de. See Ca-
sas, Las.
Lasco, Johannes A. ( Jan Laski).
See Alasco, Johannes.
Lassenius, Johann; b. 1636 in Pome-
rania; d. 1692 at Copenhagen as court-
preacher; wrote against the Jesuits and
is the author of several devotional books
and some hymns.
Lasso, Orlando, 1532 — 94 ; greatest of
Netherland composers and only second to
Palestrina in the 16th century; known
for his beautiful voice and his interest
in music even as a boy; studied in va-
rious cities in Italy; settled in Antwerp
in 1554, but three years later was called
to Munich to organize and conduct the
Hofkapelle; very prolific composer, his
most celebrated work being The Peniten-
tial Psalms of Damid.
Last Times. The age preceding the
return of Christ to Judgment. The
terms “latter days,” “end of days,” “time
of the end,” occur both in the Old and
in the New Testament and are sometimes
applied to the entire time of the New
Dispensation, or Christian Era, but more
particularly to the age — its length not
stated in Scripture — which immediately
precedes the Second Advent. The Scrip-
tures indicate, however, certain signs by
which the believers are to recognize the
approach of the end, and in reviewing
the signs foretold by our Lord Himself,
we are able to justify our application of
the term “Last Times” to the present
age. Taking a very brief survey of the
condition of the Church and the world
in our time, we cannot but notice the
following characteristics and signs :
First, the departure of many from the
faith and the increase and prevalence of
pernicious doctrines and heresies. We
do not for a moment overlook the great
number of believers ( for God will always
have His Church ) ; nevertheless, we hear
of great losses, especially from among
the young. Places of amusement are
daily crowded. Even many of those who
are outwardly in the Church are only
half in it; their other half is out in the
world. This is no doubt, in part, the
result of the great number of false doc-
trines and pernicious heresies which are
taught in many of our higher institu-
tions of learning, on platforms, in many
books, and even in many pulpits. The
cardinal doctrines of our Christian faith
are denied and ridiculed, and the doc-
trines of rationalism are substituted.
Some of the heretical sects make com-
paratively greater progress than the
Church. Compare now with this Matt.
24, 11; Luke 18, 8; 1 Tim. 4, 1 ; 2 Tim.
4, 3. 4; 2 Thess. 2, 3—11; 2 Pet. 2, 2;
Matt. 24, 24 — 27 ; 2 Pet. 3, 3 ; 2 Thess.
2, 8. 9. — A second characteristic and
sign of our time is the repetition of the
days of Noah and Lot. We see great re-
ligious indifference, lack of fear of God,
carnal security, abounding worldliness,
a mad rush, on the part of the masses,
after money, pleasure, and luxury, great
increase of indecency, adultery, and cases
of divorce, wanton destruction of human
life, and wickedness and crimes of all
sorts. As Noah preached, so the Church
preaches and remonstrates against these
evils; but the masses continue on their
downward course. The wheat grows, but
the tares grow likewise, even to such a
degree as to endanger the wheat. Com-
pare Luke 17, 26 — 30; 1 Thess. 5, 1 — 3;
2 Tim. 3, 1—5, 13; Jude 17. 19; Matt.
7, 13; 22, 14; Luke 17, 30; 2 Tim. 3, 13.
— A third sign is the continual war-ery.
We have just had a great war, and the
nations are making the most stupendous
preparations for the next slaughter.
Compare Matt. 24, 6 — 8; Rev. 6, 4. —
A fourth sign comes either directly or
indirectly from God. It is the sign of
the convulsions of nature and of provi-
dential forebodings. We think here of
the earthquakes, eruptions, tidal waves,
cyclones, tornadoes, famines, pestilences,
great conflagrations, disasters on land
and sea, of which we read and hear so
frequently in our day. Are they simply
natural phenomena, or are they “signs”?
Compare Luke 21, 11. 25/ 26. Most of
these phenomena have ocurred before;
but the close observer cannot but notice
that they have heretofore not occurred
in the same degree nor in as close cor-
respondence to the prophecies of Scrip-
ture as now. — Finally, there are also
some signs of a brighter color and out-
look. There is an awakening on the part
of some of God’s people to the dangers
and necessities of the hour; a return to
the old paths of faith; the heeding of
the watch-cry and greater activity in the
harvest-fields of the Lord. The loud and
urgent call comes to us for more mis-
sionaries and missionary labor and offer-
ings, when the hitherto closed gates of
empires are thrown open, and those
prophecies are being fulfilled, the fulfil-
Lateran Connell IV
401
Latvia
ment of which ushers in the Great Day
of the Lord. Compare Mark 13, 34 — 37 ;
Luke 21, 34—36; Matt. 26, 6; 24, 14;
Luke 13, 29.
Lateran Council IV ( Ecumenical ).
The name Lateran is derived from the
basilica of St. John Lateran in Rome,
properly speaking, the cathedral of the
Roman diocese, where the Pope is actu-
ally Bishop of Rome ; St. Peter’s is the
seat of his alleged universal jurisdic-
tion. The Fourth Lateran Council is the
Twelfth Ecumenical, according to Roman
Catholic reckoning; it was held in 1215,
being attended by 412 bishops and 800
abbots and priors. Its resolutions are
notable as containing the plans for the
recovery of the Holy Land (see Crusades)
and the general improvement of the
Church; this inpluded the condemna-
tions of the Cathari and Albigenses
(qq.v.). At this Lateran council the
term transubstantiation was officially
sanctioned, and the requirement of an-
nual confession was codified.
Lateran Council V. (For derivation
of the name “Lateran” see preceding
article.) The Eighteenth Ecumenical
Council, according to Roman Catholic
reckoning, under Julius II and Leo X
(1512 — 17), with an average attendance
of 100 — 150 members. At this council
the Pragmatic Sanction, according to
which the emperor issued a rescript
limiting the power of the Pope, espe-
cially with reference to the Gallican
Church, was declared abolished, so that
the Pope would not be bound by the
resolutions of the Council of Basel, which
declared the council’s superiority to the
Pope. This was done by the acceptance
of the bull of Leo X known as Pater
Aetemus, which declared that the Popes
had always been superior to the councils.
The council also ordered a strict censor-
ship of books and confirmed the bull
Vnam Sanctam ( q. v. ) .
Latermann, Johann; b. 1620; pro-
fessor at Koenigsberg, general superin-
tendent at Derenburg; suspended be-
cause of immoral conduct; d. as an
Austrian chaplain in 1662; a disciple of
Calixt and originator of the modern type
of synergism (Latermannianism) : Man
converts himself by making the right use
of new spiritual powers communicated to
him by God.
Latimer, Hugh, ca. 1490 — 1555; mar-
tyr bishop ; b. in Leicestershire ; embraced
Protestantism; bishop of Worcester
1535; lost King Henry’s favor; Cran-
mer’s confidant under King Edward;
burned with Ridley, at Oxford, under
Queen Mary.
f!oTM*op<Hn.
Latin. See Ancient Languages.
Latitudinarians. A name given to
those divines in England who in the 17th
century professed indifference to what
they considered small matters in dispute
between the Puritans and High Church-
men, laid more stress on classical phi-
losophy than on Christian theology, and
showed a spirit of tolerance toward dis-
senters. They at once took for their
basis science and toleration. The gen-
eral basis of Christian communion was
to be found, they claimed, in a common
recognition of the great realities of
Christian thought and life, not in any
outward adherence to a definite ecclesi-
astical system.
Latria, Dulia, Hyperdulia. Roman
theologians distinguish three kinds of
cultus: latria, the supreme honor due
only to God ; dulia, the honor given
angels and saints; hyperdulia, the ven-
eration accorded the Virgin Mary. They
teach that these degrees of honor apply
also to images and relics (therefore
latria to the cross and images of Christ),
the honor being, in each case, referred to
the prototype. These distinctions do not
alter the facts regarding the idolatrous
practises of Rome (see Saints, Worship
of; Mariolatry ; Images; Relics) ; nor
is anything gained by the sweeping as-
sertion of the Catholic Encyclopedia:
“Catholics, even the most unlearned, are
in no peril of confounding the adoration
due to God with the religious honor
given to any finite creature, even when
the word ‘worship,’ owing to the poverty
of our language, is applied to both.” The
Bible draws no such labored distinc-
tions, but gives a simple, clear rule :
“Thou shalt worship the Lord, thy God,
and Him only shalt thou serve.” Matt.
4, 10.
Latter-Day Saints. See Mormonism.
Latvia, the land of the Letts, Indo-
Germanic in blood and language, is the
name now given to the former Russian
provinces of Kurland and Livonia and
parts of Vitebsk. Christianity came ca.
1180 with Meinhard, who built the first
church at Uexkuell, or Ikeskola, and be-
came the first bishop in 1186. Though
he is called “The Apostle of Livonia,”
the country soon fell back into paganism.
Berthold of Loccum followed, but fell in
battle against the Livlanders in 1198.
Ca. 1200 Albrecht of Bremen came with
twenty-three shiploads of crusaders,
founded Riga, became bishop, captured
Dorpat in 1224, and made his brother
Herman bishop. — Lutheranism was
brought in early by Knoepken, of Kues-
trin, and Tegetmeier, of Hamburg, helped
Oft
Lanfranc
402
Law, tlie Divine
by Albrecht of Brandenburg, Grandmas-
ter of the German Order, who became a
Lutheran in 1525 and made his country
a secular duchy. Melchior Hoffmann
preached Lutheranism at Dorpat. Gus-
tavus Adolphus signed the charter of the
University of Dorpat on June 30, 1632,
in the camp at Nuernberg. Herman
Samson labored much for the faith.
Czar Paul I restored the “Sanctuary of
Science” in 1802, and in 1817 the new
curator, Count Karl Lieven, swept out
Rationalism and restored a better Lu-
theranism. During the nineteenth cen-
tury the Lutheran Church in the Baltic
provinces was grievously oppressed by
the Orthodox Church of Russia. — In
1919 Latvia became a republic. In the
Bolshevik persecution of 1919 at least
twenty-four Lutheran pastors of Latvia
and Esthonia were murdered. Popula-
tion, ca. 2,552,000, about two-thirds Lu-
theran, one-third Catholic, besides 200,000
Greek Orthodox Letts and a sprinkling of
Baptists, Adventists, and others. The
Lutheran Church is organized with two
synods, one of the Germans and the other
of the Letts, each having its bishop.
The Catholics, through political in-
trigues, have gained possession of the
Lutheran St. Jacobi Church in Riga.
Lanfranc, 1005 — 89; abbot of Bee
and prominent teacher, chief advocate of
transubstantiation in the second Eucha-
ristic Controversy ( q . v.) ; adviser of
William the Conqueror; Archbishop of
Canterbury 1070; teacher of Anselm.
Laud, William, 1573 — 1645; Arch-
bishop of Canterbury; b. at Reading;
priest 1601; detested Puritanism and ad-
vocated High-Churchmanship ; rose rap-
idly by learning and ability ; became
primate 1633; failed to force Ritualism
on the Scots; persecuted Nonconform-
ists in England; was committed to the
Tower 1641 and beheaded on Tower Hill
1645.
Lauds. A service of the canonical
hours, usually combined with that of
matins in both the Greek and the Roman
Catholic churches, although sometimes
given an independent position, just about
at dawn.
Laurenti, Laurentius, 1660 — 1722;
studied at Rostock, music at Kiel; can-
tor and director of music at the cathe-
dral church in Bremen; very able hymn-
writer ; wrote : “Ihr armen Suender,
kommt zuhauf.”
Laurentius, deacon of the church of
Rome, suffered martyrdom under Vale-
rian (253 — 60). Commanded by the
greedy magistrate to show him the trea-
sures of the church, he is said to have
pointed to the sick and the needy as con-
stituting the congregation’s wealth. For
this he was slowly roasted to death. The
story is first told by Ambrose, a hundred
years after the event, and may therefore
be not above suspicion.
Law, the Divine. Law is the pub-
lished will of the lawgiver, and the first
requirement of the law is that it should
be known by those who are under the
law. God manifested His will, or pub-
lished His Law, in the most effectual
manner conceivable, when in the very
act of creation He inscribed His Law in
the heart of man. Thus it is that man
never existed without a knowledge of the
Law. 'That the will of God as expressed
in the Natural Law has been partially
obliterated in the human heart is not of
God, but a consequence of sin, for which
man is responsible. And here, too, ig-
norance of the Law is itself a violation
of the Law. — It is expressly stated in
the Scriptures that man is held to do the
will of God, the will of the Father in
heaven. Matt. 7, 21 ; 12, 50; 1 Thess. 4, 3.
And of all men, the descendants of Adam
and Eve, the apostle says the work of
the Law is written in their hearts, and
that the Law thus made known to them
also serves the purpose of the Law, de-
termining, in a measure, the acts of those
who are subject to the Law, so that even
the Gentiles, who have not the Mosaic
written Law, “do by nature the things
contained in the Law.” Rom. 2, 14. 15. — -
This Natural Law, as inscribed in man’s
heart, really and truly asserts itself as
law, as a demand made with sovereign
authority, upon all those who are under
the Law, not by any choice of their own,
but by divine ordinance; not by influ-
ence brought to bear upon them in riper
years, but from the beginning of their
personal existence and from the first
dawn of personal consciousness.
Also according to the Natural Law the
wages of sin is death. Hence the fear
of death, under the consciousness of sin,
also among those who had not the writ-
ten Law, with its menaces expressed, and
not any such text as : “The soul that
sinneth, it shall die.” Ezek. 18, 20. —
Under this Law all men are to this day.
Wherever this Law is observed, even in
its outward works, conformity with this
divine rule results in the welfare of in-
dividuals and communities. In the meas-
ure in which this Law of God determines
the ways of men, there are faithful hus-
bands and dutiful wives, obedient chil-
dren, peaceable families and neighbor-
hoods, economic prosperity, and peace in
the security of life and property and
honor, while the numberless woes and
Law, the Divine
403
iaiarlats
sighs and tears and loud lamentations
among man are due to the various viola-
tions of the Law of God, which asserts
itself as the divine Law even among
those who are utterly ignorant of the
written Law as such. Hence even the
Gentiles are in the Scriptures described
as the children of disobedience. All men
being under this Law, all the world, hav-
ing transgressed, and daily transgress-
ing, its precepts, is guilty before God.
Rom. 3, 19. And, again, this Moral Law,
perfect as it came from the Lawgiver, is
to this day the only one binding upon all
men. Whatever besides and beyond the
Natural Law was ever published as di-
vine Law was never intended for all men.
The Mosaic Law with its political and
ceremonial statutes was never intended
for any but the people of Israel, nor for
them throughout the ages, but only to
the fulness of time; it was to serve
peculiar purposes. It was never the will
of God that all men should observe the
Sabbath, even as it never was ordained
that all men should be circumcised. —
Whatever is of the Moral Law and bind-
ing upon all men in the Sinaitic Deca-
log is not new, and whatever is new in
these commandments is not of the Moral
Law nor binding upon all men. Like
the Natural Law the moral precepts
codified on Sinai are of universal appli-
cation and cover tlie various spheres of
human life and action, but in a summary
way, determining all the states and acts
pertaining to the same category. Thus,
when the Sixth Commandment says :
“Thou shalt not commit adultery,” this
is an injunction of chastity upon the
married and the unmarried, in relation
and disposition, in desire and word and
deed, though only one gross sin of un-
chastity is explicitly named. It is the
same with all other commandments of
the moral Decalog. — The law of love is
supreme and final. Our Lord Himself
has for all time placed this truth beyond
the realm of doubt and debate. Matt.
22, 35 — 40. This twofold commandment
of love is the sum and substance of all
Moral Law, natural and revealed. It is
the foundation and corner-stone, the heart
and life, the soul and spirit, of all law.
The use of God’s holy Law is a three-
fold one. In the Formula of Concord
our Church, in accordance with the Holy
Scriptures, confesses in reference to this
matter as follows: “The Law of God is
useful, I) not only to the end that ex-
ternal discipline and decency are main-
tained by it against wild, disobedient
men; 2) likewise that through it men
are brought to a knowledge of their sins ;
3) but also that when they have been
born anew by the Spirit of God, con-
verted to the Lord, and thus the veil of
Moses has been lifted from them, they
live and walk in the Law.” (Concordia
Triglotta, 963, 1.) In the Catechism of
the Missouri Synod, under Question 91:
“What purposes does the Law, then,
serve?” we find the following answers:
“First, it checks, in a measure, the coarse
outbursts of sin and thereby helps to
maintain outward decency in the world.
(A curb.) Secondly, and chiefly, it
teaches man the due knowledge of his
sin. (A mirror.) Thirdly, it leads the
regenerate to know what are truly good
works. (A rule. )” From that fatal hour
when Adam fell into sin to the very last
day of this present world’s sin-cursed
history there never was nor is nor will
be any one single human being that could
by his own efforts satisfy the demands
of God’s Law and thus stand in His holy
presence by virtue of his own righteous-
ness. They are all guilty, that is, they
are all under condemnation, deserving of,
and liable to, punishment at the hands
of Him whose Law they have broken and
whose sovereign majesty they have of-
fended. And that is the last word the
Law has to say to the sinner. It leaves
him with the threat of divine retribu-
tion upon his soul.
It is the Gospel of Jesus Christ that
points to the way out, the glad tidings
of forgiveness and peace, of life and joy:
that great mystery, the eternal divine
counsel of redemption, of which He Him-
self ever was, is, and will be, the living
center, the very heart and soul. A flood
of Gospel-light bursts upon a sinful and
lost world from those heavenly words of
God’s own Son: “God so loved the world
that He gave His only-begotten Son, that
whosoever believeth in Him should not
perish, but have everlasting life.” John
3, 16. See Gospel, Atonement, Christ.
Layritz, Friedrich., 1808 — 59; stud-
ied theology at Erlangen; pastor at
Hirschlaeh; greatly interested in hym-
nology and liturgies; published Kern
des deutschen Kircliengesangs, in which
he strongly advocated the restoration of
the original form of the German rhyth-
mical choral, his ideas being embodied
in the Clioralhuch named after him;
published also Liturgie eines vollstaendi-
gen Hauptgottesdienstes nach lutheri-
schem Typus and instructions for psalm-
chanting in the second edition of Loelxe’s
Agenda.
Lazarists (Congregation of the Mis-
sion). A congregation of secular priests,
founded by Vincent de Paul, in 1625, to
preach to the poor country people of
Lector
404
I.enskl, Rich. C. «.
France, who suffered from the ignorance
and neglect of their pastors. Lazarists
still prefer to be free to travel and accept
parishes with regret. The congregation
was hard hit by the French Revolution,
many members being executed and many
establishments destroyed. Their largest
mission is in China. They have also
been especially active in the American
West, with headquarters at Perry ville,
Mo., and St. Louis (Kenriek Seminary).
Lector. See Minor Orders ; Hierarchy.
Lee, Ann. English visionary; b. 1736
in Manchester, England; d. 1784 at
Watervliet, N. Y. ; joined the Shakers
(q. v.), whose leader she became (“Mother
Ann”) ; emigrated to America with fol-
lowers, 1774.
Leeson, Jane Eliza, 1807 — 82; a very
prolific poetess, who published a number
of collections of hymns, also paraphrases
and translations; wrote: “Gracious
Savior, Gentle Shepherd” ; “Songs of
Glory Fill the Sky,” and others.
Legacies. In a more loose sense a
legacy is money or property bequeathed
by a testator. It is of utmost importance
that the testator’s will be drawn up in
accordance with the requirements of the
laws of the State and that both the pur-
pose and the legatee (in case of church
organizations the full and correct name
of the corporation should be stated) be
explicitly mentioned. It should be stated
whether the legacy itself or only its pro-
ceeds should be used for the specified
purpose. The testator must be of a
sound mind and act upon his own free
will. Great difficulty may arise in using
a legacy if the testator has restricted its
purpose too much. — The custom of mak-
ing bequests to the Church should be en-
couraged. Christians, however, should
be taught not on that account to with-
hold their liberal contributions to the
Church during their lifetime.
Legates. Emissaries representing the
Pope. The highest, entrusted with the
most important matters, are legates
a latere, who are always cardinals. Next
in rank are nuncios ( q . v.) and inter-
nuncios. Apostolic delegates (q.v.) are
sent to so-called missionary countries;
if they have diplomatic duties, they are
envoys extraordinary. Of minor impor-
tance are vicars-apostolic (q.v.) and ab-
legates.
Lehmann, Wm. F., 1820 — 80; b. in
Wurttemberg; came to America in 1824;
studied under Schmidt in Columbus and
Demme in Philadelphia; pastor 1840 to
1846, then professor in Capital Univer-
sity, Columbus, O.; its president for
thirty-four years; several terms presi-
dent of the Synodical Conference, but
opposed to “Missouri’s” influence; “the
most influential man in the Ohio Synod”;
editor of Luth. Kirchenzeitung, 1859 — 80.
Lehr, Leopold Franz Friedrich,
1709 — 44; studied at Jena and Halle,
tutor at Orphanage in Halle; later at
Koethen, where he became diaconus in
1740; wrote: “Mein Heiland nimmt die
Suender an.”
Leibniz ( Leibnitz ) Gottfried Wil-
helm von, noted German polyhistor;
b. 1646 in Leipzig; many years official
at HanoVerian court; d. 1716 in Hano-
ver. Eminent as mathematician, philos-
opher, statesman, jurist, theologian. His
system of philosophy purposes to be a
Christian philosophy, uniting Christian-
ity and a mechanical explanation of
nature. The universe is made up of
“monads,” units endowed with physical
and psychical properties, God being the
Supreme Monad. He endeavored to unite
Protestant and Roman, also Lutheran
and Reformed churches. Main work,
Essais de Thcodictie.
Leighton, Robert, 1611 — 84; Scot-
tish prelate; Londoner; Presbyterian
minister; divinity professor; Edin-
burgh; Archbishop (Anglican) of Glas-
gow 1670; resigned' because unable to
prevent harsh treatment of Presbyte-
rians ; author.
Leipzig Interim. See Interim.
Leland, John, 1754 — 1841; preached
at age of twenty; 1776 — 90 in Virginia,
after that in Massachusetts; erratic dis-
position ; of hymns ascribed to him best-
known is: “The Day Is Past and Gone.”
Lenker, John N., statistician and
historian; b. in Pennsylvania 1858;
studied at Wittenberg College and Leip-
zig; pastor at Grand Island, Nebr.,
1882 — 86; professor in Trinity Semi-
nary, Blair, Nebr., 1900—04; author of
Lutherans in All Lands, which necessi-
tated much travel and research work ;
translator of Luther’s works (20 vol-
umes) into English.
Lenski, Rich. C. H.; prominent the-
ologian of Lutheran Ohio Synod; b. 1864
in Germany; graduated from Columbus
Seminary 1887 ; held pastorates in Balti-
more, Trenton, Springfield, and Anna, O.,
1887 — 1911; then became professor of
Dogmatics and Homiletics at Columbus;
author of homiletic expositions on the
Eisenach Gospels and Epistles; New
Gospel Selections ; St. Paul; The Active
Church-member ; editor of the Kirchen-
zeitung till 1925.
Leo the Great
405
Lensden, Johannes
Leo the Great. Pope 440 — 461 ; a na-
tive of Tuscany, a man of considerable
influence even when he was still a dea-
con, being called upon to settle the dis-
pute between Aetius and Albinus, the two
highest officials of Gaul. When he be-
came Pope, he immediately took steps
against various heretics, such as Pela-
gians and Manicheans (qq. v.) ; at the
same time he strengthened his authority
in Spain, in Gaul, and in the East.
When Attila, on his campaign of con-
quest, invaded Italy and threatened
Rome, it was Leo who went to meet
him and thereby saved the city. Leo
consistently asserted the universal epis-
copate of the Roman bishop and, in
agreement with this claim, took steps to
centralize the government of the Church.
The fact that he was the first Bishop of
Rome to apply these theories consistently
justifies the application to him of the
title of the first Pope.
Leo X. Pope 1513 — 21, the Pope who
began proceedings against Luther after
the. posting of the Ninety-five Theses in
1517; b. 1475 as second son of Lorenzo
the Magnificent, of the famous Floren-
tine Medici family; educated in the hu-
manities, in theology and in the canon
law; became cardinal; gained important
political influence in 1509; reached the
height of his power as Pope. Although
approached in the matter of a reforma-
tion of the Church, he could not be per-
suaded to take a real interest in prob-
lems of amelioration. That Leo did not
understand the beginning of the Lu-
theran movement in Germany is evident
from the fact that he regarded it as
nothing but a monks’ quarrel. He did
not realize that the Reformation was
ushering in a new era, and his bull of
excommunication against Luther (1520),
as well as his cooperation in the Edict
of Worms (1521), were futile attempts
to retard the Reformation.
Lepers. People afflicted with leprosy,
a disease already well known to the an-
cients and frequently mentioned in the
Bible. Leprosy was at one time found
in most of the countries of the globe.
It is believed that there are no less than
ca. 3,000,000 lepers to-day, of whom the
greater part live in Japan, China, and
India, though European and American
countries are not immune. Leproseries
were early established for the unfortu-
nates who suffered with this malady.
Those who were not segregated were ban-
ished into desert and outlying districts,
shunned and subjected to very rigid and
frequently almost inhuman regulations.
In the early Christian Church efforts
were occasionally made to alleviate the
condition of the victims. Also in the
Middle Ages we find efforts in this direc-
tion. Christianity has softened the lot
of these sufferers. Through its influence
modern governments are introducing
more humane measures for the protec-
tion of the lepers themselves and of the
people. In the United States leproseries
are maintained in four o'r five cities.
Possibly the largest leper colony in the
world has been established at Molokai,
Hawaii, some 56 miles from Honolulu.
Culion, in the Philippines, has a settle-
ment that is said to harbor about
6,000 inmates. Other colonies are found
throughout the Orient. Modern medi-
cine appears to have found a specific in
chaulmoogra and other oils and serums.
Religious missions to lepers are being
conducted by various organizations,
among which the American Missions to
Lepers has a prominent place. Right
here is a door wide open to medical
missions.
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, German
critic and dramatist; b. 1729 at Kamenz,
Saxony; d. 1781 at Brunswick; since
1770 librarian at Wolfenbuettel; one of
three great German writers of the clas-
sical period; in theology, prominent in
development of the “Enlightenment”
(q. v.) . Though criticizing shallowness
and philisticism of current rationalistic
theology, he became one of greatest
promoters of rationalism in its worst
form, especially by publishing the Wol-
fenbuetteler Fragmente. These were
posthumous treatises by H. S. Reimarus,
of Hamburg, a freethinker, who sub-
jected Bible and Christianity to a de-
structive criticism from the deistic
standpoint, claiming that miracles are
impossible and that Jesus and His apos-
tles were impostors. In the ensuing con-
troversy, Lessing defended these views,
becoming especially bitter against Pastor
Goeze of Hamburg. When asked by the
Brunswick government to discontinue the
controversy, he resorted to his former
“pulpit,” the stage, and wrote Nathan
der Weise, professedly to teach tolera-
tion ; but it contained the same rationalis-
tic views, and it was greeted with joy by
enemies of the Christian truth. Lessing
failed to grasp the essentials of Chris-
tianity: repentance, faith, vicarious
atonement, asserting that Christianity is
merely a stage in the development of re-
ligion, which finds its culmination in a
perfect natural religion. See his Er-
ziehung des Menschengeschlechts.
Lessons (Liturgical). See Pericopes.
Leusden, Johannes, 1624 — 99; Dutch
Hebraist; b. at Utrecht 1624; highly
Leyser, Polycarp
406
Liberty, Religions
esteemed professor of Oriental languages
there; published, in collaboration with
Athias, a Rabbi and printer, the Old
Testament; author; d. at Utrecht 1699.
Leyser, Polycarp; b. 1552, d. 1610
as pastor and professor at Wittenberg;
was instrumental in restoring sound
Lutheranism after Crypto-Calvinism had
been suppressed; after a short stay in
Brunswick recalled to Wittenberg; 1594
court-preacher at Dresden; joint author
with Chemnitz and Gerhard of Harmonia
Evangelistarum.
Liber Pontiflcalis. A compilation of
biographies with the alleged historical
data concerning the bishops of Rome
from St. Peter to the end of the seventh
century. The first compilation of this
name was made about the ninth century,
and every edition of the Pontifical Book
is based upon a list of Popes ending with
Liberius (352 — 366) and an Index, which
is kept up to date on the basis of history
and tradition.
Liberal Arts, as distinguished from
the fine and the practical arts, consti-
tuted, from the time of the Greeks, the
curriculum of the secondary and the
higher schools, including substantially
all learning. During the Middle Ages
the seven Liberal Arts were divided into
the trivium and the quadrivium. The
trivium, taught in the lower schools,
comprised grammar (language and lit-
erature), rhetoric (emphasized in Roman
education, but much neglected during
Middle Ages), logic (dialectics) ; the
quadrivium, taught in the higher schools,
included arithmetic, geometry, astronomy
(astrology), music (mathematical study
of music, which had little in common
with the modern idea of music ) .
Liberalism, opposed to conservatism,
denotes the principles and methods of
those who in life, thought, politics, and
religion endeavor to secure the largest
measure of liberty for the individual
over against established custom and civil
and divine authority. Political liberal-
ism rapidly spread in those countries
still having autocratic governments, and
its fundamental idea is to secure for all
citizens in a well-ordered commonwealth
the greatest possible personal liberty,
equal rights granted to all, special privi-
leges to none. — In theology, liberalism
is the tendency which refuses to accept
orthodox creeds and allows wide latitude
with regard to religious beliefs, not dar-
ing to say: “There is but one truth, and
according to Scripture this is it.” It
tolerates any movement that breaks away
from established Scripture doctrines and
encourages liberal views in morals and
religion.
Liberia. A republic in West Africa.
Area, about 40,000 sq. mi. Population
estimated at 1,500,000. The colony was
organized by the American Colonization
Society (1818) for freed American Ne-
groes. Missions are conducted by ten
societies. Statistics: Foreign staff, 108;
Christian community, 27,308; communi-
cants, 10,956.
Liberty, Religious. The teaching
of the Lutheran Church regarding the
relation of the Church to the State
accords to each complete and unre-
stricted authority in its proper sphere.
It recognizes the absolute lawgiving and
executive power of the state governments
in all secular affairs and enjoins upon its
adherents obedience to the state laws in
everything that is not opposed to the pre-
cepts of the Word of God. It holds that
Christ’s reply to the Pharisees: “Render
unto Caesar the things which are Cae-
sar’s and unto God the things that are
God’s,” Matt. 22, 21, distinctly pro-
nounces the separation between Church
and State. Christ declares the power of
civil rulers to be of divine authority by
saying to Pilate: “Thou couldst have no
power at all against Me except it were
given thee from above.” John 19, 11. To
the Church He as plainly denies the
right to use force (as by employing the
state) to advance the interest of His
kingdom when He says to Peter: “Put
up again thy sword into his place; for
all they that take the sword shall perish
with the sword.” Matt. 26, 52. In the
same night of trial He spoke to Pilate
regarding His kingdom: “My kingdom
is not of this world; if My kingdom
were of this world, then would My ser-
vants fight that I should not be delivered
to the Jews; but now is My kingdom
not from hence.” John 18, 36. On the
other hand, the injunctions upon Chris-
tians to obey existing temporal govern-
ments are plain and emphatic. Rom. 13,
1.2; 1 Tim. 2,1; Titus 3,1; 1 Pet. 2, 13.
Only in case of demands directly con-
trary to the Christian religion, obedience
is to be refused. Acts 5, 29.
The reestablishment of true relations
between state government and the
churches through the American Consti-
tution is a late fruit of the Lutheran
Reformation, but none the less a direct
result of its principles, as announced in
the Lutheran Confessions, e. g., Art. 28
of the Augsburg Confession: “This power
is exercised only by teaching or preach-
ing the Gospel and administering the
Sacraments, according to their calling
Liberty, Religion))
407
Libraries
either to many or to individuals. For
thereby are granted, not bodily, but
eternal things, as eternal righteousness,
the Holy Ghost, eternal life. These
things cannot come but by the ministry
of the Word and the Sacraments, as
Paul says, Rom. 1, 16: ‘The Gospel is
the power of God unto salvation to every
one that believeth.’ Therefore, since the
power of the Church grants eternal
things and is exercised only by the min-
istry of the Word, it does not interfere
with civil government; no more than
the art of singing interferes with civil
government. For civil government deals
with other things than does the Gospel.
The civil rulers defend not minds, but
bodies and bodily things, against mani-
fest injuries and restrain men with the
sword and bodily punishments in order
to preserve civil justice and peace. —
Therefore the power of the Church and
the civil power must not be confounded.
The power of the Church has its own
commission to teach the Gospel and to
administer the Sacraments. Let it not
break into the office of another; let it
not transfer the kingdoms of this world ;
let it not abrogate the laws of civil
rulers; let it not abolish lawful obe-
dience; let it not interfere with judg-
ments concerning civil ordinances or
contracts; let it not prescribe laws to
civil rulers concerning the form of the
commonwealth. As Christ says, John
18, 36: ‘My kingdom is not of this
world’; also Luke 12, 14: ‘Who made
Me a judge or a divider over you?’ Paul
also says, Phil. 3, 20: ‘Our citizenship
is in heaven’; 2 Cor. 10, 4: ‘The weap-
ons of our warfare are not carnal, but
mighty through God to the casting down
of imaginations.’ ” — See also Apology
of the Augsburg Confession, Art. 16:
“This entire topic concerning the dis-
tinction between the kingdom of Christ
and a political kingdom has been ex-
plained to advantage (to the remarkably
great consolation of many consciences)
in the literature of our writers, (namely)
that the kingdom of Christ is spiritual
(inasmuch as Christ governs by the
Word and by preaching), to wit, begin-
ning in the heart the knowledge of God,
the fear of God, and faith, eternal right-
eousness, and eternal life; meanwhile it
permits us outwardly to Use legitimate
political ordinances of every nation in
which we live, just as it permits us to
use medicine or the art of building, or
food, drink, air. Neither does the Gos-
pel bring new laws concerning the civil
state, but commands that we obey pres-
ent laws, whether they have been framed
by heathen or by others, and that in this
obedience we should exercise love.” See
also Church and State.
Libraries of clay tablets in cuneiform
writing have been found in old Babylo-
nian temples. The palace of Ashurba-
nipal at Nineveh, seventh century B. C.,
contained probably 10,000 workB. The
history of the great Greek libraries be-
gins with the founding of the Alexan-
drian Library by the Ptolemies ca. 275
B. C. The first important libraries at
Rome seem to have been gained as spoils
of war. First public libraries 39 B. C.
In imperial times public and private li-
braries were quite numerous, containing
rolls of papyrus in cases. As the Church
came to possess a distinct literature, we
find small collections of Christian writ-
ings in the important churches. Ca. 309
A. D. Pamphilus founded a library at
Caesarea, which grew to about 30,000
volumes. Constantine the Great founded
the library of Constantinople, which in-
creased to 120,000 volumes. During the
Middle Ages books were preserved chiefly
in the monasteries. Besides the libraries
there was in many a cloister a scripto-
rium, writing-room, where manuscripts
were copied. Notable libraries at Monte
Cassino, Ratisbon, St. Gall, Canterbury,
York. These monastic libraries, though
not large, as a rule, performed an in-
calculable service in the preservation of
old texts and manuscripts. With the
Renaissance came the university library
in Germany. Luther advocated public
town libraries in his work An die Bats-
herren. Libraries multiplied, and at
present no country can show such well-
equipped libraries for scientific research
as Germany and Austria. The Biblio-
theque Nationale (1368) at Paris is con-
sidered the largest in the world. Next
is the library of the British Museum,
which perhaps surpasses the French li-
brary in value of contents. Harvard Li-
brary, the oldest library in this country,
was founded 1638, the Congressional Li-
brary in 1800. Recognizing the educa-
tional possibilities of libraries, the States
now permit localities to levy taxes for
library purposes. In consequence of this
the libraries of the United States have
grown from small beginnings to be more
numerous and probably more efficiently
organized than those of any other coun-
try. From 1881 to 1915 Andrew Carnegie
has given to public and college libraries
and library buildings $62,518,517. The
free public library is gradually crowding
out the former circulating, subscription,
and proprietary libraries, inasmuch as
branch libraries, traveling libraries, li-,
brary wagons and cars in rural districts
make it possible for all to make free use
Libri CarolinI
408
Lie
of the hooks. Besides the general public
libraries there are many special libraries,
as for law, medicine, theology, education,
art, etc. Universities, colleges, normal
schools, and high schools often have their
own libraries. — Libraries have three
functions: they are to be storehouses of
hooks and knowledge and laboratories
for study and research; they are to
afford recreation. Every well-organized
library should have a reference depart-
ment, a lending department, and a read-
ing-room. Reading, no doubt, has great
educational value, and the habit of read-
ing should be encouraged in our schools.
But great care must be exercised in the
selection of books. Congregations should
install school libraries, where instruc-
tive, entertaining, and, chiefly, pure and
wholesome reading-matter may be had.
(See hook list prepared by the Juvenile
Literature Board, Concordia Publishing
House, St. Louis, Mo.)
Libri Carolini ( Carolinian Books).
A book of opinions given by theologians
of Charles the Great concerning the reso-
lutions of Nicea, 787, in matters of the
Iconoclastic Controversy {q.v.).
Lichtfreunde, or freie Gemeinden,
German religious organizations with ra-
tionalistic tendencies, organized in op-
position to the confessionalism of the
Protestant state churches, under the
leadership of Pastors Uhlich, Wislicenus,
and others, in the forties of the 19th
century, in Magdeburg, Koenigsberg,
Halle, and other cities. After a decade
of strenuous religious and later also, po-
litical activity the movement declined,
though freie Gemeinden, which more and
more lost their religious character, main-
tained themselves in decreasing numbers
to the 20th century.
Liddon, Henry Parry, 1829 — 90;
Anglican pulpit orator; b. at North
Stoneham; priest 1853; educator; canon
of St. Paul’s 1870; High-Churchman;
biographer of Pusey; d. near Bristol;
wrote : On the Divinity of Our Lord and
Savior Jesus Christ.
Lie. The attitude of the Bible in the
matter of lies is clear and unmistakable.
Such as turn aside to lies, Ps. 40, 4, are
numbered with the wicked who go astray,
speaking lies, Ps. 58, 3; and those who
delight in lies, Ps. 62, 4, are reckoned
with the outcasts of Jehovah. A false
witness will utter lies. Prov. 14, 5. A de-
ceitful witness speaketh lies. Prov. 14, 25.
He that speaketh lies shall not escape.
Prov. 19, 5. In the characterization of
the wicked, Isaiah states: They trust in
vanity and speak lies. Is. 59, 4. There
are approximately fifty passages in the
Old Testament that denounce the telling
of lies, and that with great emphasis and
every show of loathing for him who is
guilty of this sin. And the New Testa-
ment summarizes the attitude of the
Lord in the words: “Wherefore, putting
away lying, speak every man truth with
his neighbor; for we are members one
of another.” Eph. 4, 25.
On the basis of the various passages
of Scriptures which are here concerned
we may define a lie as a conscious, de-
liberate falsehood, that is, one uttered in
spite of better knowledge, with a cow-
ardly, selfish, spiteful, or other evil
motive, that is, with the intention of
working harm to one’s neighbor. This
may be done in a positive manner, by
making such statements as do not con-
form to the truth and of whose falseness
the speaker is conscious. It may be done
in a negative manner, by withholding
such information in the possession of the
person concerned as would clear up a
situation and relieve some one under
false suspicion. Nor is it always a mat-
ter of the mere form of words. “A per-
son may tell the truth in such a way —
with a shrug or a laugh or a peculiar
emphasis — as to convey a false impres-
sion. It is a lie, however, because the
purpose of the speaker is to deceive.
We have known people to deceive in this
way and then, when they were accused,
to declare that they had spoken the pre-
cise truth. They were the worst kind of
falsifiers, however, because they used the
truth itself to coin a lie.” ( Keyset.)
It is correct to say, in agreement with
this explanation, that a lie, properly de-
fined, is never justifiable. Not every
product of the imagination, not every hit
of fiction, is to be classed with lies. The
fables of Aesop, the fairy-tales collected
by the brothers Grimm and by Andersen,
even the parables of the Bible, are not
true stories, and yet no one would think
of calling them lies. Many of the
greatest allegories in the world’s litera-
ture, such as Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Prog-
ress and the letter which Luther wrote
to his little Hans, are not true stories;
but they certainly are not lies. A phy-
sician may find it necessary to withhold
certain facts from a patient who is in
a precarious condition; for the shock of
the plain tenth in such a case might
prove fatal. In this case the falsehood
is not only not reprehensible, but actu-
ally beneficent. A part of the truth is
withheld for the purpose of saving a life.
Yet this fact does not permit a physician
to disguise the truth at all times, but
only in very grave and exceptional cir-
cumstances. A medical director of an
Iilebenzeller Mission
409 I.lllentlinl, Theodor Christoph
institution for the insane may find him-
self obliged to mislead his patients in
a great number of instances; but this
is done in their own interest and in that
of society at large. — Thus also, a gen-
eral in a righteous war is altogether
right in hiding his tactics from the
enemy and in using falsehoods by way
of strategy. Even in many games it is
fully permissible to lead an opponent
astray, at least by withholding the truth
from him. The various situations and
circumstances of life will quickly de-
termine, for every person who is willing
to follow the lead of his conscience, just
when the full measure of the truth is
required and when a deviation from this
standard is permissible.
But let no one make this distinction
an excuse for deliberate deviations from
the path of strict veracity in such cases
where love toward one’s neighbor de-
mands strict veracity. The statement of
the Amalekite, 2 Sam. 1, 10, was a lie,
because it was not in agreement with
the facts in the matter and was made
from an evil motive. On the other hand,
the manner in which Jonathan acted,
1 Sam. 20, was not reprehensible on this
score, for his misleading of his father
had the object of sheltering David from
the unjust wrath of Saul.- — And there
is another matter which should be noted
in this connection, namely, that of the
so-called “lying proclivity” of children.
It is true that children may easily be
misled and become addicted to deliberate
falsehoods and lies; but, on the other
hand, many of the statements made by
them by way of narrative are evidence
of a very active imagination. In that
case the motive actuating a real lie is
absent, and parents and educators will
deal with the situation differently than
with a flagrant transgression. The ideal
is that named by St. Paul, when he ad-
monishes the Ephesians to speak the
truth in love. Eph. 4, 15.
Liebenzeller Mission, Wurttemberg,
organized in Hamburg 1899; has sta-
tions in China; a branch of the China
Inland Mission.
Life and Advent Union. The doc-
trine that there will be no resurrection
of the wicked was preached in 1848 by
John T. Walsh, then an associate editor
of the Bible Examiner, an Adventist pe-
riodical published in New York City.
A considerable number of Adventists
joined him, and in 1864 the Life and Ad-
vent Union was organized at Wilbraham,
Mass. In matters of doctrine its mem-
bers are in accord with the earlier Ad-
ventists, except with regard to the res-
urrection and the millennium. They hold
that only the righteous dead will be
raised and that eternal life is bestowed
solely at the second coming of Christ;
that the millennium, the one thousand
years of Rev. 20, had its fulfilment in the
past and, instead of being a time of
peace and happiness, was a period of re-
ligious persecution and suffering; that
this earth, purified by fire and renewed
in beauty, will be the eternal inheritance
and dwelling-place of God’s people, in
which the wicked dead will have no share
at all, their sleep being eternal. In
polity the Life and Advent Union is
distinctly congregational, the associa-
tions having no ecclesiastical authority.
Four camp -meetings are held annually,
two in Maine, one in Connecticut, and
one in Virginia. Their official publica-
tion is the Herald of Life, issued weekly
at New Haven, Conn. In 1921 the Life
and Advent Union had 23 ministers,
11 churches, and 662 communicants.
Lightfoot, John, 1602 — 76; English
Hebraist; b. at Staffordshire; held va-
rious rectorates; vice-chancellor of Cam-
bridge 1654; prebendary, 1668, at Ely
(d. there); wrote: Hours Hebrew and
Talmudic (ed. by Carpzov in Latin), etc.
Lightfoot, Joseph Barber, 1828 — 89;
Anglican prelate; b. in Liverpool;
priest 1858; divinity professor at Cam-
bridge; New Testament reviser; canon
of St. Paul’s ; bishop of Durham ; d. at
Hants; wrote: Apostolic Fathers ; Com-
mentaries; etc.
Liguori, Alfonso Maria de. One of,
the most influential Roman Catholic
moralists; b. 1696, d. 1787; received
an excellent education; became priest;
founded the Redemptorist Order of mis-
sion-priests in 1732; was made bishop
of Sant’ Agata de’ Goti in 1762, but re-
tired in 1775; his most important work
one on moral theology, in which the prin-
ciples of the Jesuits are inculcated; used
as the basis of moral instruction in many
Roman Catholic institutions; also wrote
books on pastoral and ascetic theology.
Liliencron, Rochus von, 1820 — 1909;
studied jurisprudence and philology at
Kiel, Berlin, and Copenhagen; professor
at Jena; later editor of the Historical
Commission of Munich, to collect and
annotate the historical German folk-
songs of the Middle Ages, a task for
which his studies and interest qualified
him; published: Deutsches Leben im
Volkslied um 1530, Ueber Kirchenmusik
und Kirchenkonzert, etc.
Lilienthal, Theodor Christoph; born
1717; d. 1782 as professor and pastor
at Koenigsberg; wrote a very valuable
apologetic work: Die gute Sache der in
timbo
410
llpalaa, Richard Adelbert
der Heiligen Schrift Alten und Neuen
Testaments enthaltenen goettlichen Of-
fenbarung, against the Deists, the result
of thirty years’ labor, Defensor Ortho-
doxias Moderatissimus.
Limbo. A name applied in Roman
Catholic theology and tradition to a
place where there are supposed to be de-
tained the souls of those unable, through
no fault of tlieir own, to enter heaven.
The location assigned to it is the limbus
(fringe) of hell. A distinction is made
between the limbo of fathers and that
of infants. In the limbo of the fathers
“the souls of the saints before the com-
ing of Christ were received, and there,
without any sense of pain, upheld by
the blessed hope of redemption, they en-
joyed a quiet sojourn.” ( Catechismus
Romanus, I, 6. 3.) In this limbo, as well
as in purgatory, Christ is supposed to
have appeared when He “went and
preached unto the spirits in prison,”
1 Pet. 3, 19, and to have emptied it either
at that time or when He ascended into
heaven. The limbo of infants is appor-
tioned to the souls of infants dying with-
out baptism. — The conditions in limbo
have been much debated. One ingenious
theory held that hell, purgatory, and
limbo were superimposed, the fires burn-
ing with all fierceness in hell, the flames
then passing through purgatory, their
crests entering the limbo of infants, only
the heat and smoke reaching the fathers.
The accepted theory holds that there is
perfect natural happiness in limbo, but
no beatific vision. The Catholic Encyclo-
pedia deplores the “absence of a clear,
positive revelation on the subject.” As
a matter of fact, revelation shows both
clearly and positively that limbo is pure
fiction; for the Bible knows of only two
places in the hereafter. Mark 16, 16;
Matt. 25, 46.
Lind, Jenny, “the Swedish Nightin-
gale,” 1820 — 87 ; studied at Stockholm
under Berg and Lindblad, later at Paris
under Garcia; began her career in opera,
but later took up concert work with very
great success, especially in America.
Lindberg, Conrad Emil; b. 1852 in
Sweden; educated at Augustana College
of the Swedish Augustana Synod and
at Philadelphia; pastor in Philadel-
phia 1876 — 79; in New York (Gustavus
Adolphus) 1879 — 90; professor of dog-
matics at Augustana since 1890, dean
since 1920; author of works on dogma,
history of dogma, and apologetics.
Lindemann, Frederick; b. January
12, 1851, in Baltimore, Md. ; studied the-
ology at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis ;
was pastor of congregations in Pitts-
burgh, Boston, Port Wayne, and other
cities; became professor at the Teachers’
Seminary in Addison in 1893; d. Decem-
ber 13, 1907. Son of
Lindemann, Johann Christoph Wil-
helm; b. January 6, 1827, at Goettin-
gen, Hanover. Circumstances preventing
his entering college, he privately pre-
pared for the teaching profession and
in 1848 took charge of St. Paul’s School
at Baltimore. For a year he studied
theology at the Practical Seminary, Port
Wayne, and in 1853 became assistant to
President H. C. Schwan at Cleveland. In
1864 he was elected to the presidency of
the Lutheran Normal at Addison, 111.
An excellent instructor and a deeply
earnest man, he left his impress on his
students. He was a prolific writer,
edited the Ev.-Luth. Schulblatt (now
School Journal, and the Lutherische Ka-
lender, compiled various schoolbooks, and
was the author of Schulpraxis (still held
in high esteem), Dr. Martin Luther als
Erssieher der Jugend, Deutsche Oramma-
tik, and other books. D. January 15,
1879.
Lingard, J., 1771 — -1851; distin-
guished Catholic historian and divine.
His history of England, translated into
various languages, traces the story from
the Roman invasion to the year 1688.
He is also the author of a translation of
the New Testament.
Link, Georg; b. 1829 in Bavaria;
studied at Concordia Seminary, Port
Wayne. A preacher of ability, he served,
among others, important congregations
of the Missouri Synod at St. Louis, Mo.,
and Springfield, 111. He wrote Luthers
Hausandacht. D. 1908.
Link, Wenzeslaus; b. 1483; studied
at Wittenberg 1503; entered cloister at
Waldheim 1506; on account of the farces
and fables fed to the peqple by the
drunken and lazy monks, he left for the
cloister at Wittenberg; dean of the
theological faculty in 1512; popular
preacher at Nuernberg in 1517; zealous
friend of Luther; succeeded Staupitz in
1520 as Vicar-General; d. 1547.
Linzner, Georg; b. at Kamenz, Sax-
ony; was private teacher in Breslau
about 1680; wrote: “Meinen Jesum lass’
ich nicht, denn er ist allein mein Leben.”
Lippi, Era Filippo, 1412 — 69; Italian
painter, principally of frescoes; realistic
to the point of not promoting edification,
many of his characters being portraits of
prominent men and women of Florence.
Lipsius, Richard Adelbert; b. at
Gera 1830; d. at Jena 1892; Free-Prot-
estant theologian; extremely liberal;
Liseow, Salomo
411
Liturgies
from 1871 to his death professor at Jena.
Edited Apocrypha of the New Testa-
ment, etc.
Liseow, Salomo, 1640 — 89, studied at
Leipzig and Wittenberg; pastor at Ot-
terwisch, near Lausick; later second
pastor at Wurzen; prominent among
hymn-writers of his century; wrote:
“Nun freue dich, o Christenheit” ; “Schatz
ueber alle Schaetze.”
Liszt, Franz, 1811 — 88; studied at
Vienna under Czerny and Salieri; lived
chiefly at Paris, Geneva, Weimar, and
Rome; appeared on many concert tours
with brilliant success; creator of the
symphonic poem; published many sacred
choruses.
Litany. From a Greek word meaning
supplication, applied to the bidding-
prayers of the Church in general, espe-
cially the penitential hymns. Luther
purified the chief litany and valued it
very highly, giving it a prominent place
in the liturgy.
Lithuania. The last European land
to be Christianized. Grand Duke Min-
daug was baptized for political reasons
in 1252, but soon made war on the Chris-
tians. Jagello was baptized in 1386,
ended paganism, and brought the country
under the influence of Poland, to which
it was united in 1569; in 1795 and 1815
it fell to Russia. — When sharp measures
were taken against the Protestants as
early as 1524, Albrecht of Prussia did
much for Lutheranism. Under Sigis-
raund III the Jesuits caused fierce perse-
cutions; in Sehoeden almost all Lu-
therans were massacred by the Catholic
Poles; even Peter the Great could do
the Lutherans no lasting good. — In 1919
the country became a republic; capital,
Vilna. Population, 4,800,000; 75 per
cent. Catholic. In 1922 the Lutherans
numbered 593,000 souls in 17 parishes
and 37 preaching-stations with 16 pas-
tors and 36 organists, who also act as
vicars. The Consistory consists of the
three committees of three synods — Ger-
man, Lithuanian, and Lettish. The Re-
formed synod has three pastors and 12,000
souls; the Methodists have two pastors,
the Baptists one.
Lithuanian National Catholic
Church. A body of Old Catholics
made up of emigrants from the Baltic
provinces and organized by Rev. S. B.
Mickiewicz. Membership, 7,343. See
Old Catholics.
Liturgical Service. Such public ser-
vices as bring out the sacrificial side of
worship only, or that part of public wor-
ship which pertains to the liturgy, to
prayer and confession on the part of the
worshipers, of course, not in the Roman
Catholic sense. See Worship, Divine.
Liturgies. The formal study of lit-
urgies, or liturgiology, that is, the study
of the history and the practise of pub-
lic worship, especially in its sacrificial
aspect, not in the Roman Catholic sense,
the concept originally being connected
with the celebration of the Eucharist
in the public assembly of the congre-
gation. The history of the Christian lit-
urgy goes back to the age of the apos-
tles, many of the formulas now in use
having been traced back to the first cen-
tury. There is evidence also that the
order of worship in the first centuries
of the Christian era was fairly uniform.
By the beginning of the fourth century
the nucleus of prayers and lessons had
grown into a fairly elaborate ritual,
which was, 'however, not yet unalterably
fixed. With the acknowledgment of
Christianity as the official religion of
the Roman Empire, in the fourth cen-
tury, came the development of the Chris-
tian liturgy into elaborate forms. It is
believed by some scholars that the Lit-
urgy of Jerusalem, commonly known as
the Liturgy of St. James, may have been
committed to paper before 200 A. D. It
was used in the churches of Judea, Sa-
maria, Mesopotamia, Syria, and the ad-
jacent provinces of Asia Minor, that used
by the Orthodox section of the Oriental
Church being in the Greek language.
The Nestorians did not hesitate to com-
pose their liturgy in Syriac, using that
of St. James as their model. They after-
wards translated their liturgy into the
language of Arabia, of Turkey, of Persia,
and of India. The Nestorian, or Persian,
rite, as now in use, is so overlaid with
later material that the reconstruction of
the original form has not yet been car-
ried out successfully. Other liturgies in
use in the Orient, either based upon, or
influenced by, the Liturgy of St. James,
are that of the Syrian Jacobites, that of
the Cappadocian Church, and that of
Armenia. The Liturgy of Constanti-
nople, known as that of Chrysostom, is
also based upon that of St. James, but
only through that of Basil of the Cap-
padocian Church. The second great par-
ent liturgy is the Ephesine or Ephesine-
Gallican, the original ascribed to St. Paul,
as modified by John the Apostle. This
order was carried to Gaul ih the second
century, afterward disappearing in Asia
Minor, in and near Ephesus, due to the
fact that these provinces came under the
jurisdiction of Constantinople. This rite
was developed in Gaul, codified by Hilary
of Poitiers, and introduced into Great
Liturgies
412
Lochner, Friedrich
Britain when that country was first
Christianized. There are evidences in
the rite of Great Britain to the present
day that its nucleus was extra-Roman.
Closely related to the Gallican Liturgy
is the Mozarabic Rite, thought hy most
liturgiologists to be an offshoot of the
Gallican, later modified by additions
from the Greek-Oriental. At the Mo-
hammedan invasion the name Mozarabic
(Arab Arabe, Arab Most-Arabe — an Arab
by adoption, softened into Mozarabic)
was applied to this liturgy. It is still
in use in several cities of Spain. It is
certain that the North African Church
had its own rite before the Mohammedan
conquest, and the remnants which have
been preserved in the writings of the
Fathers show influence both of the Orient
and of Rome, with an Ephesine nucleus.
The liturgy of the Church of Northern
Italy, commonly known as the Ambro-
sian Liturgy, may also be considered a
branch of the Ephesine family, molded
by contact with the Petrine liturgy. The
character of the Ambrosian rite was not
fully established until the Aquileian
Schism (568 — 739). The influence of
the Roman Liturgy was very strong,
and much pressure was brought to bear
upon the hierarchy of the patriarchate;
but the Ambrosian Liturgy is still in use
in all the parishes of the diocese of
Milan. The center of the early Christian
Church in Egypt was Alexandria. Tra-
dition has it that the patriarchate of
Alexandria was founded by St. Mark, to
whom also the ancient liturgy of Alexan-
dria is ascribed. The rite was probably
completed under the influence of St. Cyril,
Bishop of Alexandria about the begin-
ning of the fifth century. It is the direct
parent of the Coptic St. Cyril and of the
Ethiopic liturgies. The liturgy now
known as the Coptic, or Sahidie, was
adopted from that of the Syrian Jaco-
bites after the Monophysite Schism. The
Abyssinian, or Ethiopic, Liturgy is based
on that of Alexandria, although used in
the vernacular since the end of the fifth
century. Of the Roman Rite in the early
centuries little is known. During the
fifth century, however, Leo, and after-
ward Gelasius, published the first ser-
vice books. The work was taken up by
Gregory the Great, at the end of the sixth
century, and his influence is strongly in
evidence in the Roman Rite to this day.
All the service books of the Roman
Church were once more rigidly examined
and, in part, recast from 1570 to 1634,
and no material change has been made
since. The rite of Gregory influenced
that of England to some extent, at the
beginning of the seventh century, but did
not succeed in eliminating all the Ephe-
sine features. At the time of the Refor-
mation conservative men, like Luther,
adopted the general outline or body of
the Roman Liturgy, not only for the
chief service, but also for matins and
vespers, as well as for occasional sacred
acts; but all objectionable features were
sternly removed. The American Lu-
theran Common Service is more depend-
ent upon the influence of the Petrine Lit-
urgy than upon the Pauline-Johannine.
—Among modern liturgical scholars may
be mentioned Rietschel in Germany,
Neale, Brightman, and Gwynne in Eng-
land, and Reed and Ohl in America. See
also Worship, Divine.
Livingston, John Henry, 1746 to
1825; Dutch Reformed; b. at Pough-
keepsie, N. Y. ; studied in Holland ; held
various pastorates; formed independent
organization of Dutch Reformed Church
of America 1771; d. as president of
Rutgers College, N. J.
Livingstone, David, Scotch mission-
ary and explorer; b. March 19, 1813, at
Blantyre, Scotland; d. May 1, 1873, at
Ilala, Africa. After taking his medical
degree, he volunteered to the L. M. S. and
was sent to Bechuana Territory, labor-
ing there nine years. From 1852 to 1873
he was missionary explorer, penetrating
into the heart of Africa and making
most noteworthy discoveries. The record
is found in his Missionary Travels and
Researches in South Africa. After sev-
ering his connection with the L. M. S.,
he was appointed British consul, con-
tinuing his explorations. In 1857, while
on a visit to England, he said in the
Senate house at Cambridge: “I know
that in a few years I shall be cut off in
that country [Africa], which is now
open; do not let it be shut again. I go
back to Africa to try and make an open
path for commerce and Christianity. Do
you carry out the work which I have be-
gun.” As a result of this address the
Universities’ Mission to Central Africa
was organized. After his return to Af-
rica he continued his explorations, and
as no news came from him for nearly
three years, Henry Stanley set out to
find him, locating him at Lake Tangan-
yika. The next year Livingstone died.
His body lies in Westminster Abbey.
Lochner, Friedrich; b. September 23,
1822, at Nuernberg, Bavaria; studied
liturgies under Hommel while in Neuen-
dettelsau ; sent to America by Loehe
1845; refused to remain with the United
Lutheran and Reformed Salem Church of
Toledo upon its refusal to constitute it-
self a Lutheran congregation; served at
Lochner, Karl Friedrich
413
Loehe, J. K. Wilhelm
Pleasant Ridge and Collinsville, 111.;
pastor of Trinity, Milwaukee, I860; one
of the founders of the Teachers’ Semi-
nary; 1876 — 87 pastor in Springfield,
111.; assistant pastor of Trinity, Mil-
waukee; d. February 14, 1902; wrote:
Passions- und Osterbuch, Liturgische
Formulare, and Der Hauptgottesdienst
dcr Ev.-Luth. Kirche.
Lochner, Karl Friedrich, 1634 — -97 ;
vicar at Woehrd, later at Fuerth, where,
in 1663, he became pastor, remaining
there for the rest of his life; wrote:
“Was gibst du denn, o meine Seelef”
Lochner, Louis; b. in Nuernberg, Ba-
varia, April 7, 1842; graduated Concor-
dia Seminary, St. Louis, 1864; pastor in
Richmond, Va., and of Trinity Church,
Chicago; d. November 9, 1909; member
of Board for Home Missions, directing
also the work in South America, and for
Deaf-mute Missions.
Lochner, Stephan, middle of fifteenth
century in Cologne, where he painted the
Adoration of the Magi for the Dom;
strong realism, hut a fine use of per-
spective.
Locke, John, English philosopher;
b. 1632 at Wrington; d. 1704 at Oates.
Through his main work. Essay Concern-
ing Human Understanding, he became
the founder of psychological and philo-
sophical empiricism. A11 knowledge is
acquired by experience through the senses
and through reflection on what the senses
offer. Denied existence of innate ideas,
even moral and religious, and believed
mind to be tabula rasa [q.v.). In Rea-
sonableness of Christianity he asserted
that true faith cannot be contrary to
reason and aimed to establish “funda-
mental” truths, on the basis of which all
Christians might unite. These are found
in the gospels and in Acts (in contra-
distinction to the epistles) and are not
mysteries (e. g., incarnation, atonement),
but the Messiahship of Jesus and the
law of love. Thus, elevating reason
above revelation, denying the doctrines
of the natural depravity of man and the
atonement and seeing in Jesus only the
God-given Teacher and new Lawgiver, he
promoted English Deism and subsequent
continental rationalism. In Thoughts on
Education he distinguishes instruction,
which develops the mental man and im-
parts knowledge, from education, which
is concerned with the moral man, de-
velops habits, and builds up character.
Locomotive Firemen and Engine-
men, Brotherhood of. One of the
largest fraternal benefit societies of its
kind, established in 1873 and having to-
day 102,856 benefit and 4,446 social
members. It claims to have no objec-
tionable secret features. Headquarters:
901 Guardian Bldg., Cleveland, O.
Loeber, C. H., son of G. H. Loeber;
b. October 11, 1829, in Kahla, Saxe-Al-
tenburg; Saxon immigrant; studied the-
ology at Concordia Seminary, Altenhurg;
1850 pastor in Frohna, Mo., later in
Coopers Grove, 111., and of St. Stephen’s,
Milwaukee; 1885 director of Concordia
College, Milwaukee; 1894 chaplain of
Wartburg Hospital, Brooklyn; d. March
24, 1896.
Loeber, Christian; b. 1683, d. 1747
as general superintendent of Altenburg;
collaborated on the 1736 edition of the
Weimarsche Bibel; author of a widely
used German text-book on dogmatics
(new editiqn with preface by Dr. C. F. W.
Walther) .
Loeber, G. H. ; b. January 5, 1797,
at Kahla, Saxe-Altenburg, graduate of
Jena; tutor, pastor in Eichenberg, Sax-
ony; Saxon immigrant; pastor at Alten-
burg and Frohna; interested in the
founding of, afterwards instructor at,
the Altenburg Concordia; present at the
preliminary meetings for establishing the
Missouri Synod; with Dr. Sihler Exami-
nator of the theological candidates; re-
spected and beloved for his learning,
modesty, and kindliness; d. August 19,
1849.
Loehe, Johannes Konrad Wilhelm;
b. February 21, 1808, in Fuerth, near
Nuernberg; d. January 2, 1872. Studied
at the Gymnasium at Nuernberg; the-
ology, at Erlangen and Berlin. In 1837
he became pastor at Neuendettelsau,
where he married Helene Andreae-Heben-
streit, who died six years later. Loehe
never married again. He remained in
the state church, although at different
times a break seemed inevitable. In fact,
he was suspended in 1860 for a period
of eight weeks because he refused to
marry a man who according to his con-
viction had been granted a divorce con-
trary to the Scriptures. He fearlessly
bore testimony against the rationalism
of his time and against the lax position
of the state church. His influence was
not confined to Germany. When Wyne-
ken brought America’s spiritual need to
the attention of the German people,
Loehe quickly responded. In the Noerd-
lingen Sonntagsblatt he made an earnest
plea for workers and even went so far
as to publish, in 1843, a special paper in
behalf of America’s need, KirchUche Mit-
teilungen aus und ueber Nordameriha.
At the suggestion of Dr. Sihler, Loehe
consented to have a theological school
established at Fort Wayne, Iud., in 1846,.
Loeachei, Valentin Ernst
414 London Missionary Society
under the leadership of Sihler. A Semi-
nary was opened in rented quarters, with
an enrolment of eleven students. Soon
thereafter land and buildings were pur-
chased with money which had largely
been collected by Loehe and his friends.
When, in the following year, the Mis-
souri Synod was organized at Chicago,
Loehe, upon its request, turned over to
it his Nothelferseminar, which is still
being continued as Concordia Theological
Seminary at Springfield, 111. As early
as 1850 Loehe intimated that the time
had perhaps come when he would be
compelled to carry on his work apart
from the Missouri Synod, in another ter-
ritory of North America. The issue
which finally separated Loehe and the
Missouri Synod was the doctrine of the
Church and the ministerial office. Loehe
became the founder of the Iowa Synod,
which was organized at St. Sebald, Iowa,
August 24, 1854.
In 1854 Loehe organized a deaconess
society in Bavaria, and in the same year
the Deaconess Home at Neuendettelsau
was dedicated. A chapel was added in
1858, a Rettungshaus in 1862, a Blocden-
haus in 1864, a Magdalcncum in 1865, a
hospital for men in 1867, a hospital for
women in 1869.
Loehe also deserves mention as a
writer. Among others he wrote the fol-
lowing books : Einfaeltigcr Beichtunter-
richt fuer Christen evangeliseh-luthcri-
schen Bekenntnisses (1836), Beicht- und
Kommunionbueehlein fuer evangelische
Christen (1837), Samenlcoerner des Oe-
bets 1840), printed in about forty
editions, Handbuch an Kranken- und
Sterbebetten (1840), Haus-, Sahul- und
Kirchenbuoh (1845), Agende fuer christ-
liohe Gemeinden lutherischen Bekennt-
nisses (1844), Evangelienpostille (1848),
Epistelpostille (1858), etc.
Loescher, Valentin Ernst, 1673 to
1749; the staunchest defender of sound
Lutheran doctrine during the Pietistic
controversy at the beginning of the
eighteenth century; versatile, but a man
of sound learning; of ideal conduct in
practical church service; b. 1673 at Son-
dershausen as the eldest son of J. Kaspar
Loescher, superintendent of that district;
received excellent preparatory training;
studied theology at University of Witten-
berg, then at Jena; after usual academic
Studienreise settled at Wittenberg as
Dozent; in 1698 pastor and superintend-
ent at Jueterbogk;. soon forged to the
front as a representative personality;
1701- — 07 superintendent at Delitzsch;
opposed unionism and every form of
syncretism, on which ground alone he
condemned Pietism; fruit of controversy
a notable historical work, Historia Mo-
tuum; professor at Wittenberg 1707 to
1709; superintendent of the consistory
at Dresden, where he wrote Timotheus
Verintis, his chief work against Pietism,
also published first German magazine for
theological articles, Unschuldige Nach-
riehten von alten und neuen theologi-
schen Sachen; in 1722, after a conference
with the Halle theologians, published
second part of Timotheus Verinus, in
which the malum pietisticum was shown
definitely and beyond defense; guarded
the good confession of the Lutheran
Church amidst all the disturbances of
the times to his death; of his poetical
efforts there remains “O unerhoerte Hoel-
lenqual,” the last stanza of “O Ewigkeit,
du Donnerwort.”
Loewenstern, Matthaeus Apelles
von, 1594 — 1648; director of the prince’s
school at Bernstadt; later counselor at
court; highly gifted hymn -writer and
musician; author of: ‘'Nun preiset alle
Gottes Barmherzigkeit” ; among his
tunes that of “Christe, du Beistand dei-
ner Kreuzgemeine.”
Loewenthal, Isidor; b. 1829 in Posen,
of Jewish extraction ; came to United
States 1846; converted to Christianity
1851; educated at Princeton 1852; com-
missioned Presbyterian Board mission-
ary to Northern India 1856; translated
Bible into Pushtu for the Afghans; as-
sassinated in his home, Pesbawur, 1864.
Loftis, Zenas Sanford; b. May 1 1,
1881, at Gainesboro, Tenn. ; d. August 12,
1908, at Batang, China; graduated from
Vanderbilt University 1901 ; druggist at
St. Louis, Mo., doing slum mission work
among Chinese, equipped himself to he
medical missionary, volunteering to go
where no one else was willing to be sent ;
commissioned by Foreign Mission So
ciety, Cincinnati, O., to Tibet; died three
months after his arrival.
Loggia. The first row of arcades in
the second story of the Vatican Palace,
in the arched cupolas of the first thirteen
of which there are a total of 52 Biblical
pictures after sketches made by Raffael.
Lollards. A name applied chiefly to
the followers of John Wyclif in England
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
due to the labors of Wyclif’s “Poor
Priests,” by whose incentive evangelical
preaching was once more introduced
among the poorer people.
London Missionary Society (L. M.
S.), founded 1795 at London, chiefly by
Presbyterians and Episcopalians, but
now supported mainly by Congrega-
Longrfellow, Henry Wadsworth 415
Lord’s Supper
tionalists. The fundamental principle of
the society is to be interdenominational
and “not to send Presbyterianism, In-
dependency, Episcopacy, or any other
form of church order or' government
(about which there may be a difference
of opinion among serious persons), but
the glorious Gospel of the blessed God to
the heathen, and that it shall be left to
the mind of the persons whom God may
call into the fellowship of His Son from
among them to assume for themselves
such form of church government as to
them shall appear most agreeable to the
Word of God,” The centennial of the
society was celebrated on November 3,
1894, and January 15, 1895. Missions
were early established in Tahiti, South
Africa, South India (Travancore, by
Ringeltaube, 1804), Ceylon, China (1807),
West Indies (1807), Mauritius (1814),
Madagascar (1818), Malta (1816); Mon-
golia (1869), Africa (1879). Present
fields: China, India, Africa, Oceania,
and Australasia.
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth,
1807 — 82, the noted American poet;
studied at Bowdoin College; held chair
of modern languages there, later at Har-
vard; literary reputation great; poems
known throughout English-speaking coun-
tries; wrote several hymns and trans-
lated Dach’s “0 wie selig seid ihr doch”
(“O How Blest Are Ye whose Toils are
Ended!”).
Lord’s Day Alliance. Its purpose is
to have such Sunday laws enacted as
will secure Sunday to be observed as a
day of rest and worship. Official organ,
Lord’s Day Leader (bimonthly).
Lord’s Prayer {Liturgical) . The use
of the Lord’s Prayer in the liturgy of
the Church may be traced back to the
times of Tertullian and Cyprian, if not
to that of Justin, the joining in it being
the privilege of all baptized members.
It is used in the morning worship at
the end of the General Prayer, as a sum-
mary of all petitions which Christians
may tender to God. In the Communion
service proper it combines the functions
of the prayer of humble access and of
consecration.
Lord’s Prayer, The, is recorded Matt.
6, 9 — 13 and in a somewhat different
form Luke 11, 2 — 4, which references
point to two different occasions. It is
usually divided into Invocation, Peti-
tions, Doxology. The words “Our Father
who art in heaven” are a summary of
the whole Gospel; i for no one can truly
call God his Father unless he has by
faith in Christ become a child of God.
The Seven Petitions, brief in their word-
ing, are so comprehensive in their mean-
ing as to include all that man needs for
his bodily and his spiritual welfare. The
Doxology briefly states the reason why
we address our supplications to our heav-
enly Father. “Amen” expresses the firm
belief that our prayer will be heard. The
Lord’s Prayer is one of the shortest, the
most comprehensive, most beautiful, yet,
because often so thoughtlessly repeated,
most “martyred” of prayers.
Lord’s Supper. Of the institution of
the Lord’s Supper we have four narra-
tives, one in each of the synoptic gospels
and one by St. Paul in his First Epistle
to the Corinthians. Matt. 26, 26 — 28;
Mark 14, 22—24; Luke 22, 19. 20; 1 Cor.
11, 23—25. All these narratives agree in
all points common to all and supplement
each other in details. The occasion of
the institution of this Sacrament was
the last celebration of the Old Testament
Sacrament of the Passover in which
Jesus united with His disciples, “the
same night in which He was betrayed.”
Before the meal was fully over, Jesus
took bread. As when He took the loaves
to feed the multitudes, so when He took
bread to feed the little flock, He spoke
words of blessing, praise, and thanksgiv-
ing. The bread of the Passover being
likewise baked in loaves or cakes of some
size, Jesus distributed it by breaking it
into smaller pieces and giving each dis-
ciple a piece. What He gave them was
certainly bread, for the text says that it
was the bread which Jesus took and
brake and gave that they should take
and eat. But what He gave that they
should take and eat was just as cer-
tainly more than bread; for the words
say so, “This is My body.” That state-
ment is very plain and simple. The
words are as plain as words can be.
There is no trope to be interpreted or
misinterpreted, no point of comparison
which the disciples might grasp or fail
to grasp, no symbolism with a hidden
meaning. The words simply cannot mean
anything but what they properly say,
This which I give you and bid you take
and eat is My body, My real body, the
body which you see here before you, and
which is about to be offered up for the
sins of the world. But the various en-
deavors to force upon these words a trop-
ical sense have led to a multitude of
contortions probably without a parallel
in all history, Carlstadt, Schwenkfeld,
Zwingli, Oecolampadius, Calvin, and Beza
all disagreeing as to the meaning of the
words and only agreeing in the assump-
tion that “This is My body” really
meant, “This is not My body.” The mui- ,
tifarious attempts to pervert the true
Lord’s Supper
Lord’s Supper
416
sense of the words are but so many evi-
dences of the persistent refusal of the
words to yield any other sense than the
proper sense of the terms.
According to the charge, which follows,
“This do in remembrance of Me,” it was
the will of the Master that His disciples
should, after His departure, perform the
act which was then being enacted at the
paschal board. It was His will and
covenant that in future assemblies of His
disciples, He being invisibly in the midst
of them, bread should be blessed and dis-
tributed, His words should be repeated,
“Take, eat; this is My body, which is
given for you,” and by virtue of these
words, His own words, He would give
His body with the bread distributed to
the guests at His supper, that they
should eat the bread and what He would
give them with the bread — His body,
given for them.
And the Lord Jesus, after He had done
and said what has been considered, “after
the same manner also took the cup.”
From Matt. 26, 29, Mark 14, 25 and Luke
22, 18 we learn that the cup contained
“the fruit of the vine.” This was not
must, the unfermented juice of the grape.
For it was in the days of Jesus, and is
to this day, a matter of course in Pales-
tine, as in other Oriental countries, to
use wine, not must, as a beverage on fes-
tive occasions, and at no time was must
used by the Jews at the Passover. Thus,
also, we learn from 1 Cor. 11 that the
wine used in the Apostolic Church was
fermented wine, which, if taken to ex-
cess, would intoxicate. Jesus Himself
tells His disciples what, as He gave them
the cup and the wine therein contained,
He gave them to drink. It was His
blood, the blood of the New Covenant,
shed for many, also for those especially
who were to partake of it in the Sacra-
ment. If what Jesus gave in the Sacra-
ment was the blood of the New Covenant,
it could not be a symbol of that blood.
And by adding the words, “which is
being shed for you, for many,” He de-
scribes what he gives as His real blood,
the blood which flowed in His veins
which were about to be opened by the
scourge and the thorns and the nails and
the spear.
We know that the union of Christ’s
body and blood with the eucharistic ele-
ments is not a natural union in a local
or circumscriptive presence and that the
eating and drinking of such body and
blood in the Sacrament is not a physical,
Capernaitic (John 6, 52) eating and
drinking; but the peculiar mode and
manner of such union and presence and
eating and drinking we do not know.
We term it sacramental, not to explain
it, but to describe it as peculiar to this
Sacrament, in accordance with, and by
virtue of, the sacramental word, which
we believe.
What Jesus enacted in that upper
room was not a sacrifice, but a Sacra-
ment, whereby those who ate and drank
were to be made partakers of the sacri-
fice about to be enacted in Gethsemane
and on Golgotha. Nor is it the faith or
unbelief of the communicants which
makes or unmakes the Sacrament; for
the unworthy communicant also is guilty
of the body and blood of Christ. 1 Cor,
11, 27. When and where that is done
whereof Christ says, “This do,” there is
the Sacrament with all the sacramental
grace and efficacy; and no Judas among
the communicants can undo it by his un-
belief.
The Lord’s Supper, then, is a means of
grace, of reminding us of Christ, the Re-
deemer of the world, of assuring us that
the sacrifice for the expiation of our sins
was really and truly offered up by Him
who was both the High Priest and the
sacrifice. As in Baptism a visible ele-
ment, water, is bound up with the word
in the sacramental act, so in the Lord’s
Supper visible elements, bread and wine,
are, by divine institution, bound up with
the sacramental word. — In the Lord’s
Supper Christ would assure the indi-
vidual sinner with whom He deals in
this Sacrament that he who hears the
words and eats and drinks shall, by faith
in these words and the visible tokens of
His redemption attached thereto, have,
hold, and enjoy what the words say and
the tokens confirm. But here again the
Sacrament works as a means of grace.
It operates in such a way that its effect
can be, as it often is, frustrated by man’s
obstinate resistance. There are those
who eat this bread and drink this cup of
the Lord unworthily, who eat and drink,
not life and salvation, but damnation, to
themselves. 1 Cor. 11, 29. And such
should be warned not to partake of the
Sacrament, which was instituted as an
assurance of divine grace in Christ for
disciples of Christ, and for them only.
It is clearly incumbent on those who ad-
minister the Sacrament to guard against
its abuse by manifestly unworthy com-
municants and to refuse access to the
Lord’s Table to those who cannot or will
not examine themselves or by word or
deed show that they are no disciples of
Christ.
But there is still another aspect under
which unity of faith must be considered
a condition of admission to the same
altar in the celebration of the Eucharist,
Lord’s Supper, R. C. Doctrine of
Lord’s Supper, R. C. Doctrine of
41?
The celebration or use of this Sacrament
is, in a certain sense, a sacrificial act,
not a propitiatory sacrifice, as offering
up the body and blood of Christ, but a
sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving and
a profession of faith. This was one of
the purposes for which “the Lord’s Sup-
per was instituted . . . that we might
publicly confess our faith and proclaim
the benefits of Christ, as Paul says,
1 Cor. 11, 26: ‘As often as ye eat this
bread and drink this cup, ye do show the
Lord’s deat,h.’ ” ( Apol. Aug. Conf., Ill,
6, 89. Concordia Triglotta, p. 179.) “For,”
says the same Apology, “just as among
the sacrifices of praise, i. e., among the
praises of God, we include the preaching
of the Word, so the reception itself of
the Lord’s Supper can be praise, or
thanksgiving.” (XII, 24, 33. L. c., p. 395.)
By being all partakers of that one bread,
the communicants exhibit themselves as
one body, and it is certainly improper
that those who dissent and are divided
on the very nature and sacramental
character of that one bread should fel-
lowship and exhibit unity by commun-
ing together where there is actually dis-
sent and division concerning the very
act in which they unite and which is to
constitute a bond of unity (close Com-
munion ) .
The Bible doctrine will not permit the
sacramental bread and the body of Christ
to be separated, as is taught in the Re-
formed churches. Nor does it permit
the bread to be changed into the body of
Christ by transubstantiation or the bread
and Christ’s body confounded into a new
substance by “consubstantiation.” We
refuse to accept the alternative con-
stantly forced upon us of being either
Zwinglians or Papists. We hold, teach,
and confess that in a peculiar, sacra-
mental way, known to • Christ and
brought about by His divine power and
Will, we eat and drink in His holy Sacra-
ment His true body sacramentally pres-
ent and united with the consecrated
bread and his true blood sacramentally
present and united with the consecrated
wine by virtue of Christ’s sacramental
word, “Take, eat; this is My body.
Drink ye all of it; this is My blood.”
(See Consubstantiation, Grace, Means of,
Impa/nation, Sacrament, Transubstantia-
tion, Lord’s Supper, Roman Catholic
Doctrine of.)
Lord’s Supper, Roman Catholic Doc-
trine of. The Roman Church usually
refers to this Sacrament as the Eucharist
and divides it into two parts: a Sacra-
ment ( Holy Communion ) and a sacrifice
(the Mass). This article will confine it-
self to the Sacrament, the Mass ( q. v. )
Concordia Cyclopedia
being treated separately. The fundamen-
tal doctrine, which governs the whole
matter, including the Mass, is the doc-
trine of transubstantiation, defined as
follows by the Council of Trent : “By the
consecration of the bread and of the wine
a conversion is made of the whole sud-
stance of the bread into the substance
of the body of Christ, our Lord, and of
the whole substance of the wine into the
substance of His blood.” (Sess. XIII,
chap. 4.) Of the bread and wine only
the outward appearance is said to re-
main, while St. Paul, 1 Cor. 11, 27 — 29,
speaks of bread and wine even after con-
secration. It is also to be noted that the
consecration formula is said to bring
about transubstantiation; this helps to
lay the foundation for the idolatry of
the Mass. Since the 13th century the
Roman Church communes the laity only
under one form, or kind, i. e., it gives
them only the consecrated wafer, claim-
ing that the body, of necessity, contains
the blood. Only the officiating priest
communicates himself under both forms;
other priests are also limited to the
wafer. Christ’s word, Matt. 26, 27 :
“Drink ye all of it,” passes judgment on
this practise. The worthy reception of
the Sacrament is said to bring forgive-
ness only of “the lighter, so-called venial,
sins” ( Catechismus Romanus, 11,4.50),
whereas greater benefits are ascribed to
the Mass. The Christ-given Sacrament
is robbed of its promise of full forgive-
ness in order that the man-made “sacri-
fice” may be exalted. Here, as in the
other Romish sacraments, the benefits
are, of course, ex opere operate (see
Opus Operatum) . “Sacramental confes-
sion, when a confessor may be had, is
of necessity to be made beforehand by
those whose conscience is burdened with
mortal sin, how contrite even soever they
may think themselves.” (Council of
Trent, Sess. XIII, can. 11.) The Roman
Church requires its members to commune
at least once a year, under pain of ex-
communication. Indulgences are offered
for frequent, especially daily, com-
munion. A decree of Pius X, in 1910,
declared that children should be ad-
mitted to Communion at about the age
of seven, the ability to distinguish the
eucharistic bread from common and ma-
terial bread being made sufficient proof
of fitness. Of minor importance is the
insistence on wheat flour for the bread,
the custom of adding to the wine some
water, which is supposed to be changed
into wine ( Catechismus Romawus, . II,
4, 17), and the provision that communi-
cants must fast from the midnight pre-
ceding Communion.
27
Louiiu, Lukas
418
Lnclferlans
Lossius, Lukas, 1508 (or 1510) — 82;
assisted in introducing the Reformation
in Lueneburg; later rector of school in
Lueneburg; published Psalmodia, hoc
est, Cantica Sacra Veteris Ecclesiae 8e-
lecta, 1553, with all liturgical chants.
Los von Bom ( Away from Rome
Movement) . In a wider and more com-
prehensive sense this phrase is by some
made to include all the anti-Roman
tendencies within the last century in the
various countries of Europe. Thus not
only the numerous conversions to Prot-
estantism, said to be about one million
for Germany alone during the nineteenth
century, but also the reorganization of
governments on the principles of liberty
(Italy, Prance, Austria, Belgium, even
Spain and Portugal) come under the
Los von Rom caption. But strictly
speaking, the Los von Rom movement is
Austrian in origin. Launched at first as
a political slogan by Schoenerer, the
leader of the German Nationalists, in
1898 as a protest against the anti-Ger-
man attitude of the Vatican since the
establishment of the German Empire, the
phrase soon became the watchword of
religious secessionists who severed their
connection with Rome. Up to 1908 no
less than 51,000 had become Protestants,
while 16,000 joined the Old Catholics.
For some years following, conversions
took place at the rate of about 4,500 an-
nually. In recent years the movement
has abated.
Lotteries. See Gambling.
Low Sunday, Sunday after Easter
( also named Quasimodogeniti ) . The
name probably sprang from the contrast ■
between this simple Sunday and the high
festival preceding.
Lourdes, a town in the French de-
partment of Hautes-Pyrenfies, renowned
in the Catholic world as a place of pil-
grimage since the alleged Mariophanies
(appearances of the Virgin) of the last
century. In a grotto near the town, so
the story goes, a beautiful lady in splen-
did white raiment appeared to a young
peasant girl on the 1 1th of February,
1858. At a subsequent visit the lady
identified herself with the words, “Je
suis I’immacuUe conception.’’ (I am the
immaculate conception, i. e., Mary ) . At
a spot pointed out by “the Virgin” a
spring of water with healing virtues mi-
raculously burst forth. An investigation
instituted about the middle of the year
satisfied the Catholic authorities that the
Mariophanies were indubitably authentic.
Lourdes became a sacred spot, resorted
to by multitudes of pilgrims from all
quarters of the world. In 1876 a pil-
grim church was consecrated with much
pomp and splendor in the presence of
thirty-five cardinals and other dignita-
ries. A flourishing business was carried
on with the water from the sacred
spring, a few drops of which, it was de-
clared, would serve as a prophylactic
against the pest and other ills. “Miracu-
lous” cures were (and are) wrought
among the numerous pilgrims, and a
multitude of votive offerings of every
description attest their gratitude and de-
votion.
Loy, Matthias, 1828 — 1915; studied
at Columbus, O. ; pastor at Delaware, O. ;
editor of Lutheran Standard; president
of Joint Synod of Ohio; theological pro-
fessor, later also president of Capital
University; published Sermons on the
Gospels, Sermons on the Epistles, and
various other theological books; trans-
lated a number of German hymns ; wrote,
among others: “An Awful Mystery Is
Here”; “Jesus, Thou Art Mine Forever” ;
“When Rome had Shrouded Earth in
Night.”
Loyalty Islands. See New Caledonia
and Polynesia.
Loyola, Ignatius, founder of the So-
ciety of Jesus; b. in the Spanish prov-
ince of Guipuzcoa 1491; devoted his
youth to the profession of arms ; wounded
during the siege of Pampeluna, 1521;
read the lives of the saints during his
convalescence; resolved, as a result, to
dedicate his life to the service of God.
After studying at various Spanish uni-
versities he went to Paris to take a
course in theology, 1528. Here he as-
sociated himself with six kindred spirits,
and together they formed the Compania
de Jesu in order to combat the forces of
evil, these being primarily the teachings
of the Protestant reformers. The new
order received the papal sanction in
1540. Loyola became its first general.
D. 1556. Luther liberated millions from
the shackles of the papacy; Loyola in-
vented a machine to rivet the fetters
anew and to bind the Church irretriev-
ably to the ideas of medievalism.
Lucian the Martyr, presbyter of An-
tioch, teacher of Arius, whose main
thought he anticipated; excommunicated
according to Alexander of Alexandria,
but reconciled with the Church before his
martyrdom, 311; also known for his
critical revision of the Septuagint and
the Greek Testament.
Luciferians, followers of Lucifer,
bishop of Calaris in Sardinia (d. 371).
They were a schismatic party, organized
on strict Novatian principles; but in the
Lndaemille Elisabeth
419
Lathei, Martin
beginning of the fifth century they re-
turned to the Catholic Church. See No-
vation Schism.
Ludaemilie Elisabeth, Countess of
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 1640 — 72; well
educated; lived for some years at castle
of Friedensburg ; wrote: “Jesus, Jesus,
nichts als Jesus”; “Sorge, Vater, sorge
du.”
Luecke, Gottfried Christian Fried-
rich; b. 1791; d. 1855 as professor at
Goettingen; mediating theologian of
Schleiermaeher’s school; New Testament
exegete.
Luecke, Martin. Clergyman, educa-
tor; b. 1859 in Sheboygan Co., Wis.;
educated at Concordia College, Fort
Wayne, and at Concordia Seminary,
St. Louis ; pastor at Bethalto, Troy, and
Springfield, 111.; since 1903 president of
Concordia College, Fort Wayne; d. 1926.
Lullus, Raimundus. First Christian
missionary in Mohammedan countries
(1235 — 1315); established schools for
the training of missionaries and for the
study of Oriental languages; went in
person at the age of fifty-six; was mar-
tyred when he made his third attempt.
Lumber River Mission. See Evan-
gelistic Associations.
Luthardt, Christoph Ernst; b. 1823,
d. 1902 at Leipzig; positive modern Lu-
theran theologian; studied at Erlangen,
Berlin; 1847 teacher at gymnasium at
Muenehen; in 1851 Privatdozent at Er-
langen, 1854 professor extraordinary at
Marburg; from 1856 to his end profes-
sor of systematic theology and New Tes-
tament exegesis at Leipzig. He belonged
to the Erlangen school of Lutheran the-
ology and was very active in practical
church-life and mission-work. Since 1868
he edited the very influential Allgemeine
Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirchenzeitung.
Luthardt was a voluminous writer on
dogmatics, apologetics, etc., but was not
free from subjectivistic and synergistic
tendencies in theology.
Luther, Martin, was born at Eisleben,
November 10, 1483, and baptized Novem-
ber 11, St. Martin’s Day, hence the name.
Some months later his parents, “Big”
Hans and Margaret, moved to the min-
ing town of Mansfeld. They were very
poor, but in time they acquired a little
property, and Hans was elected one of
the “Four Men,” to represent the people
before the rulers. The parents were
godly, but a bit harsh with the children.
When seven, little Martin went to the
Latin school, where the teacher, too, was
a bit harsh, one day giving the lad
fifteen stripes for not knowing what no
one had taught him. At twelve he was
confirmed — chiefly to pray, “Help,
St. Ann!” At fourteen he attended the
school at the cathedral at Magdeburg,
which was taught by the pious Lollards,
or Brethren of the Common Life, and,
like others, sang from door to door for
his daily bread, and gave part to the
teachers for tuition. He was deeply im-
pressed by the sight of Prince William
of Anhalt, now a bare-foot monk begging
bread for the cloister. And he saw the
picture of a ship filled with clerics sail-
ing to heaven, while the laymen were
drowning or towed along by the ropes of
surplus good works thrown overboard by
the clergy. When a “boy” Luther hap-
pened on a Bible and read the story of
Hannah and Samuel and wished some
day to own such a book. Soon after he
bought a postil, or perhaps a Gospel
book; at any rate an explanation of
Bible-passages. Next year he went to
Eisenach, where be got his bread from
Heinrich Schalbe for taking young
Schalbe to and from school. In later
years Dr. Ratzeberger tells the story that
Dame Ursula Cotta, born Schalbe, took
the young singer into her house. He
spent some pleasant evenings with John
Braun, Vicar of St. Mary’s, who was old
in years, but young in heart. He at-
tended the parish school of St. George’s
Church, where John Trebonius was the
able and genial master. “Martinus
Ludher ex Mansfelt,” wrote President
Jodoeus Trutvetter of Erfurt University
in the spring of 1501, when Martin paid
the full fee of twenty groats spot cash,
which proves that the good-hearted fa-
ther was getting on and able to pay.
Martin had to take his hazing and even
treat the liazers, which cost him the
third of a gulden. He fared well in
St. George’s “burse,” a sort of fraternity
house, was jovial, and popularly called
“The Philosopher.” He cut the fast set
and studied hard; he got his Bachelor
of Philosophy after a year and lectured
on Aristotle. October 30, 1502, Luther
saw Raymund von Gurk, Cardinal and
Papal Chancellor, ride to Erfurt’s Dom
to sell indulgences. Doubts were ex-
pressed about them as harmful to souls,
leading clerics with concubines to sin
freely and frankly, since they could be
absolved so easily. Luther studied the
works of these Englishmen: Occam,
Holywood, Maulveldt, Biligam, and, later,
More. About Easter of 1504 he wounded
himself with a sword and almost bled
to death. “Had I died then, I should
have placed my trust for salvation in
Mary.” About January 6, 1505, he be-
oame a Master of Arts, and began the
tnthep, Martin
420
Lather, Martin
study of law, for which his father had
bought a costly book. As a budding
lawyer he moved into “The Gate of
Heaven,” the lawyers’ “burse.” Return-
ing from a visit to the home folks on
July 2, 1505, a terrific storm broke, and
the lightning flashed fiercely. “Help,
dear St. Ann, I’ll turn monk!” Despite
pleadings of friends, an angry father,
and even his own regrets, Martin kept
the vow. On July 17, he entered the
Augustinian cloister at Erfurt. The rules
of the Order made him study the Bible;
his was bound in red leather. Prior
Winand ordered him to study for the
priesthood; on April 3, 1507, he was or-
dained by Bishop John of Lasphe; first
Mass on May 2 ; a great day, Father
Luther and many friends were invited.
Dr. Paltz was a professor at the Uni-
versity and at the same time principal
of a good theological seminary in the
cloister, and the Prior ordered Luther to
study theology, under the direction of
Dr. John Nathin. He found sermons of
Hus, which seemed quite sound — “Per-
haps he wrote them before he became a
damned heretic.” In 1508 he was sent to
the University of Wittenberg to lecture
on Aristotle’s “Ethics,” but he preferred
theology. March 9, 1509, he was made
a Bachelor of the Bible; for this degree
he did not pay the usual fee — “because
I had nothing.” In less than a year he
was sent hack to Erfurt to lecture on
the Sentences of Lombard; his notes
were found in 1890 and prove his in-
dependence. In November, 1510, he was
sent to Rome and returning in March
was soon after again sent to Wittenberg.
In May, 1512, he represented his cloister
at Koeln, and the convention made him
Sub-prior, which made him director of
studies. He was ordered to preach and
to get his Doctor of Theology; Staupitz
was grooming a successor for the theo-
logical professorship, and Frederick of
Saxony paid the fifty gulden to make
Luther a Doctor of Theology — on Octo-
ber 19, 1512. “When I was made a Doc-
tor, I did not yet know the light.” Lu-
ther tried so hard to work his way into
heaven that the other monks held him
a living saint, as is reported by Dungers-
heim, an enemy. Father Nathin told the
wondering nuns at Muehlheim how the
Master of Arts had been converted by
lightning from heaven, like St. Paul.
Gochlaeus, another bitter enemy, said in
1549 that “for four years Luther had
fought strenuously for good in studies
and spiritual exercises.” And yet the
conscientious monk wailed, “My sins !
My sins ! ! My sins ! ! ! When will I get
a gracious God?” Staupitz gave some
relief, but could not cure the conscience
of the despairing monk. “With a burn-
ing desire to understand Paul, I took up
the Epistle to the Romans ( 1, 16. 17 ) . . . .
‘Through the Gospel is revealed that
righteousness of God by which the merci-
ful God declares the believers righteous.’
. . . Now I felt myself new-born and in
Paradise. . . . This passage in Paul ap-
peared to me as the gate of Paradise.”
This reformed Luther, and this made
Luther the reformer of the world. Lu-
ther, and Luther alone, is the one that
again understood St. Paul and Chris-
tianity. When Balboa in 1513 from a
peak in Darien discovered the Pacific
Ocean, Luther had already discovered the
ocean of God’s peace in Rom. 1, 17, and
made it known in his lectures on the
Psalms in that year and on Romans in
1515 and on Galatians in 1516. Though
a bitter enemy, Jan Oldekop writes:
“I was twenty-one years old then, and
liked to hear Martin’s lectures on the
Psalms and Paul’s letters, I also went
to all his sermons. The students heard
him gladly.” Appointed preacher at
Goiha in May, 1514, Luther denounced
the monkish vice of slander, but the con-
vention elected him Vicar of the eleven
cloisters in his district. The added bur-
dens overwhelmed him ; one day Luke
Edenberger and George Rhaw would visit
him, but found the door locked and him
unconscious on the floor; music revived
him. In his Castle Church the Elector
Frederick gathered relics, in 1520 they
numbered 19,013 items, and by worship-
ing them you got an indulgence for your
sins in purgatory for 127,799 years and
116 days. On October 31, 1516, Luther
preached against the abuse of indul-
gences and thus began his Thirty Years’
War, 1516 — 1546. From the same pulpit
in the same Castle Church he repeated
the offense at another festival in Feb-
ruary 1517 — “Indulgence is impurity
and permission to sin and license to
avoid the cross of Christ.” Thus spoke
an honored Catholic professor at a fa-
mous Catholic university in a famous
Catholic church to a Catholic congrega-
tion. On September 4 Luther presided
at a disputation “Against the Scholastic
Theology,” and enthroned Christ and de-
throned Aristotle ; the printed theses
were spread and caused considerable un-
complimentary comment among the old
guard, even at Wittenberg. Cardinal
Borgia said, “God does not want the
death of the sinner, but that the sinner
should live — and pay.” In that sense
Pope Leo X and Archbishop Albrecht
of Mainz, a powerful prelate, sent Tetzel
to sell indulgences in Germany. He came
Inther, Martin
421
Lnther, Martin
near Wittenberg, and some Wittenbergers
bought indulgences and relied on them
and would therefore not repent when
they would go to the Lord’s Supper. Lu-
ther saw how the plague invaded his own
circle and interfered with his oath of
office, and he protested against the scan-
dal to Archbishop Albrecht, Bishop Scul-
tetus, and others. No one wished to burn
his fingers; Luther had to “bell the cat.”
At noon on October 31, 1517, he posted
ninety-five printed theses on the Univer-
sity’s bulletin board on the door of the
Castle Church calling on all and sundry
to debate the question of indulgences by
word of mouth or by pen. “No one will
believe what talk they made,” writes
Myconius. Cardinal Cajetan at Rome
wrote “On Indulgences” against Luther.
Tetzel got Prof. Wimpina of the new
University of Frankfort to write two
sets of theses against Luther. Johann
Mair von Eck of Ingolstadt denounced
his friend Luther for a “Bohemian,”
which meant a Judas Iscariot and Bene-
dict Arnold rolled into one. Who was
the first to call hard names? Arch-
bishop Albrecht reported Luther’s case
to Rome, and Leo X ordered della Volta
to “pacify the man,” and he ordered
Staupitz to force Luther to recant. “As
I did not begin this work to gain fame,
I shall not drop it to escape shame.”
At the triennial convention of the Augus-
tinians at Heidelberg in April Luther
presided at the disputation and defended
his position against the faculty of the
University and his own former teacher
Usingen “so cleverly, that he made no
little fame” for Wittenberg. The Augus-
tinian General now commanded “to spare
no labor, to refuse no expense to get this
heretic into the hands of the Supreme
Pontiff.” Sylvester Prierias, the Pope’s
confessor, who had condemned Reuchlin,
in June wrote against Luther. He said
it was pure Catholic doctrine that the
soul flies to heaven the moment the
coin clinks in the chest. He suspects
Luther’s father was a dog, for biting was
the habit of dogs; he calls Luther a
leper with a nose of iron, a head of brass,
an ignoramus, a heretic, a devil, etc., etc.
Of course he repeatedly threatens to
burn Luther alive. Again, who was the
first to use hard language ? On August 7
Luther received the Pope’s order to be at
Rome within sixty days to be tried for
heresy. Frederick managed to have his
professor tried at Augsburg before Car-
dinal Cajetan, who held the Pope infal-
lible and the Church the born handmaid
of the Pope, and who had already writ-
ten against Luther. In October the
learned Cardinal failed to prove Luther
in the wrong, and Luther, of course,
would not recant, and finally fled by
night on horseback. In a sharp letter
Cajetan called on Frederick “either to
send Brother Martin to the City or expel
him from your country,” and Leo X
asked him to turn over “this son of per-
dition, this infected, scrofulous sheep for
heavy punishment.” And Frederick or-
dered Luther to leave; when leaving, Lu-
ther was ordered to remain. In these
dark days he ordered the “Epigrams”
and the “Utopia” of Sir Thomas More.
Karl von Miltitz came with about seventy
“Apostolic Letters” to princes and prel-
ates to arrest Luther. The noble Saxon
chamberlain soon sensed it was too late
for force, and he invited “the child of
Satan” to Altenburg in January 1519,
dined, embraced, and amid real tears
kissed “the son of perdition,” and prom-
ised him a hearing before a learned Ger-
man bishop. Eck again and again at-
tacked Luther.; Dungersheim attacked
him in a number of lengthened letters;
Hoogstraten, the terrible Inquisitor, who
had nearly burnt the scholarly Reuchlin,
now called on Pope Leo to spill the blood
of Luther; Olnitzer reported from Rome
they would do away with Luther by
poison or dagger. Luther’s courage rose
with danger: “The Lord draws me, and
I follow not unwillingly.” The Pope’s
bull of November 9, 1518, condemned Lu-
ther, yet he began his debate with Eck
at Leipzig on July 4, 1519, and made the
epochal assertion that Councils have
erred and that the Bible alone is infal-
lible. In the one year of 1520 Luther
wrote his fierce “Address to the Chris-
tian Nobility of the German Nation,” his
scholarly work “On the Babylonian Cap-
tivity of the Church,” and his wonder-
fully sweet “Liberty of a Christian
Man.” Adrian of Utrecht, the teacher of
Kaiser Karl V and his Viceroy of Spain
and later Pope, condemned the “Cap-
tivity”; Glapion, the Kaiser’s confessor,
on reading it felt “as if one had scourged
him from head to foot”; the bluff King
Henry VIII of England wrote his “Asser-
tion of the Seven Sacraments” against
it; Bugenhagen angrily flung it to the
ground — “No worse heretic has ever at-
tacked the Church,” but he picked it up
and studied it: “The whole world is
blind, Luther alone sees the truth.” On
June 15 Pope Leo signed the “Bull
against the Errors of Luther and His Fol-
lowers.” On December 10 Luther publicly
and defiantly burnt the Pope’s Bull and
Canon Law, and thus burnt his ships
behind him. “This is indeed a momen-
tous event,” wrote the secretary of the.
Venetian ambassador Cornaro. “Oxford
Luther, Martin
422
Luther, Martin
is infected with Lutheranism,” Arch-
bishop Warham wrote in alarm to Car-
dinal Wolsey on March 8, 1521. Kaiser
Karl called Luther to the great Reichs-
tag at Worms “to obtain information”;
when he appeared before the brilliant
assembly, he was asked for recantation.
On April 18 he said: “Since Your Maj-
esty and Your Lordships ask for a plain
answer, I will give you one without
either horns or teeth. Unless convinced
by Scripture or logical deductions there-
from, — for I believe neither the Pope
nor the Councils alone, since it is cer-
tain they have often erred and contra-
dicted one another, — I am overcome, by
the Scriptures quoted, and my conscience
is bound in God’s Word; I cannot and
will not revoke anything, for it is un-
safe und dishonest to act against con-
science. . . . Here I stand; I cannot do
otherwise; God help me! Amen.” Kai-
ser Karl banned Luther in the Edict of
Worms, “the blessed mandate, more ter-
rible than any ever before,” wrote Alean-
der. Luther’s stand at Worms ushered
in the modern world in which we live.
Frederick had Luther spirited to the
castle of the Wartburg, where the Church
Postil was begun — “my very best book.”
At the beginning of 1522 he began trans-
lating the New Testament and finished
it in about three months — a titanic per-
formance, though he had brought with
him translated portions. In December
Luther had made a short secret visit to
Wittenberg to end some disturbances.
Then the radical and fanatical “Heav-
enly Prophets” came from Zwickau and
stirred the embers into flames. Against
the command of the Elector Luther re-
turned to Wittenberg in March and by
eight powerful sermons routed the enemy.
The Anabaptists went elsewhere and
stirred up much trouble till they were
finally fiercely crushed. The worm will
turn, and the peasants had turned again
and again in the past hundred years,
and now they turned again in Germany’s
most disastrous Peasant War. Luther
had fiercely denounced the wrongdoing of
the princes and earnestly warned the
peasants against riot and rebellion. To
keep the work of the Reformation from
being dragged into politics, he took his
stand for law and order against riot and
rebellion. Telling the plain truth to
both parties, he displeased both — “Now
princes, priests, and peasants are all
against me and threaten my death.”
Preserved Smith says, “The impartial
historian can hardly doubt that in sub-
stance he was right.” Alfred Baudril-
lart, Rector of the Catholic Institute of
Paris, writes that Luther had no more
to do with this Peasant War than with
all the former ones. Luther prepared
his New Testament for the printer and
kept three presses going, September,
1522. The complete Bible came out in
1534. Klopstock placed Luther on a
level with Shakespeare as a literary
genius, and to Pres. Little of Garrett
“compared with our English Bible, Lu-
ther’s translation seems like a miracle.”
Luther had to undo the erratic work of
Zwilling and Carlstadt and reformed the
Order of Service along conservative and
progressive lines. By his Bible he had
opened the eyes of the blind to read
God’s Word and opened the ears Of the
deaf to hear the Gospel of Christ, and
by his hymnal of 1524 he loosed the
tongues of the dumb and laid on lay
lips hymns and tunes such as the world
had never heard. Of Luther’s “Mighty
Fortress” a musical critic writes: “The
judgment of three centuries has pro-
nounced this hymn the greatest psalm
of faith that has had birth in the modern
ages.” In the same year he sent his
epochal “Letter to the Aldermen and
Cities of Germany to Erect and Main-
tain Christian Schools,” and after a sur-
vey in 1529 he wrote his Small and his
Large Catechism “to raise the standard
of education.” The noted Catholic scholar
von Doellinger truly says: “Luther gave
what no other single man gave to a
people — the Bible, the Catechism, and
the hymn-book.” Luther’s “Babylonian
Captivity” drew the lightning from all
points of the compass — Rome, Paris,
Louvain, London. King Henry VIII
hurled against the lone monk “An Asser-
tion of the Seven Sacraments.” To the
insulting language of the king Luther
replied in characteristic fashion. Paolo
Sarpi, “the greatest Venetian,” says
Henry was beaten. Henry now mobilized
his penmen; Thomas Murner, of Ger-
many, Thomas More and Bishop Fisher
of England attacked Luther; the saintly
and learned More did it in such filthy
gutterals that Erasmus was disgusted;
and Erasmus was not squeamish. Fi-
nally the most learned man of Europe,
Erasmus, was drafted and dragged into
the fight on Luther. Against his free
will Erasmus wrote “On Free Will,” sug-
gested by Henry. Luther replied with
his great work “On the Unfree Will” and
showed from the Scriptures that our sal-
vation does not depend on man’s free will,
but on God’s free grace. The Goliath of
the Renaissance was felled by the David
of the Reformation. Even the Roman-
ists were not pleased; Pope Paul IV
placed all of Erasmus’s works on the
Index. Erasmus actually called on the
Lnther, Dtartln
423
Lnther, Martin
Elector to punish Luther; at the end of
his wit, the wit resorted to force, the
last resort of kings. Since 1518 Zwingli
read Luther’s writings and got his re-
ligious power and moral depth from
them and called him “the David who
had struck the Roman Goliath,” and yet
since 1524 he made vicious attacks on
Luther, “led by a different spirit” from
himself, calling him the Saxon “idol”
and “Orestes,” and some of his followers
did not shrink from deceit and forgery.
When the union between Pope and Kai-
ser was a menace to the Protestants,
Philip of Hessen and Zwingli would drag
Luther into a political alliance and for
this purpose arranged the Marburg Col-
loquium in 1529 to agree on the Lord’s
Supper. Luther rightly held it “a theo-
logical means for a political purpose,”
and yet went — for the sake of peace.
Zwingli obstinately stood by his ration-
alistic opinions, and so Luther had to
refuse the proffered hand of “brother-
hood” — “You have a different spirit
from us.” Even Calvin called Zwingli’s
teaching “profane, false, and pernicious.”
After Zwingli’s death, on October 11,
1531, the Protestants of Southwestern
Germany were led by Bucer to Luther’s
teaching and to sign the Wittenberg
Concord on May 29, 1530. The Pope had
damned Luther, and the Kaiser had
banned Luther; then why did no one
burn Luther? King Francis I of France
made war on the Kaiser, the Turk made
war on the Kaiser, the Pope made war
on the Kaiser. The Kaiser defeated
Francis, repelled the Turk, imprisoned
the Pope, and sacked Rome. The Catho-
lic majority at the Reichstag of Speyer
in 1529 brutally broke the agreement
of peace of 1526, against which the Lu-
therans very courageously protested —
hence “Protestants” — though the clouds
of civil-religious war lowered on the hori-
zon. The Pope crowned the Kaiser at
Bologna on February 24, 1530; the Kai-
ser kissed the Pope’s toe, swore to pro-
tect the Pope’s rights and goods, and
marched to his Augsburg Reichstag to
crush the Lutherans. From the Castle
Coburg Luther captained his followers,
and on June 25 they presented the glo-
rious “Augsburg Confession” to the Kai-
ser, and the world’s most powerful Kai-
ser had to receive it and be powerless
to do anything about it. In 1532 this
Augsburg Confession was signed in —
Venezuela, where the Welsers, Augsburg
merchant princes, had founded a colony
in 1529. The Turk was again a menace,
and the, Kaiser had to make the Re-
ligious fceace of Nuernberg on July 23,
1532 ■ — a bitter pill for the Kaiser, and
Brother Ferdinand cried as he told the
Pope’s legates about it. Though King
Henry had twice viciously attacked Lu-
ther, the heretic’s books were read by the
king. “I told the king that this was the
devil dressed in angel’s garb in order
that he might the more easily deceive,”
wrote Campeggio on April 3, 1529. Still
the king pointedly praised Luther to
Eustace Chapuys, the Kaiser’s ambassa-
dor, “though he mixed heresy in his
hooks, that was no good reason - for re-
jecting the many truths he had brought
to light.” Henry in 1531 sent William
Paget, an ardent Lutheran and later Sec-
retary of State, to win Luther for the
king’s divorce from Catherine. On Sep-
tember 4, Barnes, who had fled for his
faith, took Luther’s unfavorable reply to
Henry. On August 12, 1532, Paget came
again, and in 1533 Henry tried again.
In 1530 he sent Dr. Barnes, Bishop Ed-
ward Fox, of Hereford, and Archdeacon
Nicholas Heath to treat of the “Augs-
burg Confession” and the king’s divorce.
On the king’s request the Germans in
1538 sent a committee consisting of Fried-
rich Myconius, Vice-Chancellor Burk-
hardt, and Georg von Boyneburg to
England to treat of the “Augsburg Con-
fession.” Green says the half of England
was Lutheran, Had it not been for the
king’s politics hindering the agreement,
the whole of England would likely have
become Lutheran at this time. — The
Elector John Frederick called on Luther
for articles to be considered by the Lu-
therans at Schmalkalden in February,
1537, in view of the Pope’s call for a
Council in May. Luther complied in the
Smalcald Articles, in which he calls the
Pope the Antichrist of 2 Thess. 2, and
he journeyed to the place, though far
from well, and while there he became
sick unto death, but by Easter he could
preach. Henry sent William Paget and
Christopher Mont, Mount, Mundt, “an
advanced Lutheran,” to Schmalkalden to
get the Protestants to reject the Pope’s
overtures. The princes refused to at-
tend the Pope’s Council and asked Me-
lanchthon to write the reasons to the
kings of England and France. Some-
thing new: so far they had appealed to
a Council, now they set up a communion
distinct from Rome. When the Kaiser
threatened war in 1538, Luther called
on the Pro,testants to fight the Kaiser
as a common robber, and the Kaiser
made the Frankfurt Recess on April 19,
1539, in which he promised protection to
the Protestant princes for fifteen months ;
a most notable victory for Luther. The
news from Germany was “enough to give
the stomachache to a statue,” wailed
Luther and Civil Government 424
Luther League, The
Aleander. Pope Paul III wrote the Kai-
ser a letter lecturing him like a naughty
schoolboy for meddling with the affairs
of the Church, especially since a Council
had been called to Trent for March 5,
1545. It is thought Karl’s chancellor,
Granvelle, played this letter into the
hands of Luther, and the dying lion with
youthful vigor roared out his final de-
fiance in his swan-song, “Against the
Papacy at Rome, Founded by the Devil.”
In January, 1546, he calls himself “old,
worn out, sluggish, weary, cold, and now
even one-eyed,” and yet the old warrior
put on the armor of peace and on the
23d set out the third time to settle a
petty quarrel between the petty counts of
Mansfeld. He made peace at Eislebcn on
February 17, and became ill and grew
worse. “Reverend father, will you stand
steadfast by Christ and the doctrine you
have preached ?” “Yes.” 2.45 a. m., Feb-
ruary 18, 1546, he died and was buried
on the 22d under the pulpit of the Castle
Church at Wittenberg.
Luther and Civil Government. Lu-
ther’s one great concern was, “When will
I become righteous” and thus “get a
gracious God?” He found a “gracious
God” and thereby became “righteous,” by
justification by faith, in Rom. 1, 16. 17,
without a priest and the visible organi-
zation of the Church. That discovery
loosed the million ties binding together
Church and State, making the Church a
purely spiritual entity, a communion of
believers. Arnold Berger calls this the
greatest discovery that had ever come
into the history of the Church and of
world-transforming power. Ranke finds
in the Reformation the breaking down
of the political power of the ecclesias-
tical state, and in its stead “a completely
autonomous state sovereignty, bound by
no extraneous considerations and exist-
ing for itself alone.” Luther said: “We
give to the secular government all its
rights and powers, which the Pope and
all his have never done, nor ever will
do.” The state is the organized people,
grown out of the family, “without a
special commandment from heaven,” and
yet according to the clear will of God,
grounded in human reason, and so an
order of God. And so political activity
is a duty, a service of God, that men
devour not one another, like the wild
beasts, but serve one another, each in
his calling - — master, servant, scholar,
peasant, merchant, mechanic. Of course,
inequality of position, yet equality of
dignity and worth before God. Luther
wanted neither autocracy nor mobocracy,
but lawocracy, book-law, a constitution.
He admired the ancient republics and
Switzerland. When the Kaiser broke the
law, he was to be fought as a common
robber. The government is to serve the
people. In matters of conscience you
must disobey the government and if it
cost your neck.
Luther and Education. As early as
1524 Luther’s “Letter to the Aldermen
and Cities of Germany to Erect and
Maintain Christian Schools” declared
“that the civil authorities are under ob-
ligation to compel the people to send
their children to school,” girls as well as
boys. And he wanted them to learn a
trade also, and he demanded public li-
braries with “good” books in “suitable
buildings” in every town. He wished the
schools to turn out “brilliant, reasonable,
and able persons, polished in all arts and
sciences.” Ranke writes: “This work
has the same significance for the de-
velopment of learning as the ‘Address to
the German Nobles’ for the civil estate
in general.” The issue of Education of
September, 1917, calls Luther “the father
of modern education” and places him
“among the greatest educators of the
world.” In 1525 Melanchthon organized
a school at Eisleben to put Luther’s
theories into practise and in 1528 organ-
ized the schools of Saxony. Luther made
a survey of a part of Saxony and found
that even some of the priests did not
know even the Ten Commandments and
the Lord’s Prayer. He wrote the “Small
Catechism” — “a right Bible for the
laity”; McGiffert calls it “the gem of
the Reformation,” the greatest text-book
ever written, after four hundred years
still in use in many languages. And Lu-
ther wanted the highest education. He
added a modern branch to the Univer-
sity, that of History, and he consecrated
philology, “as we love the Gospel, so we
must value the languages.” Brieger says
the educational work of the Lutheran
Church after the Reformation is “the
most stupendous achievement of peda-
gogy; the nineteenth century has noth-
ing to compare wii,h it.” Melanchthon
became the schoolmaster of Germany,
and Germany became the schoolmaster of
the world.
Luther League, The, formerly an in-
tersynodical association of young people’s
societies chiefly within the General Coun-
cil and the General Synod, was organized
April 19, 1888, in New York, and re-
organized as the L. L. of America, Octo-
ber 31, 1895, at Pittsburgh. Its publica-
tions are the L. L. Review, and the L, L.
Topics. In 1898 it had 70,000 members.
It claims credit for having given impetus
to the “Merger” of 1918. After the or-
ganization of the United Lutheran Church
Luther Society
425
Lutheran Church
it became the official young people’s or-
ganization of that body. Dr. M. L. Kuhns
was the executive secretary for twenty-
five years. In 1925 it numbered 869 or-
ganizations and 29,377 members.
Luther Society ( Luther-Qesellschaft ),
This is a society in Germany with head-
quarters at Wittenberg-Halle. It seeks
to promote a better knowledge and un-
derstanding of Luther’s works. For this
purpose it issues a year-book and scien-
tific and popular serial publications.
“Lutheran” is the name applied to
Luther and his followers first at the
Leipzig Debate, July 4, 1919, and then
by Pope Leo X in the bull of excommu-
nication of January 3, 1521, in order to
stigmatize them as heretics and separa-
tists from the Church. The insulting
epithet was adopted as a badge of honor.
In 1522 Luther wrote Hartmuth von
Kronberg: “Christians do not believe in
Luther, but in Christ Himself; the Word
has them, and they have the Word. They
let Luther go, be he scamp or saint. The
devil take him if he can. But let him
leave Christ in peace, then we shall also
remain well.” On the other hand: “If
you think Luther’s teaching is evangel-
ical and the Pope’s unevangelical, you
must not throw down Luther altogether,
or you will also throw down his teach-
ing, which you admit is Christ’s teach-
ing, but you must say thus : Luther may
be a scamp or a saint, I do not care; but
his teaching is not his, but Christ’s very
own. For you see the tyrants are not
concerned to do away with Luther only,
but it is the teaching they wish to de-
stroy, and it is for the teaching that
they tackle you and ask you if you are
Lutheran. Here you must verily not
talk in reed words, but frankly confess
Christ, no matter whether Luther, Nick,
or George have preached Him; let go
the person, but you must confess the
teaching.” Over against the unionists,
who love to call themselves evangelical,
we must also stress the word “Lutheran.”
Lutheran Bureau. This bureau is
the publicity agency of the National Lu-
theran Council. Its purpose is to gather
information of every kind concerning the
Lutheran Church and to distribute this
information through the public press
and otherwise. It maintains a reference
library, an information bureau, a clip-
ping bureau, and a news service organi-
zation.
Lutheran Church. When Professor
Luther learned the meaning of “The just
shall live by faith,” in Rom. 1, 16. 17,
he rediscovered Christianity. When the
Pope sold forgiveness of sin for cash.
and Tetzel came near to Wittenberg, Lu-
ther saw the damage done to the souls
of his own people and posted the Ninety-
five Theses on the doors of the Castle
Church, asking for a debate on Indul-
gences, October 31, 1517. At once he was
fiercely attacked. Cardinal Cajetan in
1518 at Augsburg called on Luther to
retract, which he would do if proved
wrong from the Bible. In 1519 Luther,
in a debate with Eck — at Leipzig, said
that General Councils could err. This
declaration put him outside the pale of
the Catholic Church, and the Pope sent
a bull threatening excommunication. At
the Reichstag at Worms, in 1521, Luther
refused to retract his teaching unless
proved wrong from Holy Writ and again
put his private interpretation above that
of the Pope and the Councils, and Kai-
ser Karl promptly placed the heretic
under the ban of the empire. Nothing
could be done to the outlaw, and the
heretic’s doctrine spread. The Bible, the
hymn - book, and the Catechism -were
given to the people. In 1529 Zwingli at
Marburg opposed Luther’s doctrine of the
Lord’s Supper, and at the Reichstag at
Speyer the Lutherans protested against
the tyranny of the Catholics, from which
all Protestants get their name. In 1530
the Lutherans read their glorious Con-
fession of Faith to the Kaiser at Augs-
burg, hence “Augsburg Confession,” also
“Augustana,” from the city of Caesar
Augustus. In the following year the
Lutheran princes united in the Smalcald
League to protect themselves against the
Kaiser threatening war.
Lutherans had helped to put down the
rising of the peasants in 1524, and in
1535 they helped to put down the Ana-
baptist fanatics of Muenster. In 1536
the Wittenberg Concord on the Lord’s
Supper was reached, and the following
year Luther wrote his Smalcald Articles
for the Council to be called by the Pope.
The Antinomian Controversy broke out
in 1537 and ended in 1541, when Agric-
ola gave up his error. Luther died in
1546, and the Smalcald War ended dis-
astrously for the Lutherans in 1547.
The Augsburg Interim was foisted on
the vanquished in 1548, and many were
persecuted and exiled; it was modified
in 1549 in the Leipzig Interim. The
Aepinian Controversy broke out in 1542.
The Lutherans were further distracted
by the Adiaphoristic Controversy of
1548; by the Osiandrian in 1549; the
Majoristic in 1551. In this year the
Elector Maurice of Saxony turned on the
Kaiser and wrested from the fugitive
the Passau Treaty of 1552, followed by the
Augsburg Religious Peace of 1555, where
Lutheran Church
426
Lutheran Church
the Kaiser’s life work was shattered and
Luther triumphed. In the same year the
Synergistic Controversy broke out; the
Flacian in 1560; the Sacramental raged
all along; the Crypto-Calvinistic till
1574. These doctrinal controversies were
composed in the great Formula of Con-
cord of 1580. (See the respective articles
in this work.)
The formative period of the Lutheran
Church thus ended, a century of sound
Lutheranism was ushered in, commonly
called the period of Orthodoxy. During
the first part of it the Crypto-kenotic
controversy took place, toward the end
syncretism (George Calixt) and syner-
gism (Latermann) disturbed the peace
of the Church. It has become customary
with modern unionistic and liberal theo-
logians to stigmatize this period as one
of “dead orthodoxy.” The great number
and noble qualities of the dogmatical
works produced in this period by Ger-
hard, Calov, Quenstedt, and others, of
the hymns composed by Paul Gerhardt,
Johann Heermann, and others, and of
the devotional books written by Gerhard,
Heinrich Mueller, Valerius Herberger,
and others easily disprove the charge
that orthodoxy spent itself in barren
polemics and degenerated into dead for-
malism. Even Tholuck must needs tes-
tify to the “glorious” characters of these
controversionalists, and secular writers,
such as Gustav Freitag, to their staying
influence in the trying days of the Thirty
Years’ War. The preservation of piety
amid its evil influences and the recovery
of the people of Germany from its fear-
ful devastations is a most convincing
proof of, and glowing tribute to, the
wonderful vitality of the orthodox Lu-
theran Church of the 17th century. True,
there is noticeable, especially towards
the end of the 18th century, a certain
intellectualism which stressed “pure doc-
trine at the expense of the inner spir-
itual life”; that intimate and immediate
contact with Scripture which character-
izes Luther and his period is somewhat
lacking; there was some truth in Spe-
ner’s and A. H. Francke’s charges that
orthodoxy was degenerating into ortho-
doxism, in danger of developing into mere
intellectualism and formalism. Though
the example of Spener himself and of a
host of faithful pastors throughout Ger-
many disprove the charge in its sweeping
generality, it must be admitted that
orthodoxy had been becoming somewhat
one-sided in a number of minor theo-
logians. And that gave rise, at least
in part, to the reaction which is called
Pietism. But Pietism was a poor remedy
for the evils brought about by ortho-
doxism. Stressing piety at the expense
of the saving doctrine and sanctification
more than justification, looking for help
and a change for the better from certain
deplorable conditions of church-life and
morals, not so much to the means of
grace, Word and Sacrament, but to new
methods and measures such as conven-
ticles in the church and means for stir-
ring up emotionalism, after the manner
of Methodism, the advocates of Pietism,
Spener and Francke, and more particu-
larly their successors, were violently at-
tacked by the orthodox theologians, the
Pietists answering even more violently,
calling into question, for instance, even
the conversion oiflb man of such eminent
piety as V. E. Loescher, the ablest among
their opponents. Instead of providing a
remedy, Pietism only helped to pave the
way for the rise of Rationalism. A lack
of interest in confessional orthodoxy had
been revealed already in the period of the
Syncretistic Controvery ; Pietism favored
this indifferentism by stressing subjec-
tive piety at the expense of confessional-
ism; and for the same reason it lacked
the inner strength for overcoming Ra-
tionalism. The example of Sender, the
father of German Rationalism, clearly
shows how an emotional Pietist may be-
come a critical Rationalist and how
Pietistic “workery” may develop into
rationalistic moralism. Rationalism had
its origin in the rise of a new Humanism,
fostered by the trend of the times, Eng-
lish Deism, French Naturalism, the new
philosophy of Cartesius, Spinoza, Leib-
nitz, and the philosophic method intro-
duced by Christian Wolf. (See Aufklae-
rung . ) Human reason was exalted above
Scripture and made the source and norm
of theology. Extreme Rationalists de-
nied all divine revelation. The Bible
was utterly discredited. The sum and
substance of the rationalistic teaching
was: God, virtue, immortality. All that
was left of a belief in the divine revela-
tion was a vague Supernaturalism. Both
for church-life and public morals Ra-
tionalism proved equally destructive.
Genuine. piety was found almost solely
in Moravian and certain other circles,
as well as among the simple lay people,
who nourished the spiritual life on the
old catechisms and hymn-books and older
devotional writings. Lutheranism had
become well-nigh extinct. But God in
His mercy made use of the distress ac-
companying and following the Napole-
onic Wars to turn many serious minds
to the religion of the Bible and the con-
fessions of the fathers. Claus Harms in
Kiel sounded, at the tercentenary cele-
bration of the Reformation in 1817, a
Lutheran Chnrch
4jJ7 Lutli. Pot. Mis*. Soc. In IT. S.
mighty blast against Rationalism and
its fearful ravages in the Church.
(Ninety -five Theses.) The period of
Awakening set in, at first more of a
pietistic character, but turning, in cer-
tain parts at least, more decidedly to
confessionalism. The old, hardened Ra-
tionalists cried out, “The Bible is coming
back!” Luther’s doctrine pure was again
brought to light, his writings and the
confessions of the Lutheran Church were
again read and studied, and many found
again, and joyfully professed to others,
the truth of God as revealed in the Bible.
The year 1817, however, had brought a
fresh disaster upon the Lutheran Church,
the Union between the Lutherans and the
Reformed brought about in Prussia and
its older provinces by the king, which
provided for the elimination even of the
name “Lutheran,” substituting the ap-
pellation “Evangelical.” Other German
states followed. (See Germany.) The
Lutheran Church had lost, in parts of
Germany, its legal standing. And worse,
the indifferent and unionistic tendencies
created by Pietism and Rationalism were
given a mighty impetus by the Union.
Even in those state churches which re-
tained the name “Lutheran,” union with
errorists was persistently practised. On
the other hand, these assaults served to
awaken and strengthen the Lutheran con-
sciousness in several quarters. The con-
fessional Lutherans in Silesia under Pro-
fessor Scheibel refused to come in under
the Union. Confessors arose elsewhere
too and, after suffering severe trials,
even persecution, succeeded in having
“Free Churches” established. (See also
Rudelbach, Guericke.) A number of
staunch confessional Lutherans, both
pastors and laymen, found existing con-
ditions, control by the state, oppression
on the part of the unionists, rationalistic
surroundings, etc., intolerable and emi-
grated to America and Australia, found-
ing strictly confessional synods. And in
Germany and elsewhere a fresh and final
disaster overtook the Lutheran Church.
A new Rationalism is strangling her.
Schleiermacher and, with him, the entire
modern Protestant theology put in place
of the inspired and inerrant Word of
God as we have it in the Bible the sub-
jective consciousness of the individual
theologian, thus dethroning Scripture as
the sole source and norm of theology, and
the distinction between modern Liberals
and Conservatives is marked simply by
the degree of their subjection to Ration-
alism. The Liberals, following upon the
rationalistic mediating theologians, have
discarded, under the leadership of Ritschl
and Harnack, the fundamental doctrines
of the Bible. The confessional theolo-
gians of the Erlangen School, under the
leadership of Hofmann and Frank, while
bravely battling against the rationalistic
Liberals, have also come under the bane-
ful influence of Schleiermacher’s subjec-
tivism, at bottom Rationalism, so that
the positive theologians of their and our
day have discarded fundamental doctrines.
The leading theologians of Germany,
even at the conservative universities
of Erlangen, Greifswald, and Rostock,
have rejected the Lutheran, Biblical doc-
trine of the verbal, plenary inspiration,
some of them even the vicarious atone-
ment.
The story of the spread of Lutheran-
ism is told in the articles on the Refor-
mation and Germany. Since its forma-
tive period the Lutheran Church has
spread mainly through emigration to
America and Australia and through mis-
sion-work in India, Africa, China, and
other regions. Some statisticians give
the number of Lutherans in all lands as
some 80 million, counting all Protestants
in Germany, even the churchless. Others
are giving 50 to 60 million as a more
conservative estimate. Half of that fig-
ure would perhaps express the number of
those who profess confessional Luther-
anism. The Lutheran Church does not
seek its glory in large numbers or the
possession of political power, but in the
faithful adherence to the Word of God.
As long as she adheres to the Word of
God, she will not attract the masses, but
will remain the world’s greatest blessing.
( See articles on the particular events
and movements mentioned.)
Lutheran Foreign Mission Socie-
ties in the United States. In the early
part of the past century, Lutherans in
the United States showed their interest
in foreign missions by supporting the
various European and American foreign
mission societies. At that time there
was no distinctly Lutheran foreign mis-
sion enterprise in the United States. In
1821 the Lutheran General Synod began
to support Rhenius in India. The Cen-
tral Missionary Society was formed at
Mechanicsburg, Pa., in 1835, which was
followed in 1837 by the German Foreign
Missionary Society in the United States.
This organization was designed to be
distinctly unionistic, uniting both Re-
formed and Lutherans, but proved a
failure. The name was then changed
(1839) to The Foreign Mission Society
of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in
the United States of America. This or-
ganization was for many years the organ
through which foreign missionary opera-
tions were conducted. When the confes-
Lutheran Laymen’s League 428
Lutherlseher Gotteskasten
sional break came in the General Synod
in 1867, the General Council organized
its own foreign mission enterprise (1869).
— The General Synod foreign missions
were begun in cooperation with the
American Board (ABCFM), the Rev. C.
F. Heyer being called as the first mis-
sionary (1840). Fearing friction, Heyer
resigned and was then called to the same
field by the foreign missionary organiza-
tion in the Lutheran Ministerium of
Pennsylvania, which had been in exist-
ence since 1836. He arrived in India in
the spring of 1842, beginning work at
Guntur. New stations were opened in
the course of time. Rajahmundry was
transferred to the Ministerium of Penn-
sylvania by the North German Mission-
ary Society in 1845. Later this field was
given over to the General Synod.
The United Synod of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church in the South began
foreign mission work in Japan in 1892.
By the merger of the General Synod, the
General Council, and the United Synod,
South, all foreign mission work was
transferred to the new organization, the
United Lutheran Church (1918). Dur-
ing and since the World War this organi-
zation lent extensive assistance to the
crippled German foreign missions. Pres-
ent fields: Japan, India, Africa, South
America.
The Evangelical Lutheran Synod of
Missouri, Ohio, and Other States. The
foreign mission enterprise of this Synod
was begun in 1893. In India Tli. Naether
and Franz Mohn had been dismissed by
the Leipzig Mission because of their firm
adherence to the divine and plenary in-
spiration of the Scriptures. These men
were called as missionaries to India and
commissioned in 1894. Work was begun
in the Salem and North Arcot districts
of the Madras Presidency. In 1913 a pri-
vate organization in the Synodical Con-
ference was formed for foreign mission
work in China. The Rev. E. L. Arndt
was sent out in 1914, locating at Han-
kow. The society’s work was turned over
to the Missouri Synod in 1917. Fields:
India, China. See Missouri Synod.
Other Lutheran Bodies. Almost all
Lutheran church-bodies in the United
States are now engaged in foreign mis-
sions, chief among which are the Nor-
wegian Lutheran Church in America, the
Augustana Synod, the Ohio Synod, and
the Iowa Synod.
Lutheran Laymen’s League. This
is a laymen’s organization within the
Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri,
Ohio, and Other States. At the Milwau-
kee convention, 1917, Benjamin Bosse
(d. April 4, 1922) made the official an-
nouncement of its organization. Its
original purpose was to collect from
wealthy laymen enough money to pay a
deficit of $100,000 in the treasuries of
the Missouri Synod. After the deficit
was promptly wiped out, the League in-
creased its membership and by an exten-
sive and intensive campaign sought to
collect $3,000,000 as an endowment fund,
the proceeds of which are to be used for
superannuated pastors and teachers and
the widows and orphans of deceased pas-
tors and teachers. The scope of the
League’s work, however, has been en-
larged so as “to aid the officers and the
Board of Directors of the Evangelical
Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and
Other States, \yttu word and deed in
business and financial matters.” All
adult members of congregations affiliated
with the Missouri Synod are eligible to
membership. The first officers were : T. H.
Lamprecht, president ; Fred C. Pritzlaff,
treasurer; A. G. Brauer, secretary.
Lutheran World Convention at
Eisenach, August 19 — 24, 1923. Chief
promoters of this convention were Dr. J.
A. Morehead of the United Lutheran
Church of America and Bishop Ihmels of
Saxony, Dr. Laible, editor of the Allge-
meine Ev.-Luth. Kirchcnzeitung, and Dr.
Paul, director of the Leipzig Mission So-
ciety. The purpose of the convention
was to give expression to the world
catholicity of the Lutheran Church. 151
representatives of 22 countries were
present. Since the participants in this
convention neither were in doctrinal
agreement with each other nor had met
for the purpose of bringing about such
an agreement, the Missouri Synod and
allied Lutheran bodies in the Synodical
Conference declined to send delegates.
Lutherischer Bund. This is an or-
ganization since 1913 within the Synod-
ical Conference. Its purpose is to pay
a certain sum of money upon the death
of a member to his family or relatives.
Every member is taxed an equal amount
whenever a member dies. Professors,
pastors, and teachers of the Synodical
Conference are eligible to membership.
Lutherischer Gotteskasten. A so-
ciety in Germany similar to the Gustav-
Adolf-Verein, differing from it, however,
in this, that its purpose is to aid strug-
gling Lutheran churches in countries
outside of Germany. The Gotteskasten
was founded by Dr. Petri, of Hanover, in
1853, assisted by Drs. Steinmetz and
Muenchmeyer. Especially Hanover, Meck-
lenburg, and Bavaria show a large fol-
lowing. Lutheran churches in Holland,
Switzerland, and America received finan-
Luther’s Chief Writings
429
Luther’s Chief Writings
cial aid. In addition, the society assists
worthy theological students who pledge
themselves later to serve Lutheran dias-
pora churches. The annual income of
the society amounted to some 90,000
marks before the World War.
Luther’s Chief Writing's. In the
tower of the Wittenberg cloister Luther
rediscovered the Gospel, justification by
faith in Christ, when the meaning of
“the righteousness of God” in Rom. 1,
16. 17 became clear to him. In many
ages he was the first one to understand
Paul. That world-transforming discov-
ery he made clear in his Commentary on
Galatians — “most fit for a wounded con-
science,” says Bunyan, and therefore we
consider this Luther’s greatest book and
Luther the greatest theologian since
Paul. In this power of God, Luther
hurled his terrific Address to the Nobility
at the three “walls” of the papacy, razed
them, showed up the corruption within,
and advocated twenty-six measures for
the betterment of the spiritual estate and
six for the civil. Farrar thinks nothing
like this was written since Paul’s Gala-
tians, and Plank and P. Smith rate it
Luther’s “greatest work,” and a contem-
porary said: “Some think the devil
speaks through Luther or the Holy
Ghost.” Luther “sang still higher” in
his Babylonian Captivity and in a schol-
arly manner smashed the whole sacra-
mental system of the Roman hierarchy
and showed the universal priesthood of
all believers in Christ. By this most
emphatic writing the heart of Rome’s
doctrine was cut out. Luther wrote Pope
Leo X The Liberty of a Christian Man,
showing: 1) A Christian is a free
lord of all things and subject to none.
2) A Christian man is the free servant
of all things and subject to all. McGif-
fert calls this “one of the world’s great
religious classics.” These three monu-
mental works came out in one year
(1520). “First Principles of the Refor-
mation” Wace calls them, adding : “From
them, and by means of them, the whole
of the subsequent movement was worked
out.” At the Wartburg, Luther worked
on the greatest of all Bible translations
and improved it for many years. Also,
he worked on the first German evangel-
ical postil, sermons on the epistles and
gospels of the church-year, the most in-
fluential of all published sermons. To
this Church Postil later came the Bouse
Postil. When monks began leaving the
cloister, Luther wrote On Monastic Vows,
and the disturbances at Wittenberg called
forth his “Faithful Warning to All Chris-
tians to Avoid Riot and Rebellion. He
brought order out of chaos by his Order
of Public Worship and by his Letter to
the Aldermen to Erect and Maintain
Christian Schools. Attacks on married
monks and nuns caused Luther to pub-
lish a sermon On Married Life and an
explanation of 1 Cor. 7. When rulers
began to persecute the Lutherans, Luther
wrote On Civil Government, How Far to
be Obeyed. King Henry VIII made a vi-
cious attack on Luther in the Assertion
of the Seven Sacraments, and Luther re-
plied ' in kind Against Henry, King of
England. The king urged Erasmus to
attack Luther. Erasmus had learned
from Luther and grown religiously under
his influence, but now felt compelled to
jump at his throat by writing On the
Free Will. In 1525 Luther replied with
his great work On the Unfree Will, in
which he defended the free grace of God
in the matter of our salvation, and the
David of the Reformation downed the
Goliath of the Renaissance. He took
great pains in preparing The Psalter as
a book of daily devotions for the Chris-
tians. When Carlstadt denied the true
doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, Luther
wrote Against the Heavenly Prophets in
1525. Zwingli rekindled the fires by an
attack on Luther, and the latter, in 1527,
wrote That These Words, “This Is My
Body," Still Stand Fast, and the next
year followed it by his Large Confession
on the Lord’s Supper, and closed with his
Short Confession in 1544. “If Soldiers
Can Be in a State of Grace (1526) advo-
cates passive resistance; but it is a di-
vine judgment if tyrants are killed. After
1530 Luther was willing to defend the
Gospel “even with the fist”; if the Kai-
ser persecutes, he is to be fought off “as
a common robber.” In 1526 his Jonah
was to be an example of faith against
Satan’s attacks on the right by the
fanatics and on the left by the papists;
Isaiah appeared in 1528, also the wonder-
ful Introduction to the Revised Psalter.
His most thorough work On the Keys ~
Matt. 16, 19; 18, 18 — came out in 1530,
also his ideas On Translating and the
Intercession of the Saints. He justifies his
justified by faith “alone” in Rom. 3, 28.
By the way, Loofs proves that many be-
fore Luther’s day had added the “alone,”
although the Greek text has not the
word. Luther supplied Bugenhagen’s
pulpit and preached on The Sermon on
the Mount and on John 7 and 8, from
November, 1530, to March, 1532. Many
bitter papistic attacks called forth his
writing of 1533, On the Private Mass
and Priestly Consecration ; the former is
idolatry and the latter worthless. The
Pope called a council for 1537 at Man-
tua; the Protestant princes were to con-
Luther’s Controversies
430
Luther’s Controversies
aider it at Schmalkalden and asked Lu-
ther to prepare articles on which to base
their discussions, and so Luther wrote
his famous Smalcald Articles — “a bat-
tering-ram,” Jonas calls them; “his tes-
tament,” Brueck calls them; it was
Luther’s Version of the Augsburg Confes-
sion. It was followed by the solid work
On Councils and Churches in 1539. He
also wrote To the Pastors, to Preach
Against Usury. A bold, original, and
important work, On the Last Words of
David, came out in 1543. The Pope de-
nounced the resolutions of the Reichs-
tag of Speyer in 1544 and scolded the
Kaiser like a naughty schoolboy for
meddling with church affairs. The
Elector asked Luther to write some re-
marks on the Pope’s breve, and no doubt
he would know how to do it right. He
knew, and he did, Against the Papacy
at Rome, Founded by the Devil. In
Brueck’s phrase: “He mightily struck
with the ax, for which he, by the grace
of God, has a higher spirit than other
mortals.” It certainly is a characteris-
tically Lutheresque performance; the
dying lion, with youthful vigor, is roar-
ing his final defiance at Antichrist. On
November 18, 1545, Luther ended his lec-
tures by finishing his “dear Genesis,” on
which he had spent ten laborious years,
a perennial spring of genius. “That is
now the dear Genesis. Our Lord grant
some one after me to do better ; I can
do no more, I am too weak. Pray God
for me to grant me a good, blessed hour.”
Luther’s Controversies. With the
Papists. Wrote the editor of the West
Side Home News of New York City: “As
a Catholic, I am grateful to Luther. . . .
I cannot withold the tribute of an
Irishman for Martin Luther, fighter.”
Fighter, yes ; the world’s greatest fighter.
But, mark you well, never the aggressor ;
he fought only when attacked by num-
bers. It was Pope Leo X and Tetzel who
by the scandalous traffic in indulgences
interfered with Luther’s sworn duties as
teacher, preacher, and pastor. Bound in
conscience, Luther posted the Ninety -five
Theses. Many Catholics then and now
admit he was right in repelling the in-
vasion. Tetzel’s Dominicans at Frank-
fort at once attacked Luther, Cardinal
Cajetan attacked him, Prierias, the
Pope’s confessor, attacked him, the Pope
ordered the Augustinian general to
“pacify the man,” and the general com-
manded “to spare no labor, to refuse no
expense to get this heretic into the hands
of the Supreme Pontiff.” At Augsburg
he was willing to submit if proved
wrong; the learned Cardinal Cajetan
could not prove him in the wrong and
had to get a special bull from the Pope
to condemn the teaching of Luther as
heresy; and he had orders to arrest Lu-
ther, and this before the sixty days
granted him by the authorities were up.
Luther fled, and the Pope ordered the
Elector Frederick to hand over “this
son of perdition, this infected, scrofulous
sheep, for heavy punishment.” Heretics
were burned alive, - — any wonder Luther
struck back in self-defense?
The Leipzig Disputation. Prof. Johann
Mair von Eck, of Ingolstadt University,
turned on his friend Luther and called
him a “Bohemian,” which meant a Judas
Iscariot and a Benedict Arnold rolled
into one, the most stinging insult, and
by his attacks compelled Luther to enter
the Leipzig Disputation, which he did
on July 4, 1519. denied that the
papacy was of divine institution and the
head over all — which the good Catholic
Thomas More also denied, criticizing
King Henry’s book. Luther held the Pope
was not infallible — just as Adrian of
Utrecht, later Pope Adrian VI. He main-
tained that a council could err; in fact,
the Council of Constance had erred in
condemning certain articles of John
Huss ; the Bible alone is infallible —
the Bible, of course, as speaking for it-
self and not as it was made to speak
by the Pope. That put him out of the
Roman Church and made him a Prot-
estant.
King Henry Till of England. Lu-
ther’s Babylonian Captivity drew the
lightning from all points of the compass.
Catharinus at Rome attacked it. Adrian,
of Utrecht, the future Pope Adrian VI,
attacked it as a devilish book and Lu-
ther’s Gospel freedom as “a bondage of
the devil.” King Henry VIII of England
wrote Kaiser Karl at Worms to make
an end of Luther and in July, 1521, pub-
lished An Assertion of the Seven Sacra-
ments, against Martin Luther, in which
he wrote: “What a wolf of hell is he!
What a poisonous viper! What a limb
of Satan! How rotten is his mind!”
Luther replied in characteristic fashion.
Five years later King Christian of Den-
mark induced Luther to try to win
Henry; but the king again wrote in the
most savage and insulting manner. Five
years later Henry tried hard to win Lu-
ther for his divorce from Katherine, but
the monk would not sanction it to please
the king and win all England.
With the Anabaptists. While Luther
was in the Wartburg, Z willing (Didy-
mus) and Carlstadt with their fanatical
reforms raised a riot at Wittenberg. Lu-
ther secretly rode down and quieted the
tumult. But the “Heavenly Prophets”
Luther’s Controversies
431
liOther’s Family Life
from Zwickau came and stirred the dying
embers into a blaze. The town council
begged Luther to return and bring order
out of chaos, which he did by eight ser-
mons. The routed fanatics went else-
where and spread the revolution, and
the Reichstag of Speyer in 1529 decreed
drastic action against the Anabaptists,
as they were called since 1525. They
came to Muenster and inaugurated orgies
of blood and immorality under their
chief leader, Jan of Leyden. They were
suppressed with force of arms in 1535
and done to death with cruel tortures,
“to serve as a warning to all restless
spirits.”
With the Peasants. The princes op-
pressed the peasants and again and
again drove them to revolt. Luther
wrote On Civil Government and called
on the rulers to make reasonable con-
cessions, and he wrote his Admonition
to the peasants against riot and blood-
shed. Neither party would heed the
warning, and the Peasants’ War broke
out, and fanatics like Muenzer poured
false religious oil into the economic
flames to set up “the kingdom of Christ.”
Luther wrote fiercely to restore order by
force of arms. On May 15, 1525, eight
thousand rioters were defeated at Fran-
kenhausen, and Muenzer was beheaded.
Now the soldiers far outdid the peasants
in atrocities, and Luther protested
against those “mad, raging, insane ty-
rants and bloodhounds.” He spoke the
plain truth to both princes and peasants,
and now both hated him. Alfred Baud-
rillart, Rector of the Catholic Institute
of Paris, says Luther had no more to
do with this Peasants’ War than with
all the former ones.
With Erasmus. At first Erasmus, the
greatest scholar of the age, favored Lu-
ther, but finally, under threat of losing
his pensions, in 1524, was drafted by
King Henry to write against the Re-
former On Free Will and thereby proved
he had no free will of his own. He
jumped at Luther’s throat; for if a man
has a free will to do good works to save
himself, we need not the grace of God.
Luther replied with his great work On
the Unfree Will and showed from the
New Testament that salvation does not
depend on man’s free will, but on God’s
free grace. Erasmus wrote a rejoinder,
but Luther did not deign to say any
more. The Goliath of the Renaissance
was downed by the David of the Refor-
mation. William Farel likened Erasmus
to Balaam cursing the people of God for
gold. Pope Paul IV placed all the works
of Erasmus on the Ihdex. McGiffert
says: “Luther was a genuine evangel-
ical. And if Erasmus was not a thor-
oughgoing rationalist, . . . his spirit was
akin to that of the rationalists of all
ages.”
With Zvringli. As early as 1518
Zwingli began to read Luther and got
religious power and moral depth from
him. Zwingli got his false doctrine of
the Lord’s Supper from the Dutchman
Cornelius Hoen about 1523 and in 1524
attacked Luther. As early as 1525
Zwingli said the Lutherans were “led by
a different spirit” and charged them with
cowardice and deceit, calling Luther the
Saxon idol, Orestes, etc., and claiming
his followers used fraud and forgery.
Any wonder Luther used sharp language
in defending himself! When Pope and
Kaiser were united and a menace, Philip
of Hessen and Zwingli would get the
Lutherans into a political alliance and
to this end clear away the doctrinal dif-
ferences at the Marburg Colloquy in
1529. Zwingli would not bow to the
plain words of Scripture, and so Luther
had to refuse the proffered hand of
“brotherhood.” “Nevertheless we gave
them the hand of peace and charity.”
“The text is too powerful for me and
will not let itself be wrenched from the
plain sense by argument.” “Please, im-
pute it not to obstinacy, but to con-
science that I decline the union.” Though
a Methodist, former President Hough of
Northwestern University sees “that with
splendid, dogged loyalty Luther was
being faithful to the one great central
matter on which he believed everything
else depended.” Prof. Walter Koehler
also admits the union was frustrated by
Zwingli, who was influenced by Swiss
politics.
Luther’s Family Life. Leonard
Koppe, of Torgau, rescued a number of
nuns from the cloister of Nimbschen and
left them at Luther’s door on Tuesday
after Easter, 1523. Luther placed them
in good families. One of the nuns,
Katharina von Bora, he married on
June 13, 1525, a crime punishable with
death according to the canon law of those
days. Kate was a good wife and a very
capable manager, making both ends
meet and saving a bit. They had six
children : Hans, Elizabeth, Magdalene,
Martin, Paul, Margaret. Little Elizabeth
died in less than a year and Magdalene
in her fourteenth year; the scene at her
death is most touching. The letter Lu-
ther wrote from the Coburg to little
Hans is unique in literature. Though
Luther was an extremely fond father, he
was not weak; especially would he brook
no disobedience. On festivals he enjoyed
a good dinner; but as a rule he fared
Luther’s Hymns, Music, Liturgies 432 Luther’s Hymns, Music, Liturgies
frugally, sometimes working for days on
dry bread and herring. He gave a home
to Kate’s aunt, Lena, and to no fewer
than eleven of his orphaned nephews and
nieces; and he had his table and house
full of company all the time — quite a
drain on the purse of the man generous
to a fault. At table the famous “Table
Talk” was noted down by various guests
and later published. After supper,
prayers, music, and singing. In the
living-room hung a picture of Mary with
the boy Jesus; decorative and aromatic
plants stood on the window-sill; a huge
tile stove radiated genial warmth. “Per-
haps the cleanest and surely the most
momentous of historic love-affairs was
that of Friar Martin and Sister Cathe-
rine,” writes Preserved Smith, while the
Catholic historian Jules Michelet says:
“Among these joys Luther had those of
the heart, of the man, the innocent hap-
piness of the family and home. What
family more holy, what home more pure ?
Holy, hospitable table, where I myself,
for a long time a guest, have found so
many divine fruits on which my heart
yet lives.”
Luther’s Hymns, Music, Liturgies.
In December, 1523, Luther published his
Formula Missae, which omitted only the
idolatrous sacrifice of the Mass. It had
the Introit, Kyrie, Gloria in Excelsis,
Collect, Epistle, either the Graduale or
the Hallelujah, Gospel, Sequences, Creed,
Sermon, Preface, Consecration, Sanctus,
Benedictus with Elevation, Lord’s Prayer,
Pax, the pastor first communicated him-
self and then the congregation — all in
Latin but the sermon. Candles, incense,
and vestments were matters wholly in-
different. Insistent calls came for an
Order of Service in German. On Octo-
ber 29, 1525, Luther’s effort was tried in
the City Church: Hymn, Kyrie, Collect,
Epistle, Hymn, Gospel, Creed, Sermon,
Preface, Lord’s Prayer, Admonition, Con-
secration of Bread and Distribution,
Hymn, Consecration of Wine and Dis-
tribution, Collect, Benediction.
Hitherto the priests’ choir had done
all the singing, the people having been
reduced to silence. Luther laid his hands
on the heads of the laity and consecrated
them God’s clergy. Being a spiritual
priesthood, they had to function as such
and take part in the singing in the pub-
lic service. This practical need drove
Luther to get hymns and tunes for con-
gregational singing. The choral is Lu-
ther’s very own gift to Christendom.
Some of his hymns are wholly original;
some are original additions to some
extant stanza; some are genial repro-
ductions of Bible-passages ; some are
translations or adaptations of extant
material. For the hymns he composed
melodies, e. g., for the German Sanctus,
Is. 6, and for “A Mighty Fortress Is Our
God”; he adopted and adapted extant
melodies; he had others compose melo-
dies. In 1524 appeared the first Prot-
estant hymnal, a booklet of eight hymns
— four by Luther, three by Speratus,
one by an unknown author. Enchiridion,
or Handbook, was issued the same year,
twenty-five hymns, eighteen by Luther.
Also in the same year came out John
Walther’s Spiritual Hymn-booklet with
thirty-two German hymns — twenty-four
by Luther. In time twelve more were
added. Luther loved art, and he would
put all arts into the service- of Him
who had created and given them. In
“A Mighty Fortress Is Our God” he is
a consummate artist, poet, and composer
— who is greater ? Luther’s hymn-book
has influenced the hymnody of all Prot-
estantism. One of the early complete col-
lections is: “The Hymns of Martin Lu-
ther . . . with an English Version edited
byL. W. Bacon: 1. Dear Christians, One
and All Rejoice; 2. Look Down, 0 Lord,
from Heaven Behold; 3. The Mouth of
Fools Doth God Confess; 4. Out of the
Deep I Cry to Thee; 5. By Help of God
I Fain would Tell; 6. Savior of the
Heathen, Come; 7. Now . Praise We
Christ, the Holy One; 8. All Praise to
Jesus’ Hallowed Name; 9. Christ was
Laid in Death’s Strong Bands; 10. Come,
God Creator, Holy Ghost; 11. Jesus
Christ, who Came to Save; 12. Come,
Holy Spirit, Lord, Our God; 13. That
Man a Godly Life Might Live; 14. Christ,
who Freed Our Souls from Danger ;
15. May God be Praised Henceforth and
Blest; 16. May God unto Us Gracious
Be; 17. Happy the Man who Feareth
God; 18. Though in Midst of Life We
Be; 19. Now Pray We All God, the Com-
forter; 20. In Peace and Joy I Now De-
part; 21. Wilt Thou, O Man, Live Hap-
pily; 22. God the Father, with Us Stay;
23. We All Believe in One True God;
24. Had God Not Come, May Israel Say;
25. These Things the Seer Isaiah Did
Befall; 26. Strong Tower and Refuge Is
Our God; 27. In These Our Days so
Perilous; 28. Lord God, Thy Praise We
Sing; 29. From Heaven Above to Earth
I Come; 30. Dear Is to Me the Holy
Maid; 31. Our Father, Thou in Heaven
Above; 32. To Shepherds as They
Watched by Night; 33. Lord, Keep Us
in Thy Word and Work; 34. To Jordan
Came Our Lord, the Christ; 35. Why,
Herod, Unrelenting Foe; 36. Thou, who
Art Three in Unity.”
LiUtlier’g Works, Editions
433
Maccabees, Knigkts of the
Luther’s Works, Editions. 1. Wit-
tenberg, 1539 — 58; 12 German and
8 Latin vols., fol. 2. Jena, 1555 — 8;
8 German and 4 Latin vols., fob, and
2 supplements, Eisleben. 3. Altenburg,
1661 — 1702; 11 German vols., fol. 4.Leip-
zig, 1729 — 40; 23 German vols., fob
5. Halle, 1740 — 53; 24 vols., quarto.
Walch’s edition; the Latin works trans-
lated into German, with many sources,
documents, and writings of opponents.
A new and much improved edition
appeared since 1880 at the Missouri
Synod’s Concordia Publishing House,
St. Louis, — now the best available edi-
tion. 6. Erlangen; 67 German vols.,
partly in the second edition, and more
than 40 Latin vols. 7. Weimar, also
Kaiser or Hohenzollern, because financed
by the Prussian government since 1883.
It is the first critical edition; the Ger-
man and Latin works follow in chrono-
logical order. Luther’s Letters have
been edited by De Wette, Seidemann,
Burkhardt, and Flemming, his Table
Talk by Foerstemann and Bindseib
A number of selections of Luther’s works
have been published, the very usable
Volksbibliothek by Concordia Publishing
House, St. Louis. From the earliest
times Luther’s writings came out in Eng-
land, about one hundred of them. Wace
and Buchheim got out The Address to
the Nobles, The Babylonian Captivity ,
The Liberty of a Christian, the two Cate-
chisms, and the Ninety-five Theses. Pre-
served Smith edited a volume of Luther’s
Conversations and two of his Corre-
spondence. Lenker issued a number of
works, and Holman is doing so now.
Lycanthropy. See Transmigration of
Souls.
Lyra, Nicolaus de. French scholar
and exegete; b. ca. 1270, d. at Paris
1340; member of the Franciscan order,
provincial in Burgundy; later professor
at the Sorbonne in Paris; his chief work
a commentary on the Bible, noted for
the rather good presentation of the literal
sense, for which reason Luther repeatedly
praised the work.
Lyte, Henry Francis, 1793 — 1847;
educated at Trinity College, Dublin;
took orders and held pastorates in va-
rious places, being curate of Lower Brix-
ham at the time of his death; wrote:
“Abide with Me.”
M
Mabillon, Jean, 1632 — -1707 ; histo-
rian of the Benedictine order; spent
over thirty years on his principal work,
Acta Sanctorum S. Benedicti, in nine
folio volumes, which shows extensive re-
search as well as fearless criticism.
Maccabee Boy Scouts. This is an
organization of boy scouts under Mac-
cabee auspices authorized by the Knights
of the Maccabees at their national con-
vention in San Francisco in 1915. The
scouts form an independent lodge and
have a ritual of their own.
Maccabees, Knights of the. His-
tory. This order, formerly known as
Knights of the Maccabees of the World,
is one of the most popular and most suc-
cessful of the many secret beneficiary
societies in this country. It claims to be
“built up on the traditions and history
of the ancient Maccabean dynasty, the
achievements of which are recorded in
the Books of the Macabees in the Old
Testament.” The original Order of Mac-
cabees was founded in 1878 by members
of the Independent Order of Foresters
and others, at London, Ont., and within
two years spread into the United States.
In 1881 the order Was reorganized by
Major M. S. Boynton, Dr. D. Aitken, and
Cnneordia CvcloDedia
others as the Supreme Tent of the
Knights of the Maccabees of the World.
— Purpose. The order pays benefits at
the death of members, both men and
women, and for disability, during ex-
treme old age, for sickness, accidents,
and also defrays the funeral expenses.
Like the Royal Arcanum it has been
obliged to raise its rates to avoid bank-
ruptcy. - — Character. The original ritual
of the Maccabees enumerates a “Prelate”
among its lodge officers. The “obliga-
tion” taken by members reads in part as
follows: “I, , do solemnly and vol-
untarily promise in the presence of Al-
mighty God and this duly convoked Tent
of the Knights of the Maccabees that I
will be faithful and true to the Tent . . . ;
that I will maintain and uphold the con-
stitution and by-laws of the order . . .;
that I will be true to all Sir Knights of
the order and will forever keep and con-
ceal all the secrets, signs, passwords,
grips, and other private work of the
order . . .; that I will not defraud a
member or Tent of anything or allow it
to be done by others, if in my power to
prevent it. . . . To all this I most sin-
cerely promise and swear with a fixed,
solemn, and determined resolution to
keep and perform the same, binding my-
28
Maccabees, Ladles of the
434
Madagascar
self under no less a penalty for the wil-
ful violation of any of the provisions
than that of having my left arm cut off
above the elbow, so that I would forever
be unable to prove myself a Knight of
the Maccabees. So help me the Most
High and keep me steadfast in the
same until death!” — Membership. 4,659
lodges with 256,710 benefit and 4,081
other members in the United States and
Canada.
Maccabees, Ladies of the. History.
A woman’s auxiliary of the Knights of
the Maccabees, established by Mrs. A. G.
Ward, of Muskegon, Mich., in 1886, in-
corporated in 1891, reincorporated in
1893. It soon split. The Supreme Hive
— the branches of the Order are called
“hives” — was organized in 1892 “to har-
monize the workings of the various Great
Hives and to render their social, ritualis-
tic, and other work uniform.” It was
opposed by the Great Hive. The quarrel
arose mainly out of differences arising
between the Supreme Tent and the Great
Camp of Michigan, the Great Hive being
confined in its operations to the State
of Michigan. The quarrel continued for
years. In 1915 the Supreme Hive changed
its corporate name to the Woman’s Bene-
fit Association of the Maccabees. The
following year the Great Hive changed
its corporate name to Ladies of the Mac-
cabees. The ritualistic work, parapher-
nalia, etc., of this order closely resemble
those of the Knights of the Maccabees.
— Membership. The Ladies of the Mac-
cabees have 858 lodges, with a benefit
membership of 45,384 and a social mem-
bership of 9,582. Headquarters are now
in the Modern Maccabee Temple, Port
Huron, Mich. In 1923 a Juvenile De-
partment was created.
Maccabees, Woman’s Benefit Asso-
ciation of the. 2,643 lodges, with a
benefit membership of 236,333 and a so-
cial membership of 14,841. The Juvenile
Department has 18,885 members. The
order has and operates its own head-
quarters at Port Huron, Mich. It has
a lodge system and a ritual. Its rela-
tions with the Maccabees are most cor-
dial. The official organ of the order is
The Ladies’ Review.
Macedonius. See Pneumatomachi.
Mackay, Alexander M., b. October 13,
1849, at Rhymie, Scotland; d. February 8,
1890, at Uganda, Africa. Founder of the
Uganda Church. Moved by Henry Stan-
ley’s letter from Uganda to the Daily
Telegraph, the Church Mission Society
sent eight men, among whom was
Mackay. In the face of great odds and
much suffering Mackay held out, en-
couraging and comforting the Christians.
He translated the Bible into the Swahili
language.
Mackay, Margaret, 1802 — 87; mar-
ried to an officer of the British army;
d. at Cheltenham; published various
prose works and Thoughts Redeemed, or
Lays of Leisure Hours ; among her 72
hymns: “Asleep in Jesus, Blessed Sleep.”
Madagascar. An island in the Indian
Ocean, since 1896 a French Colony. Area,
227,750 sq. mi. Population, estimated,
3,500,000 of whom 2,700,000 are of Ma-
layo-African stock. They are called
Malagasies. Prior to 1895 the native
government was an absolute monarchy.
The native religion is a crude form of
idolatry, connected with ancestor wor-
ship. After unsuccessful attempts by the
Roman Catholic Lazarists and Jesuits
in the 17th century to gain a footing,
the L. M. S. succeeded in entering the
island in 1818. Missionary work done
by David Jones between 1820 and 1828
resulted in the founding of 32 schools.
Queen Ranavalona began to persecute
the Christians in 1835, and in 1849 the
persecutions became more violent. The
missionaries fled to Mauritius, and the
mission-stations were closed for twenty-
six years; but secret intercourse was
kept up, and the little band of faithful
native confessors was strengthened. The
severest persecutions were those of 1849
and 1857 — 60, in which thousands suf-
fered shameful indignities by torture,
and many were put to death. Ranava-
lona died in 1861. Radama II, on
ascending the throne, immediately pro-
claimed religious liberty. Hundreds re-
turned from banishment and places of
hiding, where they had spent years of
suffering. During the period of persecu-
tion the New Testament in the hands of
the Malagasies had been the fruitful
source of many conversions. The num-
ber of professed Christians after the per-
secutions ended was far greater than
when the persecutions began. The queen
and her prime minister were baptized in
1868, which served to make Christianity
popular ; many natives now professed
the Christian faith. In 1870 the number
of Christians was estimated at 250.000.
How superficial, however, the Christian-
ity of many was became manifest when
in 1883 the French declared a French
Protectorate over the island. In 1904
over 200,000 adherents of the L. M. S.
had forsaken this connection. The anti-
christian policy of the French govern-
ment has made mission-work exception-
ally difficult. — Missions are conducted
by the following: Lutheran Board of
Madonna Paintings
435
Majoristic Controversy
Missions (Lutheran Free Church), Nor-
wegian Lutheran Church of America,
Friends’ Foreign Mission Association.
London Missionary Society, Society for
the Propagation of the Gospel, Norske
Missionsselskap, Soci£t6 des Missions
Evangfliqucs de Paris. — Statistics:
Foreign staff, 299. Christian community,
358,609. Communicants, 145,284.
Madonna Paintings. The art of the
Middle Ages chose the madonna as one
of its most favorite subjects, sometimes
in a spirit of realism, oftener with the
idealistic features introduced by Raffael.
She is pictured on a throne, standing in
contemplation with the Savior on her
arm, sitting in a room with Jesus on her
lap, out in the open in a bower of roses,
often with animals to enliven the scene,
such as a fish, a cat, a bird, a lamb;
John is introduced in a number of in-
stances as the companion of Jesus. Some
of the most noted Madonnas are the
Sistine Madonna of Raffael, now in the
Dresden Gallery; the Beautiful Gar-
dener, in the Louvre, similar ones in
Vienna and in the gallery of the Uffizi;
the Madonna with the Lamb, in Madrid;
the Madonna with the Fan-palm, in Lon-
don; the Madonna del Baldachino, in
the Pitti Gallery, Florence ; the Ma-
donna della Sedia.
Magdalen Homes and Orders. Mag-
dalen Homes are homes for fallen women.
At various times and places Magdalen
orders have been established in the Ro-
man Catholic Church for the reformation
of such persons. Similar work in Evan-
gelical circles was done by Theodore
Fliedner at Kaiserswerth, 1833, and by
such as since have emulated his example.
Magdeburg, Joachim; b. ca. 1525;
studied at Wittenberg; pastor at Dan-
nenberg, Salzwedel, Magdeburg, and else-
where; suffered much on account of In-
terim; wrote: “Wer Gott vertraut, hat
wohl gebaut.”
Magi. Originally one of the six tribes,
or castes, into which, according to He-
rodotus, the ancient Medes were divided.
They came into the ascendency, first
among the Medes, later among the Per-
sians, by assuming priestly functions,
a development similar to that of the
Brahmans in India, and became a sacred
caste, which under the Achaemenidae
was invested with the functions of the
Zoroastrian religion (see Zoroastrian-
ism) . The fact that Zoroaster (q. v.)
was a Magian aided them in gaining this
ascendency. Their priestly duties con-
sisted mainly in guarding the sacred fire,
reciting hymns, and sacrificing. They
also practised astrology and divination
by means of dreams, and as early as at
the time of Herodotus were noted for
their “magic” arts. They exerted great
influence in public and private affairs,
especially at court. While in Matt. 2
the name is still used in its original
sense, it was during the Roman era ap-
plied to wandering Asian astrologers,
soothsayers, and jugglers, in which sense
it is used in Acts 13, 8.
Magnificat. See Canticles.
Mahabharata. See Hinduism.
Mahatmas. See Theosophy.
Maimonides (Moses Ben Maimon),
greatest medieval Jewish scholar and
philosopher; b. 1135 at Cordoba; driven
from Spain by persecution; lived in Fez,
Palestine, Egypt; d. 1204, near Cairo.
Exerted incalculable influence on devel-
opment of Judaism, especially in his
great attempt to reconcile Talmudic Ju-
daism with Arabico-Aristotelian philos-
ophy. His three great works (first two
in Arabic, third in Hebrew) : 1. Com-
mentary on the Mishna; 2. Guide of the
Perplexed, a philosophic interpretation
of Judaism, valued also by Christian
scholastics; 3. Mishne Thora, a compen-
dium of Jewish law of monumental pro-
portions.
Major, Georg, 1502 — 74; Lutheran
theologian; studied at Wittenberg; later
was made court preacher there; became
professor in the theological faculty in
1545, afterwards superintendent at Eis-
leben for some time; he was suspected
of being an Interimist (see Interim) and
an Adiaphorist (see Adiaphoristic Con-
troversy). The Majoristic Controversy
was brought on by the fact that Major
stressed the “necessity” of good works in
the wrong manner, namely, as being nec-
essary for salvation, his emphasis being
so strong that he seemed to hold that
they were essential for salvation. He
lived long enough to witness the over-
throw of Crypto-Calvinism ( q. v. )
Major, Johann (Gross), 1564 — 1654;
b. at Reinstaedt near Orlamuende; dia-
conus at Weimar, pastor and superin-
tendent at Jena in 1605, later also pro-
fessor of theology; colaborer in editing
the Weimar Bible; furnished the notes
for Acts and for the epistles of John;
hymn “Ach Gott und Herr, wie gross
und schwer” attached to a sermon held
in Thuringia in 1613.
Majoristic Controversy. “Good works
are necessary to salvation,” wrote Me-
lanchthon in 1535, but took it back on
the earnest plea of Luther. But the In-
terim made similar concessions to Rome,
and George Major was one of the authors.
When he was made superintendent of
Millan, Henri Abraham Cesar 436
Manlehelsm
Eisleben in 1550, the loyal Lutherans,
especially Amsdorf, objected. Justus
Menius taught a like error and was at-
tacked by Flacius and others. Major
was willing to discontinue the phrase as
ambiguous, but unwilling to condemn it
as wrong. In the heat of battle Amsdorf
also overshot the mark by saying, “Good
works are harmful to salvation,” for
which he was attacked by Flacius and
Wigand. The bitterly fought fight was
settled in Art. IV of the Formula of Con-
cord, which sharply differentiates be-
tweeen faith and good works and yet
makes clear the intimate connection be-
tween the two as root and fruit.
Malan, Henri Abraham Cesar, 1787
to 1864; studied at the Geneva Acad-
emy; first in accord with Unitarian ten-
dency of Swiss Church at that time, later
pastor in a separatist place of worship ;
originator of movement for better hymns
in French Reformed Church; among his
many hymns : “It Is Not Death to Die.”
Malaya, British, comprising the
Straits Settlements, the Federated Malay
States, the Unfederated Malay States,
British North Borneo, and Sarawak, has
an area of 125,698 sq. mi. and a popula-
tion of 4,129,952. Singapore is the fore-
most city, with a population in 1922 of
441,457. The Straits Settlements are a
crown colony. The population is Malay-
sian, with many Chinese and Eurasians.
Missions by a number of churches and
societies. Statistics: Foreign staff, 199.
Christian community, 17,849. Commu-
nicants, 10,781.
Maldonatus, Johannes, 1533 — 83;
Roman Catholic exegete; Jesuit 1562;
professor at the Collegium Romanum, at
the University of Paris; bitter opponent
of the Huguenots ( maledicentissimus
Maldonatus). His commentaries on the
gospels and various Old Testament books
evince great patristic scholarship and
pointedly discuss the doctrinal differ-
ences between Romanism and Protes-
tantism.
Malebranche, Nicole, French phi-
losopher; b. 1638 in Paris; d. there
1715. His philosophy based on that of
Descartes. Developed doctrine of “occa-
sionalism,” which, denying possibility of
interaction of mind and body, assumes
that on the occasion of each soul process,
God produces the corresponding motion
in the body.
Manhart, F. P., educator in U. L. C. ;
b. 1852 in Pennsylvania; studied at Get-
tysburg; pastor 1881 — 1904; since then
professor of theology and president of
Susquehanna University; author of
Present-Day Lutheranism.
Manicheans. The followers of Mani,
a religious fanatic of Persia arising in
the third century. His philosophy was
a strange combination of some Christian
thoughts with Persian and Babylonian
features, and he practically perverted
every doctrine of the Bible, so that his
religio - philosophical system wrought
much confusion for several centuries,
even where it was not accepted outright.
The confession of every Manichean con-
tained, in brief, four articles, which each
must know, namely, faith in God, in His
light, in His might, and in His wisdom,
these being named “the four excellences.”
These were purposely given a Christian
sound, but in fact God was to the fol-
lowers of Mani the King of the Paradise
of Light; His light was the sun and the
moon; His might were the five angels,
and His wisdom was the religion, that
is, the Manichean Church. Manichean
ideas persisted in the system of the Man-
deans, and in that of the Priscillians, the
Cathari, and the Albigenses. See Mani-
cheism.
Manicheism, religious system of
Mani (216 — 277 A. D.), a Persian by
birth, who claimed divine inspiration
and the last and highest place in the
long line of prophets. Persecuted at
home, he traveled for many years, visit-
ing China and India, and became ac-
quainted with Buddhism. Returning to
Persia ca. 270, he gained adherents at
the court; but the hostility of the
priestly caste brought about his ruin.
He is said to have been crucified (or
flayed alive) by order of King Behram,
ca. 277. His religious system is essen-
tially heathen, though, like Gnosticism,
it syncretistically incorporated Chris-
tian ideas. It is a sternly dualistic phi-
losophy of nature. From all eternity
there have been two antagonistic king-
doms, the Kingdom of Light and the
Kingdom of Darkness, an idea based on
the physical disharmony observable in
the present world. An assault upon the
world of light by Satan and his hosts
ultimately results in the imprisonment
of particles of light in the dark chaos of
matter. From this union proceeds, at
the behest of the good god, the visible
world. The goal of the world process is
the restoration of the imprisoned light
( Jesus patibilis) to its original habitat.
To thwart this design, Satan creates
Adam and Eve and incites them to carnal
lust with a view to multiplying the cor-
poreal prisons of light, which he en-
deavors to hold in bondage. The Jesus
impatibiUs is sent from the sun in the
semblance of a human body to teach men
the way of salvation, that is, teach them
Maniple
437
Manuscripts of the Bible
to throw oft the fetters of matter by
the practise of ascetic virtues. The end
of the long purgatorial process is the
ultimate triumph of light and the de-
struction of the present world by a
tremendous conflagration. — These wild
speculations, given here only in broadest
outline, were a serious menace to the
Church. Manicheism spread over the
Homan Empire and gained many adher-
ents, especially among the cultured and
educated classes. In spite of persecu-
tion and proscription it showed remark-
able vitality and reappeared under va-
rious modifications in numerous sects of
medieval times (Cathari^s, Albigenses,
etc. ) .
Maniple. See Vestments, R. C.
Manitoba. See Canada.
Manitoba Synod. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Mann, Horace; b. at Franklin, Mass.,
1796; graduated from Brown University
1819; admitted to the bar 1823; mem-
ber of the Massachusetts House of Rep-
resentatives and senate; responsible for
the enactment of an act creating the
State Board of Education in Massachu-
setts, of which he was made secretary
in 1837. To educate the public as to the
needs and purposes of education, he and
others lectured at hundreds of public
meetings. He organized teachers’ in-
stitutes and established stat£ normal
schools, collected and diffused informa-
tion concerning the actual condition of
public education, issued Twelve Reports
on the condition of education in Massa-
chusetts and elsewhere, which, together
with his discussions on the aims, pur-
poses, and means of education, occupy a
commanding place in the history of
American education. In 1843 he went to
Europe to study its educational institu-
tions. Member of Congress 1848; first
president of Antioch College 1853;
d. 1859.
Mann, W. J., 1819 — 92; leading theo-
logian of the General Council and one of
its founders; b. in Wurttemberg; studied
at Tuebingen; came to America at the
urgent request of Dr. Schaff ; first served
a Reformed church; coeditor with Schaff
of the Deutsche Kirchenfreund (from
1848) ; pastor of Zion Lutheran Church,
Philadelphia, 1850; was among the lead-
ers of the Pennsylvania Ministerium and
a strong opponent of the “Definite Plat-
form” theology. Mann was professor in
the Philadelphia Seminary 1864 — 92 and
a prolific writer. Author of Life and
Times of Henry Melchior Muhlenberg.
Manning, Henry Edward, 1808 — 92;
cardinal; h. at Totteridge; studied at
Oxford; priest (Anglican) 1832; rector;
Tractarian; archdeacon of Chichester
1840; audience with Pius IX 1848;
turned Catholic 1851; priest; Doctor
of Theology in Rome 1854; archbishop
of Westminster 1864; advocate of papal
infallibility 1870; cardinal 1875; ultra
of ultras among ultramontanes ; promi-
nent in educational, social, charitable
activities ; d. in London. Prolific writer.
Mansi, J. Dominicus, 1692 — 1769;
learned Italian prelate; archbishop of
Lucca; published Sacrorum Conciliorum
Nova et Amplissima Collectio, a complete
collection of the acts of the councils in
thirty -one volumes; also a new edition
of the Annales of Baronius with notes.
Mant, Richard, 1776 — 1848; edu-
cated at Oxford; Fellow of Oriel, tutor;
then held positions as clergyman, also
as bishop; Bampton lecturer in 1811;
metrical version of psalms ; among his
hymns: “For All Thy Saints, 0 Lord.”
Mantova, Don Benedetto de. Author
of the famous treatise Del Beneficio di
Qiesu Cristo Crocifisso Verso i Chris-
tiani. See also Christ, Benefits of.
Manuscripts of the Bible. The orig-
inal manuscripts of the Old Testament
as penned by the inspired writers are
lost, but copies, rolls (Jer. 36, 11; Luke
4, 17), written upon skins or linen, seem
to have been in most synagogs. The
ancient texts contained neither vowel
points, accents, punctuation marks, nor
were the words separated by spaces; it
was scriptio continua. Safe tradition
has it that in the days of Ezra, after
the Exile, the canon was assembled and
established. It was also during this
period, and the following, that the
pronunciation of the consonantal text
was fixed, not yet written, but handed
down by word of mouth. Trained lec-
tors were needed to read the lessons ap-
pointed for each Sabbath. It was during
the Masoretic period (ca. 6th to 8th cen-
tury A. D.) that the tradition (Masora)
relating to the consonantal text was
finally settled in its minutest detail,
vowel signs, accents, other signs affect-
ing the reading of consonants, punctua-
tion, division of the text into sections,
verses, and words were inserted. Ex-
traordinary solicitude for the preserva-
tion of the text and its correct reading
was shown by counting the sections,
verses, words, and letters. Manuscript
copies, especially those intended for pub-
lic worship, were written under strict
rules to insure perfection of exactness.
For this reason there are comparatively
few variant readings in the Hebrew text.
The extant Hebrew Masoretic text goes
back to the time of Hadrian (second cen-
Manuscripts o t the Bible
43d
Marburg Colloquium
tury A. I). ) . At the beginning of the
13th century Stephen Langton divided
the text into chapters as we still have
them; otherwise the Masoretie text was
fully preserved. The oldest authentic
manuscript (1009) is held by the Impe-
rial Library at St. Petersburg (Petro-
grad, or Leningrad). Luther used for
his translation Gerson’s edition of the
Bible (Brescia, 1494).
The autographs of the New Testament,
written in Hellenistic Greek upon papy-
rus or upon parchment (2 John 12;
2 Tim. 4, 13), disappeared very early.
As the churches, however, exchanged the
epistles and holy writings among each
other (Col. 4, 16; 2 Tim. 4, 13) and were
familiar with them (2 Pet. 3, 15), it is
evident that numerous copies of them
were made. The writing was entirely in
uncials (capitals), with no separation of
words, except rarely, to indicate the be-
ginning of a new paragraph, no breath-
ings, accents, or distinction of initial let-
ters, and with few, if any, marks of
punctuation. The New Testament canon
was closed by the end of the first cen-
tury; for the .writings of the Apostolic
Fathers, issued between 107 and 175,
contain many allusions to, and quota-
tions from, almost all the books of the
New Testament. The Muratorian Canon
( q. v . ) , shows that the church of Home
possessed an almost complete collection
of the apostolic writings about the
middle of the second century. Some
churches wavered in the acceptance of
certain books (Second Peter, Second and
Third John, Jude, James, Revelation) ;
these were called Antilegomena, while
the others, universally accepted, were
called Homologumena. The external his-
tory of the New Testament text for a
thousand years prior to the invention
of printing can be traced by means of
manuscripts. Of the 4,000 known manu-
scripts only about 30 include all the
books; some of those of the fourth and
fifth centuries contain also writings
which, though not canonical, were read
in the churches and studied by the cate-
chumens. As papyrus disappeared from
use, manuscripts were written on parch-
ment (vellum), and the book form was
substituted for the rolls. But as parch-
ment was often very scarce, old manu-
scripts were sometimes reused, the old
writing being erased or washed off. Un-
fortunately a Biblical manuscript was
thus treated to make room for some
patristic writing. Such manuscripts are
termed codices paUmpsesti (palimpsests)
or rescripti. By use of chemicals the
original text has often been recovered in
modern times.
The number of uncial manuscripts,
ranging in date from the fourth to the
tenth century, is more than 100; about
half of these are fragmentary. The most
important are: Codex Sinaiticus, com-
plete copy of the New Testament, fourth
century, discovered (1844 — 59) by Tisch-
endorf in the Convent of St. Catherine
at the foot of Mount Sinai, now in
St. Petersburg (Leningrad); the Codex
Vaticanus, fourth century, now in the
Vatican Library, Rome; the Codex Al-
exandrinus, fifth century, now in the
British Museum, London; the Codex
Ephraemi, palimpsest, fifth century, re-
written upon, in the twelfth century
(original writing revived in 1835; now
in National Library of Paris). Begin-
ning with the tenth century the uncial
form of writing changed to the cursive.
Of these manuscripts there is a great
number. As might be expected, there are
many variant readings, about 150,000, of
the New Testament text, but 95 per cent,
of these no one can suppose to be genu-
ine, and 95 per cent, of the remainder
are of no importance as affecting the
sense. “In the variety and fulness of
the evidence on which it rests the text
of the New Testament stands absolutely
and unapproachably alone among ancient
prose writings” (Westcott and Hort).
While there were earlier divisions of the
text, the present chapter division is at-
tributed to Stephen Langton, archbishop
of Canterbury (d. 1228), and the present
verse division was introduced by Robert
Stephen (1551). The first printed copy
of the Greek New Testament was the
Greco-Latin New Testament edited by
Erasmus and published by Froben, of
Basel, in 1516.
Marburg Colloquium. A conference
of theologians at Marburg, Hesse-Nassau,
October 2 — 4, 1529, with the Lutherans
represented by Luther, Melanchthon, Jo-
nas, Crueiger, Veit Dietrich, and Georg
Roerer from Wittenberg, Myconius from
Gotha, Menius and Eberhard von der
Thann from Eisenach, and Osiander,
Brenz, and Stephan Agricola from South
Germany, while the later Reformed party
was represented by Zwingli and Ulrich
Funk from Zurich, Oecolampadius and
Rudolf Frey from Basel, and Bucer,
Hedio, and Jacob Sturm from Strasburg.
The meeting was the culmination and re-
sult of a controversy, chiefly on the doc-
trine of the Lord’s Supper, which had
agitated the minds for more than three
years. The chief point which was de-
bated was that concerning the Lord’s
Supper, Luther and his colaborers stand-
ing uncompromisingly for the plain and
March, Daniel
439
Mariolatry
simple understanding of the words, “This
is My body,” without any metaphorical
misinterpretation. Zwingli and his ad-
herents insisted upon a metaphorical un-
derstanding of the words of institution.
The debate drifted into the discussion of
the real presence and of the ubiquity of
Christ, both of which were denied by
Zwingli as being contrary to reason. In
order to strengthen himself in the Scrip-
ture, Luther wrote the Greek word for
“is” on the table before him and declared
himself unable to leave the clear state-
ment of the Lord. While fourteen of
fifteen articles of agreement were ac-
cepted by all theologians present, namely,
those on the doctrine of the Trinity, the
person of Christ, faith and justification,
the Word of God, Baptism, good works,
confession, secular authority, tradition
or human order, and infant baptism, no
agreement could be reached on the dis-
puted point of the Lord’s Supper, Lu-
ther’s declaration finally being, “Yours
is a different spirit from ours.” The
Marburg Colloquium marked the divi-
sion between the Lutherans and the Re-
formed, or Zwinglian, church-bodies. See
Lord’s Supper.
March., Daniel, 1816 — 1909; educated
at Yale College and Divinity School;
minister in the Congregational Church,
later of a Presbyterian congregation at
Philadelphia; wrote: “Hark, the Voice
of Jesus Crying.”
Marcion, famous Gnostic, son of a
bishop of Sinope; taught in Rome ca.
150, where Polycarp greeted him as the
“first-born of Satan.” Time and place of
death unknown. Marcion assumed three
(or two) primordial forces: the good
God, revealed by Jesus; evil matter,
ruled by Satan, and the Demiurge, or
world-maker, the Jewish Jehovah. He
rejected the entire old Testament, de-
nied the humanity of Christ (docetism),
believed only in a redemption of the soul,
and narrowed down the canon to ten
Pauline epistles and a mutilated Gospel
of St. Luke. Traces of his sect are found
as late as the tenth century.
Mariana Juan, 1536 — 1624; Spanish
historian; Jesuit; taught theology at
Rome and Paris, but retired to the Jes-
uits’ house at Toledo, in Spain, in 15T4,
devoting the remainder of his life to
literary pursuits. Besides his history
of Spain he wrote also De Rege et Regis
Institutione, a work in which tyranni-
cide is defended.
Mariolatry. The worship accorded to
the Virgin Mary particularly in the Ro-
man Church. The Catholic Dictionary
naively explains the fact that no such
worship was known in the early cen-
turies by saying: “There was the danger
of scandal to the heathen, who, with
their own inadequate notions of wor-
ship, might misconstrue the honor paid
to Mary.” ( Sia !) (p.562.) The scanty
references to Mary in the New Testa-
ment, however, gave apocryphal writers
a welcome opportunity to fill the empty
spaces in her history with colorful leg-
ends. Monastics exalted her as the type
and model of celibacy. And when the
fourth century brought large numbers of
half -Christianized pagans into the Church,
who developed the worship of saints (see
Saints, Worship of), Mary was speedily
elevated above all others and hailed as
queen of heaven. Churches and altars
were raised in her honor, her pictures
were venerated, and she was invoked for
aid in every need. This cult of Mary
has flourished and grown in the Roman
Church from that day to this, drawing
ever-increasing strength from a variety
of sources. It drew strength from medie-
val chivalry, which served Mary as the
crown of womanhood, exalted above the
angels; it was augmented by the cus-
tom of adding the Ave Maria to the
Lord’s Prayer, by the introduction of'
the rosary and the establishment of
about twenty feasts of Mary; it was
aided by liberal papal indulgences and
by a plethora of visions and miracles;
Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and
Jesuits vied with one another in advanc-
ing it. Through the efforts of the last-
named, the whole month of May was
dedicated to the service of Mary, and
the climax of the cult was reached when
Pius IX decreed the dogma of the Im-
maculate Conception (q. v. ) . — The de-
crees of the Council of Trent and the
Caechismus Romcmus employ moderate
expressions concerning Mariolatry. What
position she occupies in the Roman
Church may, however, be gathered from
the Breviary: “With what praises shall
we crown thee, Mary? . . . You are the
expiation of the curse of Adam, the pay-
ment of the debt of Eve. You are the
most pure oblation of Abel, you are the
ark of Noah. . . . You are the firm trust
of Abraham. . . . Hail, holier than cher-
ubim; hail, more glorious than sera-
phim! . . . Hail, cause of the salvation
of all mortals ; hail, mediatrix of all
who are under heaven; hail, restoration
of the whole world.” (Office of Immacu-
late Conception.) She is called the gate
of heaven, our hope, the joy of heaven,
the star of the shipwrecked. (Ibid.)
“You were afraid to approach the Fa-
ther; He gave you Jesus as Mediator.
But perhaps you fear also in Him the
Marius Mercator
440
Marriage
divine majesty because, though He be-
came man, He nevertheless remained
God. Would you have an advocate also
with him? Take refuge with Mary! . . .
The Son will invariably hear His mother,
and the Father will hear the Son. Chil-
dren, she is the ladder of sinners, my
highest confidence, the whole ground of
my hope. . . . She will always find
grace, and it is grace alone by which we
are saved. Let us seek grace, and let us
seek it through Mary.” (Ibid., April 26,
B. M. V. De Bono Consilio.) It is only
a step from such expressions to Peter
Damian’s apostrophe of Mary (Serm.de
Nativ. Mar.) : “All power is given to
thee in heaven and on earth. Nothing
is impossible to thee,” and to the con-
tention of other Romanists that the milk
of Mary is present in the Eucharist. In
practise, Rome has made a goddess of
Mary : It remains that an infallible pon-
tiff solemnly define the dogma of her
apotheosis. ( See Latvia . )
Marius Mercator. Ecclesiastical
writer of the fifth century, very likely
of North Africa; d. after 451; ap-
parently a layman with a lively interest
in theology; wrote against Pelagianism
and Nestorianism.
Maronites. A Syrian sect living
chiefly in the Lebanon region, their name
being derived from St. Maron, to whom
a monastery was dedicated between Ha-
math and Emesa. They number about
200,000 adherents and are Monothelites
in doctrine. See Monothelite Contro-
versy.
Marquesas Islands. See Polynesia.
Marquette, Jacques (Father), famous
Jesuit missionary and explorer; b. at
Laon, France, 1637; sailed for Canada
in 1666; established the mission of
Sault St. Marie on Lake Superior in
1668; sailed down the Mississippi from
the mouth of the Wisconsin River to the
Arkansas in 1673; d. 1675.
Marriage. “The state of marriage, or
wedlock, is the joint status of one man
and one woman, superinduced and sus-
tained by their mutual consent, to be
and remain to each other husband and
wife in a lifelong union, for legitimate
sexual intercourse, the procreation of
children, and cohabitation for mutual
care and assistance.” (A. L. Graebner.)
In our days, when, as in the days of
Noah and in the times preceding the
downfall of the great nations of the
world, the factors of a false view of
marriage and its relationship and that
of sex perversion is so great, the prob-
lems connected with the situation can
be met in only one way, namely, by stat-
ing the principles and truths which are
here concerned on the basis of the Word
of God, both publicly and privately.
The holiness of marriage, the sacredness
of the marriage relationship, the fact
that marriage is the normal state for
the average adult, both from the social
and from the hygienic standpoint, the
fact that children are a gift of the Lord,
the fact that the family is the funda-
mental unit of the nation: all these
truths must be kept before the Chris-
tian people of our country, lest the virus
of antisocial and anti-Biblical poison
enter their hearts and minds.
If marriage is entered into according
to God’s will, it is done by a valid be-
trothal (q. v.). This means that the
mutual promise of the contracting par-
ties is given only with the full knowl-
edge and consent of the parents on either
side, which is to be obtained in advance.
Neither children nor parents may make
exceptions to this rule, which is based
upon the clear ethical teachings of the
Bible. The promise must be given by
the free will of the persons concerned,
since duress or force invalidates a prom-
ise if the protest is registered in due
time. That the contracting parties have
reached the physical age and possess the
maturity necessary for the successful
carrying out of the prime object of mar-
riage, is not only self-evident, but is also
specifically mentioned in the statutes of
the several states and countries. The
fact that parents give their children in
marriage does not signify that the for-
mer have absolute power over their chil-
dren, either in keeping them from get-
ting married or in arbitrarily choosing
spouses for them. Marriage is a natural
right and therefore cannot be forbidden.
And the real affection of married people
is a creation and gift of God, which can-
not be set aside by absolute commands.
“There is a consideration which can
ratify a marriage to which a parent per-
sistently objects, viz., when such objec-
tion is explicitly or implicitly tanta-
mount to a total prohibition of marriage
imposed upon a son or daughter, in vio-
lation of the word of Scripture. 1 Cor.
7,2.” (A. L. Graebner.) The ideal sit-
uation is that pictured in the case of
Rebekah and Isaac, Gen. 24, 58 ; 25, 20,
and not that of Samson, Judg. 14, 2. 3.
A physical relationship within the limits
fixed by God and by the State will be
an impediment to a lawful marriage. See
Degrees, Prohibited.
Persons who desire to enter the holy
estate of matrimony may not be bound
by a previous valid promise, either by
a rightful betrothal or by an actual mar-
Marriage
441
Marriage
riage. As a valid betrothal is, in the
eyes of God and the Church, tantamount
to marriage, a subsequent betrothal while
the first is in force does not invalidate
the first, but leaves it in full force and
binding on both parties. Although the
State does not, as a rule, acknowledge
the force of a rightful betrothal in the
Scriptural sense, such broken promises
or their equivalent are often brought up
in so-called breach of promise suits. Of
course, no person may enter into an
actual marriage with a second person
while still bound, before God and the
State, to a previous spouse. “After a
first valid marriage a Christian cannot
marry again, unless the first marriage
have previously been dissolved either by
death or by a divorce which is valid and
lawful both before the Law of God and
the law of the State.” (A. L. Graebner . )
Although mixed marriages, when a
person of orthodox confession marries
one of sectarian profession or of no
Christian confession at all, are not ex-
pressly forbidden in the Bible, 1 Cor. 7,
12 — 16, they were certainly forbidden to
the Jews, and they are discountenanced
both in the Bible and in agreement with
the experience of earnest Christians. If,
in holy wedlock, there can be no common
prayer, no common worship in the home,
no common churchgoing, there is an ele-
ment lacking which alone can make for
true happiness. And it is a fact that
the majority of children of mixed mar-
riages fall away from the Church, if,
indeed, they ever become seriously in-
terested.
Marriage is a union “unto one flesh,”
its avowed object being to give a legiti-
mate and blessed outlet to the sexual
impulses given by God to all normal
adults. Cp. 1 Cor. 7, 3. 4. “The con-
sensus, which constitutes the essence of
marriage, must he marriage consent, the
willingness of the parties to be one flesh
with each other. . . . The refusal to
grant such intercourse ... is the denial
of a right and the neglect of a duty as-
sumed by marriage.” (A. L. Graebner.)
In this way adultery and other sins are
to be avoided, as St. Paul writes 1 Cor,
7, 9. The chief object of such marital
intercourse, besides that of avoiding sins
against the Sixth Commandment, is that
of the procreation of children. Cp. Gen.
1,28; 1 Tim. 2, 15; 5,14; Ps. 128; Gen.
30, 1; 1 Sam. 1, 11. 12; Luke 1, 58. “This
one fact particularly must be stressed in
connection with the perverted views of
sex relationship and the contempt of
marriage in general, namely, the growing
evil of childless marriages by design or
of the wilful and criminal limiting of
offspring, that is, of race suicide. . . .
In many cases social ambition or other
selfish considerations are the motives for
committing sins which are just as hei-
nous as highway murder; for there is
not even a difference of degree between
snuffing out the faint flicker of life in
the womb and shooting down a man in
cold blood. . . . Even if we should ad-
mit that the unnatural economic con-
ditions of our times, together with the
increasing use of luxuries, have had their
influence upon women in rendering them
less fit to become mothers, no man has
a right to set aside God’s order as it has
been done in the case of thousands of
marriages, where people, without valid
reason, have deliberately decided not to
have children. We might mention, in
passing, that the cold-blooded, calculat-
ing, mercenary marriages which are be-
coming so prevalent in our days may
often be considered the reason, and the
growing number of divorces the result,
of the evil of childless marriages.” (The
Problems of Adolescence and Youth,
73. 74.)
Marriage is intended by God to be a
lifelong union, “until death you do part.”
Rom. 7, 2; 1 Cor. 7, 39; Matt. 19, 6;
Mark 10, 9. Here it makes no difference
whether the one or the other spouse, ac-
cording to the regular course of nature,
later becomes impotent or, as the result
of some disease, is no longer capable of
performing the prime duties of the mar-
ried estate. The factor of mutual care
and assistance becomes more prominent
as the years go by, and the Scripture
emphasizes this phase of married life in
words of great beauty. Cp. Gen. 2, 18. 20;
Eph. 5, 28—33; 1 Cor. 7, 12. 13; Col.
3, 19 ; 1 Pet. 3, 7. “God wishes to honor
it [the state of matrimony] and to main-
tain and conduct it as a divine and
blessed estate, because, in the first place,
He has instituted it before all others and
therefore created man and woman sepa-
rately (as is evident), not for lewdness,
but that they should legitimately live
together, be fruitful, beget children, and
nourish and train them to the honor of
God.” (Luther in the Large Catechism.
Gone. Trigl., 639.) See Marriage, Annul-
ment of; Ring; Prohibited Degrees;
Divorce.
Marriage ( liturgical and historical).
Aside from the fact that the false doc-
trine concerning holy marriage intro-
duced into the Church by the Komanists
before the sixteenth century appeared
also in the formula for the solemniza-
tion of holy marriage, the latter, there-
fore, being in need of a revision, Luther
did not find it necessary to change the
Carriage, Annulment of
442
Marriage Laves
parts of the rite. These parts were the
questions with regard to possible ob-
stacles and the act of marriage with ring
ceremony and prayer at the doors of the
church and mass with prayers over the
wedded and benediction at the chancel
railing. This division Luther retained
in his Traubueehlein of 1534. After the
proclamation the act of giving in mar-
riage was performed “before the church,”
that is, at the doors, with the ring cere-
mony. In the church, before the altar,
the Scripture-passages referring to holy
matrimony were read, and the service
was closed with benediction and prayer
over the wedded couple. This order for
the solemnization of holy matrimony,
with its bipartite division, was generally
accepted as fundamental. The text and
the order of the several parts of the
formula remained even after the ex-
ternal division was no longer observed,
and the entire ceremony took place at
the altar. In order to remove the ap-
parent illogical procedure, many church
orders placed the lessons first, then the
giving in marriage, then the prayers and
the benediction. The solution of the dif-
ficulty would be to use the original se-
quence in case of a marriage address, but
the form in which the lessons precede
the act of joining in matrimony when
the address is omitted.
Marriage, Annulment of. While
marriage, when once contracted in ac-
cordance with the law of God and the
ordinances of the state, is properly dis-
solved only by the death of one of the
contracting parties or by a divorce fol-
lowing adultery or malicious desertion
(see Marriage ) , yet there are cases in
which an apparent marriage as well as
a betrothal entered upon by the one or
the other contracting party, or by both,
in good faith may be set aside or de-
clared null and void. This is true, for
example, when young people, in igno-
rance of the expressed will of God, have
agreed to a secret engagement, an en-
gagement without the knowledge and
consent of their parents or guardians.
This is true, also, when parents have
consented to an engagement or marriage
with a valid condition, especially one
pertaining to the almost self-evident de-
mand that the other party have observed
prenuptial chastity. There are certain
factors, also, which might permit a valid
engagement to be entered into and yet
act as a hindrance to the consummation
of marriage, as, for example, evident im-
potence, an incurable disease, or other
extremely unusual reasons. Each of the
contracting parties, or both of them,
ought for that reason never to take a
step without consulting with parents
and with other people of experience and
discretion. As far as the state is con-
cerned, there may be certain impedi-
ments enumerated in the statutes of
which the contracting parties were un-
aware at the time of their engagement
or even of their marriage. Some of these
questions pertain to relationship, others
to race purity. In such cases, both
sound pastoral as well as competent
legal advice should be obtained, lest
consciences be burdened with loads of
accusations for years to come. — The Ro-
man Catholic Church offers a remarkable
spectacle with regard to the annulment
of betrothals and of the existing mar-
riage bond. Strict as its hierarchy is
with regard to divorces, even beyond the
permission of Scripture in Matt. 19, 9
and 1 Cor. 7, 15, two exceptions stand
out with offensive distinctness. One is
that the entrance of one of the parties
into a monastery can annul a marriage
not yet consummated and hence not yet
sacramental according to Roman Cath-
olic teaching. The same may be done
by virtue of a papal dispensation, which
is employed also in the case of consum-
mated marriages, where it serves the
interests of the Roman curia. Such dis-
pensations permitting annulment of a
legal and valid marriage have been given
especially in the interest of persons of
high social position. Needless to say,
both forms of annulment are not valid
before the forum of God’s Word, which
alone should guide the consciences and
the acts of Christians at all times. See
also Betrothal, Prohibited Degrees, Di-
vorce.
Marriage Laws. In the absence of
a uniform marriage law one can do no
more than present a summary of the
agreement of laws on the general sub-
ject of marriage and divorce, especially
as they obtain in the several States of the
North American Union. — Marriage is
often defined as a contract; but it is also
more than a contract: it is a permanent
change of status, or condition. It is the
complete performance of a prior contract
to marry. For a valid contract of this
kind, also known as engagement, the par-
ties must be competent, there must be
agreement, the consent must be genuine,
that is, free from fraud, duress, or
mistake, and the agreement must be free
from illegality. The express contract, or
promise to marry, is proved, like other
contracts, by the express words of the
parties or by circumstantial evidence
from their conduct, though explicit
words have not been spoken. If a man’s
conduct is such as to cause a woman to
Marriage Laws
443
Marriage Laws
believe that he intends to marry her and
she acts upon that belief, while the man
permits her to go on trusting that he
will carry his intention into effect, that
will raise a promise upon which she
may recover. — The formal requisites of
marriage are fixed by statute. They
usually provide for marriage licenses,
the performance of a ceremony of mar-
riage by some magistrate or clergyman,
and the return of the licenses with the
attest that the marriage has been solem-
nized. Certain factors or conditions
make a marriage voidable or void. When
either party to a marriage is under
seven years of age, the marriage is
an absolute nullity. A marriage before
the age of consent, as fixed by statute, is
valid until avoided. Persons who are
below the legal age according to the
statutes of the respective State are re-
quired to have the consent of their par-
ents or guardians in a manner acknowl-
edged by the law in order to make their
marriage valid. This applies to both or
to either party. The marriage of insane
persons is absolutely void. A number
of States place incurable idiots and simi-
lar cases in the same category. Impo-
tence in itself is no bar to marriage, but
if marital intercourse is impossible on
account of some incurable defect, the
marriage will be annulled on application.
— With regard to the relationship or
consanguinity of parties, the subject is
now generally regulated by statute in
each State, the law stating definitely in
which degrees of relationship marriage
is prohibited. Most States expressly des-
ignate the second degree of consanguin-
ity or affinity as the limit within which
marriages may be contracted. The ten-
dency in the last decades has been
toward making the regulations stricter
than before, so as to include first cousins
within the boundaries of prohibited mar-
riages. That it is absolutely necessary
for every one dealing with the question
of marriage to be acquainted with the
laws of his own State appears from the
following quotation : “Seventeen States
fix no marriageable age, that is, the age
when young people are considered ma-
ture enough to marry with the consent
of their parents. In nine of these —
Florida, Maine, Maryland, Massachu-
setts, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Rhode Is-
land, Tennessee, and Vermont — the com-
mon-law ages of twelve for girls and
fourteen for boys have been formally
recognized. In Kentucky and Louisiana
the marriageable ages fixed by law are
twelve for girls and fourteen for boys;
in Kansas they are twelve and fifteen,
respectively; in New Hampshire, thir-
teen and fourteen; in South Carolina,
fourteen and eighteen; in the District
of Columbia, North Carolina, Iowa,
Utah, and Texas, fourteen and sixteen. —
While the majority of States place the
legal age where young people may marry
without parental consent at eighteen or
twenty-one for girls and twenty-one for
boys, New Hampshire, Tennessee, and
Maryland permit the marriage of girls
of sixteen or over without the consent of
their parents. Tennessee permits a boy
of sixteen to marry without parental
consent, while Idaho, North Carolina,
New Hampshire, and South Carolina per-
mit males of eighteen to marry without
it. — Although the majority of States
prohibit the issuance of a certificate to
a minor below the specified age for mar-
riage without consent of the parents, yet
twenty States prescribe no penalty for
the official who issues the certificate
without the required consent. And in
only one State, Connecticut, where a
selectman must authorize such a mar-
riage, anything more than an affidavit
from the parent or guardian is neces-
sary to legalize the union of minors.” —
The general situation with regard to im-
pediments of relationship are as follows :
In the territories marriages within and
including the fourth degree of consan-
guinity according to the civil law are
forbidden, that is, people who are first
cousins or are as nearly related as first
cousins are not permitted to be married.
Alabama: The general prohibition covers
everything with and including the third
degree of relationship (this is followed
by Arkansas, California, Colorado, Con-
necticut, Delaware, Idaho, Louisiana,
Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, New
Mexico, New York, North Carolina,
Texas). Arizona: Up to and including
first cousins marriage is not permitted
(the same applies in Illinois, Iowa,
Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Nebraska,
Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania). Geor-
gia: Any marriage within the Levitical
degrees prohibited. Indiana: Anything
nearer than second cousin forbidden
(also in Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio,
Washington). Massachusetts: Marriage
between people up to the third degree of
relationship not to be consummated,
with some additional exceptions (also in
Maine, Maryland, Minnesota, Missis-
sippi, New Hampshire, Rhode Island,
South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennes-
see, and Vermont). Utah: People re-
lated within the fourth degree of con-
sanguinity may not marry. Virginia:
Any relationship nearer than the fourth
degree is forbidden. — With regard to
the recognition of marriages outside of
Marriam- Ring:
444
Marx, Karl
the jurisdiction where they have been
contracted, the general rule is that a
marriage which is valid by the laws of
the place where celebrated is valid every-
where (but not in the case of remarriage
after divorce). With regard to divorce
the laxity of the laws, especially of some
Western States, is notoriously reprehen-
sible. The principal grounds specified
are adultery, cruelty, and desertion. But
in addition to these grounds some States
grant divorces for insanity, habitual
drunkenness or intemperance, non-sup-
port, and imprisonment in the peniten-
tiary for crime. The text-books some-
times add: “and some other grounds,”
the principal ones being specified in the
American Legal Directory. Many of the
reasons alleged are not in agreement
with the Word of God, for the Bible
knows of only one reason for seeking a
divorce, namely, adultery, and one rea-
son for suffering a divorce, namely, ma-
licious desertion. See Marriage, Divorce.
Marriage Bing. See Ring.
Marsden, Samuel; b. July 28, 1764,
at Horsforth, near Leeds; d. May 12,
1838, at Paramotta, Australia; second
chaplain to settlement in New South
Wales 1793; also colonial magistrate;
returning to England, he enlisted in-
terest in Maoris on New Zealand and
laid foundation for the Church of Eng-
land Mission to the island; returning
from England in 1810 and hearing of
disastrous conditions in the L. M. S.
work among the Tahitians, he encour-
aged the missionaries to return to their
fields, bought and equipped the Active
in 1814, and sailed to New Zealand for
extensive missionary operations, making
no less than seven voyages in the in-
terest of mission-work. Few men have
worked so sucessfully as Marsden.
Marshall Islands, Polynesia, an ar-
chipelago in the West Pacific Ocean,
formerly belonging to Germany; since
the World War taken over by Japan.
Area, 154 sq. mi. Population, 16,000.
Missions by the American Board (A. B.
C. F. M. ) and by the Hawaiian Evangel-
ical Association among the native Micro-
nesians.
Marshman, Joshua; b. April 20,
1768; at Westbury-Leigh, England;
d. December 5, 1837, at Serampore, In-
dia; originally a weaver until 1794;
later studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Syr-
iac; in 1799 was sent by the Baptist
Missionary Society of England to join
Carey in Bengal, India; opposition of
East India Company forced withdrawal
to Danish Serampore; engaged in al-
most unsurpassed literary activity. “The
Serampore Trio” withdrew from the Bap-
tist Missionary Society and carried on
their work independently; translated
the Bible into Chinese.
Martensen, Hans Lassen; b. 1808;
d. 1884 at Copenhagen as bishop of Zea-
land, the highest ecclesiastical office of
Denmark; prominent Lutheran theo-
logian and dogmatieian, with a specula-
tive-mystic tendency.
Martin, Adam; b. 1835; M. A., Hamil-
ton College (Phi Beta Kappa) ; Hart-
wick Seminary; pastor at Middleburg,
N. Y., 1861; first president of North-
western College of Wisconsin Synod
1865 — 69; professor at Pennsylvania
College, Gettysburg, until 1898; d. at
New Haven, 1921.
Martin, St., of Tours. Lived ca.
316 — 400. Born a pagan, he became a
Christian and a hermit, later gathering
a company of monks, probably the first
Western monastic establishment. Being
a simple, practical man, he became
bishop of Tours against his will. He
achieved fame as a miracle-worker and
was prominent among the saints of the
Middle Ages. The most familiar legend
about him relates that he gave half of
his cloak to a beggar and that Jesus
appeared to him, wearing the segment.
Martineau, James, English Unita-
rian theologian; b. 1805 at Norwich;
d. 1900 in London; many years profes-
sor at Manchester New College; gifted
preacher and apologist of theism against
materialism, but rejected doctrines of
Trinity, vicarious atonement, total de-
pravity.
Martyn, Henry; b. at Truro, Eng-
land, February 18, 1781; d. at Tokat,
Asia Minor, October 16, 1812. He sailed
for India 1805 as Anglican chaplain in
the service of the East India Company,
located in Dinapur, 1806, where he began
missionary work among the natives.
Stationed at Cawnpore in 1808, he trans-
lated the New Testament into Hindu-
stani and Persian, the Psalms into Per-
sian, and the Prayer-book into Hindu-
stani. At Shiraz, in Persia, where he
went in search of health, he tanslated
the New Testament into Arabic. ' Re-
turning to England via Asia Minor, he
succumbed at Tokat.
Marx, Karl, German political writer
and Socialist; b. 1818 at Trier of Jewish
parents; d. 1883 in London. Since 1843
in Paris, where, with F. Engels, he issued
the Communist Manifesto (1847), the
principal ideas of which, as of his later
writings, are his materialistic conception
of history and his criticism of capitalis-
Mary, Bloody
445
Mass
tic society. Since 1849 in London, where
(1864) he took a leading part in organ-
izing the International Workingmen’s
Association (the “Red Internationale”)
and became, with Engels, the founder of
modern Socialism (Marxism). Main
work, Das Kapital, 1867.
Mary, Bloody. Mary I, daughter of
Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon;
queen of England 1553 — 58. Was edu-
cated a zealous Romanist; ordered exe-
cution of Jane Grey; married Philip II
of Spain; restored papal power; burned
Rogers, Latimer, Ridley, Cranmer, and
286 other Protestants, each martyrdom
proving stronger than a hundred sermons
against Popery.
Mary, Little Brothers of. See Broth-
ers Marists.
Maryland Synod. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Maryland and the South, Synod of.
See Synods, Extinct.
Maryland and the South, German
Synod of, organized in 1874 by German
pastors belonging to Maryland Synod for
the purpose of uniting all German Lu-
theran pastors south of Philadelphia
who were not affiliated with Missouri or
Ohio. It was received into the General
Synod in 1875, but disbanded within two
years, many of its pastors and churches
joining the Evangelical Synod of North
America.
Maryland and Virginia, Synod of.
See Synods, Extinct.
Mason, Lowell, 1792 — 1872; self-
taught; president of the Handel and
Haydn Society of Boston in 1827;
founded Boston Academy of Music in
1832; issued many popular collections
of music, among them Lyra Sacra and
Gantica Laudis.
Mason, William, 1829 — 1908; son of
Lowell Mason; studied in Boston under
Henry Schmidt, in Leipzig under Mo-
scheles, Hauptmann, and Richter, also in
Prague, and in Weimar under Liszt;
distinguished pianist and pedagog ; wide
celebrity as composer and teacher.
Mass. The Roman Church teaches
that the bread and wine “converted” in
the Eucharist into the body and blood
of Christ is not only to be received in
Communion ( see Lord’s Supper, Roman
Catholic Doctrine of), but is also to be
offered up as a propitiatory sacrifice to
God for the sins of the living and the
dead. “In this divine sacrifice, which is
celebrated in the Mass, that same Christ
is contained and immolated in an un-
bloody manner who once offered Himself
in a bloody manner on the cross: this
sacrifice is truly propitiatory, and by
means thereof this is effected, that we
obtain mercy and find grace in season-
able aid if we draw nigh unto God, con-
trite and penitent, with a sincere heart
and upright faith, with fear and rever-
ence. For the Lord, appeased by the
oblation thereof and granting the grace
and gift of penitence, forgives even hei-
nous crimes and sins. For the Victim
is one and the same, the same now offer-
ing by the ministry of the priests who
then offered Himself on the cross, the
manner alone of offering being different.”
(Council of Trent, Sess. XXII, chap. 2.)
The officiating priest always communi-
cates himself at the Mass; others may
commune, but this is not required. The
benefits of a mass are said to accrue to
the whole church, but especially to the
officiating priest, to those for whom it is
particularly offered, and to all who de-
voutly attend it. During the ceremony
the priest presents host and chalice to
the worshipers for adoration (see Ele-
vation of Host). The ceremonies and
words employed in the Mass are found
in the missal (see Missale Romanum) .
Masses must be celebrated between dawn
and midday, and only one mass a day
can be said by a priest, except on Christ-
inas and All Souls’ Day or by special
dispensation. Requiem masses are masses
for the dead; low masses are without
music; in high masses there is music,
incense, etc.; pontifical masses are said
by bishops. Throughout the Mass the
“sacred” Latin tongue is employed; it is
prescribed that some parts be spoken in
a low tone. When a mass is requested
by any one, a tax or stipend, fixed by
the bishop, is paid the celebrant. — The
Mass is the center of the whole Roman
system of worship; the Sacrament of
Holy Communion has become its append-
age and is overshadowed by it. As “a
true propitiatory sacrifice, by which God
is reconciled and made merciful to us”
(Catechismus Romanus, II, 4. 76), a sac-
rifice “through which the richest fruits
of that bloody sacrifice flow to us”
{ibid.), it denies the all-sufficient power
and merit of the sacrifice on Golgotha.
If Christ won full remission of sins for
men, there can be “no more offering for
sin.” Heb. 10, 18. He established His
holy Sacrament, as the words of institu-
tion and the writings of the apostles
show, that it should be received by peni-
tent believers for the forgiveness of sins,
not that they might idolatrously adore -
the consecrated elements and make a sac-
rifice of them. Scripture, in Heb. 7, 27 ;
9,25 — 28; 10, 11 — 18, clearly denies the
need and the possibility of such a sac-
rifice.
Mass (Lltnigical)
446
Matheslug, Johann
Mass (Liturgical) . The chief service
of the Roman Church, embodying in it
most of the dangerous doctrines which
characterize this Church as a sect. The
distinguishing and objectionable features
of the Canon Missae are the following:
the Confiteor, with its confession of sins
by the celebrating priest, the absolution
being spoken by his assistants; (for the
false doctrine connected with this rite
was that in donning his priestly vest-
ments the priest became worthy of offer-
ing sacrifices for the sins of the living
and of the dead;) the Secreta, secret
prayers murmured by the officiating
priest, varying with the day and the
occasion; the Canon Missae proper, in
which the priest makes an offering of
the unbloody sacrifice on the altar and
adds the commemoration for the living
and the dead.
Mass in Music. Of the earliest mu-
sic in use in Christian services noth-
ing definite is known. The work of Am-
brosius, in Milan, had a decided influence
on the chanting of certain parts of the
Mass, the four fundamental tones, or
melodies, introduced by him serving to
enliven the music considerably. Through
additions made by Gregory the Great the
chanting of the Mass was much enliv-
ened, and his emendations of the Anti-
phonarium and the Graduate served to
make the music of the Mass uniform in
large parts of the Church. Since the
time of Palestrina, the founder of the
modern style of church music, whose
masterpiece was his Missa Papae Mar-
celli, many Catholic composers have writ-
ten music for the chief service of the
Roman Church, notably Mozart, and
many sections of such compositions, par-
ticularly those of the Agnus Dei, the
Benedictus, the Sanctus, etc., have found
their way into the repertoire of Protes-
tant organists and choirs. See also "Wor-
ship, Order of, Missa, Missal.
Massacre of St. Bartholomew’s.
After the third religious war in Prance,
which ended with the peace of St. Ger-
main, the Protestants enjoyed freedom
of conscience and worship, and they had
three cities of safety. But this state of
affairs was extremely distasteful to the
queen dowager of France, Catherine de
Medici. Although the negotiations for
a marriage between Margaret of Valois,
sister of King Charles IX, and Henry of
•Navarre finally succeeded, being gener-
ally regarded as favorable to the Prot-
estant cause, Coligny, the great Protes-
tant leader of France, was threatened.
Catherine, an avo-wed enemy of the
staunch Huguenot, resolved to destroy
both him and his adherents. The mas-
sacre began at four o’clock on Sunday,
August 24, 1572, Coligny being the first
to fall before the treachery of the ene-
mies. From Paris the massacre spread
throughout France; neither sex, age,
rank, nor learning was spared. The
number of victims is estimated between
25,000 and 100,000. Pope Gregory XIII
had a solemn Te Deum sung at the Vati-
can, and a medal was struck commemo-
rating the slaughter of the Protestants.
Massie, Richard, 1800 — 87 ; noted as
translator of Martin Luther’s Spiritual
Songs (1854); translated also other
German hymns, including even the mod-
ern songs of Spitta ; among his best
translations: “All Praise to Jesus’ Hal-
lowed Name”; “Now Praise We Christ,
the Holy One.”
Massillon, J. B., 1663 — 1742; per-
haps the most famous of French preach-
ers, of whom Louis XIV said that, while
other preachers made him pleased with
them, Massillon made him displeased
with himself. He died as bishop of
Clermont.
Materialism, a philosophical theory
which regards matter as the original
cause of all, even psychic, phenomena.
Asserting that all psychic processes are
due to changes of material molecules, it
practically denies the existence of the
soul. It reached its greatest develop-
ment in the 18th century, in writings of
French Encyclopedists ( q . v.; and see
Holbach), and became prominent again in
Germany in the middle of the 19th cen-
tury (Vogt, Feuerbach, Haeckel [qq. «.],
Buechner.
Mather Family. Congregationalists.
Richard, 1596 — 1669; came to America
1635; pastor at Dorchester, Mass. — In-
crease, 1639—1723, Richard’s son; pas-
tor at Boston; president of Harvard;
studied sixteen hours daily ; author. —
Cotton, 1663 — 1728, Increase’s son; pas-
tor of North Church, Boston, forty-three
years; shared in witchcraft craze; pub-
lished over 400 works: Magnolia, Es-
says to Do Good, etc.
Mathesius, Johann, 1504 — 65; stud-
ied at Ingolstadt; was attracted by
some of Luther’s writings; finished uni-
versity work at Wittenberg; taught in
school at Altenburg; rector of gymna-
sium at Joachimstal; completed studies
in theology, diaconus at Joachimstal in
1541; pastor in 1545; lovable and char-
itable spirit, model pastor, distinguished
preacher; wrote: “Herr Gott, der du
mein Vater bist”; also a biography of
Luther, of whose Table Talk he had
taken notes.
Mathews, Shatter
447
MaideUai
Mathews, Shailer, 1863 — ; Baptist;
b. at Portland, Me.; professor at Colby
University, Me.; lecturer at Newton;
professor of New Testament history and
interpretation, systematic theology, his-
torical and comparative theology at Uni-
versity of Chicago; dean of divinity
school 1908; rejects divine origin of
Bible and divinity and atoning death of
Christ and holds that religions, generally
speaking, are mere products of the hu-
man mind. Author.
Matin. The early morning service;
at the time of the Reformation one of
the Canonical Hours and still observed
as such by the Roman Church; rarely
sung regularly in the Lutheran Church,
except on Sundays and holidays.
Matrimony, Roman Catholic Doc-
trine of. The Roman Church counts
marriage one of its seven sacraments,
though it finds difficulty in providing for
it, as to matter and form, under its own
definition of a sacrament. The Council
of Trent contents itself with claiming
that Scripture “hints at,” or “alludes
to,” matrimony as a vehicle of grace in
Eph. 5, 31. 32 (Sess. XXIV, De Sacr.
Matr. ). It nevertheless curses every one
who says “that matrimony is not truly
and properly one of the seven sacraments
of the evangelic law, instituted by Christ
the Lord.” (Ibid., can. 1.) Rome insists
on the sacramental character of mar-
riage because it thereby draws this fun-
damental relation of life within the
sphere of its power, under its claim of
legislative authority in all matters fall-
ing under its spiritual jurisdiction.
Consequently Rome asserts the right of
regulating marriage and of adding new
conditions to the Scriptural ones (see
Impediments of Marriage). The Roman
Church recognizes no legitimate cause
for divorce, not even adultery, despite
Matt. 19, 9. Permanent separations are
permitted, but no remarriage of either
party during the lifetime of the other.
In contrast to this apparent sacredness
of the marriage tie stands the fact that
many marriages which are valid by di-
vine and civil law are declared null and
void by the Roman Church because of
impediments decreed by it. While loyal
Romanists cannot be divorced, they may
often secure a dissolution of marriage by
instituting a careful search for impedi-
ments.
Maude, Mary Pawler, nee Hooper,
1819 — ; married clergyman of Church
of England in 1841 ; distinguished for
poetical ability; her best-known hymn:
“Thine Forever, God of Love.”
Maur, Saint, Congregation of. A fa-
mous French congregation of Benedictine
monks, founded 1618. Its fame depends
less on its restoration of Benedictine dis-
cipline than on its learning and scholar-
ship, especially in patrology and history
(Mabillon, Thierry). The Maurists, in
their disputes with Trappists and Jesu-
its, showed calm moderation and intel-
lectual superiority. The congregation
was dispersed by the French Revolution.
Maurice of Saxony; b. 1521 ; duke
in 1541. Bribed by the promise of ter-
ritory and the Electoral hat, he helped
the Catholic Kaiser crush the Lutheran
Elector of Saxony, John Frederick, his
cousin, and favored the Interim. Hated
by the staunch Lutherans (“Judas”),
fearing the growing power of the Kaiser,
incensed at the harsh treatment of his
father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, he plotted
against the Kaiser and, having gathered
an army to punish Magdeburg, he sud-
denly swept south, almost captured the
aging Kaiser at Innsbruck, and forced
from him the Passau Treaty, so favor-
able to the Lutherans (1552). The next
year he fell in the battle of Sievers-
hausen.
Mauritius. An island near Madagas-
car, belonging to the British Empire.
Area, 720 sq. mi. Population, 377,000.
In 1598 it was uninhabited. Now it has
a large East Indian population. In 1810
the island was nominally Roman Catho-
lic. Missions by the Church Mission,
Society for the Propagation of the Gos-
pel, and London Missionary Society.
Statistics: Foreign staff, 36; Christian
community, 17,000; communicants, 7,000.
Maurus, Rhabanus (Hrabanus ) , ca.
776 — 856; sometime archbishop of
Mainz; one of the four authors to
whom the hymn “Veni, Creator Spiritus”
has been ascribed, as well as one or two
others; prominent in both education and
theology.
Maxwell, Mary Hamlin, 1814 — 53;
published a volume of Original Hymns
in 1849, with 107 poems, among which:
“Saints of God, the Dawn is Bright-
’ning.”
Mayhew, Experience, 1673 — 1758;
a New England pastor and Indian mis-
sionary; had the oversight of six Indian
Assemblies ; translated parts of the Bible
into the Indian language at the direction
of the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in New England. His son,
Mayhew, Zachariah, ministered to
the Marthas Vineyard Indians from 1767
till his death, March 6, 1806.
Mazdeism. See Zoroastrianism ,
McComb, William
448
Medical Missions
McComb, William, 1793 — 1863; for
several years bookseller in Belfast; pub-
lishing several poetical works, wliich
were later collected; wrote: “Chief of
Sinners though I Be.”
McGifEert, Arthur Cushman, 1861 — ;
American theologian ; b. at Sauquoit,
N.Y. ; Presbyterian minister ; professor at
Lane and Union Seminaries; published
History of Christianity 1897 and joined
Congregationalists to avoid trial for
heresy; president of Union Seminary.
Author.
McKendree, William, 1757 — 1835;
Methodist Episcopal bishop ; b. in Vir-
ginia; served in Revolutionary War;
was converted 1787; bishop (first of
American birth) 1808; traveled with
Asbury; d. in Tennessee.
McKim, Randolph Harrison, 1812 — ;
Protestant Episcopal; b. at Baltimore;
served in Confederate Army; priest
1866; held various rectorates; wrote:
Leo XIII at the Bar of History, etc.
Mechanics, Independent Order of.
A secret mutual benefit society, estab-
lished at Baltimore, Md., in 1868. It
never had any connection with practical
mechanics, but admitted all acceptable
white men between the ages of eighteen
and fifty. The founders of the order
were Odd-Fellows. To-day it seems to be
no longer active.
Mechanics, Junior Order of United
American. This order sprang from the
Order of the United American Mechanics,
being founded at Philadelphia, Pa., in
1853, as an “independent, secret, native-
American, patriotic, beneficiary organi-
zation.” It exists to-day in many of the
States of the Union. Membership, ea.
300,000. Practically every State in the
Union has its State and local “councils.”
An orphans’ home is maintained at Tif-
fin, O., with about 850 children, orphans
of deceased members. Only native-born
Americans are eligible to membership.
One of its objects is to restore and main-
tain Bible- reading in the public school.
While in the main its purposes are fra-
ternal, it is strongly anti-Catholic, care-
fully watching the Church of Rome and
trying to frustrate its political designs
in the United States. Members of this
organization also organized and propa-
gated the American Protective Associa-
tion, which admitted to its ranks others
besides native Americans. The Bene-
ficiary Degree of the ordeT in 1923 re-
ported 22,519 benefit members; the Fu-
neral Benefit Department, 253,399.
Mechanics, Order of United Ameri-
can. A social, fraternal, and benevolent
secret society, established at Philadel-
phia, Pa., in 1845, to protect the public
school, oppose the union of Church and
State, and limit immigration. It claims
that “nothing of a political or sectarian
character” is allowed at its meetings.
The order became the residuary legatee
of the Sons of Liberty, the Society of
the Red Men, and of a number of similar
organizations. The square and compasses
among its emblems, which also include
the American flag and the arm of labor
wielding a hammer, suggest Masonic in-
fluence. In fact, many of its founders
were Freemasons. In 1875 a female
auxiliary was organized under the name
of Daughters of Liberty. There is also
a uniformed division known as the Loyal
Legion of the United American Mechanics.
Medical Missions. An important ad-
junct of late to religious missions. The
term implies that medical science in all
its various branches is put into the ser-
vice of the propagation of the Gospel of
Jesus Christ. Where the diffusion of
medical knowledge or the application of
medical science to physical ailment is an
end in itself, it does not appear to belong
legitimately to the domain of foreign
missions, but is rather merely humani-
tarian work, being not based upon the
charge of Christ to His Church found in
Matt. 28, 19. — Medical missions have a
legitimate sphere as a forerunner of re-
ligious missionary effort and also supple-
mentary to it. Their province is to break
down natural native suspicion of, and
opposition to, the foreign • missionary
and his message and to predispose the
heathen favorably to both. They serve to
point the divine love of the great Physi-
cian to the human race of all climes and
all social conditions and should be used
as an external means to demonstrate
that He continues to bear the sorrows
and diseases, physical and spiritual, of
mankind. The helping, healing service
of His followers and emissaries should
exhibit the love of their Master, Jesus
Christ, in whose name they forsake the
comforts and temporal prospects of pre-
ferment in the homeland and come to
distant and often dismal peoples and
climes, frequently to expose themselves
to suffering, persecution, and death.
Medical missions are therefore chiefly a
preparatory agency for foreign missions.
— A second service rendered by medical
missions consists in their conserving, as
much as possible, the health of the re-
ligious missionary force. The history of
foreign missions has demonstrated that
health and life has frequently been sac-
rificed in primitive and unsanitary dis-
tricts where medical skill under God's
blessing might have been of incalculable
Medical Missions
449
Meinhold, Johann
service. Because of want of medical at-
tention for himself and for his family
many a foreign missionary has been con-
strained to forsake his ohosen life-work
and to return to his native country, to
the great injury of the mission-field. - — •
Woman’s medical mission work has been
recognized as a necessity in countries
where the line of demarcation between
the sexes is as keenly drawn as in India
and China. As a rule, it is out of the
question for male physicians to render
medical service to a woman. Even in
some of the long-established missionary
hospitals in India no male physician is
to this day permitted to cross the
threshold. The condition of the female
population of India, secluded in the zena-
nas, is therefore most pitiable. There is
an almost unlimited sphere for female
medical activity as a handmaid to the
Gospel. — The history of medical mis-
sions shows that the Danish-Halle Mis-
sion already occasionally sent out mis-
sionaries who were qualified physicians,
but who chiefly engaged in religious
work. On February 22, 1703, General
Codrington bequeathed two plantations
in the Barbados to the S. P. G., condi-
tioning that a number of professors and
scholars be maintained there who should
be “obliged to study and practise medi-
cine and surgery as well as divinity” in
order to enable them to “endear them-
selves to the people and have the better
opportunities of doing good to men’s
souls whilst they are taking care of their
bodies.” The society accepted the be-
quest and sent out the Rev. J. Holt
(1712). John Thomas, a ship’s surgeon,
who had already done independent work
in India, was sent out with Carey in
1793 by the Baptist Missionary Society.
The first Protestant medical missionary
to China was the Rev. Peter Parker,
M. D., who was sent out by the American
Board (A. B. C. F. M.) in 1835. In 1839
the London Missionary Society sent out
Drs. Lockhart and Hobson, who first
labored in Macav, Shanghai, and Hong-
kong. A well-known medical missionary
was Dr. Hudson Taylor, the founder of
the China Inland Mission. The first
woman medical missionary to be sent to
India was Dr. Clara Swain (1870), who
has had a large succession of followers.
— Well-nigh all the foreign missionary
societies of Europe and America now
recognize medical missions as a distinct
department of their work, so much so,
that missionary societies frequently have
united their medical work in the foreign
field both as to education of native phy-
sicians and nurses and as to hospital ser-
vice, a case in point being the Union
Concordia Cyclopedia
Medical College in Peking, China, now
connected with the Rockefeller Founda-
tion, and the Severance Hospital near
Seoul, Chosen. — Latest medical mission
reports : Foreign medical staff : men,
801 ; women, 356, nurses, 1,007. Hospi-
tals, 858. Dispensaries, 1,686. Treat-
ments in dispensaries, 4,788,258. Total
treatments, 11,548,808.
Medici. A distinguished family of
Florence from the middle of the 14th
century till 1743, when the last of the
line died, most of its members being
patrons of literature and art: Cosmo,
1389 — 1464, who formed the collection
which became the Laurentian Library;
Lorenzo the Magnificent, 1449 — 92, who
patronized scholars and artists, collected
manuscripts at great expense, and made
great additions to the Laurentian Li-
brary; Catherine, 1519 — 89, who also
fostered the arts and sciences.
Medley, Samuel, 1738 — 99; good edu-
cation; served in navy; taught Baptist
school; later pastor at Watford, then at
Liverpool ; very popular hymnist ; among
his hymns: “Awake, My Soul, to Joyful
Lays”; “Father of Mercies, God of
Love.”
Mees, Theophilus, 1848 — 1923; prom- .
inent theologian of the Ohio Synod ; b. in
Columbus, O. ; studied at Fort Wayne
and St. Louis; ordained 1875; professor
at Capital University, Columbus, O., till
1888; president of Teachers’ Seminary,
Woodville, O., 1888 — 1903; professor at
Capital University and the Seminary
since 1903. Editor of Journal of Peda-
gogy, 1900; Theological Magazine, 1912.
Author of Doctrinal History of Predesti-
nation, ll>17 — 80.
Meinardus, Ludwig Siegfried, 1827
to 1896; studied at Leipzig, also at Wei-
mar under Liszt; conductor in various
cities, teacher. in Dresden Conservatory;
lived in Hamburg and Bielefeld as com-
poser and critic; oratorio Luther in
Worms and others.
Meinhold, Johann Wilhelm, 1797
to 1851; educated at Greifswald; held
various charges in the state church ;
leaned toward Catholicism; his best-
known hymn: “Guter Hirt, du hast ge-
stillt.”
Meinhold, Karl, prominent Lutheran
theologian of Prussia; b. 1813, d. 1888;
studied at Greifswald and Halle ; secured
the recognition of the Lutheran Church
in Prussia.
Meinhold, Johann, son of preceding; ,
b. 1861; professor at Greifswald; exe-
gete, collaborator in Struck -Zoeckler
Commentary.
29
Melster Wilhelm
450
Melanchthon, Philip
Meister Wilhelm, the name of sev-
eral unknown masters of the 12th cen-
tury, especially of one who apparently
did much of the sculpture work on the
facades of the domes at Modena, Ferrara,
and Verona.
Melanchthon (Bchwarzerd) , Philip;
b. February 16, 1497, at Bretten, in Ba-
den; went to Heidelberg in 1509. On
account of his extreme youth he was not
permitted to apply for his Master’s de-
gree in 1512, and so he went to Tue-
bingen, where he got his Master in 1516.
In 1518 he wrote his Greek Grammar,
and his granduncle, the celebrated He-
braist Reuchlin, advised him against ac-
cepting a call to Ingolstadt; he recom-
mended him to the Elector Frederick for
the chair of Greek at Wittenberg, where
he arrived on August 25, 1518. The un-
favorable impression caused by his unim-
pressive appearance was at once turned
into admiration by his inaugural “On the
Improvement of the Studies,” and Luther
enthusiastically advised him to take up
theology. Melanchthon was present at
the Leipzig Disputation in July, 1519,
and after a disputation on September 9,
1519, “On the Supremacy of the Scrip-
tures” was made a Bachelor of the Bible
and a lecturer on theology, and Luther
got the Elector to increase the salary
from 100 to 200 gulden. Luther was the
spiritual father of Melanchthon, as he
repeatedly stated. According to Spala-
tin, Melanchthon lectured to over 500
students; later increased to 1,500. Me-
lanchthon married Burgomaster Krapp’s
daughter Catherine in 1520. In 1521 he
defended Luther against the attack of
Thomas Rhadinus at Rome and the Sor-
bonne, which had condemned Luther’s
writings, and also published the Loci,
the first Lutheran dogmatics, reprinted
more than eighty times during his life-
time. During Luther’s absence at Worms
and upon the Wartburg, Melanchthon
was .too weak to guide the ship in
troubled waters; and his pleas brought
back the master to the helm. Melanch-
thon helped to translate the New Testa-
ment and visit the churches, he organ-
ized the high school at Nuernberg and
had his friend Joachim Camerarius
called to head it. On a visit home in
1524 Melanchthon was approached by
the legate Campegi to return to Roman-
ism, which, however, he spurned. On
his return Melanchthon fell in with the
young Landgrave Philip of Hessen, who
was won for the Reformation, which was
not merely the ending of some abuses,
but the preaching of Christ’s righteous-
ness. Melanchthon was fiercely against
the peasants in 1525, and he did not
help Luther against Erasmus, likely be-
ginning to lean towards free will. While
visiting the churches, he saw the need
of preaching the Law, which occasioned
the first controversy in the Lutheran
Church; see Antinomistic Controversy.
He regarded the historic Protest at
Speyer in 1529 as “a terrible fact,”
which filled him with forebodings. He
regarded Zwingli’s doctrine as an im-
piurn dogma and sided with Luther at
Marburg in 1529 against unjon with the
Swiss, and he was firm again at Augs-
burg in 1530 and thereby angered Philip
of Hessen, but over against the Roman-
ists he was so timid as seriously to com-
promise the Lutheran position, so that
Luther and others had to bolster him up.
Luther approved the draft of a part of
the Augsburg Confession, which Melanch-
thon revised repeatedly, giving the lit-
erary form to Luther’s teaching. Luther
missed articles on purgatory, saint wor-
ship, the papacy, etc., and hence called
it the pussy-foot. After the Reichstag
Melanchthon worked on the Apology;
see Augsburg Confession and Apology.
With Luther, Melanchthon now favored
an armed defense of the Gospel against
the Kaiser and taking the southern cities
into the Bund of Schmalkalden. His
“Romans” came out in 1532. Calls to
Tuebingen, France, and England were
declined. Luther suspected Melanchthon
of “almost Zwinglian opinion” in a dis-
cussion on the Lord’s Supper with Bucer
at Cassel in 1534, but in 1536 Luther
agreed to the Wittenberg Concord worded
by Melanchthon (q. v. ). In 1535 Me-
lanchthon brought out his synergism in
the second edition of the Loci, with the
words; facultas se applicandi ad gratiam;
and Cordatus attacked him for saying,
“Good works are necessary to salvation.”
At Smalcald, 1537, Melanchthon conceded
a primacy of human right to the Pope,
but after Luther’s serious illness wrote
on the papal power in Luther’s sense. In
1540 he altered the Augsburg Confession,
and at Smalcald drew up the Lutheran
position, to be discussed at Hagenau,
where he could not attend owing to the
mortal illness caused by his part in
Philip’s notorious bigamy affair. Luther
prayed him well, and he had a debate
with Eck at Worms in October, 1540,
which was continued in May at the
Regensburg Conference ( q. v. ) . The ref-
ormation of Cologne, in 1543, was so un-
satisfactory in the article on the Lord’s
Supper that Melanchthon got into con-
flict with Luther on that account and ex-
pected to be banished. Illness kept him
from another conference at Regensburg
in 1546, and he sent his Wittenberg Ref-
Melanchthon Synod
451 Mendelssohn- Bartholdy, Felix
ormation; but the Kaiser would not even
receive it. After Luther’s death Me-
lanchthon approved the Interim (q.v.),
and Flacius and others attacked him
severely, but rightly. In 1549 Melaneh-
thon and Flacius condemned Osiander’s
teaching of justification; see Osiandrian
Controversy. In 1551 Melanchthon wrote
the Confessio Saxonica, to be presented
at the Council of Trent; he called it the
“Repetition of the Augsburg Confession.”
On his way to Trent he came as far as
Nuernberg, when Maurice of Saxony
turned on the Kaiser, and Melanchthon
returned to Wittenberg, March, 1552.
The staunch Lutherans continued their
attacks on Melanchthon. In 1553 came
his Examen Ordinandorum, and in 1559
the Refutation of the Bavarian Articles
of Inquisition. D. April 19, 1560. — -
Praeceptor Germaniae is the title a
grateful country has conferred upon
him; for Marburg, Koenigsberg, and
Jena arose under his advice, and Leipzig
was reorganized. He founded the gym-
nasium (college), in which the Gospel
and the classics were to be united; he
worked out the curriculum and wrote
text-books, his Latin grammar being in-
fluential to the present time.
Melanchthon Synod. This was a
schism, in 1857, in the ranks of the
Maryland Synod, fostered by Ben j. Kurtz
and eleven other pastors, for the pur-
poses of resisting the swelling tide of
confessionalism in the Maryland Synod
and encouraging the defenders of the
“Definite Platform” (q. v.). It repudiated
baptismal regeneration, the denial of the
divine obligation of the “Christian Sab-
bath,” the doctrine of the real presence,
etc. Spite of its un-Lutheran character
this synod was received into the General
Synod in 1859, thus furnishing one of
the causes of the disruption of 1866.
Four years after Dr. Kurtz’s death the
Melanchthon Synod reunited with the
Maryland Synod (1869).
Melanesia. A group of islands in the
Pacific, west of Polynesia, including
about 250 islands, comprising chiefly the
Bismarck (New Britain) Archipelago,
the Solomon Islands, the New Hebrides,
the Fiji Islands, New Caledonia, also the
Australian Territory and Australian
Mandate in Papua, the Santa Cruz Is-
lands, Loyalty Islands, Norfolk Islands,
etc. Population, approximately 500,000,
mostly negroid and animistic in religion,
cannibalism still being practised in cer-
tain sections. Mission-work is conducted
by 14 societies, among them the Iowa
Synod of the United States and the
United Ev. Luth, Church in Australia,
Total foreign staff, 392; Christian com-
munity, 213,860; communicants, 62,483.
Melchites. The collective name of the
orthodox Christians remaining in Roman
provinces conquered by Arabs. Their
name, from melek, king, signifies their
loyalty to emperor and Pope and their
distinction from Monophysites.
Meletian Schisms. Two. The Egyp-
tian Schism (305— ca. 400) arose from
the encroachments of Meletius of Lycopo-
lis on the metropolitan rights of Peter
of Alexandria. The Antiochian Schism
(361—415) had its origin in the election
of the Arian bishop Meletius, who im-
mediately disappointed his party by his
Nicene leanings, while he failed to sat-
isfy the orthodox because of his Arian
consecration.
Melito of Sardes, one of the great
theologians of the second century. His
reputed literary activity embraced the
entire field of theology. Apart from
fragments, his works are lost.
Memling, Hans, ca. 1430—94 ; a Flem-
ish painter, whose reputation extended to
England and Italy ; strong romantic ten-
dency; among his sacred paintings:
“The Last Judgment” (at Danzig),
“Adoration,”
Men and Religion Forward Move-
ment. A movement begun in the early
part of the present century for the
purpose of enlisting all the men of all
Protestant churches in a combined effort
to advance the cause of Christianity.
A movement similar to the later Inter-
Church World Movement ( q . i\), although
not carried on on so large a scale as that.
Mencius. See Confucianism.
Mendaeans. See Hemerobaptists.
Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix, 1809
to 1847 ; grandson of the philosopher
Moses Mendelssohn; first piano lessons
from his mother; work continued under
Berger, Zelter, and Hennings; genius
developed very early, his Nineteenth
Psalm being performed by the Sing-
akademie of Berlin, of which he was a
member, when he was only ten years old;
recognized as a prominent piano player
in 1818; regularly engaged in composi-
tion in 1820; became a leading figure
in reviving interest in Bach, the per-
formance of the Passion according to
St. Matthew taking place in 1829; later
made several visits to London and trav-
eled extensively on the Continent; Town
Musical Director at Duesseldorf; then
conductor of the Gewandhaus Orchestra
in Leipzig; later organized the Con-
servatory of Music; his grandest pro-
ductions the oratorios Paulus and Elias;
wrote also other sacred music.
Mendicant Monks
452
Mennonite Bottles
Mendicant Monks ( Begging Friars).
Members of monastic orders which origi-
nally carried the vow of poverty to ex-
tremes by renouncing every form of ma-
terial proprietorship. The older orders,
indeed, had always imposed the vow of
poverty, which made the individual mo-
nastic incapable of holding property.
No limit, however, was set to the posses-
sions which a monastery might acquire
and hold. The result was great corpo-
rate wealth, which, in turn, led to luxu-
rious and loose living. To remedy this
state of affairs, the mendicant orders
were established in the Middle Ages.
Their members were not to have any
property, even in common, and were to
rely for support on their own work and
the charity of the faithful. The great
mendicant orders are the Franciscans,
Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians,
and Servites. The mendicant principle
was removed from these orders by the
Council of Trent (sess. XXV, ch. 3), which
permitted all except the strict Francis-
cans to hold corporate possessions.
Mengs, Baphael, 1728 — 79; one of
the most distinguished artists of the
18th century; composition and group-
ings simple, drawings correct, coloring
excellent; among his paintings: “Holy
Night” and “Descent from the Cross.”
Menius, Justus; b. 1499, skeptic at
Erfurt, converted at Wittenberg in 1519;
1529 superintendent at Eisenach, later
also at Gotha; at Marburg disputation
in 1529 and at Wittenberg Concord in
1536; wrote against the bigamy of
Philip of Hessen; justified war on Kai-
ser when he menaced the Gospel and op-
posed the Interim; against Osiander and
for Major; d. 1558.
Mennonite Bodies (Anabaptists, Twuf-
gesinnte, Wehrlose, Waffenlose, Doops-
gesind, Dooper, etc.). The origin of the
Mennonite bodies is traced back to the
Anabaptist fanatics, who at the time of
Luther, under the leadership of Muenzer,
Storch, etc., boasted of celestial revela-
tions, rejected Baptism, subverted the
existing forms of government, and
caused general confusion for a number
of years in Germany and other states of
Europe. In 1524 they incited the peas-
ants of Germany to a ferocious uprising
against their lords, who defeated them
in 1525 and put to death their principal
leader, Muenzer. In 1533 the Anabap-
tists made the city of Muenster, in West-
phalia, their gathering-place, ejecting the
rulers of the city and all “infidels,” pro-
claiming the advent of the millennium,
endorsing communism and polygamy,
and instituting a reign of terror and
licentiousness. However, in 1535, the
city was taken, the leaders of the Ana-
baptists killed, and the fanatics, seeking
refuge, scattered over various countries
of Europe, especially Holland and Eng-
land, where they preached their extrava-
gant doctrines. In the course of time
the members of these scattered communi-
ties, who laid particular stress on the
doctrine of believers’ baptism as opposed
to infant baptism, found a leader in the
person of Menno Simons, a former Ro-
man Catholic priest, who was born in
Witmarsun, Holland, about 1496. He
is regarded by the Mennonites, however,
not so much as the founder of their sect
as a prominent factor in its organiza-
tion. The name “Mennonite” dates from
1550. In Holland, however, they were
known by the name of Doopsgcsinde and
in Germany by that of Taufgesinnte or
Taeufer. It was to some of the Flemish
Mennonites, who, upon the invitation of
King Henry VIII, stayed in England and
became the pioneers of the great weav-
ing industry of that country, that the
Baptists of England were largely in-
debted for their organization as a reli-
gious body. When William Penn ac-
quired Pennsylvania from the English
crown, he offered homes to the Men-
nonites, where they might enjoy the free
exercise of their religious belief. They
were, for the most part, too poor to emi-
grate, but the Society of Friends in Eng-
land came to their relief, and thus means
were provided by which large numbers of
Mennonites from Holland, Switzerland,
and Germany were enabled to come to
America. Individual families settled in
New York and New Jersey as early as
1640; but the first Mennonite colony
was formed in Germantown, Pa., in 1683.
In the beginning of the 18th century the
Mennonites spread northward and west-
ward and have since spread to Western
Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and
Canada. Since they have settled in this
country, a number of divisions have
taken place among the Mennonites, occa-
sioned by divers views of some ques-
tions; but of late years the feeling has
developed among nearly all branches that
closer union and cooperation along cer-
tain lines of Gospel-work would be de-
sirable.
Doctrine. At a general conference of
the Mennonites in the Netherlands and
Germany, held at Dort, Holland, in 1632,
a compilation of previous confessions of
faith was made and called A Declaration
of the Chief Articles of Our Common
Christian Faith. This confession, con-
taining eighteen articles, is accepted by
the great majority of the Mennonite
Men non I te Bodies
453
Mennonlte Bodies
churches to-day and includes the follow-
ing doctrines: That “the will of Christ
is contained in the Gospel, by obedience
to which alone humanity is saved; that
repentance and conversion, or complete
change of life, without which no outward
obedience to Gospel requirements will
avail to please God, is necessary to sal-
vation; that all who have repented of
their sins and believe on Christ as the
Savior and in heart and life accept His
commandments are born again ; that
this obedience is manifested by baptism
with water as a public testimony of
faith; that by partaking of the Lord’s
Supper the members express a common
union with one another and a fellowship
of love for, and faith in, Christ; that
the washing of the saints’ feet is an
ordinance instituted, and its proper ob-
servance commanded, by Christ; that
the state of matrimony is honorable be-
tween those spiritually kindred and that
such alone can marry ‘in the Lord’; that
Christ has forbidden His followers the
use of carnal force in resisting evil and
the seeking of refuge for evil treatment;
that the use of all oaths is forbidden and
is contrary to God’s will.” The Lord’s
Supper is observed twice a year, in con-
nection with which, and immediately
after which, the ordinance of washing the
saints’ feet is observed. In nearly all
the Mennonite bodies baptism is by pour-
ing, although some have adopted im-
mersion. — Polity. The local church is
autonomous, deciding all matters affect-
ing itself. District or state conferences
are established, in most cases, to which
appeals may be made; otherwise the
authority of the congregation or of a
committee appointed by the congregation
is final. All decisions of state or dis-
trict conferences are presented to the
individual congregations for ratification.
The divinely appointed offices of the
Church of Christ are held to be those of
bishop (elder, presbyter), minister (or
evangelist ) , and almoner ( deacon ) . In
1920 the various Mennonite denomina-
tions (11 bodies) reported 1,753 minis-
ters, 930 churches, and 83,201 communi-
cants.
1. The Mennonite Church, by far the
largest of the different Mennonite bodies,
represents the general trend of them all.
In the controversy which resulted in
the separation of the Amish Mennonite
Church, it stood for the more liberal
interpretation of the confession of faith
and has ever since included what may
be called the conservatively progressive
element of the Mennonite communities.
— Doctrine and Polity. The general con-
fession of faith, adopted at Dort, Hol-
land, in 1632, is accepted in full. In
polity the Church is in accord with other
Mennonite bodies. The general confer-
ence, organized in 1898, meets every two
years, but is regarded as merely an ad-
visory body. — Work. In all departments
of church activity — missionary, educa-
tional, and philanthropic — the Mennon-
ite Church and the Amish Mennonite
Church, in its two branches, work to-
gether. The city mission department
conducts missions in Chicago, Kansas
City, Kans., and in some other cities.
Foreign mission work is carried on in
India. The educational interests of the
denomination arc represented by two
schools, Goshen College, at Goshen, Ind.,
supported jointly by the Mennonites and
the Amish Mennonites, and Hesston
Academy, Hesston, Kans. In 1921 the
denomination reported 532 ministers,
361 churches, and 34,845 communicants.
2. Amish Mennonite Movement. Jacob
Ammon, or Amen, whose name gave the
term “Amish” to the movement, was a
native of Amenthal, Switzerland, but
settled in Alsace in 1659. During the
interval of rest from persecution, there
was a tendency on the part of many of
the Mennonites of the time to become lax
in their religious life and discipline.
Jacob Ammon was the acknowledged
champion of Menno Simons’5 teachings
and of the literal interpretation of sev-
eral points of doctrine presented in the
Confession of Faith, adopted at the gen-
eral conference held at Dort, Holland, in
1632, and he maintained that with many
of the congregations some of the articles
of this Confession were a dead letter.
A special point of divergence between his
followers and the other Mennonites was
in regard to the exercise of the ban, or
excommunication of disobedient members
as taught in 1 Cor. 5, 9 — 11; 2 Thess.
3, 14; Titus 3, 10, and as incorporated
in the Confession of Faith. The Amish
party incorporated these passages as ap-
plying to daily life and the daily table,
while the others understood them to
mean simply the exclusion of expelled
members from the Communion table. In
1690, two bishops, Ammon and Blank,
acted as a committee to investigate con-
ditions in Switzerland and Southern Ger-
many. As those who were accused of
laxity in the particulars mentioned did
not appear when called upon to answer
the charges preferred against them, the
Amish leaders expelled them. These, in
turn, disowned the Amish party, and the
separation was completed in 1698. Some-
time after this, Ammon and his followers
made overtures for reconciliation, but
these were rejected, At about the time
Mennontte Bodies
454
Mennonite Bodies
of the separation the migration of Men-
nonites from Europe to Pennsylvania be-
gan to assume large proportions and in-
cluded many of the Amish Mennonites.
William Penn himself traveled exten-
sively among the Mennonites in Europe,
preaching in their meetings and render-
ing them aid in various ways. From
Pennsylvania the Amish Mennonites
moved westward to Ohio, Indiana, Illi-
nois, Nebraska, and other States. There
was also a large exodus from Pennsyl-
vania and from Europe directly to Can-
ada, principally to the section westward
of the large tract acquired by the early
Mennonite settlers in Waterloo County,
Ontario. Toward the middle of the nine-
teenth century a growing sentiment in
favor of closer relations between the two
main bodies of Mennonites became mani-
fest, and many prominent men on both
sides, feeling that the division of 1698
was an error, used their influence toward
reconciliation. Finally, in 1898, a gen-
eral conference was established, in which
the Amish Mennonite Church and the
Mennonite Church were accorded equal
rights in all things pertaining to con-
ference work. About 1,500 members.
3. Buterian Brethren (formerly Brue-
derhof Mennonite Church). The origin
of this body is traced back to Jacob
Huter, an Anabaptist minister of the
sixteenth century, who defended the com-
munistic conception of the ownership of
property. With other Anabaptists he was
bitterly persecuted and finally burned at
the stake at Innsbruck, in the Tyrol, in
1536. His followers became known as
the Huterische Brueder or the Huterite
Society and were found chiefly in Aus-
tria, where at the beginning of the Thirty
Years’ War they had 24 branches in Mo-
ravia. Driven from Austria, they found
a home successively in Hungary, Rou-
mania, and Russia. In 1865, when their
religious liberty was circumscribed by
imperial ukases, they came to the United
States and settled in Bonhomme County,
South Dakota, in 1874. They still con-
sider themselves Germans and use a pe-
culiar dialect of the German language
exclusively in their religious services and
in their homes. — In doctrine the church
is practically in accord with the Men-
nonite bodies, except in so far as it ad-
heres to the communistic idea. The
same holds true with regard to its gen-
eral polity. In 1916 this body reported
17 organizations and 982 members. The
number of ministers reported was 32.
4. Conservative Amish Mennonite
Church. This Church represents a more
aggressive spirit and a more extensive
interpretation of the confessions of faith
among the Amish Mennonites. Most of
the congregations have erected houses of
worship, have Sunday-schools, and occa-
sionally evening meetings. The govern-
ment of the Church is more definitely
congregational than in the Mennonite
Church. In 1921 these denominations
reported 29 ministers, 10 churches, and
1,207 members.
5. Old Order Amish Mennonite Church.
This Church represents the strictly con-
servative elements of Mennonites. The
organization of this body took place in
1865. There have since been three divi-
sions on the question of the ban. — Doc-
trine. The members of this body are very
strict in the exercise of the ban and the
shunning of expelled members. They
have few Sunday-schools, no evening
meetings, no church conferences, mis-
sions, or benevolent institutions. They
worship for the most part in private
houses and generally use the German
language in their services. They do not
associate in religious work with other
Mennonite bodies and are distinctive and
severely plain in their costume, using
hooks and eyes instead of buttons. They
are, however, by no means a unit in all
these things, and the line of distinction
between them and other Amish Mennon-
ites is in many cases not very clearly
drawn. In 1921 they had 386 ministers,
102 churches, and 8,990 communicants.
6. Church of Cod in Christ (Mennon-
ite). This body was organized in 1859
by John Holdeman, who asserted that
the Mennonite Church had shifted from
the old foundation and directed his
efforts towards the reestablishment and
maintenance of the order and discipline
of the Church as he understood it to
have existed in the time of Menno
Simons. Since the death of Holdeman,
in 1900, the views on discipline were con-
siderably relaxed, and an increased leni-
ency in the attitude of the denomination
toward other religious bodies, especially
toward the parent body, has appeared.
Statistics of 1921 : 32 ministers, 22
churches, 1,300 communicants.
7. Old-Order Mennonite Church (Wis-
ler ) . This body dates its origin to the
work of Jacob Wisler, the first Mennon-
ite bishop in Indiana, who in 1870 sepa-
rated from the Mennonite Church and
with a small following formed a separate
conference, which claimed to be the real
Mennonite Church. In matters of doc-
trine the Old-order Mennonite Church
adheres very strictly to the Dort Con-
fession of Faith. Statistics, 1921 : 34 min-
isters, 22 churches, 1,650 communicants.
8. Reformed Mennonite Church. The
Reformed Mennonite Church was organ-
Mennonite Bodies
455
Mennonite Bodies
ized in 1812 with John Herr as pastor
and bishop, who condemned the parent
church as “a corrupt and dead body” and
labored for the restoration of purity in
teaching and the maintenance of disci-
pline. The Reformed Mennonites accept
the Dort Confession and retain the gen-
eral features of church organization of
the Mennonite Church. Statistics, 1921 :
34 ministers, 34 churches, 1,400 commu-
nicants.
9. General Conference of Mennonites of
North America. In March, 1859, two
small Mennonite congregations in Lee
County, Iowa, composed of immigrants
from Southern Germany, held a con-
ference to discuss the possible union of
all the Mennonite bodies in America.
Although the different Mennonite organi-
zations had held to practically the same
doctrines, they had taken no concerted
part in any particular work. The reso-
lutions adopted at this meeting drew the
attention of all Mennonite bodies, and
after the Iowa congregations had ex-
tended a general invitation to all Men-
nonite congregations and conferences,
a general conference of Mennonites in
America was held in May, 1860, at West
Point, Iowa. Thus the organization of
the General Conference of Mennonites in
America was brought about. On the
basis of uniting in the support of mis-
sion-work, other congregations were soon
added, and the membership and influence
of the body grew rapidly. — Doctrine. In
doctrine this body is, with few excep-
tions, in accord with other Mennonites,
the main difference being that in most of
the congregations the passage in 1 Cor.
11, 4 — 15 is not understood as making
obligatory the use of a covering for the
head of female members during prayer
and worship and that John 13, 4—15 is
not regarded as a command instituting
foot-washing as an ordinance of the
Church to be observed in connection with
Holy Communion. — Polity. The local
church is autonomous in its government,
although appeal may be made to the
local and district conferences, which meet
annually. The genera] conference meets
every three years and is an advisory
body. — Work. Home mission work is
carried on through the Board of Home
Missions. The work consists in sending
evangelists to localities where the Gospel
is seldom preached and in conducting
missions in cities. The work among the
Indians of this country is under the care
of the Board of Foreign Missions and
includes five districts among the Chey-
enne, Arapaho, and Moki Indians in
Oklahoma, Montana, and Arizona. For-
eign mission work is carried on in China
and India. The educational interests of
the general conference were represented
in 1916 by 2 colleges, one academy, and
9 preparatory schools in the United
States. The Mennonite Book Concern,
located at Berne, Ind., issues a monthly,
two weekly papers, and general Sunday-
school literature. There are 90 young
people’s societies with a membership of
2,486. Statistics in 1921: 237 ministers,
126 churches, 19,937 communicants.
10. Defenseless Mennonites. In 1860
some members of the Amish Mennonite
Church, under the leadership of Henry
Egli, separated from that body on the
ground that the Church did not empha-
size sufficiently the need of a divine
experience of conversion. In general doc-
trine and polity they are not distin-
guished from the Mennonite Church,
with which body they maintain fraternal
relations and in whose educational work
they share. — Work. The foreign mis-
sion work of this body is carried on in
connection with the Central Conference
of Mennonites under the name of the
Congo Inland Mission. The denomina-
tion has no educational institution of its
own, but aids in the support of Bluffton
Mennonite College and Seminary at
Bluffton, O. Statistics in 1921: 46 min-
isters, 26 churches, 2,025 communicants.
11. Mennonite Brethren in Christ. This
denomination is the result of a union of
the Evangelical United Mennonites with
the Brethren in Christ. In 1883 these
two bodies united and adopted the
present name, “Mennonite Brethren in
Christ.” The Evangelical United Men-
nonites had before this consisted of three
bodies: the Evangelical Mennonites, or-
ganized in 1858 in Lehigh County, Pa.;
the Reformed Mennonites, organized in
1874 in Berlin (Kitchener) Ont.; the
United Mennonites, a small body, which
joined the Reformed Mennonites in 1874.
This denomination has adopted 29 ar-
ticles of faith, all of which, with the ex-
ception of three, are in close accord with
the principles taught in the 18 articles
of the Dort Confession of Faith. Of the
three exceptions one treats of entire
sanctification as a separate work of
grace. Another treats of divine healing
of the sick by the “laying on of hands,
anointing with oil, and praying over
them.” The third treats of the millen-
nium and the second advent of Christ,
who, at His coming, is to establish a
universal reign of peace. As regards
Baptism, there is no difference between
this denomination and other Mennonites
in the statement of the doctrine, though
the Mennonite Brethren in Christ usually
practise immersion, while the other Men-
Mennonite Bodies
456
Mennonlte Bodies
nonite bodies baptize by pouring or
sprinkling. There are also other slight
differences in practise, especially in the
matter of attire, resulting from different
interpretations of passages of Scripture,
especially 1 Cor. 11, 4 — 15. — Polity. The
form of church government is similar to
that of the Methodist Episcopal Church,
except that the authority vested by that
body in the episcopate is, with the Men-
nonite Brethren in Christ, placed in the
hands of the executive committee. — Work.
The home mission work of the denomina-
tion is generally evangelistic. During
1916, 130 missionaries were supported at
62 stations in the United States. For-
eign mission work is carried on in China,
India, the Soudan, Armenia, and Chile.
The denomination has no educational in-
stitution of its own in this country, but
shares in the support of the Mennonite
Seminary at Bluffton, 0. Statistics in
1921: 261 ministers, 171 churches, 6,118
communicants.
12. Mennonite Brethren Church of
North America (formerly Bchellenberger
Bruedergemeinde) . The. founders of this
denomination separated from the great
body of the Mennonites in Russia on ac-
count of laxness in religious life and dis-
cipline and immigrated to the United
States in 1873 (to 1876), settling chiefly
in Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, and,
later, in Canada. Two separate bodies
had emigrated from Russia, the one from
Crimea, which was called the Krimmer
Bruedergemeinde, the other from Mo-
lotchna River, which was called the
Schellenberger Bruedergemeinde. This
latter body, having dropped its name, is
now known as the Mennonite Brethren
Church of North America. While this
body is not organically united with the
Krimmer Bruedergemeinde, it is closely
affiliated with it, so that it is frequently
classed with it as a Bundes- (or union)
conference. In matters of doctrine the
two bodies are in general harmony with
other Mennonites, except that they bap-
tize by immersion. Each body has its
own annual conference and maintains its
own church periodicals. — Work. This
body is zealous in missionary work.
Foreign mission work is carried on in
India and China. In the United States
mission-work is carried on among the
Indians in Oklahoma (2 missionaries in
1916). The educational interests are
represented by one college and seminary
at Hillsboro, Kans. Statistics in 1921 :
60 ministers, 50 churches, 1,200 commu-
nicants.
13. Krimmer Bruedergemeinde. The
Krimmer Mennonite Brethren maintain
a mission-station for Negroes at Elk
Park, N. C. (2 missionaries in 1916).
Their work in the foreign field includes
two churches, one in China and one in
Mexico, with a total membership of 319,
and an orphanage in China. The educa-
tional work is represented by an academy
at Inman, Kans. Statistics in 1916:
13 organizations, 894 members, 34 min-
isters. No salaries are paid to pastors
and missionaries.
14. Kleine Qemeinde (Little Congrega-
tion ) . The origin of this body is traced
back to a religious movement in Russia,
which lasted from 1812 to 1819 and re-
sulted in the organization of the Kleine
Gemeinde. The cause of division was
mainly a matter of discipline, and the
stricter element finally separated from
the main body of Mennonites. The sepa-
rate body has been kept so in America,
though there is no difference in doctrine
and little difference in practise between
the Kleine Gemeinde and the other Rus-
sian Mennonites. The majority of the
denomination is in Manitoba, Can. In
1916 there were but three organizations
in the United States, all in the State of
Kansas; 7 ministers. No salaries were
reported.
15. Central Conference of Mennonites.
This body was organized in 1899 as the
Central Illinois Conference, but since it
has spread into other States, the term
Illinois has been dropped. The central
conference of Mennonites never formally
separated from the Amish Mennonite
Church and holds the same confession,
although it is less strict in discipline and
rules of order than the parent church.
The denomination maintains a city mis-
sion in Chicago and one in Peoria, 111.
The foreign mission work is carried on
in connection with the Defenseless Men-
nonites in West Central Africa under the
name of the Congo Inland Mission. It
supports the Mennonite Seminary at
Bluffton, O., and carries on philanthropic
work in various institutions, such as the
Moody Bible Institute at Chicago, 111.,
and a home for fallen girls at Spring-
field, 111. Statistics in 1916: 17 organi-
zations, 2,100 members.
16. Conference of the Defenseless Men-
nonites of North America (formerly, Ne-
braska and Minnesota Conference of Men-
nonites ) . This body includes a part of
the Mennonites who came from Russia
1873 — 74. It does not differ from the
Mennonite Church in doctrine and polity,
but has a distinct ecclesiastical organi-
zation and is therefore classed as a sepa-
rate body. It supports two missionaries
in India in connection with the American
Mennonite Mission. Statistics in 1916:
15 organizations, 1,171 members.
Mensn, Jlensal
457
Meter
17. Stauffer Mennonites. The leader of
thig party was Jacob Stauffer, who in
1850 separated from the Groffdale Men-
nonite congregation, Lancaster County,
Pa. Their principal house of worship is
located on the Hinldetown and Blue Ball
Pike; hence they have locally been called
“Pikers.” In doctrine and polity they
very closely resemble Reformed Mennon-
ites. They have no Sunday-schools, no
evening meetings, and no continued evan-
gelistic meetings. Statistics in 1916:
5 organizations, 209 communicant mem-
bers.
Mensa, Mensal. The plate of the
altar used for the sacred hooks and for
the Eucharistic vessels. The adjective
used also of a church built over the tomb
of a martyr, usually a cathedral church;
hence also of certain perquisites pertain-
ing to a bishop’s table.
Mentzer, Balthasar, “Patriarch of
true Lutheranism in Hessen”; b. 1565 at
Allendorf; d. 1627; professor at Mar-
burg, Giessen, and Marburg; earnest de-
fender of Lutheran orthodoxy against
efforts to introduce Reformed type of
doctrine in Hessen. See Cryptist-Kenot-
ist Controversy.)
Mentzer, Johann, 1658 — 1734; stud-
ied theology at Wittenberg, pastor at
Merzdorf, later at Hauswalde, finally at
Kemnitz; greatly interested in hymnol-
ogy; wrote: “0 dass ich tausend Z ungen
haette.”
Mercadante, Francesco Saverio,
1795 — 1870; studied at Naples under
Zingarelli; dramatic composer; lived in
many cities of Italy, Spain, and Portu-
gal; conductor of several large orches-
tras; wrote much sacred music.
Merensky, Alexander; b. June 8,
1837, at Panten, Germany; d. March 22,
1918, at Berlin; sent as missionary of
Berlin Missionary Society to Transvaal,
Africa, 1858; returned to Germany 1882;
founded mission-station in Kondeland,
Africa, 1891; inspector at Berlin 1892;
a voluminous writer on missions.
Mergner, Adam Christoph Fried-
rich, 1818 — 91; studied theology at Er-
langen; 1851 pastor in Ditterswind,
1870 superintendent in Muggendorf, 1874
in Erlangen, 1880 in Heilsbronn; emi-
nent musical gifts, which he used largely
in the endeavor to restore the purity of
the ancient Lutheran liturgy and hym-
nology; also composed tunes of striking
originality and depth; especially for
Gerhardt’s hymns; edited Choralbuch
fuer die lutherisohe Eirche in Bayern,
containing some of his own compositions.
Merit. Roman theologians distinguish
between merits of condignity (de con-
digno ) and of congruity (de congruo).
They define merits of condignity as mer-
its to which, in justice, a reward is due;
and merits of congruity as merits to
which a reward is due only in propriety,
especially in view of the nature of him
who rewards. Applying this distinc-
tion to their doctrine of works, they
teach that the good works of the re-
generate, in so far as they proceed from
free will, merit the grace of God and
eternal life de congruo; while, in so far
as they proceed from the working of
the Holy Spirit, they merit eternal life
de condigno. The Apology of the Augs-
burg Confession (IV, 19) rejects this dis-
tinction as a screen for Pelagianism and
a device which robs Christ of His honor
to give it to men (III, 195 — 197) and
nevertheless leads men into doubt and de-
spair (ibid., 200). (See Works, Merit of.)
Merle d’Aubigne, Jean Henri, 1794
to 1872; celebrated Reformed church
historian ; b. near Geneva ; pastor
(French) at Hamburg and Brussels;
professor at Geneva 1831; helped to
establish eglise 4vangelique ; d. at Ge-
neva; wrote History of the Reformation
(not always reliable), etc.
Metamorphosis. See Transmigration
of Souls.
Metaphysics. See Philosophy.
Metempsychosis. See Tra?ismigra-
tion of Souls.
Meter. In general, a regularly recur-
ring beat with a specific time-unit in the
structure of verse, together with the
definite sequence and repetition of such
lines in a stanza; in hymnology, the
structure of a stanza with a certain
number of lines or verses, each of which
has a definite number of accented feet.
In modern German and English poetry
the metrical accent is the structural ele-
ment, not the length of the syllables.
The meter schemes most generally em-
ployed are : common, four lines to a
stanza, alternately four and three iambic
feet; long, four lines of four iambic feet
each; short, four lines, with three feet
in lines one, two, and four, and four in
line three. The terms long-meter double
and common-meter double explain them-
selves. In trochaic meters there are
sevens, eights, and sevens, sixes, sixes,
and fives, and others, the figures indicat-
ing the number of syllables in the in-
dividual line; in dactylic and anapestic
meters we have elevens, elevens, and tens,
also fourteen, fourteen, four, seven, and
eight, and others. In the case of iambs
the number of feet are counted; in the
case of trochees, dactyls, and anapests,
the number of syllables, the syllable
Methodist Bodies
458
Methodist Bodies
scheme of the latter being given in the
metrical index of tunes in most modern
hymnals.
Methodist Bodies. The Methodist
churches of America, in common with
those of England and other countries,
trace their origin to a movement started
in Oxford University in 1729, when John
and Charles Wesley, George Whitefield,
and a number of others began to meet
for religious exercises. Finding, as they
read the Bible, that, as John Wesley ex-
pressed it, “they could not be safe with-
out holiness, they followed after it and
caused others to do so.” During the suc-
ceeding years the little company was de-
risively called “the holy club,” “Bible
bigots,” “Methodists,” etc. This last
term, intended to describe their method-
ical habits, was immediately accepted by
them, and the movement which they led
soon became widely known as the Metho-
dist movement. The next step and its
outcome are described by John Wesley as
follows: “They saw likewise that men
are justified before they are sanctified,
but still holiness was their object. God
then thrust them out to raise a holy
people. ... In the latter end of the year
1739 eight or ten persons came to me in
London and desired that I would spend
some time with them in prayer and ad-
vise them how to flee from the wrath to
come. This was the rise of the United
Society.” About this time the Wesleys
came into intimate relations with the
Moravians, first on a visit to America
and subsequently in London and at their
headquarters in Herrnhut, Saxony, and
to the influence of these conferences may
be traced much of the spiritual power in
the new movement. The three leaders, al-
though ordained ministers of the Church
of England, soon found themselves ex-
cluded from many of the pulpits of the
Established Church on the ground that
they were preachers of a new doctrine;
and they were obliged to hold their meet-
ings in private houses, halls, barns, and
in the fields. As converts were received,
they were organized into societies for
worship, and as the work expanded,
class-meetings were formed for the reli-
gious care and training of members.
Afterwards the circuit system was estab-
lished, by which several congregations
were grouped under the care of one lay
preacher. The itinerancy came into ex-
istence, as the lay preachers were trans-
ferred from one appointment to another
for greater efficiency. Finally, in 1744,
the annual conference was instituted, in
which Mr. Wesley met all his workers.
As was natural, the doctrinal position
accorded, in the main, with that of the
Church of England, and the Articles of
Religion were largely formulated from
the Thirty-nine Articles of that Church,
although no formal creed was accepted
save the Apostles’ Creed. The stricter
doctrines of Calvinism, predestination
and reprobation, were cast aside -and the
milder emphasis of Armi>iflnisni nn re-
pentance faith nTif1 hoijjaea a was an -
ce] ote'd. "This acceptance of Arminiamsm
caused a divergence, though not a per-
manent breach, between the Wesleys and
Whitefield. Whitefield was Calvinistic,
though not of the extreme type, and be-
came identified with the Calvinistic
Methodists, both the Welsh body and the
Countess of Huntingdon’s Connection.
He afterwards withdrew from the leader-
ship of the latter body and gave himself
to general revival work in England and
America.
The development of church govern-
ment, while following the general lines
laid down by Wesley, was somewhat dif-
ferent in England from what it was in
America. In England the conference re-
mained supreme, and the superintendency
was not emphasized. In America the
superintendency was in fact an episco-
pacy, which, while not corresponding ex-
actly to the episcopacy of the Church of
England, became a very decided factor
in church life. Considerable opposition
has developed at different times in con-
nection with some features of the parent
body, and divisions have resulted. How-
ever, the general principles of the found-
ers have been preserved, and in spite of
various separations the Wesleyan Metho-
dist Connection in England and the
Methodist Episcopal Church in the
United States still represent, in the
main, the movement initiated in Oxford
nearly two centuries ago. — The influence
of the Methodist doctrine and church
organizations have not been confined to
those bodies which have adopted the
name Methodist, but has been manifested
in the development of a number of bodies
which used modified forms of the epis-
copal, presbyterial, and congregational
systems. In the United States several
bodies, including the Evangelical Asso-
ciation and the United Evangelical
Church, the United brethren bodies, and
particularly the large number of organi-
zations emphasizing the doctrine of
“holiness,” or “entire sanctification,”
claim to be the true exponents of the
doctrines of the Wesleys, while their
polity is generally Methodist in type.
Recent developments in American Meth-
odism do not exhibit any serious shifts
in matters of doctrine. There is in prog-
ress, it is true, something of an adjust-
Methodist Bodies
459
Methodist Bodies
ment in reference to the exact definition
of Scriptural inspiration and the charac-
ter of the authority of the Bible. The
social applications and implications of
the teachings of Jesus are also receiving
increasing emphasis. — As to church
polity, the development of the episcopal
district, or area, introducing something
of a diocesan quality into the adminis-
tration of the bishops, whose work had
hitherto been general or connectional in
character, has met with universal ap-
proval in both branches of Episcopal
Methodism. There is also a marked
trend to remove all time-limits from the
term of pastors, though even when that
is done, each pastor still receives his as-
signment for a year at a time. The out-
standing fact in recent Methodist history
has been a great missionary offering to
commemorate the centenary of the found-
ing in 1819 of the Board of Missions.
Both branches of Episcopal Methodism
shared in this celebration. Pledges cov-
ering yearly donations for five years to
be applied to missionary work were
taken, amounting for the two churches
to about 125 million dollars. Four-
fifths of the amount of these pledges are
now due, but owing to disturbed finan-
cial conditions the proportion paid is
not quite that high. The amounts col-
lected have, however, given the mission-
ary enterprise of both churches a tre-
mendous impulse. — There has been in
nearly all branches of Methodism a
steady increase in membership, espe-
cially notable in the Methodist Epicopal
Church South. — Total Methodist statis-
tics in 1921 : 15 bodies, 42,955 ministers,
63,283 churches, 8,001,506 communicants.
African Methodist Episcopal Church.
This denomination was organized in 1816
by Richard Allen and fifteen other Negro
ministers, who called a number of Negro
Methodist societies, which had been
formed in New Jersey, Delaware, and
Maryland, to meet in Philadelphia in
order to organize a church of Negroes
with autonomous government. This con-
vention resulted in the organization of
the African Methodist Episcopal Church.
The general doctrine and polity of the
Methodist Episcopal Church were adopted,
and Richard Allen was elected bishop.
In doctrine and polity the African Meth-
odist Episcopal Church is in substantial
agreement with the Methodist Episcopal
Church. The missionary work of the
Church is carried on by the Home and
Foreign Missionary Department, the
Woman’s Parent Mite Missionary So-
ciety, and the Woman’s Home and For-
eign Missionary Society with their aux-
iliaries. Outside of the United States
the fields occupied are Canada, West
Africa, including Liberia and Sierra
Leone, South Africa, including the Trans-
vaal, Orange Free State, Natal, and Cape
Town, the West Indies, and Dutch and
British Guiana in South America. The
denomination maintains a number of
educational institutions, among which
are Wilberforce University at Wilber-
force, 0., with which Payne Theological
Seminary is connected. There is also the
Turner Theological Seminary at Atlanta,
Ga. The special magazine of the church is
the African Methodist Episcopal Church
Review. Other periodicals : the Chris-
tian Recorder and Southern Christian
Recorder. The young people’s interests
are represented by the Allen Christian
Endeavor League, which follows the same
general plan of the Epworth League and
the Christian Endeavor Society. Statis-
tics in 1921: 6,500 ministers, 6,774
churches, 551,766 communicants.
African Methodist Episcopal Zion
Church. This denomination represents
a number of colored churches originally
connected with the Methodist Episcopal
Church. Their separation was due to a
desire to have a separate organization in
which “they might have opportunity to
exercise their spiritual gifts among
themselves and thereby be more useful to
one another.” The first church was built
in 1800 and was called “Zion.” The fol-
lowing year it was incorporated as the
African Methodist Episcopal Church, and
articles of agreement were entered into
with the Methodist Episcopal Church by
winch the latter supplied them with or-
dained preachers until 1820. In that
year, as the congregation had developed
several preachers of ability, it formally
withdrew from the supervision of white
pastors and, in connection with other col-
ored churches in Connecticut, Pennsyl-
vania, New York, and New Jersey, made
plans for an entirely separate and inde-
pendent organization. The first annual
conference was held in Mother Zion
Church, June 21, 1821. In 1880, when
the General Conference convened at
Montgomery, Ala., 15 annual conferences
had been organized in the South. This
conference was an important one. Liv-
ingstone College was established at Salis-
bury, N. C., the Rev. C. R. Harris being
its first principal. The Star of Zion, the
chief weekly organ of the Church, was
adopted by this General Conference as a
permanent organ of the denomination,
and the first organization of missionary
effort was instituted by the Board of
Missions and a Woman’s Missionary So-
ciety. At the General Conference of 1892
departments of missions and education
Methodist Bodies
460
Methodist Bodies
were organized, and a publication house
was founded. The A. M. E. Zion Quar-
terly Review, issued first in 1889, was
adopted as a denominational periodical
in 1892. In doctrine and polity the Af-
rican Methodist Episcopal Zion Church
is in accord with the Methodist Epis-
copal Church. The denomination has a
Board of Church Extension and Home
Missions, which carries on the work of
home missions, and a Woman’s Home
and Foreign Missionary Society, which
shares also in the home mission work.
Portions of Louisiana, Mississippi, and
the States beyond the Mississippi River,
especially Oklahoma, are the main mis-
sion-fields. The foreign missionary work
is carried on by the Foreign Mission
Board in Liberia and the Gold Coast
Colony, West Africa, and in South
America. The young people’s work is
represented by 1,635 societies, called
Varick Christian Endeavor Societies,
with a membership of about 64,000.
Statistics in 1921: 2,716 ministers, 3,962
churches, and 421,328 communicants.
M. E. Colored Conventions. — a) Col-
ored Methodist Protestant Church. This
denomination was organized in 1840 in
Elkton, Md., on essentially the same
principle as those on which the Metho-
dist Protestant Church had been organ-
ized some years previously. In doctrine
they are in hearty sympathy with the
Methodist Churches; but they have no
episcopacy, their ministers being simply
elders. Statistics in 1916: 26 organiza-
tions, 1,884 communicants. — b) Union
American Methodist Episcopal Church.
This denomination was founded in 1813
by Peter Spencer, Wm, Anderson, and
others, who were expelled from the As-
bury Methodist Episcopal Church, at
Wilmington, Del. In doctrine this body
is in agreement with that of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church, but candidates
for membership are required to assent
only to the Apostles’ Creed. Statistics
in 1921: 225 ministers, 278 churches,
19,129 communicants. — c) African Union
Methodist Protestant Church. This de-
nomination was organized in 1866 as a
union of the African Union Church and
the First Colored Methodist Episcopal
Protestant Church. The church carries
on no foreign missionary work, and its
home missionary work is conducted by
the pastors. Statistics, 1921: 650 min-
isters, 600 organizations, and 25,000
members. — d) Colored Methodist Epis-
copal Church. This denomination was
organized in 1870 in Jackson, Tenn., as-
suming the name “Colored Methodist
Episcopal Church.” Young People’s So-
cieties — Epworth League Chapters —
numbered 895, with 61,253 members.
Statistics for 1921: 2,643 ministers,
3,516 churches, 366,313 communicants. —
e) Reformed Zion Union Apostolic
Church. Out of difficulties of the Civil
War the Negro Methodists in Southeast-
ern Virginia were no longer permitted to
gather for worship in the white churches,
had no educated ministry, and were not
in sympathy with the ecclesiasticism of
the negro Methodist denominations. In
1869 these churches were organized by
Elder James R. Howell from New York,
a minister of the African Methodist
Episcopal Zion Church, and adopted the
name of Zion Union Apostolic Church.
Elder John M. Bishop, in 1882, reorgan-
ized the church under the name of Re-
formed Zion Union Apostolic Church.
Statistics, 1921 : 56 ministers, 63 congre-
gations, 9,700 members. ■ — f) African
American Methodist Episcopal Church.
This body was organized in 1873 in Bal-
timore by a number of Methodist minis-
ters who had come out from other Metho-
dist connections and conferences, “to
form a more modern and reformed Meth-
odism and Christian religion.” The
regular constitution and by-laws of the
Methodist Church were adopted. Statis-
tics, 1916: 28 organizations, and 1,310
members. — g) Reformed Methodist Union
Episcopal Church. This denomination
was organized in 1885 at a convention
of delegates representing churches in
South Carolina and Georgia, who, in
1884, had withdrawn from the African
Methodist Episcopal Church on account
of differences in regard to election of
ministerial delegates to the General Con-
ference. The Rev, Wm. E. Johnston was
elected president, emphasizing thus the
nonepiseopal character of the denomina-
tion. However, in 1896, an episcopacy
was created, and the old name, “Inde-
pendent Methodist Church,” was changed
to “Reformed Methodist Union Episcopal
Church.” Statistics, 1921: 52 ministers,
29 congregations, 2,126 communicants.
Free Methodist Church of North
America. This denomination had its
origin in an agitation started about 1850
in the Genesee Conference of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church, in the State of
New York. A number of ministers,
prominent among whom was Rev. Benj.
T. Roberts, felt very strongly that Meth-
odism of their time had come to be re-
moved in no small degree from its primi-
tive standards of faith, experience, and
practise, especially on the following
points: The evangelical conception of-
doctrine; nonconformity to the world,
simplicity, spirituality, freedom in wor-
ship, discrimination against the poor in
Methodist Bodies
461
Methodist Bodies
connection with the system of pew rent;
the subject of slavery; the employment
of executive power and ecclesiastical ma-
chinery in unjust discrimination against,
and in inexcusable oppression of, devoted
and loyal preachers a ad members. In
1857 Mr. Roberts published two articles,
setting forth the evidences of defection
from original Methodism of which the
reform party complained. Brought be-
fore the conference, he was declared
guilty of unchristian and immoral con-
duct and sentenced to be reprimanded by
the bishop. When later the same articles
were republished by a layman, he, al-
though protesting his innocence, was de-
clared guilty and expelled from the con-
ference in the church on the charge of
contumacy. Other expulsions on what
by the reform party were considered un-
just grounds followed in quick succes-
sion. In I860 an appeal was made by
the expelled preachers to the General
Conference, which refused to entertain it.
This was followed by heavy withdrawals
from the Church, both of preachers and
laymen. The Free Methodist Church
hereafter was organized in 1860 at Pekin,
N. Y., and Mr. Roberts was elected as the
first General Superintendent. — The Free
Methodist Church of North America
adopted as its standard of doctrine the
articles of faith held by the Methodist
Episcopal Church, with two additions —
one on entire sanctification, which was
defined as being saved from all inward
sin and as a work which takes place
subsequently to justification and is
wrought instantaneously upon the con-
secrated, believing soul; the other, on
future rewards and punishments. — The
general organization of the church is es-
sentially that of the Methodist Episco-
pal Church. However, laymen, including
women, are admitted to all conferences
in equal numbers and on the same basis
as ministers. In place of the episcopacy
general superintendents are elected to
supervise the work at large, preside at
the conferences, etc. The probationary
system and the class meeting are em-
phasized, being regarded as important
parts of the Church’s economy, as far as
it relates to spiritual culture and whole-
some discipline. With regard to disci-
plinary regulations and usages the de-
nomination aims to exemplify Methodism
of the primitive type. — In its home mis-
sion work the denomination employed
13 agents in 1916. It carries on foreign
missions in British South Africa, Portu-
guese East Africa, Central India, Honan,
China, Japan, and in the Dominican Re-
public, West Indies. The young people’s
societies number 335; membership, 6,335.
Statistics in 1921: 1,472 ministers, 1,161
churches, 36,147 communicants.
Methodist Episcopal Church. The first
interest of the Wesleys was connected with
the settlement of Georgia, in 1733, by
John Oglethorpe who, attracted by their
manner of life at Oxford, in 1735 in-
vited them to come to his colony as spir-
itual advisers. Both accepted the invita-
tion, John Wesley remaining until 1738,
whereas Charles Wesley returned earlier.
After a few decades John Wesley sent
from England a number of itinerant
preachers, among them Thomas Rankin
and Francis Asbury, and in 1773 the
First Annual Conference was held in
Philadelphia. During the Revolutionary
War the membership increased from
1,160 to 14,988. Upon request, John
Wesley, in 1784, ordained Dr. Thomas
Coke, a presbyter of the Church of Eng-
land, as superintendent of the American
churches and commissioned him to ordain
Francis Asbury as joint superintendent
with himself. At the same time also
Richard Whatcoat and Thomas VaBey
were ordained as presbyters, or elders,
for America. They arrived in America
in the latter part of 1784 and on De-
cember 24 began in Baltimore, Md., what
has been known as the “Christmas Con-
ference,” 60 preachers meeting with Dr.
Coke and his companions. This confer-
ence organized the Methodist Episcopal
Church and elected both Coke and As-
bury superintendents, or bishops. The
Order of Worship and Articles of Reli-
gion, prepared by Wesley, were adopted;
one article, recognizing allegiance to the
United States Government was added;
the rules and discipline were revised and
accepted, and a number of preachers were
ordained. The First General Conference
of the Methodist Episcopal Church was
held in 1792, and after that it was held
quadrennially. Until 1808 all the minis-
ters were members of the conference, but
in that year a plan was adopted provid-
ing for a membership of delegates elected
by the annual conferences. By 1872 the
sentiment within the Church in favor of
lay representation had grown so strong
that a new rule was adopted according
to which lay delegates were admitted
into the general conference. The Church
was obliged to pass through a number
of disagreements, which led to separa-
tion. In 1792 James O’Kelley, of Vir-
ginia, with a considerable body of sym-
pathizers, withdrew because of objection
to the episcopal power in appointing the
preachers to their fields of labor and or-
ganized the “Republican Methodists,”
who later joined the “Christian Church.”
Between 1813 and 1817 many of the
Methodist Bodies
462
Methodist Bodies
Negro members in various sections of the
Middle Atlantic States, believing that
they were not treated fairly by their
white brethren, withdrew and formed
separate denominations of Negro Metho-
dists, such as the African Methodist
Episcopal Church, the Union Church of
Africans, and the African Methodist
Episcopal Zion Church. In 1830 the
Methodist Protestant Church was or-
ganized as the outcome of a movement
against episcopal power and for lay rep-
resentation in church government. In
1843 the Wesleyan Methodist Connection
was organized in the interests of a more
pronounced protest against slavery and
in objection to the episcopacy. Two
years later the Methodist Episcopal
Church South withdrew because of the
antislavery agitation. In 1860 the Free
Methodists separated from the parent
body because of differences concerning
secret societies, church discipline, and
certain doctrines, particularly sanctifica-
tion. The other Methodist denomina-
tions in the United States rose otherwise
than as secessions from the parent Meth-
odist body. The first Methodist Sunday-
school in America was established by
Bishop Asbury in 1786 in Hanover
County, Va. The Missionary Society,
for home and foreign missions, was
formed in 1819; the Sunday-school
Union, in 1827 ; the Tract Society, in
1852; the Board of Church Extension,
in 1865; the Freedmen’s Aid and South-
ern Education Society, in 1866; the
Woman’s Foreign Missionary Society, in
1869; the Woman’s Home Missionary
Society, in 1880; and the Epworth
League, in 1889. In 1837 work was be-
gun among the German immigrants by
Dr. Nast, and a “.mission” was started
in Germany in 1849. — The constitution
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, as
adopted at the General Conference of
1900, has three divisions: Articles of
Religion, General Rules, and Articles of
Organization and Government. The Ar-
ticles of Religion were drawn up by
John Wesley and based upon the Thirty-
nine Articles of the Church of England,
with the exception of the 23d, in which
allegiance is expressed to the Govern-
ment of the United States. The General
Rules deal specifically with the conduct
of church-members and the duties of cer-
tain church officers, particularly the
class leaders. The Articles of Organiza-
tion and Government set forth the gen-
eral principles of the organization and
the conduct of churches and conferences.
— The question of union between the
different branches of Methodism in the
United States has been much discussed,
and commissions have been appointed by
the General Conferences of the Methodist
Episcopal Church to confer with similar
bodies from the Methodist Episcopal
Church South. Relations with the Meth-
odist Protestant -Church have also been
under consideration, though as yet there
has been no formal action toward the
union of these bodies. — Doctrine. In
theology the Methodist Episcopal Church
is Arminian, its doctrines being set forth
iii the Articles of Religion, Wesley’s pub-
lished sermons, and his Notes on the
Neio Testament. The doctrine of sanc-
tification, or Christian perfection, is a
distinctively Methodistic doctrine and
implies “a freedom from sin, from evil
desires and evil tempers, and from
pride.” It is regarded as being attain-
able by faith, and that only, and the
members are exhorted to seek it in this
life. Church-membership is acquired
upon the expression of “a desire to flee
from the wrath to come and to be saved
vfrom sin.” The applicant is expected to
prove this desire by abstaining from
anything that “is not for the glory of
God,” by indicating the purpose to lead
an honorable life, and by observing the
rules of the Church in regard to tem-
perance, marriage and divorce, amuse-
ments, etc. The Methodist Episcopal
Church has a liturgy based on the Eng-
lish Prayer-book , though abridged and
changed materially; but much liberty is
allowed with regard to its use. — - Polity.
The ecclesiastical organization of the
Methodist Episcopal Church includes the
local church, the ministry, and the sys-
tem of conferences. Each pastorate is
termed a “charge,” and appointments by
the Annual Conference are to charges,
not to churches. The membership of the
local church is distinctively a lay mem-
bership, ministers being members of the
Annual Conferences. Lay members are
divided into two classes: Full members,
who have been formally received into
church -membership on recommendation
of the official board, or the leaders’ and
stewards’ meeting, and with the approval
of the pastor; and preparatory mem-
bers, or probationers, who include all
applicants for church-membership and
all baptized children. For instruction
and spiritual help probationers and
members are assigned to classes, over
which leaders are appointed. The busi-
ness of the local church is generally con-
ducted by an official board, while the
property is held by trustees. The church
officers include the pastor, class leaders,
stewards, trustees, superintendents of
Sunday-schools, and presidents of other
societies. The pastor is appointed by the
Methodist Bodies
463
Methodist Bodies
bishop in annual conference; the class
leader, by the pastor; local preachers
and exhorters are licensed by the quar-
terly conference; and other officers are
elected or nominated by the various de-
partments or by the pastor, but are con-
firmed by the quarterly conference. The
official board, consisting of practically
the same members as the quarterly con-
ference, meets monthly under the presi-
dency of the pastor. — The regular min-
istry of the Methodist Episcopal Church
includes two orders, deacons and elders.
Under certain conditions, however, also
laymen are employed as exhorters and
local preachers, who are licensed to
preach by the district conference or the
quarterly conference, although they are
not expected to give up their ordinary
business. Their license must be renewed
annually, or they may be ordained as dea-
cons, or elders, or both. The term “local
preacher” is applied also to unordained
men “on trial,” in the annual conference,
ordained deacons, and to traveling min-
isters who have been elected by their con-
ferences. The regular ministry, gener-
ally called traveling preachers or itiner-
ant ministers, is presented in the official
minutes of the Church under two heads
— those on trial and members of annual
conferences. Under the first head are in-
cluded candidates for the ministry who
have the office of local preachers. Can-
didates are certified by district or quar-
terly conference, and are received into
an annual conference cm “trial.” Dea-
cons and elders are members of annual
conferences and are classed as effective,
supernumerary, or superannuated. Eld-
ers have power to consecrate the ele-
ments of the Lord’s Supper and are
eligible to appointment to a district
superintendency, to a pastoral charge, or
to some other church office, or for elec-
tion as bishops. Originally, pastors or
itinerants moved every six months ; later,
every year. In 1900, however, the time
limit was removed entirely. The usual
length of a pastorate, however, continues
to be two or three years. District super-
intendents or presiding elders visit the
churches, preside at quarterly and dis-
trict conferences, and supervise traveling
and local preachers. Bishops or general
superintendents are elders elected by the
general conference and consecrated by
three bishops or by one bishop and two
elders. They preside at general as well
as at annual conferences, make annual
appointments to pastoral charges, ordain
deacons and elders, and have general
oversight of the religious work of the
Church. Eor the supervision of mission-
work missionary bishops are consecrated,
who have full episcopal authority within
a specified district, but cannot preside at
annual conferences in the home field. —
The system of conferences includes quar-
terly, district, mission, annual, and gen-
eral conferences. The quarterly confer-
ence is the highest authority in the
station or circuit for the purpose of local
administration. The district conference
is made up of the traveling and local
preachers of a district, the district stew-
ards, and other representatives. The an-
nual conference is an administrative and
not a legislative body. Its membership is
confined to traveling ministers, whether
effective, supernumerary, or superannu-
ated, and all members, together with
those on trial, are required to attend.
The general conference is the highest
body in the Church; it is the general
legislative and judicial body. It con-
venes quadrennially and is composed of
ministerial and lay delegates in equal
numbers. — Work. The chief agencies
through which the home missionary work
of the Methodist Episcopal Church was
conducted until January 1, 1907, were
the Missionary Society, the Board of
Church Extension, the Woman’s Home
Missionary Society, and the National
City Evangelization Union. Since Jan-
uary, 1907, the home mission work of
the Missionary Society was transferred
to the Board of Church Extension, which
then became the Board of Home Missions
and Church Extension. This board car-
ries on mission-work in the United States
and its possessions, exclusive of the Phil-
ippine Islands. The Board of Church Ex-
tension has special care of new churches.
The Woman’s Home Missionary Society
supports missionaries and conducts
schools in the Western States, especially
in New Mexico and Southern California,
also in Porto Rico, Hawaii, and Alaska,
besides maintaining immigrant homes in
New York, Boston, and Philadelphia.
At the General Conference of 1916, at
Saratoga Springs, N.' Y., fundamental
changes were made in the organization
of the Board of Home Missions and
Church Extension. With respect to its
work it has now established five -differ-
ent departments : the Department of
Church Extension, the Department of
City Work, the Department of Rural
Work, the Department of Frontier Work,
and the Department of Evangelism, the
latter to cooperate with the district su-
perintendents and pastors in evangelistic
campaigns and with the Board of Edu-
cation in promoting evangelistic work in
schools, colleges, and universities. The
foreign mission work of the Methodist
Episcopal Church is conducted by a
Methodist Bodies
464
Methodist Bodies
Board of Foreign Missions, directly un-
der the control of the General Conference
and by the Woman’s Foreign Missionary
Society. It carries on its work of col-
lection through 6,709 auxiliaries, with
220,804 members; 2,285 young people’s
societies with 49,893 members; 3,962
minor organizations with 85,486 mem-
bers; a Swedish auxiliary with 210
branches and 7,365 members; and a Ger-
man auxiliary with 272 branches and
7,816 members. Work is being carried
on by the two organizations in India,
Malaysia, the Philippine Islands, China,
Japan and Korea, Africa, South Amer-
ica, Mexico, and eleven European coun-
tries. An important medical work is
conducted both by the Board and the
Woman’s Foreign Missionary Society.
The educational work of the Methodist
Episcopal Church in the United States
may be considered under four heads: the
schools of the church, the Board of Edu-
cation, the Freedmen’s Aid Society, and
the University Senate. The Board of
Education is the agency charged by the
General Conference with the promotion
and supervision of the educational inter-
ests of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
The Freedmen’s Aid Society was organ-
ized in 1866 for the purpose of aiding
the recently emancipated slaves and
their children to establish schools and
churches, so that they might be able to
secure such an education as would fit
them for citizenship in a Christian re-
public. The University Senate of the
Methodist Episcopal Church was estab-
lished in 1892 in order to fix standards,
scholastic and financial, on the basis of
which the Board of Education, after
careful investigation, should report and
classify the schools and colleges of the
church. The Deaconess Movement in
the Methodist Episcopal Church had its
origin in 1887 in connection with the
Chicago Training-school for Missions.
This work is under the control of the
General Deaconess Board. Among the
organizations reported in 1906 was the
Tract Society, which in 1907 was con-
solidated with the Board of Education,
Freedmen’s Aid Society, and the Board
of Sunday-schools of the Church. In
1908 the General Conference directed
that these three boards should transfer
the tract funds to the Board of Foreign
Missions and to the Board of Home Mis-
sions and Church Extension. The book
editor of the Methodist Episcopal Church
is editor of all tracts issued by the Book
Concern. The Epworth League, organ-
ized at Cleveland, O., May 15, 1889, is
the official Young People’s Society of the
Church. The Board of Temperance, Pro-
hibition, and Public Morals of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church is one of the
official benevolent boards of the Church.
The publishing house of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, now the Methodist
Book Concern, established in 1789, was
located first in Philadelphia, then in Bal-
timore, and is now in New York City.
A branch house, established in Cincin-
nati, O., in 1820, became a separate cor-
poration in 1840. The Book Committee,
elected by the General Conference, is a
most important factor in the organiza-
tion of the Church. It has supervision
of all the publishing interests. The offi-
cial periodical literature of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church includes the Meth-
odist Review, 9 Christian Advocates,
published weekly in various sections of
the country, the Epworth Herald, and
20 Sunday-school periodicals. The Char-
tered Fund of the Methodist Episcopal
Church was organized in Pennsylvania
in 1794. Its object is the relief of the
itinerant and superannuated ministers
and their dependents. In 1908 the Board
of Conference Claimants was organized
“to minister to retired ministers and the
widows and orphans of deceased minis-
ters,” and the General Conference of
1912 authorized this Board to inaugu-
rate a campaign to raise $5,000,000 for
this purpose, which was later raised to
$20,000,000. Statistics in 1921: 18,790
ministers, 27,024 churches, 3,995,637 com-
municants.
Methodist Episcopal Church South. —
Methodism in America was closely iden-
tified with slaveholding sections from the
beginning of its history. The majority
of the young men who entered the min-
istry of the Church during the Revolu-
tionary War were furnished largely by
Southern colonies. All the conferences
between 1776 and 1808 were held either
in Baltimore or vicinity, and six out of
nine bishops elected before 1844 were
natives of slaveholding States. The
“Christmas Conference” of 1784, by
which the scattered congregations were
gathered into the Methodist Episcopal
Church, required slaveholding members,
under penalty of expulsion for non-com-
pliance, to emancipate their slaves.
However, it stirred up so much strife
that in less than six months it was sus-
pended. In 1808 the General Conference
provided that each annual conference
should deal with the whole matter ac-
cording to its own judgment. Between
1816 and 1844 no slaveholder could be
appointed to any official position in the
Church if the State in which he lived
made it possible for him to free his
slaves. This compromise proceeded from
Methodist Bodies
465
Methodist Bodies
the supposition that, while slavery was
an evil to be mitigated in every possible
way, it was not necessarily a sin. A new
issue was raised in 1844, when Bishop
James 0. Andrew, of Georgia, a man of
high Christian character and “eminent
beyond almost any living minister for
the interest that he had taken in the
welfare of the slaves,” became by in-
heritance and marriage a nominal slave-
holder. Under the laws of Georgia it
was not possible for him or his wife to
free their slaves, and in the General Con-
ference of 1844, held in New York, a reso-
lution was adopted which declared it
“the sense of the General Conference that
he desist from the exercise of his office
so long as this impediment remains.”
The Southern delegates entered a protest
against this resolution because they re-
garded the action as a flagrant violation
of the Constitution of the Church. After
a lengthy debate and discussion a pro-
visional plan of separation was adopted,
which was approved, by almost unani-
mous vote, at a conference held at Louis-
ville, Ky., May 17, 1845. The annual
conference in the slaveholding States now
separated definitely from the jurisdiction
of the. General Conference of the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church, choosing as name
for the new body “The Methodist Epis-
copal Church South.” Its first General
Conference was held at Petersburg, Va.,
1846. The Southern Church began with
two bishops, Joshua Soule and James
O. Andrew, and 16 annual conferences.
When the Civil War began, the member-
ship was increased to 757,205, including
207,776 Negroes. During the war the
Methodist Episcopal Church South suf-
fered severely. By 1866 the member-
ship had been reduced to 511,161, three-
fourths of the Negro members having
joined either the African Methodist
churches or the Methodist Episcopal
Church, whose representatives were found
everywhere throughout the South. The
remainder, in 1870, formed an indepen-
dent organization, the Colored Methodist
Episcopal Church. After the war the
denomination began to revive. At the
General Conference of 1866 changes were
made in regard to lay representation in
annual and general conferences, the Pro-
bationary System, class-meetings, and
the itinerancy. In 1874 the first fra-
ternal delegation from the Methodist
Episcopal Church was received. Since
the war, contributions to foreign mis-
sions have greatly advanced, and home
mission work for Indians, Mexicans, and
others has developed. In 1875 Vander-
bilt University was open for reception of
students, and four years later reported
Grt«nnviHo Ptrolnnoilisi
519 students. — Doctrine and Polity. In
doctrine the Methodist Episcopal Church
South is in agreement with other branches
of Methodism throughout the world. In
polity the denomination is in close
accord with the Methodist Episcopal
Church and emphasizes the episcopate.
There is equal clerical and lay repre-
sentation in the General Conference. The
fixed probation of six months is not re-
quired of candidates for membership, nor
are they required to subscribe to the
Twenty-five Articles of Religion. The
itinerancy is still maintained, the pas-
toral term being limited to four con-
secutive years. - — Work. The general de-
nominational work of the Methodist
Episcopal Church South is under the
care of the General Board of Missions,
which includes the home and foreign mis-
sionary work of the women, a Board of
Church Extension, the Sunday-school
Board, and an Epworth League Board.
The home mission work is conducted by
the home department of the General
Board of Missions, by the annual con-
ference boards, the Board of Church Ex-
tension, and Women’s Boards of City
Missions in various cities. The foreign
missionary work of the church is carried
on by the General Board of Missions,
with fields occupied in China, Japan,
Korea, Brazil, Mexico, Cuba, and Africa.
The educational institutions of the
Church in the United States include
45 colleges and 34 secondary institutions.
The young people of the Church are or-
ganized in 3,841 Epworth Leagues, with
a membership of 137,333. The Sunday-
schools have an enrolment of 1,924,698.
The publishing house in Nashville pub-
lishes 16 periodicals, including Sunday-
school literature, having an aggregate
circulation of more than a million and a
half. In addition there are 16 period-
icals supported by the annual confer-
ences, which have a circulation of about
150,000. Statistics in 1921: 7,553 min-
isters, 16,978 churches, 2,301,844 com-
municants.
Methodist Protestant Church. The
Methodist Protestant Church was organ-
ized as a result of a general revolt
against ecclesiastical rule in the earlier
years of the last century. At that time
the Methodist Episcopal Church vested
an unlimited legislative, executive, and
judicial power in the ministry to the ex-
clusion of all the lay members. In 1821,
after years of discussion, the Wesleyan
Repository was established as a medium
for the special consideration of what
came to be called the “mutual rights”
of the ministry and laity. Later on this
was superseded by a paper called Mutual
30
Methodist Bodies
468
Methodist Bodies
Rights, which earnestly advocated the
right of the laity to an equal represen-
tation with the ministers in the law-
making bodies of the Church. In 1827
a convention was called, which formally
petitioned the General Conference of 1828
to concede the principle of lay represen-
tation in all the conferences of the
Church. As the reply was unfavorable
and the petitioners were charged with
being disturbers of the peace of the
Church, there was an increase of agita-
tion and of intensity of feeling. Since
those who dissented were severely re-
buked and others expelled, a number of
local independent societies were organ-
ized, and a convention was held in Bal-
timore in November, 1828, at which a
provisional organization was formed un-
der the name of “The Associated Metho-
dist Churches.” Two years later another
convention was held at the same place,
and the Methodist Protestant Church
was formed, enrolling 83 ministers and
about 5,000 members. During the suc-
ceeding quadrennium the membership in-
creased rapidly, and new annual con-
ferences were formed, and the territorial
limits of the Church were considerably
extended. In 1858 the associations of
the South separated from those of the
North on account of the slavery ques-
tion. After the close of the war and the
settlement of the slavery question, in
1877, they were reunited. — Doctrine and
Polity. The Methodist Protestant Church
stands on the same basis as the Metho-
dist Episcopal Church. However, in
polity there are radical differences; the
Methodist Protestant Church has no
bishops or presiding elders and no life
officers of any kind. It makes minis-
ters and laymen equal in number and in
power in the legislative bodies of the
Church and grants to ministers the right
of appeal from the stationing authority
of the conference. With these exceptions
the general organization, including the
system of quarterly, annual, and general
conferences, is similar to that of the
Methodist Episcopal Church. — Work.
The home mission work is under the
care of a board of seven members, with
official headquarters at Pittsburgh. There
is also a Woman’s Board of Home Mis-
sions, w T ith headquarters at Baltimore,
Md. The foreign mission work, under
the direction of the Board of Foreign
Missions and the Woman’s Foreign Mis-
sionary Society, is carried on in Japan,
China, and India. The educational work
of the Church is represented by 5 in-
stitutions, including the University at
Kansas City, Kans., three colleges, and
a theological seminary. They are lo-
cated in Kansas, Maryland, Michigan,
and Texas. Statistics in 1921: 1,054
ministers, 2,276 churches, 180,722 com-
municants.
Primitive Methodist Church in the
United States of America. The first so-
ciety or church of Primitive Methodism
was organized in March, 1810, at Stand-
ley, England, and was composed of 10
converts, none of whom belonged to any
other Church. The name “Primitive”
was officially assumed at the meeting
held at Tunstall, England, in February,
1812, in order to distinguish the new
societies, which up to that time had been
known as Camp -meeting Methodists,
from the original Methodist body, which
later adopted the name “Wesleyan.”
The subsequent emigration of consider-
able numbers of members to America led
to the formation of societies in various
parts of the United States and Canada,
the first missionaries arriving in July,
1829, while Bourne, one of the leaders
of Primitive Methodism in England, him-
self visited America in 1844. As the
work progressed, three conferences were
formed — the Western, the Pennsylvania,
and the Eastern. — The doctrine of the
Primitive Methodist Church is in gen-
eral agreement with the other branches
of Methodism. Its characteristics are
the camp -meetings, from the preposter-
ous conduct of which they have frequently
been called “ranters,” or “ranting Metho-
dists.” In polity the Church is in accord
with the Methodist Episcopal Church.
There are, however, no bishops or pre-
siding elders, and there is no time limit
for the pastorate. Each church is sup-
plied with a pastor by the annual con-
ference, largely by its “invitation.” “In-
vitation” is for one year, but may be
renewed indefinitely. The foreign mission
work, carried on in West Africa, is un-
der the care of a general foreign mis-
sionary committee elected by the General
Conference. The educational work of the
Church is carried on through a non-resi-
dent school of theology, affiliated with
the Bible School of New York City and
the Moody School at Northfield, Mass.
The Wesley League of Christian En-
deavor reported 70 societies, with 2,700
members. Statistics in 1921: 81 minis-
ters, 91 churches, 9,986 communicants.
Wesleyan Methodist Connection of
America. As the slavery question began
to compel attention, not only in political,
but also in church life, the ecclesiastical
authorities in the Methodist Episcopal
Church began to suppress those who felt
called upon to testify to their convic-
tions. This resulted in the expulsion of
a number of persons and the ' withdrawal
Methodist Bodies
467
Methods of Teaching;
of more, in protest against what they
considered the denial of the right of
“liberty of testimony,” and freedom of
discussion, and the improper exercise of
ecclesiastical authority. These persons
joined forces, and in 1841 a small con-
nection was formed in Michigan, which
assumed the name of Wesleyan Metho-
dists. During the following year a paper
was established, called the True Wes-
leyan, and a convention was called to
prepare for the organization of a church
that should be antislavery and non-epis-
copal. The result was the formation of
the Wesleyan Methodist Connection of
America on May 31, 1843, at Utica, N. Y.
About 6,000 members, most of them in
New York State, united in this organiza-
tion and chose a “republican form of
government” in which the majority was
to rule and the laity was to possess equal
rights with the ministry. All connection
with slavery was prohibited; member-
ship in secret societies was prohibited on
the ground that the “God-ordained rela-
tions of home, State, and Church are suf-
ficient to meet the obligations and duties
of mankind towards God and man.”
With the settlement of the slavery ques-
tion, the Wesleyan Methodists became
strict prohibitionists. — In doctrine the
Church is in accord with the Methodist
Episcopal Church and Methodist bodies
in general throughout the world, which
hold that man is not only justified by
faith in Christ, but also sanctified by
faith, and that all who accept Him as
Savior and Lord will be so delivered
from sin and its consequences that they
will enter upon the eternal state without
“impairment,” either in body, soul, or
spirit. — The ecclesiastical organization
of the Church is essentially that of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, except in
respect to the episcopacy and the par-
ticipation of the laity in church govern-
ment, No minister can be ordained with-
out the consent and recommendation of
the laity. The General Conference, which
meets every four years, is the law-mak-
ing body of the connection, limited by a
constitution. These limitations are: The
Articles of Faith cannot be changed ex-
cept by the consent of the annual con-
ferences, churches, and members; no new
conditions of membership can be insti-
tuted except by vote of the general and
annual conferences and the majority of
the membership. The church has an
itinerant ministry, yet it is by agreement
between the ministry and the churches,
and this cannot be abolished except by
vote of the annual conferences, churches,
and members. The missionary activities
of the Church are carried on through the
missionary society of the Wesleyan Meth-
odist Connection. All pastors are re-
garded as home mission workers and
agents, but there are 14 special mission-
aries in the whole field. The work ex-
tends through different parts of the
United States and Canada, but is mostly
confined to the Southern States, espe-
cially North and South Carolina, Geor-
gia, and Alabama. The foreign mission
work is carried on in Africa and India.
The home educational work of the
Church includes four institutions of
higher grade in New York, Indiana, Kan-
sas, and South Carolina, with a total of
700 students. Young people’s work is
represented by 345 young missionary
workers’ bands, with a membership of
10,224. Statistics in 1921 : 666 minis-
ters, 675 congregations, 21,000 members.
Methodius, Apostle to the Slavs. See
Gyrillus and Methodius.
Methodius of Olympus in Lycia, op-
ponent of Origen; wrote: The Sympo-
sium, in praise of voluntary virginity;
On the Resurrection, directed against the
spiritualism of Origen; Against Por-
phyry, the Neo-Platonic philosopher.
Methodology, theological. That sec-
tion of the preliminary work in the gen-
eral study of theology which pertains to
the form of study and the methods of
attacking the problem of study.
Methods of Teaching, modes of pro-
cedure in presenting or teaching a sub-
ject, may be general or special. — Gen-
eral Methods: The Formal Steps (see
Ilerbart ) . Their value lies in their
emphasis on certain mental processes es-
sential in a complete act of instruction.
The Soeratic, Erotematic, or Catechet-
ical Method: asking questions designed
to lead the pupil to think about what he
knows, to see his mistakes, to correct his
judgments, to discover new truths. The
Acroamatic Method, used in lectures,
narrations, sermons. The Demonstra-
tion Method, practical demonstration of
what is to be taught (writing, reading,
arithmetic), with necessary explanations.
The Topical Method: treating a clearly
defined topic according to a logical out-
line; assigning a topic, preferably in
the form of a problem, which will guide
the child’s thinking, reading, and obser-
vation, requiring topical recitation. The
Inductive Method, leading a pupil from
individual facts to generalizations. The
Deductive Method, descending from gen-
erals to particulars (syllogism). The
Analytic Method, dissolving a given les-
son into its constituent parts. The Syn-
thetic Method beginning with the parts
and combining them so as to form a
Metropolitan
468 Mexlcot Homan Catholic Chnrch
whole. The Socialized Method or Method
of Discussion, all members of the class
participating, teaching one another by
questions, answers, criticism ; requires
great skill on the part of the leader. All
of these General Methods may be em-
ployed in a lesson, the teacher shifting
from one to the other, as the case may
demand. — Special Methods are modes of
teaching applicable to particular sub-
jects, as the various methods of teaching
reading : Phonetic Method, Word Method,
Sentence Method. Different subjects per-
mit the use of different special methods,
and each teacher has his own peculiar
way of going at a thing. The final test
of any method is not, “Can argument be
offered in its favor?” but, “Will it work?
Does it accomplish anything?” The in-
dividuality of the teacher is also an im-
portant factor, and one may fail in the
use of a certain method, where another
scores a signal success.
Metropolitan is the title borne by the
bishops of the capital (mother) cities of
the Roman provinces. They presided at
provincial synods and exercised general
supervision over the other bishops of the
province. The name occurs for the first
time in the acts of the Council of Nicea.
See also Archbishop.
Metropolitan Church Association.
See Evangelistic Associations.
Meumann, Theodore, Ph. D., pastor
in Prussia; came to America, 1861; pas-
tor at Addison and Platteville; profes-
sor at Northwestern College of Wisconsin
Synod, 1867 — 72; pastor at Fond du
Lac; returned to Hanover, Germany,
1876; d. 189?.
Meurer, Moritz, 1806 — 77; studied
at Leipzig; private tutor, then pastor at
Waldenburg, later at Callenberg, near
Chemnitz; a diligent student of the Ref-
ormation era, on which he wrote exten-
sively; also prominent as a writer in
the field of ecclesiastical art, two valu-
able writings being: Der Altarschmuck,
ein Beilrag zur Paramentik, and Der
Kirchenbau vom Standpunkt mid naeh
dem Branch der lutherischen Kirche.
Meusslin, Wolfgang ( Meusel ), 1497
to 1563; embraced Luther’s views in
1527 ; chief pastor at Strassburg till the
Interim; forced to flee ; finally professor
of theology at Bern; wrote: “Christ,
Everlasting Source of Light.”
Mexico, Roman Catholic Church in.
The history of the Catholic Church in
Mexico begins with the Spanish conquest
(1521), at once a religious and a politi-
cal enterprise. Cortez himself declared
the “conversion” of the natives to be
the prime object, and indeed the only
justification, of his military expedition
against the Aztec capital. The alliance
of the cross and the sword easily con-
vinced the natives of the superiority of
the white man’s religion. In twenty
years the Church could boast of six mil-
lion Mexican “converts.” And this rapid
evangelizing process received additional
force from the Inquisition, which was
introduced about the middle of the cen-
tury and consigned thousands of unfor-
tunate victims to the flames. The Chris-
tianized Indians were employed as slaves
“above and below ground,” that is, in
the plantations and in the mines. One
thing, however, must be said to the
credit of the Spaniards : they redeemed
the land from the atrocious rites of
human sacrifice which the Aztecs prac-
tised to an extent elsewhere unknown in
the records of superstition. During the
three hundred years of Spanish misrule
the Church held undisputed sway and
reached the lowest depths of degeneracy,
obscurantism, and fanaticism. Mean-
while the masses groaned in sullen sub-
mission under the rod of their task-
masters. In 1821 the Mexicans shook off
the Spanish yoke. Then followed a tu-
multuous period of internal strife and
dissension, with the clerical party, sup-
ported by the ignorant populace, and the
liberals arrayed against each other. The
Mexican modern age, so to speak, begins
with the presidency of Juarez (1857 to
1872), an enlightened, full-blooded In-
dian. Juarez proclaimed religious lib-
erty, suppressed the monasteries, con-
fiscated church property (the Church
owned over one-third of the soil), exiled
refractory priests, introduced civil mar-
riage, and — shot Maximilian, sent by
Napoleon III to strengthen the tottering
Church and (in violation of the Monroe
Doctrine) to plant French imperialism
in the New World. The constitution of
1873 confirmed the anticlerical measures
of Juarez. The revised constitution of
1917 goes to" unwise and unwarranted
lengths in the same direction. It pro-
vides, among other things, that each
Mexican state be empowered to deter-
mine the maximum number of churches
and ministers within its borders, that
all ministers must be Mexicans by birth,
that no minister shall have the right to
vote or take part in public affairs — an
extreme reaction from the tyranny of
priestly rule. — The population of Mexico
is about 15,000,000, nearly all Catholic.
The religion of the educated classes con-
sists in outward conformity and inward
indifference, that of the illiterate masses
in groveling superstition and slavish sub-
jection to the priests.
Meyer, A. W.
46d
Michigan Synod
Meyer, A. W. See Roster at end of
book.
Meyer, Heinrich August Wilhelm;
b. 1800, d. 1873; pastor, later superin-
tendent and consistorial councilor at
Hanover; retired in 1865. His great
work is a grammatico-critical commen-
tary on the New Testament; after his
death edited by various authors; this
work is very valuable grammatically, but
not free from the taint of liberalism.
Meyer, Herman E. E.; b. 1881; edu-
cated at Northwestern College, New Ulm,
Concordia (Milwaukee), Wauwatosa ; pas-
tor in Minnesota, 1904 — 13; principal of
Milwaukee Lutheran High School two
years; then professor at Wauwatosa
Seminary of Wisconsin Synod; Secre-
tary of Intersynodical Committe; man-
aging editor of Quartalschrift ; d. 1920.
Meyer, Johannes P.; b. February 27,
1873; graduate of Northwestern College,
Wauwatosa Seminary; pastor at Beaver
Dam, Wis., 1893 — 1902; professor at
Northwestern and New Ulm; for three
years pastor at Oconomowoc (Wisconsin
Synod) ; president of New Ulm Semi-
nary 1918; professor of dogmatics at
Wauwatosa 1920.
Mezger, G. See Roster at end of book.
Meyfart, Johann Matthaeus, 1590
to 1642; studied at Jena and Witten-
berg; professor, later director, at Ko-
burg; later professor and pastor at Er-
furt; wrote: “Jerusalem, du hochgebaute
Stadt.”
Miami, Synod of, organized October
16, 1844, in Xenia, O., under the leader-
ship of Ezra Keller, first president of
Wittenberg College. Its territory was
Southwestern Ohio. It joined the Gen-
eral Synod in 1845. It was one of the
synods approving the “Definite Plat-
form.” In 1918 it joined the United Lu-
theran Church, and on November 3, 1920,
merged with the District Synod of Ohio
(formerly of the General Council), the
Synod of East Ohio and the Wittenberg
Synod (of the General Synod) into the
Ohio Synod of the U. L. C. At the time
of this merger it numbered 45 pastors,
51 congregations, and 10,311 communi-
cants.
Michael. One of the archangels, or
a member of the highest order of angels
mentioned in Scriptures. The name oc-
curs in the Bible only four times, namely,
in Dan. 10, 13. 21; 12, 1; Jude 9; Rev.
12, 7. He is called a prince and one of
the chief princes, a great prince, and he
seems to have been one of the guardian
angels of the children of Israel at the
time of the Exile. The New Testament
pictures him as the special champion
against the power of Satan, for he is
represented as contending with the devil
and as casting him out of heaven. In
every instance the great power of the
angel and his defense of the right are
featured. - — The passage Rev. 12, 7 is by
many Lutheran commentators under-
stood of Jesus, the Champion of His
Church.
Michaelis, Johann Heinrich; b. 1668,
d. at Halle 1738; senior and inspector
of the theological seminary; represented
the critical school in Pietism; prepared
an edition of the Hebrew Old Testament.
- — Christian Benedict Michaelis, nephew
of J. H. M. ; b. 1680; d. as professor of
Oriental languages at Halle, 1764; ra-
tionalistic. — Johann David Michaelis,
son of C. B. M.; b. 1717, d. 1790 at Goet-
tingen; rationalist; had a far-reaching
destructive influence in theology, espe-
cially in Old Testament criticism.
Michelangelo, Buonarotti, 1475 to
1564; the most distinguished sculptor of
the modern world, but also a master of
painting and an architect of note; talent
developed very early ; studied in the
school of Lorenzo de Medici in Florence,
after the death of his patron at Bologna ;
much work in sculpture in his earlier
years, especially his “David,” worthy
counterpart of his “Moses” of later
years; beginning with 1508, work on
paintings of ceiling in Sistine Chapel of
St. Peter’s at Rome, nine paintings from
Old Testament, series of Sibyls; last
work in painting “The Last Judgment,”
from 1537 — 41, after which he devoted
himself to the work of his appointment
as architect of St. Peter’s until his death.
Michigan Synod (1920). See United
Lutheran Church.
Michigan Synod. In 1831 a goodly
number of Wurttembergers immigrated
and settled in Washtenaw Co., Mich.
They wanted a pastor and sent to the
Basel Missionary Society. As a result
Pastor F. Schmid came to them in 1833.
He founded twenty congregations and did
much preaching here and there. With
two others he founded the first Michigan
Synod in 1840; it was called the Mis-
sionary Synod, for Indian missions
seemed to be its first object. Three mis-
sionaries began work among the Indians
at Sebewaing in 1845. Prospects ap-
peared to be bright, for Pastor Loehe put
his newly organized Indian Missions un-
der the care of the Missionary Synod
upon Schmid’s pledge that confessional
Lutheranism would be the unalterable
program. Loehe’s men, Hattstaedt,
Trautmann, Loehner, and Craemer, joined
Michigan Synod
470 Miessler, Ernst Gustav Hermann
the synod. In one year they realized
that Schmid’s pledge was merely a paper
promise; the practise of the synod was
quite otherwise. They left the synod in
1816, and that meant its end. Schmid
then joined the Ohio Synod. He had,
after this, trained a few men himself
and received a few from Basel to man
the congregations he had organized and
was ready for a second experiment. In
1860 Stephan Klingmann and Chr. F.ber-
hardt came from Basel, and the second
Michigan Synod was organized in De-
troit with eight pastors and three dele-
gates. The confessional declaration was
soundly Lutheran, due to the insistence
of Klingmann and Eberhardt; but the
battle was not nearly won. With splen-
did prospects before them through the
work of the remarkable Missionary Eber-
hardt, who extended his missionary trav-
els as far as the mining regions of Lake
Superior, there were never enough men
to hold the fields, and too many of those
who came were unionistic and often took
their congregations to the other camp, as
Basel indeed began to give this cause its
whole support. Even those who re-
mained in the synod often turned its
slender resources over to the Basel mis-
sions, leaving little for their own work.
In 1867 the Michigan Synod joined the
General Council, but unceasingly pro-
tested against the “Four Points.” Michi-
gan, always represented by Klingman,
was put off from one meeting to the
next, yet remained hopeful of better
things. All hopes were shattered when
the General Council met in Monroe,
Mich., 1884. Two delegates preached in
Presbyterian churches. The protest of-
fered at once by Michigan delegates was
tabled and evaded; protests in 1885 and
1886 met with a like fate. No delegates
were sent in 1887, and in the following
year Michigan formally resigned from
membership.
Until this time Michigan had drawn
its pastors from many sources, Basel
(St. Crischona), Hermannsburg, Kropp;
but it realized that it must have its own
seminary. In 1885 A. Lange, formerly of
the Buffalo Seminary, started work at
Manchester with six students. A build-
ing was erected in Saginaw in 1887 and
Lange remained for another year; but
then doctrinal differences brought about
his dismissal. Since then it had as direc-
tors F. Huber, 0. Hoyer, W. Linsenmann,
and F. Beer. It was closed as a seminary
in 1907. Having left the General Coun-
cil in 1888, the synod’s intention was to
join the Synodical Conference. This was
done in 1892, when the Allgemeine Synode
von Wisconsin, Minnesota und Michigan
was founded. The agreement with the
other synods required that the seminary
be discontinued; that was not kept, a
faction developed which wanted to re-
tain it. After a minority of ten had been
suspended, who formed the Michigan Dis-
trict of the Joint Synod, the majority
severed relations with the Synodical Con-
ference and with the Joint Synod in
1896. The leaders responsible for this
unhappy decision did further mischief;
until 1900 they were in an unnatural
alliance with the Augsburg Synod. After
that things began to clear; new men
(Bodamer, Krauas, Westendorf, Gauss),
most of them graduates of Saginaw Sem-
inary, took the helm. Conferences with
Missouri, 1904, and the Michigan Dis-
trict of the Joint Synod, 1906, brought
about a reconciliation. In 1909 the re-
united synod resolved to return to the
Joint Synod and did so at the Fort At-
kinson session, 1909. Since then prog-
ress has been marked and harmonious.
The Saginaw institution, now a prepara-
tory school, under the auspices of the Joint
Synod (0. Hoenecke, director), is pros-
pering. Presidents; Schmid, 1860 — 67;
Klingmann, to 1881; Eberhardt, to 1890;
C. A. Lederer, to 1894; C. F. Bochner, to
1898; Bodamer, to 1903 ; Westendorf, to
1905; F. Krauss, since 1905. Statistics:
Pastors, 53; congregations, 68; commu-
nicants, 13,500. Synodical organ, Byno-
dalfreund, 1888 — 1910.
Micronesia. See Polynesia.
'Mid-week Services. Services held on
an evening about the middle of the week,
the chief feature of the hour of worship
in this case being a more informal dis-
cussion and explanation of the Word of
God, with hymns and prayer both at the
beginning and at the conclusion. The
pastor will either present a section of
Scripture in the form of a homily or con-
duct a formal Bible class. See also Bible
Hours.
Miessler, Ernst Gustav Hermann;
b. January 12, 1826, at Reiclienbach,
Silesia; d. March 1, 1916, at Chicago,
111.; educated for missionary service at
Dresden, Germany; came to the United
States as a Leipzig missionary to the
Chippewas near Saginaw, Mich., 1851;
labored together with Baierlein and suc-
ceeded him at Bethanien, (Bethany),
1853. The mission was nearly broken
up by governmental transfer of the In-
dians to Isabella Co., Mich. ; but Miess-
ler continued to serve until 1869, when
he accepted a temporary supply position
at Saginaw, retiring in 1871 from the
ministry to engage in the study and
practise of medicine at Chicago.
Milan, Edict of
471
Millennium
Milan, Edict of, the first edict of re-
ligious toleration, issued at Milan by
Constantine in 313. It has been called
“the great charter of the liberties of
Christianity.” After many persecutions
had failed of their purpose, Constantine
(and Licinius) thought it proper “to
give to Christians as well as to all others
the right to follow that religion which
to each of them appeared best." Hence-
forth “no man should be denied the privi-
lege of choosing the worship of the Chris-
tians or any other religion." Thus this
famous edict recognizes the right of
every man to worship God according to
the dictates of his own conscience. Its
advanced position, however, sprang from
the exigencies of the political situation
rather than from any appreciation, on
the part of Constantine, of religious
liberty as one of the original and in-
alienable rights of man. The “first
Christian” emperor, as his subsequent
conduct shows, considered the regulation
of religious affairs as naturally belong-
ing to his jurisdiction. Neither he nor,
for that matter, the leaders of the
Church themselves knew anything of
the separation of Church and State, the
great corner-stone of liberty.
Mildmay Institutions. A deaconess
mother house, a nursing house, and a
training-house for home and foreign mis-
sionaries established by Rev. W. Penne-
father at Barnet, later (1864) at Mild-
may, near London, England, after the
model of the Kaiserswerth institution in
Germany, although in its details it has
marked simplicity and adaptation to the
work to which the British deaconesses
have applied themselves. The influence
of the Mildmay Home extends through-
out England, as well as to the Continent
and foreign countries.
Military Orders. Organizations were
formed before and during the Crusades,
in which the military and the monastic
characters were blended. Originally es-
tablished to protect and aid pilgrims to
the Holy Land, they took prominent part
in the Crusades and afterwards in fight-
ing Mohammedans and heathen. Of
about 20 orders the most important were
the Knights Templars (after whom all
others were modeled), the Knights Hos-
pitalers of St. John, and the Teutonic
Knights. All bore the cross on the
breast, took the three monastic vows
( q . v.), enjoyed the immunities of monks,
and were bound to prescribed spiritual
exercises and fasts.
Mill, John Stuart, English philoso-
pher and economist; b. 1806 at London;
d. 1873 at Avignon. Precocious child,
educated by agnostic father. Many years
in service of East India House. Coined
name “utilitarianism” for ethical view
held by him that actions are morally
right if useful or beneficial to mankind;
wrong, if harmful. Champion of women’s
rights. Main work, System of Logic.
Millais, Sir John Everett, 1829 — 96;
English painter associated with the Pre-
raffaelite movement; distinguished espe-
cially in the field of portraiture; painted
“The Tribe of Benjamin Seizing the
Daughters of Shiloh.”
Millennial Church. See Shakers.
Millennium (Millenarianism, Chili-
asm). The term millennium in theology
signifies a period of one thousand years
in duration, supposedly spoken of in Rev.
20, 1 — 7. Millenarianism, or chiliasm, is
accordingly the belief in the millennium
and especially the tenet that Christ, at a
time appointed by Him, will reappear on
earth, where, with His saints, He will
reign personally and in great glory for
one thousand years or for an indefinitely
long period; after this will occur the
resurrection of the wicked, the final
judgment, and its .eternal awards. — Mil-
lenarians, or chiliasts, have generally
differed among themselves concerning the
character of Christ’s millennial kingdom,
some viewing it as more and others as
less spiritual in its nature, extension,
duration, and joys; they differ also with
regard to many other details and minor
particulars. In general, however, they
are agreed on Christ’s personal advent
and rulership on earth and a glorious
period of peace and joy under the tem-
poral reign of Christ. In consonance
with the common doctrine of the Church,
millenarians believe in the visible reap-
pearance of Christ for the judgment of
all men. They differ, however, from the
common theological view by intercalating
a reign of one thousand years between
the millennial coming of Christ and His
coming unto Judgment. — Millenarian-
ism antedates the Christian Church. Al-
though it is not found in Old Testament
prophecies, rightly understood, this doc-
trine is generally attributed to Jewish ori-
gin, being in accord with the grossly car-
nal conception of the Jews that Christ’s
kingdom would be earthly. A concep-
tion of this kind would, of course, easily
lead to millenarianism. In Second Es-
dras (VII, 28 sqq.) there appears the fol-
lowing order of eschatological events :
a time of final trial, the coming of the
Messiah, a war of nations against Him,
ending in their defeat, the descent of the
heavenly Jerusalem, the gathering of the
dispersed Israelites, the 400-year reign
millennium
472
Millennium
of the Messiah, seven days of absolute
silence, the renewal of the world, the
general resurrection, and the Last Judg-
ment. However, this apocalyptic teach-
ing was not the universal feeling of the
Jews at the time of Christ. The scope
and purpose of the New Testament Scrip-
tures is not millenarian. In Mark 1, 15
Christ indeed announces that the king-
dom of God is at hand, but He does not
speak of any provisory kingdom to be
founded by Him. His coming again is
identical with the Last Judgment; until
then wheat and tares are to grow together.
The renewal of the world in Matt. 19, 28
is connected with the final Judgment.
Especially at the Last Supper, Christ
tried to make the supernatural char-
acter of His future kingdom clear to His
disciples. Mark 14, 25. In accord with
the teachings of Christ, Paul pictures the
Church as enjoying the fruition of its
faith, not upon earth, but in heaven,
Phil. 3, 20. Also in his other epistles the
trend of his teaching is not an earthly
hope, but the hope of consummated joy
in heaven. 1 Cor. 15, 25 sqq. The coming
of Christ is a coming to Judgment,
1 Thess. 4, 15- — 18, and will be as sudden
as the coming of a thief at night, 1 Thess.
5, 2. Hence Christians should watch and
be sober that they may “live together
with Him.” 1 Thess. 5, 6 — 10. The New
Testament clearly teaches that both the
righteous and the wicked will be raised
from the dead simultaneously, the former
unto life, the latter unto damnation.
John 5, 28. 29; Matt. 25, 31 — 46; Acts
24, 15. Nevertheless, if the idea of a res-
urrection of the saints and of their par-
ticipation in a temporal millennial reign
of Christ was early adopted, it was due
to the influence of Jewish teachings, not
only because it was in harmony with
their ancient myths of a golden age, but
also because the violence of persecution
seemed to suggest a hope so glorious. In
the second century, chiliasm formed a
constant, though not unquestioned, part
of the church doctrine, until a radical
change in external circumstances and in
the attitude of many of its leaders to-
wards the question forced it into the
position of a heresy. The millennial
theory is found more or less outlined in
the Epistle of Barnabas (ca. 100), in the
writings of Cerinthus, in the apocryphal
books of Jews and Jewish Christiaijs in
the first age of the Gospel (the Book of
Enoch, the Testament of the Twelve Pa-
triarchs), in the writings of Papias, sup-
posedly a disciple and friend of John the
Apostle, in those of Irenaeus, Eusebius,
Justin Martyr (ca. 150), Tertullian, etc.
The first decided opponent of millenari-
anism was Caius, a Roman presbyter
(ca. 200). The crass form in which
chiliasm entered into the heresy of Mon-
tanism materially contributed to the
strengthening of the antagonism to mil-
lenarian views. It was energetically op-
posed by the Alexandrian School, par-
ticularly by Origen. About the middle
of the third century, Nepos, an Egyptian
bishop, in defense of millenarianism
wrote a work entitled, A Confutation of
the Allegorists, to wit, of those who ex-
plained the passages on which the theory
of a millennium was based in an alle-
gorical manner. This work was ably
refuted by Dionysius of Alexandria.
Among later theologians, Jerome was one
of the ablest opponents of chiliasm.
Gradually the tenet which had so widely
prevailed became obnoxious and was pro-
scribed, mainly because the condition and
prospects of the Church had been altered.
Whereas Christians at first had yearned
for the reappearance of the Lord, Chris-
tians at a later time, perceiving the pos-
sibility and probability of a visible vic-
tory of the Christian Church over its
adversaries by means of the Gospel,
turned their attention to the restoration
of the world by means of missionary en-
deavors. During the Middle Ages the
prevalent idea was that the Judgment
and the end of the world would soon
occur, since the dies irae was at hand.
However, even in the Middle Ages “apoc-
alyptic parties” — enthusiasts, whether
individuals or in bands- — were frequently
to be found, and these looked for the
miraculous advent of Jesus as the indis-
pensable means of purifying and extend-
ing the Church. — The chief proof-text
of millenarianism has always been Rev.
20, 1 — 7, which they interpreted literally.
Opposing this literal interpretation, their
opponents have maintained that this pas-
sage does not treat of the second advent
of Christ, and that, if the entire passage
would be interpreted literally, the inter-
pretation would result in hopeless con-
fusion and absurdities. — At the time of
the Reformation the traditional method
of interpreting the Book of Revelation
was abandoned. Luther and other lead-
ing Reformers, regarding the Pope as
the Antichrist, the appearance of whom
was a direct sign of the coming Judg-
ment, were led to believe in the speedy
coming of the Lord for the destruction
of the world. However, millenarianism
prevailed among mystical enthusiasts
and sects and was espoused especially by
the Anabaptists of Germany, who took
possession of the city of Muenster and
set up “the reign of the saints,” which,
however, ended in a speedy destruction
Millennium
473
Millennium
of their own selves and their project.
Yet even in the Lutheran Church, and
even among conservative theologians,
especially in later times, there have been
adherents of the millennial doctrine.
These views prevailed in spite of the
condemnation of millenarianism in the
Augsburg Confession (XVII), as well as
in the Helvetic Confession (XI) of the
Reformed Church, in which the doctrine
was represented as mere visionary Juda-
ism and rejected as a caricature of the
true Gospel hope. Among those who es-
poused millenarianism was Jacob Boehme
and the mystics following Paracelsus,
who awakened apocalyptic hopes by
painting the restoration of Paradise in
the most glowing colors. Millenarian-
ism, however, gained its freest play in
the 17th century, when the political com-
motions which distressed Europe, the
revolutions in England, the religious
wars in Germany, the maltreatment of
the Protestants in France, spread mil-
lenarian teachings far beyond the walls
of the conventicle. Toward the end of
the 17th century the Lutheran Church
was influenced in this direction espe-
cially by the Pietistic movement, par-
ticularly by Spener, who gave utterance
to a refined millenarianism, and by
Joachim Lange and the Berleburg Bible.
Among the Lutheran theologians who
defended the millenarian doctrine were
Johann Albrecht Bengel, the author of
the Gnomon, who defended his chiliastic
views in his commentary on the Apoca-
lypse, published in 1740; he was fol-
lowed by other divines of the Lutheran
Church and has had followers down to
the present time, though, in the main,
conservative Lutheran exegetes maintain
an antimillenarian stand. As in Germany,
so also in England and America, mille-
narianism continued to have devoted fol-
lowers! In England millenarianism was
strongly championed by the Plymouth
Brethren, a sect which arose between
1820 and 1830. The Catholic Apostolic
Church, founded by Irving, maintained
this tenet as one of its distinguishing
features. According to Irving, Christ is
to come and gather together His elect,
the Jews are to be brought back to their
ancient land, and through their instru-
mentality the Gospel is to be extended
over the world. After a long period,
during which the Lord will personally
reign over the earth, will follow the
Judgment and the end of the world. In
America, millenarianism was represented
by the disciples of William Miller, the
founder of an Adventist sect. In 1847
they awaited the coming of Christ after
they had looked for it in vain in 1844.
Millenarians may be divided into two
groups, Pre- and Postmillenarians. Pre-
millenarians hold that the millennium is
a period of a world-wide righteousness,
introduced by the sudden, unannounced
visible advent of Christ ; that before this
coming of Christ takes place, the Gospel
will be proclaimed throughout the world
for a witness unto it; that the right-
eous will then rise and reign with Christ
on earth; that the Lord and His saints
will bring about a great tribulation, Rev.
2,22; that Israel will acknowledge the
crucified Savior as the Messiah, Zech.
12, 10; that through the outpouring of
the Holy Ghost a vast number of sinners
yet in the world will be converted, while
Satan will be bound and locked in the
abyss; that Satan, after a thousand
years, will be unbound and make a final,
but vain effort to establish himself; that
soon after this attempt he, his angels,
and all lost souls that have been raised
from the dead will be judged and hurled
into the lake of fire, where they are
doomed to everlasting torment; that the
earth will be renewed by fire and become
the eternal home of the redeemed. The
Postmillenarians have, in the main, de-
fended the following views; that through
Christian agencies the Gospel will grad-
ually permeate the entire world, becom-
ing more effective than it is at present;
that this condition will continue one
thousand years; that the Jews will be
converted either at the beginning or
sometime during this period; that after
this period of universal Gospel accept-
ance there will be a brief apostasy, fol-
lowed by a dreadful conflict between
Christian and evil forces; and that
finally and simultaneously there will oc-
cur the advent of Christ, the general res-
urrection, the judgment of all men, after
which the world will be destroyed by fire
and new heavens and a new earth will
be revealed. — Millenarians have differed
both as regards the time and the place
of the millennial reign. At various times
the precise time of the Savior’s advent
has been fixed. The early Fathers gen-
erally looked for the second advent at
the end of six thousand years of the
world’s history. Modern millenarians,
however, such as Rothe, Ebrard, and
Lange, have taken the one thousand
years of the Apocalypse as a prophetic
symbol and have refused any attempt at
fixing a definite period. As regards the
place where Christ would establish His
reign, and especially its centra] point,
millenarians have differed. The Monta-
nists, the Irvingites, and the Mormons se-
lected the places in accordance with their
sectarian belief. Usually millenarians
Miller, E. Clarence
474
MinlatuM
have regarded Jerusalem as the central
point of Christ’s rule or the heavenly
Jerusalem brought down to earth. In
connection with the time and place, mille-
narians have also tried to fix the number
of those partaking in this reign. In ac-
cord with Rev. 4 the subjects of Christ’s
millennial reign have been regarded as
the martyrs and those who remain faith-
ful in the final persecutions. The Church
Fathers extended the number to all faith-
ful Christians and to the believers of the
Old Covenant. Usually millenarians have
regarded the Jewish people, converted
and restored to Palestine, as the nucleus
of Christ’s kingdom, together with all
believers of the New Testament. The
millennial joys have been presented as
ranging through all imaginable pleas-
ures, from the grossest intoxication of
sense to the purest and holiest contem-
plation of Christ. Usually, however, the
blissful reign of Christ was represented
as a liberation from all evils of sin,
which was attended by the abolition of
idolatry, full knowledge of the truth,
and holy contemplation and worship of
God. With regard to the difference be-
tween chiliasm and millennialism, it may
be added that the former term presup-
poses the personal bodily reign of Christ
on earth for a thousand years, while the
latter does not necessarily presuppose
the personal presence of Christ during
that period. Usually, however, the two
terms are used synonymously. — The op-
ponents of millenarianism, in confuting
its claims, based their contentions on
passages in which the resurrection of
the good and evil is represented as a
simultaneous act. Scripture, they de-
clare, teaches but one second coming of
Christ, viz., to Judgment. This Judg-
ment, they contend, is connected, in the
general passages which describe the gen-
eral Judgment, immediately with Christ’s
second advent. Moreover, they declare
that millenarianism is opposed to all
prophecies of Christ and the apostles in
which the Christian Church on earth is
represented as a Church in tribulation,
for which reason Christians are admon-
ished to look to heaven as the consum-
mation of all Christian hopes. They also
aver that millenarianism tends to render
the Christian hope earthly and carnal,
that it represses missionary activity,
that it is at variance with the Scriptural
passages which declare Christ’s people to
be a “little flock,” and that, finally, mil-
lenarianism is a Jewish, carnal enthu-
siasm, condemned by Christ.
Miller, E. Clarence, financier; b. 1867
in Philadelphia; member of Board of
Publication and treasurer of United Lu-
theran Church since 1918.
Miller, J. See Roster at end of book.
Miller, William. See Adventists.
Mills, Samuel John; b. April 21,
1783, at Torringford, Conn.; d. at sea,
returning from Liberia, June 15, 1818.
Father of foreign missionary movement
in the United States. Organized as stu-
dent, at Williams College, a foreign mis-
sion society and, together with Judson,
was instrumental in spreading the
thought through other colleges; gave
incentive to the founding of the Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions
by overturing, in company with Adoni-
ram Judson, Samuel Nott, Jr., and Sam-
uel Newell, the General Assembly of the
Church in 1810. As a result Judson and
others were sent out. Mills was not
able to go, but continued his missionary
efforts by exploratory work in the South
and Central West; gave direct impulse
to the organization of the American
Bible Society, 1816, and to several mis-
sionary organizations, 1817 ; went to
Africa with Ebenezer Burgess, arriving
at Sierra Leone, 1818, and explored the
country for the Liberia Colony.
Milman, Henry Hart, “The Great
Dean,” 1791 — 1868; b. at London; priest
1816; professor of poetry at Oxford;
canon at Westminster ; dean of St. Paul’s
1849; d. near Ascot. Edited Gibbon,
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire;
published History of the Jews, History
of Latin Christianity, etc. ; wrote also
thirteen hymns, some of which are very
popular.
Milt itz, Karl von, 1490 — 1539; Saxon
nobleman; nuncio of Leo X; dispatched
by the latter to confer with Luther after
Cajetan’s defeat; but apparent diplo-
matic success availed nothing in settling
a war of antagonistic principles, — one
set upheld by the sheer force of author-
ity, the other by conscience and con-
viction.
Milton, John, the English epic poet,
1608—74. Wrote the Tractate on Edu-
cation and Areopagitica, a splendid argu-
ment in behalf of intellectual liberty.
His Paradise Lost, though unsurpassed
in grandeur of imaginative sweep and
grasp as well as in beauty and dignity of
language, at times, because of the bold
treatment of Biblical subjects and per-
sonages, offends the Christian reader.
His De Doctrina Christiana, a Latin
treatise on Christian doctrine (first pub-
lished in 1825), shows that he was prac-
tically an Arian with pantheistic tinge.
Miniatures (in art), Manuscripts,
Gospels. Miniatures, or small illustra-
tions included in so-called illuminated
manuscripts, were extensively used in the
Ministerial Office
475
Ministerial Office
Middle Ages, before the invention of the
printing-press, such calligraphic work
being developed as an independent art;
fine examples in Rome and in the monas-
teries of Bobbio, Monte Cassino, La Cava,
Benevent.
Ministerial Office. The ministry of
the Word, or the ministerial office, was
instituted by Christ for the public per-
formance of the privileges and duties of
the Church in preaching the Gospel and
administering the Sacraments. It is con-
ferred by the Lord of the Church through
the congregations, which, by calling men
into the ministry, delegate to them such
public exercises of the functions of the
universal spiritual priesthood. The qual-
ifications for the ministry are, in the
main, soundness of doctrine, teaching
ability, and a “good report.” 1 Tim. 3, 1 ;
Titus 1. The incumbents of the minis-
terial office are equal in rank, no degrees
in the ministry having been established
by the Head of the Church. — The exer-
cises of the powers of the Church, then,
are not at the arbitrary disposal of every
member. Christ Himself has established
an order of things, which His apostles
and the early Church have put into prac-
tise from the beginning and which He
has ordained for all time. He has in-
stituted the holy ministry. According to
the Lutheran Confessions the holy min-
istry was instituted when Jesus chose
the Twelve. The Augsburg Confession
quotes John 20, 21 ff. and Mark 16, 15 as
commissioning unto the holy ministry.
(Art. 28, 5—11. Cone. Trigl., 83 ff.) The
Smalcald Articles quote John 20, 21 as
a sending of the disciples “unto the min-
istry of preaching.” ( Tractatus , 9. Cone.
Trigl., 505.) “We have the certain doc-
trine that the office of the ministry pro-
ceeds from the general call of the
apostles.” (Ib., 10; cf. 31. L. c., 507.
513. ) “The apostolate is expressly termed
a ministry, Acts 1, 17. 25, being in fact
the earliest form of the ministry in the
New Testament.” (A. L. Graebner.) I)r.
A. Hoenecke, in his Dogmatik, terms the
ministry “a divine institution,” quoting
1 Cor 12, 28; 2 Cor. 5, 18. 20; Matt.
10, 1; 28, 19; John 20, 21. He opposes
the doctrine that in its concrete forms
the service of the Word is a matter of
human origin or merely historical de-
velopment. (Hoefling, Hase, Luthardt,
quoted by Hoenecke, Vol. IV, 177.) Also
Hoenecke recognizes in the commission-
ing of the Twelve the institution of the
ministry as it essentially exists in the
Christian Church to-day. “The regular
ministry is a divinely intended continua-
tion of the extraordinary apostolate and
in and with the apostolate is a divine
institution.” That the regular ministry
is essentially identical with the aposto-
late, Hoenecke derives from the texts,
which place apostles and preachers on a
state of equality and which assign to
both the same functions. That the min-
istry is a divinely ordained continuation
of the apostolate he derives from Matt.
19, 28 and Luke 12, 43, and especially
from the fact that the duties and privi-
leges of the ministry are so firmly laid
down in Scripture. If Christ had not
intended the apostolate to be continued
through the work and office of the con-
gregational ministry, He would not have
given such instructions through His
apostles as we find in Acts 20, 25 — 31
and 1 Tim. 3, nor would He have de-
manded obedience for His servants as in
Heb. 13, 17 (7). Those whom Paul had
ordained were commanded by him to
ordain others; and this ministry is not
simply a development out of historical
conditions, but is an institution which
Christ intends to preserve to the end of
time. Matt. 28, 19 f. “If the Lord prom-
ises His assistance to the end of time, He
also extends to the end of time the com-
mand that congregations establish the
ministry in their midst.” Indeed, the
congregations are committed to the pas-
tors by Christ Himself, 1 Pet. 5, 2 ; and
the Holy Spirit Himself has made them
overseers of the dock, Acts 28, 28. ( See
also Elders; Deacons; Hierarchy; Keys,
Office of the.)
While the apostles were in Jerusalem,
they also served as pastors and teachers
of the local congregation, which they had
gathered by the preaching of the Gospel,
administering the ministry of the Word,
Acts 6, 4, by teaching and preaching
Jesus Christ in the Temple and in the
various houses, in which, for want of spe-
cial meeting-houses, the various groups
of disciples would meet for worship, to
hear the Word, celebrate the Sacrament,
and unite in prayer. “As the number of
disciples increased, other ministers were
added. They were termed presbyters,
elders. These presbyters were not the
successors of the apostles; for we find
them side by side with these earliest
ministers of the earliest Church, which
sent a letter to the churches among
the Gentiles as addressed to them by
‘the apostles and elders and brethren.
Acts 15.’ ” (A. L. Graebner.) They were
also known as bishops. Titus 1, 5. 7 ;
Acts 20, 17. 28. — How had these persons
been made bishops, presbyters, or, as
Paul also calls them, pastors and teach-
ers? The apostles had been singled out
and called to the apostleship directly by
Christ Himself. Having thus been made
Ministerial Office
476
Minnesota Synod
ministers of Christ, they were also the
first pastors of. a church gathered
through their ministerial work, which
accepted their ministerial labors while
they were with it, as James was at Jeru-
salem and Paul was at Corinth and
Ephesus. The elders were not chosen
and called by immediate acts of Christ.
Yet Epaphras was a “minister of Christ,”
Col. 1, 7, and Paul tells the elders of
Ephesus that the Holy Ghost has made
them bishops to feed the Church of God.
Acts 20, 17. 28 ; cf. 1 Pet. 5, 1—4. St. Luke
tells us that the churches in Asia Minor
were provided with elders. Paul and
Barnabas, who had gathered these con-
gregations, visited them on their return
journey, organized the churches, which
they would now have to leave, com-
mended them to God and the Word of
His grace, and caused them to choose
elders for themselves. Acts 14, 23 (Greek:
cheirotonein, to elect by raising the right
hand). To the churches Christ Himself
has given the charge to preach the Gos-
pel, and the Church must see to it that
this is done. Where the ministers al-
ready at work are not sufficient, or when
they are called to other fields or called
to their eternal rest, the churches carry
out the will of Christ and their peculiar
task in calling others to the ministry of
the Word. The first teachers of the
Church were given to the Church directly
and fitted out miraculously for their
official work, and the Church, as was
meet and right, accepted the gift, and
the apostles performed the work of the
ministry. God gave other miraculous
gifts, the gifts of prophesying, healing,
diversities of tongues; and the Church
gratefully accepted these gifts because
they aided the work of the ministry.
And as the wants of the Church de-
manded still other men for the work of
the ministry, the churches looked out
among them men of honest report, full
of the Holy Ghost and wisdom, and chose
them for elders, pastors, and teachers,
according to the will of the Lord, who in
this wise gave those whom by the Church
He called to be His ministers. — The
ministers thus mediately called and ap-
pointed to the ministry stand in a two-
fold relation. They are ministers of
Christ, performing Christ’s work on
earth, and they are responsible to Christ
for the faithful execution of His instruc-
tions. As ministers of the Church, per-
forming the work primarily entrusted to
the Church, the royal priesthood, they
are also responsible to the Church for
the faithful discharge of their ministerial
duties, while, on the other hand, the con-
gregation is responsible for the official
life of its minister, who is in charge of
work entrusted to the Church. — How
many persons may or should have a min-
ister for themselves must be ultimately
determined by those persons themselves,
according as the work of the ministry,
the edifying of the body of Christ, the
purpose of the ministry, can be best
achieved under prevailing circumstances.
But when a number of persons has called
a man for their minister and he has ac-
cepted such call, then he is the minister
of that congregation, be it large or small,
and his whole flock, over which the Holy
Ghost has made him overseer, is the
whole number of bouIs in that congrega-
tion, neither more nor less. — When the
Holy Spirit has made the minister an
overseer of the flock, he has made him
overseer also of the work of any officers
whom the congregation may elect, of the
various societies within the congregation,
and of their officers, of the Sunday-
school, day-school, Bible class, and their
teachers. He is the minister of the chil-
dren as well as of the aged and hence
the official teacher of both. He is the
teacher of his whole congregation jointly
and severally, not only in the pulpit,
but also in the deliberative and executive
meetings of the representative congrega-
tion, in public catechization, in the paro-
chial school, in the meetings of commit-
tees and boards, or where and when any
of his parishioners may be in need of in-
struction on any point of doctrine con-
cerning Christian faith and life. Cf. Col.
I, 28. In the faithful discharge of his
duties the pastor will also perform func-
tions which, while not directly in the line
of the administration of the means of
grace, are subservient thereto. The apos-
tles did not consider it beneath their dig-
nity, but a matter of course, that the
distribution of alms in daily ministra-
tion should be their business in the min-
istry. Acts 6.
Ministers, Education of. See Edu-
cation.
Minucius Felix, author of Octavius,
an apology in the form of a dialog, in
which the advocate of heathenism is con-
vinced of his error and converted. He
wrote before A. D. 200.
Minnesota Synod. The first work
leading to the organization of the Minne-
sota Synod was done by pastors of the
Pennsylvania and Pittsburgh synods.
The man who gathered the first half
dozen to form the synod was “Father”
J. C. F. Heyer ( q . v.). The founders were
Heyer, Blumer, Wier, Brandt, Mallison,
and Thompson; the latter two were En-
glish Lutherans and soon dropped out.
Minnesota Synod
477
Minnesota Synod
Wier also soon left because of doctrinal
differences. Heyer was pastor of the
parent congregation, Trinity of St. Paul,
but in 1863 resigned because of advanced
age and was succeeded by G. Fachtmann
from Wisconsin, who also guided the for-
tunes of the synod when Heyer returned
to the East. At this time the missionary
societies of the General Synod extended
what aid they could with regard to men
and money; but the sorely needed men
came mostly from the Pilger Missionary
Institute of St. Crischona, near Basel.
Of the twenty who came in the earlier
years of the synod’s existence Emmel,
A. Kuhn, F. Hoffmann, Seifert, 0. J. Al-
brecht, Braun, and Hunziker may be
mentioned. Fachtmann’s leadership was
disastrous. The struggling synod was
striving to free itself from the unionizing
tendencies which flourished in spite of
the Lutheran confessional declaration it
had made. But Pachtmann sought to
perpetuate this looseness. In 1867 things
changed for the better. J. H. Sieker
(q.v.), the first of Wisconsin’s own pas-
tors, was called to Trinity as Facht-
mann’s successor and became the leader.
The uncompromising Lutherans rallied
to his leadership. After causing much
trouble. Fachtmann was finally expelled
1870.
In the mean time the Minnesota Synod
had left the General Synod, pinning its
hopes to the promise of confessional Lu-
theranism held out by the newly organ-
ized General Council. Sieker, as presi-
dent, attended its meetings and demanded
a declaration on the “Four Points”
(q. v.) As a satisfactory answer was
not forthcoming, Minnesota severed con-
nections with the Council in time to join
the Synodical Conference at its organiza-
tion in 1872. What induced it to take
this step was the clarification of its re-
lations with Wisconsin and Missouri.
With Wisconsin, Minnesota had always
had friendly relations. Delegates were
exchanged at conventions; as early as
1864 there was an official request to
share in the benefits of Northwestern
College (and seminary), which was
granted with the understanding that
Father Heyer take up a collection for
the institution in the East. In 1866
there had been the loan of Dr. Moldehnke
for Minnesota’s home missions. For-
mal recognition of doctrinal unity was
reached 1869, when Hoenecke, after at-
tending Minnesota’s synod, reported to
his brethren that complete harmony and
agreement existed between the two
bodies. This was made official the next
year. An informal agreement, 1872,
later ratified, permitted Minnesota to
share in the expanded institution at
Watertown, for which it offered to pay
part of the salary of one professor. The
Gemeindeblatt was made the official or-
gan, and Sieker was added to its edito-
rial committee. This paved the way for
friendly relations with Missouri, which
had been in the field from the beginning.
A Missouri delegation visited the synod
of 1872 and after suitable preliminaries
pronounced doctrinal agreement. The
working arrangement with Wisconsin
remained in force but a few years, when
it was canceled and things drifted, Min-
nesota getting its ministers where it
could, relying especially on Springfield,
111., Seminary for its students. Meanwhile
its missionaries had been active and were
organizing congregations in the Dakotas,
emphasizing the lack of suitable men to
follow up their work. The question of
“state synods” was a very live question
in Minnesota and further delayed inde-
pendent action in establishing a semi-
nary; for it was hoped by many that a
reorganization of that sort would secure
for Minnesota’s use some already exist-
ing schools. New “stipulations” with
Wisconsin were adopted 1879 after a
heated debate. Joint sessions were held
in 1883 and 1886, after weathering the
storm of the election controversy. At
last, 1883, Dr. Martin Luther College,
New Ulm, was founded (see Albrecht,
J. 0.) ; the building was erected the fol-
lowing year. It was a college together
with a practical seminary, with 0. Hoyer
as its president. The Synodalbote was
first published in 1886, but ceased pub-
lication in 1894. The relations begun
with Wisconsin officially in 1864 resulted
in an organic union between the two
synods in 1892; the Joint Synod of Wis-
consin, Minnesota, Michigan, and Other
States was formed. The New Ulm insti-
tution became the teachers’ seminary of
the Joint Synod in 1894; now also a
preparatory institution for the office of
pastor.
Home missions were inaugurated with
renewed energy, and Minnesota, with its
adjacent Western territories, since 1892
shows the greatest results and has the
best prospects. The congregations in the
Dakotas and in Montana have formed a
separate District of the Joint Synod un-
der the constitution of 1917. In 1924
the two Districts numbered 145 pastors
and nearly 200 congregations, with
27,000 communicants. Presidents were:
C. F. Heyer, 1860 — 64; Fachtmann, J. H.
Sieker, A. Kuhn, C. J. Albrecht, C. Gause-
witz, A. Scliroedel, A. T. Zich, E. Pankow,
J. Naumann, J. R. Baumann, E. F. Al-
brecht.
Minor Orders
478
Miracles
Minor Orders. The four lower ranks
of the Roman clergy: acolytes, exorcists,
lectors, and ostiarii (porters). It is
usually held that they do not receive the
sacrament of Order. See Hierarchy.
Minorites. See Franciscans.
Miracles. A miracle is an event in
the natural world differing from the
ordinary course of nature and occurring
in such a way as to call attention to the
presence, power, and will of the living
God. In the discussion we limit our-
selves to the miracles recorded in Scrip-
ture, those special and exceptional acts
of God, above and beyond nature, which
are inseparable from Biblical history and
revelation, treating the subject almost
exclusively from the apologetic side.
A miracle is a sensible effect produced
by God independently of the natural
order commonly observed. As Augustine
has put it: “A miracle is not contrary
to nature, but only [contrary] to what
we know of nature.” A miracle is a
supernatural event; but all that is
supernatural is not necessarily miracu-
lous. The angelic appearances so fre-
quently recorded in the Scriptures were
not the same thing, strictly speaking, as
the miracles. They were, of course, real
visitations from the unseen world; but
they did not affect the course of nature;
they were not events in the physical
world. Nor is the work of divine grace
in the human heart a miracle in this
special sense. It is truly a supernatural
work, a greater work indeed than any
physical miracle. The power that lifts a
soul from death to life, delivers it from
the bondage and defilement of sin, and
makes it meet for the fellowship of God
is the mightiest power which has been
manifested among men. All this is due
to the supernatural energy of the Spirit
of God. This work, however, is carried
on in the spiritual realm and is now an
established part of His Kingdom of
Grace. A miracle, on the other hand, is
a special event which took place in the
physical realm. While it has a super-
natural cause in the unseen world, it has
a visible effect in the natural world and
is wrought for a particular purpose.
A miracle is, first of all, a wonder.
The miracles recorded in Holy Writ in-
spired amazement and were intended to
startle men and arrest their attention.
Thus it was that miracles so often took
place in times of spiritual blindness and
apostasy, as when Elijah came upon the
scene. The wonder was intended to lead
to its deeper meaning and to prepare the
way for its real purpose or to call atten-
tion to a divine message which accom-
panied it. It is significant that, al-
though this name frequently occurs, it
is never used alone in the New Testa-
ment, but always in conjunction with
one or both of the other names. A mir-
acle was also a power or mighty work.
It declared by the way it was done that
God was present and was acting. The
magicians of Egypt acknowledged this
when they found themselves at length
unable to repeat the miracles of Moses.
“This is the finger of God,” they said.
Ex. 8, 19. — The term by which miracles
are most often described, both in the Old
Testament and in the New, is the word
sign. The value of a sign lies in what
it points to. Miracles pointed to the
divine authority of the agent by whom
they were wrought. For while they were
works of God, they were usually per-
formed at the command or the prayer of
some prophet or servant of the Lord.
The miracles of Christ in the Bible are
called “signs” because, like finger-posts,
they point to some greater fact beyond
them, namely, that the Son of God is in-
deed come down to dwell among men
(Immanuel: God with us). They are
called “powers,” because the power of
God is manifested in saving man from
bearing the consequences of sin, from
demon-possession, from disease, and from
death ; also, because the power of the
Creator was present to do with His crea-
tures — the water made wine, the sea
calmed, the walking on the sea, the fish
supplying the piece of money — as He
would. They are “wonders” because all
the people said: “We never saw it on
this fashion.” Mark 2, 12. So many and
so wonderful were the miracles that no
enemy ever rose up in Christ’s lifetime
to contradict them; driven to bay, they
tried to explain them blasphemously,
saying that Satan was casting out Satan.
Luke 11, 15 — 20. It is true that the mir-
acle is not the chief thing. It is but the
scaffolding and not the building itself.
We do not believe in Christ because we
believe in miracles, but we believe in mir-
acles because we believe in Christ, and
we believe in Christ because we believe
the written revelation concerning His
person and work. That is the pathway
by which we have come to faith in Him.
Christ performed miracles not of choice,
but of necessity. “Except ye see signs
and wonders, ye will not believe.” John
4, 48. “A wicked and adulterous genera-
tion seeketh after a sign.” Matt. 16, 4.
But who shall say that because we, who
now read the inspired record of His life
and works, do not need signs and won-
ders to convince us, therefore no signs
and wonders ever occurred? You cannot
Miracles
479
Miracle- l"iayiS
thrust a dagger into the body without
hurting the soul, and you cannot take
your critical blade and cut off miracles
from Gospel history without inflicting a
mortal wound on that history. Miracles
are so inevitably interwoven in the fabric
of that history that the whole garment
goes to pieces when you cut into it. The
miracles of Christ were not isolated
manifestations of supernatural power,
put forth simply and solely to excite
wonder and astonishment and, as it were,
to compel belief. He refused, and very
definitely, to work miracles of this kind,
llis miracles, rather, are the outcome of
His wonderful and gracious character ;
they are integral portions o'f His teach-
ing. Even the earliest Old Testament
miracles display a marked superiority to
many of the meaningless and ludicrous
“miracles” of the apocryphal gospels and
medieval hagiologies.
In determining the credibility of mir-
acles, we need to consider the occasion,
the nature, and the worker of the mir-
acle. The miracles of Jesus have a fit
occasion, namely, a great human need.
In estimating them, we are not to think
about the possibility or credibility of a
miracle in the abstract; we are rather
to think of what we should reasonably
expect on the part of a loving God in
relation to men made in His image, who
are in the toils of sin and suffering. The
occasion of Christ’s miracles is no less
an occasion than the need of redemption.
The miracles of the gospels are of a
nature that fits this occasion. They re-
veal God’s love; they bring God’s love
into touch with man’s woes. Most of the
miracles of Jesus were miracles of heal-
ing, not of nervous troubles only, but of
leprosy, fevers, and various other dis-
eases. Nor were they confined to heal-
ings; in three instances they were the
raising of the dead to life. In every in-
stance, save possibly the blighting of the
fig-tree, they came straight from the
heart of God for the relief of human
woe ; and even the apparent exception of
the fig-tree is not a real exception; for
it was a solemn warning, a parable in
act, with a kindly purpose. Another
characteristic of the gospel miracles is
that they fit the character of the worker.
They are worthy of the divine Redeemer ;
they flow naturally from the person of
Christ. Christ Himself is the Supreme
Miracle. His sinlessness; His freedom
from any consciousness of sin; His
superhuman knowledge; His universal-
ity; His freedom from errors that in the
course of two thousand years would have
been discovered and would have canceled
His transcendency; His claims to be the
Giver of eternal life, the Forgiver of sins,
the Judge of the eternal destinies of men,
— these put Jesus in a class by Himself;
and when we think of Him, we are not
surprised that in His redeeming love He
did works that no man can do. Cp. John
1, 14; 2, 11; 20, 31. As for all true
Christians, the fact of the occurrence of
miracles is unassailable, as a part of
God’s revealed truth. Luke 1, 37.
Miracles, Roman Catholic. The
Christian fathers of the first three cen-
turies very seldom report miracles, but
rather speak of the age of miracles as
past. With the fourth century, accounts
of miraculous happenings increase. De-
generacy and credulity grew at an equal
rate in the Church, and eventually new
miracles were reported every day. There
were miracles wrought by saints, by
relics, by the Eucharist, by images, and
by angels; there were visions, appari-
tions and prodigies in fantastic variety.
Many of these miracles were trifling,
puerile, indecorous, or irreverent. Usu-
ally there was no proportion between
the means and the end: amazing super-
natural forces were employed on the
silliest pretexts. Saints even matched
miracles in mere trials of skill. The
favorite object of miracles was to propa-
gate rites, doctrines, and devotions that
were without Biblical foundation or to
emphasize the sanctity of some church,
relic, or religious order. Thus it could
occur that while St. Bridget had visions
favoring the Franciscan view of the Im-
maculate Conception, her contemporary,
St. Catherine of Siena, had visions estab-
lishing the contrary doctrine of the
Dominicans. Ecclesiastical miracles have
greatly decreased in modern times, but
they have by no means become extinct,
as witness the reported miracles at
Lourdes, Treves, etc. How many of these
miracles are imaginary or fraudulent it
is impossible to determine; for the rest
see Matt. 24, 24; 2 Thess. 2, 8. 9; Rev.
16, 14; Gal. 1, 8.
Mirandola, Pico della. Italian phi-
losopher, 1463 — 94; studied philosophy
and the humanities ; tried to demon-
strate the fundamental agreement of the
heathen philosophers with each other and
with Christian scholasticism and mysti-
cism; prepared 900 theses covering the
domain of knowledge, some of which were
declared heretical and the disputation
forbidden by the Pope. The taint of
heresy was later removed from Miran-
dola.
Miracle-Plays. A variety of the
medieval religious drama or liturgical
play, using chiefly the material con-
Miserere
480
Missionary Institutes
neeted with the legends of the saints and
their intercession for those who venerate
them.
Miserere. Originally, and most cor-
rectly, used of the 51st Psalm in musical
setting, on account of the opening words :
Miserere mei, Domine, but extended to
include any penitential hymn or chant,
as, the Miserere from II Trovatore.
Mishna. See Talmud.
Missa Catechumenorum; Missa Fi-
delium. The chief parts of the ancient
order of services, as used in all parts of
the Church up to the fourth century, the
Mass of the Catechumens, with the entire
congregation, including also the appli-
cants for membership and the penitents,
present, being the Office of the Word.
With the dismissal of all non-communi-
cant members and visitors came the Mass
of the Faithful, with the celebration of
the Eucharist.
Missal. The chief service book of the
Roman Catholic Church, combining all
the various liturgical books formerly in
use, giving the services for each day, but
especially that of the Mass.
Missale Romanum. The book con-
taining the complete service of the Ro-
man Mass for the whole ecclesiastical
year. Near the center of the volume are
those portions which occur in every
Mass, while the remainder of the book
consists of the portions that vary ac-
cording to feast or season. Prayers for
the celebrant, rubrics, etc., are prefixed.
The uniform edition was first published
in 1570 and has been repeatedly revised.
Missionary Church Association. See
Evangelistic Association.
Missionary Conferences are an effort
jointly to study and solve problems aris-
ing in the mission-fields and at the home
base. They are either denominational or
interdenominational and are constituted
by voluntary participation of interested
societies, administrators, and missiona-
ries. Being altogether advisory, they
have no legislative power. Almost all
American, European, and Oriental coun-
tries now have conferences of this kind.
International and world meetings have
been held repeatedly, for instance, in
Liverpool, 1860; London, 1878; London,
1888; New York, 1900; Edinburgh,
1910; Washington, D. C., '1925. The
Conference Reports offer many solutions
to mission-problems and generally are a
rich treasury of missionary information,
the most valuable being those of the
Edinburgh meeting. The International
Review of Missions may be considered
the official organ of the international
missionary conferences. The office of the
Foreign Missions Conference of North
America is at 25 Madison Ave., New
York City.
Missionary Education Movement.
Organized in 1902. Its purpose is to pro-
mote the mission-work of the churches
by means of holding interdenominational
summer conferences and by the publica-
tion of missionary literature.
Missionary Institutes, usually or-
ganized and controlled by some mission-
society and connected with a mission-
home, are schools for the training of
workers in the foreign fields. They came
into existence in 1702, when A. H.
Francke opened his Oriental Seminary
at Halle for this specific purpose. Jae-
nicke in Berlin (1800 — 1827) educated
80 young men for this work. The Basel
Mission Society opened its seminary in
1816, the Barmen Society in 1828, the
Gossner Society in 1836, the Leipzig So-
ciety in 1832 at Dresden and removed it
to Leipzig in 1849, the Breklum Society
in 1877. Neuendettelsau prepares some
of its students for foreign missions since
1883. The Danish Mission School exists
since 1862, the Swedish at Stockholm
since 1855 and at Johanneslund since
1863. The Finnish Society has its own
seminary at Helsingfors since 1866. As
thoroughness is a Lutheran feature and
principle, all these societies endeavor to
give their future missionaries a solid
training, the result of which is the effi-
ciency of Lutheran missionaries, acknowl-
edged by their colleagues everywhere.
Several seminaries require a six-, others
a five- or four-year course, according to
circumstances, none less than three years
of hard work. With some it is a college
and a theological course combined; most
of them study medicine; also manual
training is practised. The greatest care
is taken in the choice of instructors as
well as in the reception of applicants.
Also non-Lutheran bodies have mission-
ary institutes. In the Catholic Church
the various orders, especially the Jesuits,
are engaged in foreign missions. In
America it has always been Lhe rule to
draw upon the theological seminaries for
workers in the home and foreign mission
fields; but in Europe, where the number
of theological graduates who were ready
to work in foreign fields was but small,
mission-societies had to open schools for
the training of men for this particular
work. Since about the middle of the past
century, and to an ever-increasing ex-
tent, qualified physicians and unmarried
women have been sent out, the latter
principally to be active as teachers,
Missions
481
Missions
nurses, and deaconesses among both
lieathen and converted women.
Missions are that activity of the
Church of Jesus Christ by which it
sends and brings the Gospel of Jesus
Christ to those who are, for the time
being, deprived of it or are still pagan.
The Scriptural foundation for this work
is found in Gen. 22, 18; Is. 49, 6; Micah
4, 1 — 5; Matt. 24, 14; 28, 18 — 20; Mark
16, 15; Luke 24, 46. 47; Acts 1, 8;
26, 15 — 18; Rom. 1, 16; Gal. 1, 16, and
many other passages. That the apostles
understood the command of the Lord
(Matt. 28) to mean dissemination of the
Gospel among Jews and Gentiles is evi-
denced by Gal. 2, 9; Rom. 10, 12 — 18;
1 John 1, 1 — 4. And that the early
Christians recognized their duty to prop-
agate the Church of Christ by sending
out missionaries can be gathered from
Acts 13, 1 — 5; 1 Thess. 1, 8. At the end
of the first century A. I), there may have
been some 200,000 professed Christians,
and at the time of Constantine, A. D. 325,
the whole Roman Empire already was
dotted with Christian churches, there
being possibly some eight million Chris-
tians. The modern era of missions be-
gins with the Reformation. Luther and
bis colaborers have often been accused of
neglect of foreign missions and of a fail-
ure to appreciate their importance and
their necessity.. But Luther had to deal
with conditions that made foreign mis-
sions for him and his followers an ab-
solute impossibility. The visible Chris-
tian Church was almost entirely popish,
the wealth Was concentrated in the hands
of the priesthood and the monks, the
Rope still governed the riches of the
world and, save for a small territory in
Europe, was the absolute lord of the
civilized world. As compared with his
resources, kings and princes were in a
wretched state of poverty; the seafaring
nations were under popish control; in
fact, Alexander VI, in 1493, had pre-
sumed to parcel out the New World re-
cently discovered between Spain and Por-
tugal, conditioning this grant on the
Romanizing of the natives. America,
Africa, India, were thus open to none
but Roman Catholic missions; the in-
quisition with its autos da fc and other
persecutions was bent upon suppressing
Protestantism in popish and other lands,
and while Romish priests and monks ac-
companied all foreign expeditions, Prot-
estants were ipso facto barred. But
above all, the Lutheran Reformers had
their hands full with providing faithful
ministers and teachers for the rapidly in-
creasing Lutheran churches and coun-
tries. While foreign missions, then,
Concordia Cyclopedia
were physically out of the question for
the young Lutheran Church, home mis-
sions and the organization and staffing
of the Lutheran churches was her spe-
cific task.
The term “mission” is variously em-
ployed. In Roman Catholic circles the
word indicates special efforts put forth
to deepen the religious life of the ad-
herents of that Church. In Germany,
missions are commonly divided into In-
nere Mission and Heidenmission. There
Innere Mission signifies the care of the
lapsed, forsaken, destitute, strayed, and
needy in the home country; Heiden-
mission, of course, means missions to
non-Christian peoples. In the United
States the terms are frequently Home
and Foreign Missions. Here the term
Home Missions points to the work done
in the homeland, among the unchurched
of all nations and peoples. Foreign Mis-
sions are missions carried on in foreign
countries, whether they be Christian or
heathen. — We accept the term Home
Missions as applying to the dissemina-
tion of the Gospel among the descen-
dants of Christian and Lutheran peoples,
whether in the United States or else-
where— people who, at the time, are
without the ministration of the Word
and the Sacraments. In this sense Deaf-
mute, Foreign-language, Immigrant, and
Seamen’s Missions belong to the domain
of Home Missions. The term Foreign
Missions strictly signifies religious work
done among the heathen, i. e., such
peoples as have not as yet heard the
Gospel-message.
History of Protestant Foreign Mis-
sions. — A succinct survey of Protestant
Foreign Missions shows us Adrianus Sa-
ravia, a Reformed minister of Antwerp
(b. 1531, d. 1613 in England), as the
first to issue a call for foreign missions.
A colony of French Huguenots was led
forth by the adventurer and renegade
Durand de Villegaignon, 1555 and 1566,
encouraged by Coligny, to Brazil, with
a view to offering a haven of refuge
against Romish persecution and with the
added thought of evangelizing the Amer-
ican Indians. But the attempt proved
abortive. In 1559 Gustavus Vasa of
Sweden sent Lutheran pastors to the
Laplanders in the far North for the pur-
pose of bringing them nearer to the Lu-
theran Church; and Charles IX of Swe-
den and Gustavus Adolphus continued
the work. In 1634 Peter Heiling, of
Luebeck, made strenous and, withal, not
altogether defensible efforts to induce the
Lutherans of Germany to engage in For-
eign Missions, finally going to Abyssinia,
where he translated the New Testament
31
Missions
482
Missions
into the Amharie. But nothing further
came of his efforts. Justinianus v. Weltz,
a baron (b. in Saxony, 1621), wrote
various papers in the interest of Foreign
Missions and finally went to Guiana as
missionary, where he died soon after his
arrival. In 1700 an Academy of Science
was founded in Berlin under the leader-
ship of the philosopher Leibniz, which,
among other things, was to serve Foreign
Mission interests. Very little, however,
resulted from all their efforts, except
that the plea of Leibniz for Foreign
Missions found lodgment in the heart of
Aug. Herm. Francke, of Halle, who be-
came a providential agent for extensive
Foreign Mission endeavor. — The Nether-
lands, meanwhile, had freed themselves
from the galling Spanish and Roman
Catholic yoke and in the beginning of the
17th century succeeded to the overseas
possessions of Spain in East India,
the Molukkas, Ceylon, Formosa, and the
Larger Sunda Islands. The East India
Handelsmaatschappij was chartered in
1602 as a commercial company, but was
also charged to carry on Foreign Mis-
sion work among the natives in its larger
Eastern dominions. Ministers of the
Reformed faith were sent out by it, who
labored in the colonies, on an average,
five years. — A Seminarium Indicum was
organized in 1622 at the University of
Leyden, which operated only twelve
years, but not without good results. At
the close of the 17th century the Dutch
Reformed Church claimed in Ceylon some
350,000 converts; in Java, 100,000; in
Amboina, 40,000. But after a few years
the majority of these Christians had re-
lapsed into heathenism, because the
methods employed for conversion were in
many instances questionable and not un-
like those practised by the Jesuit Xavier,
who baptized thousands without Scrip-
tural instruction. — The West India
Company of the Netherlands, also a com-
mercial organization, made an effort at
Foreign Missions in Brazil in 1621. Jo-
hann Moritz of Nassau-Siegen was ap-
pointed Governor-General at Pernambuco
in 1636 and sent eight missionary pas-
tors to that country, who translated the
Catechism, organized a few schools, and
baptized a small number of convert In-
dians. But the whole enterprise was
abandoned in 1667 ; no lasting results
had been obtained. — About this time
Swedish Lutheran colonists had founded
New Sweden on the eastern bank of the
Delaware in America. Missionary work
among the Indians was soon taken up,
chiefly by such men as Campanius, who
translated Luther’s Small Catechism into
the Indian tongue. Governor Stuyvesant
of New Amsterdam, however, reduced the
colony, and missionary effort soon ceased.
— Meanwhile the missionary spirit be-
gan to take root in England. The per-
secuted Scotch and English Puritans
went to North America and, though
chiefly seeking refuge and peace for
themselves, did not overlook the possi-
bility of serving the native Indians in a
religious way. Even Oliver Cromwell
harbored plans for changing Chelsea
College into a kind of missionary train-
ing-school. In 1649 the ordinance creat-
ing the “Corporation for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel in New England” was
passed, which was the earliest Reformed
missionary body in England. This so-
ciety now exists under the name of “New
England Company.” The charter of the
Massachusetts Colony (1628) provides
that “the natives of the country may be
won and mated to the knowledge and
obedience of the only true God and
Savior of mankind,” and the original
seal of the colony represents an Indian
uttering the words of the man of Mace-
donia, “Come over and help us.” It is
true that the Indians soon received the
most cruel and unjustifiable treatment
on the part of the settlers. Nevertheless,
such men as John Eliot, of Roxbury,
near Boston (d. May 20, 1690), and the
Mayhew family on Martha’s Vineyard
(1646 — 1806), David Brainerd (d. Octo-
ber 9, 1747), and others of like stripe
did valiant and, withal, successful mis-
sionary work among them. — Systematic
missionary labor, however, received its
greatest impulse through the Lutheran
Danish-Halle Missions in India. It re-
ceived its first impulse from Freder-
ick IV, a Lutheran king of Denmark.
He had ascended the throne in 1699, al-
ready deeply impressed with the utterly
hopeless spiritual condition of the hea-
then. Since 1621 Denmark had been in
possession of a strip of land on the Coro-
mandel Coast, southwest of Madras, in
India, and the king now decided to send
the Word of Salvation to the natives.
After consultation with his court chap-
lain Luetkens, who, in turn, got in touch
with Spener, Joachim Lange, and Aug.
Herm. Francke in Germany, two promis-
ing young men were secured, who de-
clared their willingness to preach to the
heathen in India : Bartholomaeus Ziegcn-
balg and Heinrich Pluetschau (1705).
They reached Tranquebar in July, 1706.
Thus the Lutherans made the first at-
tempt at systematic missionary endeavor
in India. August 7, 1707, the first Lu-
theran — in fact, the first Protestant —
chapel for the natives in Asia was dedi-
cated. Francke and his friends remained
Missions
483
Missions
the chief religious support for this mis-
sion during the next century, no less
than some sixty missionaries emanating
from Halle, among whom Christian
Friedrich Schwartz probably was the
foremost. The fruits of this missionary
enterprise, in the course of time,
amounted to 20,000 converts. — Another
Lutheran mission was fathered by Fred-
erick IV, of Denmark, namely, that of
Hans Egede, a Norwegian pastor. After
much discouraging effort, Egede, in 1721,
finally succeeded in being sent to Green-
land, where he labored unremittingly for
fifteen years. He died in Copenhagen in
1758. His son Paul succeeded him in
the work. The Moravians meanwhile
had entered the field, finally taking over
the whole work, but quit it again in
1899. — The Moravians date back to the
days of John Hus, who suffered death at
the hands of the popish Church in 1415.
Roman Catholic persecution drove some
of the followers of Hus to Saxony.
Among these was a certain Count Zinzen-
dorf, who settled in Berthelsdorf, near
Dresden, Saxony. His grandson, Count
Ludwig of Zinzendorf (1695 — 1760), be-
came the founder of the religious society
called XJnitas Fratrum, or the Moravian
Brethren. In 1722 many Moravians were
expelled from Austria and were given a
friendly asylum by Zinzendorf at Herrn-
liut, near Berthelsdorf. Through early
contact with Francke in Halle, Zinzen-
dorf had become deeply interested in
Foreign Missions. The strictly Lutheran
character was abandoned in the false in-
terest of doctrinal unionism. Foreign
Missions, however, were recognized as the
duty of every Christian community. On
August 21, 1732, the first missionaries
were sent to Danish St. Thomas, in the
West Indies, to labor among the Negroes.
These men were Leonhard Dobber and
David Nitschmann. Since then the Mo-
ravians have sent out approximately
3,500 missionaries, who labored in the
West Indies, Labrador, Dutch Guiana
(Surinam), Georgia, Africa, Asia, and
other countries. Meanwhile another so-
ciety had been organized in England,
which was destined materially to assist
in the propagation of the Gospel in India
through the Danish -Halle emissaries,
namely, the Society for Promoting Chris-
tian Knowledge (1698), which owes its
origin chiefly to the energetic activity of
Dr. Thomas Bray. In addition to this
the Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Parts was founded
(1701), which worked chiefly among the
Indians and the Negroes of America,
branching out into other foreign parts
only in the succeeding century. Scot-
land also entered into mission-work by
the organization of the Society in Scot-
land for Propagating Christian Knowl-
edge (Edinburgh, 1709) , whose missiona-
ries first labored among the American
Indians. David Brainerd was one of its
missionaries. — But England was des-
tined to work far more extensively in
the missionary field. Since the loss of
the Spanish Armada (1588) the star of
Spanish colonial power in the far East
began to pale and that of England to
glow. The charter given by Queen Eliza-
beth (1600) to the East India Company
clothed it with well - nigh unlimited
power. But for many years very little
missionary work was done. The spirit
of philosophical unbelief was rampant
and deadened religious and therefore mis-
sionary life. Religious endeavor was a
laughing-stock and a byword. Christian
teaching was almost extinct. However,
through such men as Charles Wesley
(1703 — 91) and George Whitefield (1714
to 1770), who had been influenced by
Francke and the writings of Luther, a
great religious awakening was brought
about, which later led to a reformation
of the Church, resulting in new and far-
reaching missionary effort. One factor
above others served to stimulate interest
in Foreign Missions, namely, the epochal
discoveries in the South Seas by James
Cook (d. 1779) and the highly colored re-
ports circulated in England and through-
out Europe. New missionary societies
were formed in rapid succession. Chiefly
through the activity of William Carey,
one-time cobbler and then Baptist min-
ister, the “Baptist Missionary Society”
was founded (October 2, 1792), and Carey
himself was its first missionary to India.
Then followed (1795) the organization
of the London Missionary Society, whose
early constituents were many Anglican
and Presbyterian clergymen, but which
latterly has been supported chiefly by
Congregational or independent churches.
Its best-known missionary was Robert
Morrison, the pathfinder of modern mis-
sions in China. The Anglican Church
Mission Society was founded April 12,
1799, and its first field was Africa. In
1813 the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary
Society followed. Scotland also had a
number of additional missionary socie-
ties, such as the Church of Scotland For-
eign Missions Committee (1825), by
which Dr. A. Duff was sent to India
in 1829; the Foreign Missions Commit-
tee of the United Free Church (1843),
the United Presbyterian Church of Scot-
land (1847), and others. — Among the
later societies organized in Great Britain
should be named the China Inland Mis-
Missions
484
Missions, Catholic Foreign
sion, which came into being through the
activity of Dr. Hudson Taylor and which
meanwhile has found an associate con-
stituency in other countries. This is an
interdenominational organization, ignor-
ing and obliterating all denominational
differences.- — North America also en-
tered actively into Foreign Mission en-
deavor by the organization of the Amer-
ican Board of Commissioners .for Foreign
Missions (1810), a society founded by
the General Association of Congrega-
tional Churches of Massachusetts, by
which Adoniram Judson was sent out.
Through his defection to the Baptists the
American Baptist Missionary Union
came into being (1814). The Presbyte-
rians first decided to support the Ameri-
can Board (1812); later, however, they
formed their own Presbyterian Board of
Foreign Missions, North ( 1837 ) . — Spe-
cial mention must yet be made of the
Students’ Volunteer Movement, which is
not a sending, but an enlisting society,
and of the International Missionary Al-
liance (1887), which to-day is called the
Christian and Missionary Alliance. Lu-
theran Foreign Missions were entered
into in the course of the past century by
nearly all Lutheran church-bodies in the
United States, among which special men-
tion may be made of the United Lutheran
Church (formerly the General Synod, the
General Council, the United Synod
South), the Ev. Luth. Synod of Missouri,
Ohio, and Other States; the Ev. Luth.
Joint Synod of Ohio and Other States;
the United Norwegian Ev. Luth. Church
of America ; the Swedish Augustana
Synod; the Ev. Luth. Synod of Iowa. —
In Germany, nationalism had worked
havoc during the 18th century, just as
it had in England, and religion had
sunken to a very low ebb. It was finally
impossible to find men suited to Foreign
Mission work. The Francke Institute
had sadly degenerated. Only the Mora-
vians continued to send men out into
foreign fields. In 1800 a missionary
training-school was founded at Berlin
by Pastor Jaenicke, in which some effec-
tive preparatory work was done. Its
successor was the Berlin Missionary So-
ciety ( Berliner Missionsgesellschaft ) ,
founded in 1824. For Southern Germany
and Switzerland the Basel Evangelical
Missionary Society (Evangelische Mis-
sionsgesellschaft zu Basel) was organized
(1815). Berlin received a second society
( 1824 ) in the Society for Assisting Evan-
gelical Missions among the Heathen (Ge-
sellsohaft zur Befoerderung der evange-
lisehen Missionen miter den Heiden,
Berlin I ) , in which such men as Wall-
mann and Wangemann were leaders.
Another foreign missionary society was
founded at Barmen (1819), the Rhenish
Missionary Society (Die Rheinische Mis-
sionsgesellschaft) , which sent out Hugo
Hahn, Nommensen, and others. The
Gossner Missionary Society ( Die Goss-
nersche Missionsgesellschaft, Berlin II),
was organized in 1836 by Joh. Ev. Goss-
ner. The doctrinal position of these Ger-
man missionary societies is unionistic,
comprising both the Lutheran and the
Reformed confessions. — Lutheran mis-
sionary societies are: 1. The Leipzig Ev.
Luth. Missions (Die Ev.-Luth. Missions-
gesellschaft zu Dresden, now Leipzig),
founded in 1836, which has taken up the
work of the old Danish-Halle Missions
in India. Prominent in this society was
Karl Graul. 2. The Hermannsburg Ev.
Luth. Missionary Institute ( Die Ev.-
Luth. Missionsanstalt zu Hermannsburg),
founded by Louis Harms in 1849. 3. The
Society for Home and Foreign Missions
according to the Principles of the Ev.
Luth. Church ( Die Gesellscliaft fuer In-
nere und Aeussere Mission irn Sinne der
Ev.-Luth. Kirche), organized in 1886 in
Neuendettelsau, Bavaria. 4. In 1887 the
Schleswig-Holstein Ev. Luth. Missionary
Society at Breklum (Die Schlesmig-Hol-
steinisch Ev.-Luth. Missionsgesellschaft
zu Breklum ) was founded. — But on the
Continent missionary zeal was not lim-
ited to Germany: Holland, France, Den-
mark, Norway, Sweden, Finland — all
formed missionary societies for foreign
work. A complete list of Foreign Mis-
sion Societies may be found in the World
Missionary Atlas, edited by Harlan P.
Beach and Charles H. Fahs, New York
Institute of Social and Religious Re-
search, 1925.
Missions, Catholic Foreign. The
Catholic theory of missions is so charac-
teristic in its arrogant pretensions and
in its outspoken repudiation of Protes-
tant claims that we deem it important
to state briefly what that theory is.
The Roman Catholic writer von Tippe
(quoted by Warneck, Geschichte der
protestantischen Mission, p. 170) says:
“If the one Church founded by Christ
can be none other than the one Catholic
Church which has continued from the
times of the apostles to the present day
[note the identification of the invisible
communion of saints with the visible
Roman organization], it follows with in-
exorable logic that this Church, and this
only, is charged with the task of mis-
sionizing the world (Missionierung des
Erdkreises) . Missionary activity among
all the nations of the earth is dogmat-
ically the exclusive and inalienable right
of the Catholic Church,” A higher author-
Missions, Catholic Foreign
485
Missouri Synod
ity, none other than Pope Leo XIII, in
the encyclical Sancta Dei Civitas (De-
cember 3, 1890), brands all Protestant
missionaries as “disseminators of er-
rors,” who, while giving themselves “the
appearance of being the apostles of
Christ,” are seeking “to extend the
domain of the Prince of Darkness.” In
short, then, all Protestant mission-work
is an arbitrary invasion on Roman Cath-
olic privilege. Again, it follows on these
principles that the field of Roman Catho-
lic missions is not the entire non-Chris-
tian, but the entire non -Catholic world.
For the Roman Catholic Church all the
countries of the earth fall into two divi-
sions: 1. provinces of the Holy See, or
Catholicae regiones, i. e., such .countries
as acknowledge the Roman Catholic
Church as the religion of the state or,
at least, accord her a privileged position;
2. provinces of the Propaganda, or aca-
tholicorum, et infidelium terrae (coun-
tries of non-Catholics and unbelievers),
or omnes illae provinciae, civitates et
terrae, quae magistratui infideli vel hae-
retico subjiciuntur, i. e., all those prov-
inces, states, and lands which are subject
to an unbelieving or heretical govern-
ment. In short, all Protestant countries
are included in this second division.
Catholic Foreign Missions begin with
the era of geographical discovery and ex-
ploration. Portuguese and Spanish navi-
gators embodied the crusading spirit and
were animated at once by the lust of gold
and zeal for the faith. The explorer and
the friar came side by side, and the
sword of the one was often used to en-
force the argument of the other. Con-
quest implied the “conversion” of the
natives. Thus the native populations of
Mexico, the West Indies, and, in part,
South America were “converted” to the
Roman Catholic faith in an incredibly
short time. The protest of Las Casas
against all coercion and violence was a
voice in the wilderness. The Portuguese
at the mouth of the Congo and on the
western coast of India adopted the same
methods as the Spaniards in the New
World. With the entrance of the Jesuits
upon the field the second period of Cath-
olic Foreign Missions may be said to
begin. Their activities included India,
Japan, China, Tonkin, the Philippines,
Brazil, Paraguay, Canada, Abyssinia.
Due recognition must be given to the
self-denying devotion, zeal, and heroism
of the Jesuit missionaries, while on the
other hand their questionable missionary
methods, dictated by motives of expedi-
ency and aiming more at the wholesale
churching of multitudes than at genuine
change of heart, not shrinking even from
the vicious practise of accommodation to
heathen rites and ceremonies (repeatedly
condemned by the Popes ) , deserve our
severest condemnation. Judged by their
fruits, the labors of the Jesuits were a
failure — houses built on sand. This
second period of missionary activity was
followed by a rapid decline. At the end
of the eighteenth century the conditions
in the Foreign Mission field were, in the
words of a Catholic writer, “extremely
dreary — almost everywhere nothing but
ruins and desolation.” The mechanical
missionary methods, the decline of the
Spanish and Portuguese powers, the abo-
lition of the Jesuit order, and other
causes combined to bring about this re-
sult. The restoration of the Jesuit order
and, in no small degree, the stimulating
effect of Protestant mission-work, as well
as the opening of new territories through
colonial expansion, resulted in a revival
of Catholic missionary activity. What
this revival means may be seen from the
fact that at the beginning of the nine-
teenth century there were hardly 1,000
Catholic missionaries in the field, while
in 1914 there were about 15,000. Cath-
olic missions are established in nearly
all parts of the world and are carried on
by numerous religious orders (Jesuits,
Franciscans, Lazarists, Dominicans, Car-
melites. Capuchins, Benedictines), sup-
ported by various missionary societies
(Lyons Missionary Society, founded in
1822, St. Boniface Society, St. Louis So-
ciety, etc., etc. ) . As to the numerical
status of Catholic Foreign Missions, Rob-
inson ( Distory of Christian Missions,
1913) gives 5,675,158 as the total num-
ber of baptized heathen in the various
non-Christian countries.
Mississippi Synod. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Missouri. The Lutheran Synod of
Missouri, Ohio, and Other States, or-
ganized 1847, comprised the Saxon -con-
gregations in Missouri and the congrega-
tions served by the missioners of Loehe
in Ohio and Michigan. Conspicuous
among its founders were C. F. W. Wal-
ther, his. associates, and W. Sihler. The
Saxon pilgrims bad come over in 1839.
The “Emigration Regulations” thus state'
the reason: “All the undersigned ac-
knowledge with sincerity of heart the ,
pure Lutheran faith as contained in the
Word of God, the Old and New Testa-"
ments, and set forth and confessed in
the Symbolical Books of the Lutheran
Church. After deliberate and mature
counsel they can, humanly speaking, se£
no possibility of retaining in their pres-
ent home this faith pure and undefiled,
Missouri Synod
486
Missouri Synod
'of confessing it and transmitting it to
their posterity. Hence they feel in duty
bound to emigrate and to look for a
country where this Lutheran faith is not
endangered and where they can serve
God undisturbed in the way of grace
revealed and ordained by Him, and
where they can enjoy, without being
interfered with, fully, without adultera-
tion, the means of grace ordained by God
for all men unto salvation, and can pre-
serve them in their integrity and purity
for themselves and their children. . . .
Such a country as they are looking for
is the United States of North America;
for there, as nowhere else in the world,
perfect religious and civil liberty pre-
vails.” At that time Rationalism pre-
vailed, as in other parts of Germany, so
also in Saxony and Altenburg, and the
rulers were bound to suppress the re-
vival of true Lutheranism. Its faithful
preachers met with bitter scorn and ac-
tual persecution. When Pastor M. Ste-
phan, of Dresden, a powerful preacher
of the old Gospel, with whom they had
established close relations, finally pro-
posed emigration as the only solution,
the oppression fast becoming unbearable,
they finally agreed to it, some of them,
however, only after much deliberation
and severe conflicts of the soul. Six
ministers : M. Stephan, E. G. W. Keyl,
G. H. Loeber, 0. H. and C. F. W. Walther,
and E. M. Buerger, ten candidates of the-
ology, among them Th. Brohm, 0. Fuer-
bringer, J. F. Buenger, J. Goenner, G. A.
Schieferdecker, four teachers, profes-
sional men, merchants, artisans, and
peasants, most of them in good circum-
stances, in all about 750 persons, left
their homes and friends in November,
1838, and arrived in St. Louis early
in 1839. The congregation remaining
in St. Louis, Trinity, worshiped for three
years in the basement of Christ Epis-
copal Church ; the rest settled on a tract
of land in Perry Co., forming the con-
gregations of Wittenberg, Altenburg,
Frohna, etc. In the same year 95 emi-
grants from Prussia, under the leader-
ship of M. Oertel, and 141 more from
Saxe-Altenburg joined them. To preserve
their true Lutheran faith, however, the
pilgrims had first to pass through a
soul-trying controversy. The very exis-
tence of the congregations was, for a
time, jeopardized. Their leader had
fallen into doctrinal errors. He had
gradually adopted the Romanizing con-
ception of the Church and the ministry
and developed a hierarchical tendency
of a very pronounced type. He had pre-
vailed upon most of his followers to
make him their bishop and to sign a
document in which they vowed obedience
to him in all religious matters and even
in the business affairs of the community.
Then, too, before the settlement in Perry
Co. had advanced beyond its beginnings,
in the season of Pentecpst, 1839, they
found, what, indeed, some had suspected
before, that their venerated leader had
been leading a life of gross immorality.
He was deposed from office and expelled
from the settlement. But now every-
thing was thrown into wild confusion.
The people deeply felt the disgrace.
Many were conscious of having placed
undue confidence in their beloved leader,
of having failed to take a fully decided
stand against his errors from the begin-
ning. And, worst of all, these errors
had begun to take root — - the errors that
the Lutheran Church, more particularly
the adherents of Stephan, was the
Church, without which there was no sal-
vation ; that the ministry was a media-
torship between God and man and en-
titled to unconditional obedience in all
things not in conflict with the Word of
God ; that questions of doctrine were to
be decided by the clergy alone, in w r hose
hands also rested the power of the
Keys, etc. The clergy “was troubled by
the question whether the colonists con-
stituted congregations with authority to
call ministers, and many of the laymen
entertained similar doubts concerning
the right of the ministers to hold their
office here after having left their charges
beyond the sea. Walther, too, was for
a time tossed about by doubts and fears.”
And it was Walther (who had never
submitted to the hierarchical claims of
Stephan) whose clear grasp and unfal-
tering presentation of the Scriptural
principle involved placed the people on
firm Lutheran ground. A public debate
was arranged at Altenburg, Mo., in order
that all might have an opportunity to
unburden their hearts. Lawyer Marbach
was the spokesman of the party which
cast doubt upon the standing of the
Saxon congregations as true churches.
Walther proposed and defended eight
theses, which clearly set forth what the
Church really is; see Altenburg Theses.
By the grace of God he prevailed, thereby
not merely saving the settlements from
disintegrating, but also establishing the
congregations upon such a basis as to
make them models for others. — The
second contingent, outnumbering the
first, was made up almost exclusively
of the churches served or established by
the missioners of Pastor W. Loehe, of
Neuendettelsau, who had been brought
into the field chiefly through the influ-
ence of Rev. F. C. D. Wyneken, the cio-
Missouri Synod
487
Missouri Synod
necr missionary. Wyneken came over
in 1838 to minister to the destitute Lu-
therans and was sent by the Mission
Board of the Pennsylvania Synod to ex-
plore Ohio and Indiana, and his ringing
appeals to friends in Germany for help
in remedying the deplorable state of
affairs enlisted the generous services of
the Missionary Society of Stade, of
Pastor Loehe, of Dr. L. A. Petri, of Han-
over, of the Society for North America
in Dresden, and others in Bavaria, Han-
over, and Saxony. Wyneken personally
appeared in Germany to give more force
to the appeal. The first to enlist were
A. Ernst and G. Burger, whom Loehe in-
structed for a year and sent over in
1842. A year later Dr. W. Sillier con-
secrated himself to the work. He came
highly recommended for his learning
and ability by Dr. Rudelbach and Pastor
Loehe and became pastor in Pomeroy, O.,
later Wyneken’s successor in Fort Wayne.
Loehe further established, in the interest
of the missions among the Indians, the
mission-colony of Frankenmuth, Mich.,
A. Craemer being the pastor-missionary.
Others won for the work, some of them
university graduates, others Nothelfer :
W. Hattstaedt, F. Lochner, J. H. P. Graeb-
ner, F. Sievers, A.Wolter, F. A. W. Roeb-
belen, G. Schaller, E. A. Brauer, etc. —
The chief factor in establishing connec-
tion between these various companies of
staunch Lutherans was the Lutheraner,
established September 7, 1844, by Wai-
ther. Wyneken and Loelie’s men at once
recognized in the Saxons true sons of the
Lutheran Church. These men had been
standing alone. Wyneken had been
forced to leave the General Synod on
account of its Zwinglianism, Methodism,
and gross unionism ; Sillier, Ernst, Selle,
and others, the Ohio Synod on account
of its un-Lutheran position with respect
to unionism ; Craemer, Lochner, and
others, the Michigan Synod for the same
reason. The Saxons, much to their sor-
row, were prevented from establishing
relations with Pastor Grabau in Buffalo
and his adherents on account of the
differences in the doctrine of the Church
and the Ministry. The best interests of
the Lutheran Church required the organ-
ization of a synod which stood four-
square on the Lutheran Confessions.
Pastor Loehe also advised his missioners
to get into communication with the
Saxons. A meeting to discuss the or-
ganization of a new synod was held in
Cleveland, 1845, by Wyneken, Sihler, and
others; the Saxons, though heartily in
favor of the step, were absent. The next
meeting was held in St. Louis, 1846 ; in
place of the Cleveland draft a new one.
formulated by Walther and thoroughly
discussed by his congregation, was signed
by the Saxons and the three Eastern men
present. In the same year this draft
was approved by a conference of 16 pas-
tors in Fort Wayne and submitted to the
congregations. — The organization of the
Missouri Synod took place on April 26,
1847, in St. Paul’s, Chicago (Rev. A.
Selle, pastor ) . The original framers
signed the Fort Wayne draft, elected
temporary officers, and then proceeded to
receive others into membership. There
were present 17 pastors, 1 professor
(Wolter, Fort Wayne), 1 candidate for
the ministry, 1 student of theology, and
4 lay delegates of congregations joining
the organization. Four pastors who had
not been able to be present were admitted
to membership upon their written re-
quest. One pastor and 3 lay delegates
attended to observe developments. The
delegation of Watertown, Wis. (Pastor
Geyer and his lay delegate ), were present
to protest against the organizing of a
synod, there being no Scriptural author-
ity for such an institution. It was
pointed out to them that such an ar-
rangement properly lies within the prov-
ince of Christian congregations, belong-
ing in the sphere of Christian liberty;
that the general command, Eph. 4 , 3 and
1 Cor. 14, 40, authorizes it; and that
Acts 15 establishes a proper precedent.
The amendment proposed by Trinity
Church, St. Louis, declaring that Synod,
in its relation to the individual congre-
gation, is to be merely an advisory body,
and that its resolutions have no binding
effect until adopted by the congregation
as not contrary to the Word of God and
suited to its condition, was embodied in
the constitution. 12 pastors became vot-
ing members, their congregations enter-
ing the organization ; 9 pastors, 1 pro-
fessor, and 2 candidates became advisory
members. The first officers, elected for a
term of three years, were: Rev. C. F. W.
Walther, president; Rev. W. Sihler,
Ph. D., vice-president; Rev. F. W. Hus-
mann, secretary; Mr. F. W. Barthel,
treasurer. According to the first report
of the treasurer the funds of the Synod
amounted to $118.32%. Der Lutheraner
was offered by its founder and owner,
Rev. C. F. W. Walther, as the official or-
gan of the Synod and was gladly ac-
cepted, Walther was retained as editor,
and a special committee on publications
was appointed. Synod further took steps
to acquire full control of the log-cabin
college and seminary near Altenburg,
Perry Co., which the Saxons had estab-
lished as early as 1839, and of the prac-
tical seminary in Fort Wayne, which
Mlacourl Synod
488
Missouri Synod
Pastor Loehe and Dr. Sihler had founded
in 1846, for the purpose of training
pastors and teachers as quickly as pos-
sible. It was also resolved to ask Pastor
Loehe and his mission board to give
Synod full charge and control of the
missions among the Indians in Michigan.
A board was appointed to consider the
matter of Foreign Missions, and a vis-
itor, or home missionary at large, was
appointed (Candidate C. Frincke) for
the purpose of exploring new fields. Six
conference districts were organized, with
headquarters at St. Louis, Chicago, Fort
Wayne, Monroe, Mich., Fairfield Co., O.,
New York City. Of the voting congrega-
tions and pastors four were located in the
State of Indiana : W. Sihler, Fort Wayne;
F. W. Husmann and G. Jaebker, Adams
Co.; G. K. Schuster, Mishawaka; two in
Illinois : F. W. Poesehke, Peru, and W.
Scholz, Minden ; two in Ohio : A. Ernst,
Neuendettelsau (Marysville), and G.
Streckfuss, Willshire; one in Michigan:
A. Craemer, Frankenmuth ; one in New
York: E. M. Buerger, Buffalo; and two
in Missouri : C. F. W. Walther, St. Louis,
and C. J. H. Fick, New Melle. Of the ad-
visory pastors four were located in Ohio :
F. W. Richmann, Lancaster; J. Traut-
mann, Danbury; J. E. Schneider, Marion;
A. Detzer, Williams Co.; two in Illinois:
A. Selle, Chicago ; 0. Fuerbringer, Elk-
horn Prairie; one in Michigan: Wm.
Hattstaedt, Monroe ; one in New York :
Th. J. Brohm, New York City ; one in
Missouri : G. H. Loeber, Altenburg. When
Synod held its second annual session, in
1848, it comprised 25 voting pastors and
their congregations, among them F.
Wyneken, Baltimore, 25 advisory pas-
tors, and 5 teachers.
The Purpose and Aim of the Synod is :
1 ) The conservation and continuance of
the unity of the true faith (Epli. 4,
3 — 10; 1 Cor. 1, 10) and a united effort
to resist every form of schism and sec-
tarianism (Rom. 10, 17); 2) the exten-
sion of the kingdom of God; 3) the
training of ministers and teachers for
service in the Evangelical Lutheran
Church; 4) the publication and distri-
bution of Bibles, church-books, school-
books, religious periodicals, and other
books and papers; 5) the endeavor to
bring about the largest possible uniform-
ity in church practise, church customs,
and, in general, in congregational affairs;
6 ) the furtherance of Christian paro-
chial schools and of a thorough catechet-
ical instruction preparatory to admission,
to the Sacrament; 7) supervision of the
ministers and teachers of the Synod with
regard to the performance of their offi-
cial duties; 8) the protection of pastors,
teachers, and congregations in the fulfil-
ment of their duties and maintenance of
their rights.
Doctrinal Position of the Missouri
Synod. The conditions of membership
laid down in the constitution were: ac-
ceptance of the Scriptures of the Old and
New Testaments as the written Word of
God and the only rule and norm of faith
and practise; acceptance of all the sym-
bolical books of the Evangelical Lutheran
Church as a true and correct statement
and exposition of the Word of God; re-
nunciation of unionism and syncretism
of every description, such as serving
mixed congregations and joining in mixed
worship and communion; exclusive use
of purely Lutheran books in church and
school ; a permanently called ministry.
The position the Missouri Synod has,
accordingly, taken on the various doc-
trines may be seen frofn the doctrinal
articles in this book. In addition, the
statement by Dr. Pieper, of the jubilee
year of 1922, on the position of the
Synod with reference to’ doctrines which
have been, and are, more or less in con-
troversy, is here reprinted: What the
Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and Other
States during the Seventy-five Years of
Tts Existence has Taught and Still
Teaches. Of the Ho ly Scrin tures . We
teach that Die Holy Scriptures, in dis-
tinction from all other writings in the
world, are the Word of God, because the
holy men of God who wrote the Scrip-
tures did not write of their own accord,
but only that which the Holy Ghost com-
municated to them by inspiration, as the
Scriptures themselves expressly testify:
“All Scripture is given by inspiration of
God” (2 Tim. 3, 16), and again: “Holy
men of God spake as they were moved by
the Holy Ghost” (2 Pet. 1, 21). Since
the Holy Scriptures are the Word of
God, we furthermore teach that no errors
or contradictions of any kind are found
in them, but that they are throughout
infallible truth, as our Lord Himself
testifies: “The Scriptures cannot be
broken.” John 10, 35. Finally, we also
teach concerning the Holy Scriptures
that they are given by God to the Chris-
tian Church for a foundation of faith, as
St. Paul says regarding the Christian
Church : “Built upon the foundation of
the apostles and prophets.” Epli. 2, 20.
Hence the Scriptures are the only foun-
tain from which all doctrine proclaimed
in the Church must be drawn, and there-
fore also the only infallible standard and
rule by which all doctrines and teachers
must be estimated and judged. 1 Pet.
4, 11. We reject the doctrine which men
seek to spread in the Christian Church
Missouri Synod
489
Missouri Synod
of our day, even under the name of
“science, ” that the Holy Scriptures are
not throughout the Word of God, but, in
part, the Word of God, and, in part, also
the word of man, and that, hence, they
also contain errors, or, at least, are ca-
pable of containing them. We reject this
doctrine as a horrible and blasphemous
one, because it contradicts Christ and
the apostles to their faces, because it
sets up men as judges over the Word of
God, and because it overthrows the foun-
dation of the faith of the Christian
Church. — Of God. . According to the
revelation of Holy Scripture we teach
the sublime article of the Holy Trinity,
1. e., we teach that the one true God
(1 Cor. 8, 4) is Father, Son, and Holy
Ghost (Matt. 28, 19), three distinct per-
sons, of the same divine essence (John
10, 30) , equal in power, equal in eternity,
equal in majesty, because each person
possesses the one divine essence entire
( Col. 2, 9 ) . — Regarding all teachers and
communions that deny the doctrine of
the Holy Trinity, we hold that they are
outside of the Christian Church, having
no Gospel, no Baptism, etc., as Scripture
testifies: “Whosoever denieth the Son,
the same hath not the Father.” 1 John
2, 23. — - Of Creation. We teach that God
created heaven" and earth, in the manner
and in the time recorded in Holy Scrip-
ture (especially Gen. 1 and 2), namely,
by His almighty creative word, and in
six days. We reject every doctrine by
which this divine work of creation, as
revealed in Scripture, is denied or lim-
ited, as is done by those who in our day,
ostensibly in deference to “science,” teach
that the world has evolved more or less
out of itself in immense periods of time.
Man was not present when it pleased
God to create the world. The only re-
liable information we have of this event
is God’s own report, which we have in
God’s own Book, the Bible. — Of Man
and of Sin. We teach that God created
the first men neither animal-like, nor
morally neutral, nor merely capable of
development, but in His own image, that
is, in true knowledge of God and in per-
fect righteousness and holiness, endowed
also with a truly scientific knowledge of
nature. Gen. 2, 19 — 23. We furthermore
teach that sin entered into the world by
the Fall of the first men, recorded Gen. 3,
and that by this fall not only the first
men, but also all their natural offspring
have lost their original righteousness,
and that now all men are born dead in
sin and children of wrath. Epli. 2, 1 — 3.
Finally, we teach that men cannot, by
any efforts of their own, not even by the
“progress and culture” of our times, be-
come reconciled to God and thus over-
come death and damnation. — Of Faith
in.JHlliM. Since by Christ’s vicarious
life and suffering all mankind is recon-
ciled with God, and since this reconcilia-
tion, wrought by Christ, is proclaimed to
men through the Gospel, to the end that
men may believe the message of God’s
grace, faith in Christ is the only way for
men to obtain forgiveness of sin and sal-
vation, as all Scripture, both of the Old
and the New Testament, testifies. Acts
10, 43; John 3, 16. 17. 36. — By faith in
Christ we mean faith in the Gospel, i. e.,
faith in the forgiveness of sins for
Christ’s sake, not human efforts to fulfil
the Law of God, or “trying to keep the
commandments.” — Q£ Conversion. Faith
in Christ, by which alone men are saved,
is not by nature found in man, but is
wrought in man by conversion. Regard-
ing conversion, we teach that it is neither
wholly nor in part the work of man, but
the work of God alone, who by His grace
and power for Christ’s sake works con-
version in man by His Word. 1 Cor.
2, 14; Eph. 1, 19. 20. We furthermore
teach that the Holy Spirit is willing to
work conversion not only in a few, but
in all hearers of the Word, and that, if
a part of the hearers, nevertheless, re-
main unconverted, this is due not to a
deficiency in the grace of God, but solely
to the obstinate resistance of man. Matt.
23, 37; Acts 7, 51. We reject every
kind of synergism, that is, every doc-
trine which teaches that conversion is
brought aljout, not solely by the grace
of God, but in part also by man’s co-
operation, correct conduct, self-decision,
and lesser guilt as compared with other
people, etc. We reject this doctrine be-
cause it contradicts Scripture, because it
makes man, in part at least, liis own
savior, and thus overthrows the chief
article of the Christian religion, vim., that
we are saved by grace alone, for Christ’s
sake. — We also reject every kind of Cal-
vinism, that is, every doctrine which
asserts that God would earnestly con-
vert, not all hearers of the Word, but
only a part of them. Luke 19, 41. 42. To
sum, up : We teach that whoever is con-
verted is converted solely by the grace of
God, and whoever remains unconverted
must ascribe this fact to the resistance
which he has offered to the gracious
operations of the Holy Spirit. All ques-
tions going beyond the bounds of these
two facts, clearly revealed in Scripture,
we leave for eternal life to answer. — —
Qh-£ e4em.p rti i Q2x J We teach that in the
fulness of time the eternal Son of God
was made man, in the manner revealed
in Holy Scripture, vim., that He received
Missouri Synod
490
Missouri Synod
into His divine person a true human na-
ture from the Virgin Mary by the opera-
tion of the Holy Spirit. Jesus Christ is
“true God, begotten of the Father from
eternity, and also true man, born of the
Virgin Mary,” true God and true man in
one undivided and indivisible person.
This divine miracle of the incarnation of
the Son of God took place to the end
that He should become the Mediator be-
tween God and man, namely, that in
place of mankind He should fulfil the
Law, suffer and die, and thus reconcile
all mankind unto God. Gal. 4, 4. 5 ; 3, 13 ;
2 Cor. 5, 19. — O f Justific ation. All its
teachings regarding the lbve' of God to
a sinner-world, regarding the salvation
wrought by Christ, and regarding faith
in Christ as the only way to obtain sal-
vation, the Scripture sums up in the
doctrine of justification. Holy Scripture
teaches that God does not receive men on
a basis of their own works, but that
without the deeds of the Law, by grace
alone, on account of the perfect merit of
Christ, He justifies them, i. <?., He regards
as righteous all those who believe that
for Christ's sake their sins are forgiven
them. Thus the Holy Spirit testifies
through St. Paul: “There is no differ-
ence; for all have sinned and come short
of the glory of God, being justified freely
by His grace through the redemption
that is in Christ Jesus.” Rom. 3*22 — 24.
And again : “Therefore we conclude that
a man is justified by faith, without the
deeds of the Law.” Rom. 3, 28. By this
doctrine alone Christ is given the honor
due Him, viz., that by His life, suffering,
and death He is our only Redeemer, and
by this doctrine alone poor sinners re-
ceive the abiding comfort that God is as-
suredly gracious to them. We reject as
an apostasy from the Christian religion
all doctrines by which man’s own works
are mingled into the doctrine of justi-
fication. For the Christian religion is
none other than this, that we obtain
forgiveness of sin and salvation without
works of our own, solely by the grace of
God, for Christ’s sake, through faith. —
Of_Good Works. Regarding good works
we teach tHaTTonly those works are good
which a person performs for the purpose
of serving and honoring God according
to the norm of the divine Law. Such
works, however, no man performs unless
he first believes that God has received
him to eternal life out of mere grace, for
Christ’s sake, without all works of his
own. We reject as a great folly the as-
sertion that, according to “a modern and
deeper view of Christianity,” works must
be placed in the fore, and faith must step
to the rear. Good works never precede
faith, but always follow after and pro-
ceed from it. Reminding Christians of
the mercy of God in Christ is the only
way of making them rich in good works.
We reject as unchristian and foolish all
attempts at producing good works by the
compulsion of the Law or by carnal mo-
tives. — O f the Means of Grace. Al-
though the - whole earth is full of the
temporal bounties and blessings of God,
and although God is present and operates
everywhere throughout creation (Col.
1, 17; Acts 17, 28; 14, 17), still we be-
lieve that God does not offer and com-
municate the spiritual blessings pur-
chased by Christ, such as the forgiveness
of sins, the Holy Spirit, etc., except
through the means of grace ordained by
Him. These means of grace are the Word
of the Gospel, and the Sacraments of
Baptism and of the Lord’s Supper. The
Gospel, according to the Scriptures, is
the word of the grace of God, Acts 20,
24. 32; works faith, Rom. 10, 17, and
ministereth the Spirit, Gal. 3, 5; Bap-
tism is applied for the remission of sins,
Acts 2, 38, and is the washing of regen-
eration, Titus 3, 5; and that the object
of the Lord’s Supper, i. e., of the minis-
tration of the body and blood of Christ,
can be none other than the communica-
tion and sealing of the forgiveness of
sins, is testified by these words: “Given
for you,” and, “Shed for you,” “for the
remission of sins,” Luke 22, 19. 20;
Matt. 2G, 28. For this reason Christ
charges His Church not to stay at home
with the means of grace entrusted to her,
but to go abroad into all the world,
preaching the Gospel and administering
the Sacraments. Mark 16, 15. 16. For
the same reason the Church at home is
forever to retain this firm conviction,
that there is no other way of gaining
souls for the Church and keeping them
therein than to use the means of grace
ordained- bp God. All other means for
building the Church we reject as “new
measures,” by which the Church is not
built, but harmed. - — Of .the Churc h.
There is on this earth one holy Christian
Church, the sole Head of which is Christ,
and which is gathered, preserved, and
governed by Christ through His Word.
The members of this Christian Church
are the Christians, that is, all those men,
and only those, who, having despaired of
their own righteousness, in the sight of
God, believe in Christ as their only
Savior, i. e., who believe that God has
forgiven all their sins for the sake of
Christ’s perfect righteousness. This one
holy Christian Church, which is the in-
visible. communion of all believers, 'ik~
"found not only in those visible church
Missouri Synod
Missouri Synod
491
communions which teach the Christian
doctrine purely in every part, but also in
such organizations where, mingled with
error, so much of the Word of God is
still preserved as to enable souls to come
to a knowledge of sin and to obtain faith
in Christ. Although, by the great mercy
of God, there are found children of God
also in heterodox churches, still such
churches do not exist by the will of God,
hut are earnestly prohibited , since God
wants His Word both preached and be-
lieved without human additions and sub-
tractions, as is written 1 Pet. 4, 11: “If
any man speak, let him speak as the
oracles of God.” Hence it is the will of
God that Christians should unite only
with orthodox church organizations, and
that those Christians who have strayed
into heterodox churches should leave
them and seek the communion of the
orthodox Church. Rom. 16, 17 ; Matt.
7, 15. We reject every kind of unionism,
i. e., church-fellowship, with false teach-
ers and false teachings, as disobedience
to the express command of Christ, as the
real cause of the origin and continuance
of divisions in the Church, and as a
standing danger, threatening the entire
loss of the Word of God. As the Chris-
tians, and no one else, are the Church, it
need but be mentioned that they, and no
one else, are the original possessors of
all the spiritual rights and privileges
with which it pleased Christ, the Lord,
to endow His Church. Of this fact
St. Paul reminds the believers, saying:
“All things are yours” (1 Cor. 3, 21);
and thus Christ Himself appropriates to
all believers the keys of the kingdom of
heaven (Matt. 16, 13 — 19; 18, 17 — 20;
John 20, 22. 23 ) , and commissions all be-
lievers to preach the Gospel (Matt. 28,
19. 20). Accordingly, we reject all doc-
trines by which this spiritual power, or
any part thereof, is ascribed as belonging
originally to individual persons, such as
the Pope, or the bishops, or the min-
isters, or to secular princes, or to coun-
cils and synods, etc. The administration
of public offices in the Church by in-
dividual persons is by delegation from
the original possessors, and remains un-
der their supervision. Col. 4, 17. To all
Christians also belongs both the right
and the duty of judging and deciding
matters of doctrine. 1 Cor. 10, 15 ; 1 Pet.
4, 11. — Ofjji e . Minis ixiU -.. Regarding the
office of the ministry we teach that it is
a divine ordinance, i:e., the Christians
at a certain place are enjoined by divine
precept to put to use the Word of God
not only privately and within the circle
of their families, but also publicly by
persons qualified for such work, and to
have the Sacraments administered ac-
cording to the institution of Christ.
Titus 1, 5; Acts 14, 23; 2 Tim. 2, 2.
However, the office of the ministry pos-
sesses no other power than the power of
the Word (1 Pet. 4, 11), i.e., it is in-
deed the duty of Christians to yield an
unconditional obedience to the office of
the ministry whenever and wherever the
minister proclaims to them the Word of
God (Heb. 13, 17 ; Luke 10, 16) ; on the
other hand, if the minister in his teach-
ings and injunctions goes beyond the
Word of God, it would not be the duty
of Christians to obey, but to disobey him,
so as to remain faithful to Christ, in ac-
cordance with Matt. 23, 8. — Of the Elec-
tion of_Qraee We teach an election of
grace, or a predestination to salvation,
but we reject an election of wrath, or
a predestination to damnation. There is,
indeed, an eternal election of grace, for
Holy Scripture clearly reveals the fact
that all those who, by the grace of God
in Christ and through the means of
grace, are converted, justified, sanctified,
and preserved in faith in time, had al-
ready been accorded these spiritual bless-
ings before the foundation of the world,
1. e., from eternity, and this for the same
reason, namely, out of mere grace in
Christ, and by the same means, to wit,
by the divinely established means of
grace. That such is the doctrine of Holy
Writ is seen from Eph. 1, 3 — 5; 2 Thess.
2, 13. 14; Acts 13, 48; Rom. 8, 29. 30;
2 Tim. 1, 9. Accordingly, we reject every
doctrine by which it is claimed that not
solely the grace of God and the merits of
Christ are the cause of eternal election
unto salvation, but that God has found,
or seen, also in us, something good which
caused or prompted Him to elect us.
This doctrine we reject, no matter
whether that “something good,” presup-
posed in man, be called “good works,”
“correct conduct,” “self-determination,”
“persevering faith,” or be given any
other name. As to an election of wrath,
or a predestination unto damnation, we
decidedly reject such a doctrine for the
following reason : Holy Scripture clearly
reveals the fact that God’s love to a sin-
ner world is universal, that the redemp-
tion of Christ pertains to all men, and
that God is willing to bring all men to
faith, preserve them therein, and thus
save them. That such is the doctrine of
Holy Writ is seen from John 3, 16. 17 ;
1 Tim. 2, 4-— 6; Acts 13, 46; 7, 51; Matt
23,37. — Of^ the Millennium. We teach
that the Clmrclr ~8T~Gry(T' here on earth
will unto the last day be subject to the
cross, and the more so, the nearer the
last day approaches. Acts 14, 22; Matt.
Missouri Synod
492
Missouri Synod
24, 12 — 14. We reject the doctrine that
the Church may expect here on earth a
future glorious estate in a reign of a thou-
sand years, because this doctrine contra-
dicts clear passages of Scripture and
misleads Christians to direct their hope
to an imaginary happiness here on earth,
instead of directing it alone to the hap-
piness in heaven. — Of Antichrist. As
regards the great Antichrist, we~3o not
teach that he is yet to come, but hold
that he has appeared in the Roman
Papacy, because the abominations which
have been predicted in Scripture, espe-
cially in 2 Tliess. 2, regarding the Anti-
christ agree with the hierarchy of the
Pope and his members. For we behold
the Pope, under the name and title of an
infallible Vicegerent of Christ on earth,
continually drawing men away from the
Word and merits of Christ, and, instead
thereof, luring them to his own papal
word and to the righteousness of human
works, and, hence, hurrying' them into
eternal damnation; and we behold him
doing all this under the enticing form of
external church forms and great sanctity
and appealing to all manner of lying
powers, signs, and wonders. Accordingly,
we recognize in Popery that greatest
enemy of the Christian Church predicted
in 2 Thess. 2, and we hold that those err,
and cannot duly warn souls against the
seducing power of Popery, who expect
the great Antichrist, or the full manifes-
tation thereof, to be an event of the
future. — Of Church and State. Although
both Church - and-State— ar^-TrCdinances
of God, they must not be mingled with
one another. Church and State have e»-
tirely different aims. By the Church
God purposes to save men. Gal. 4, 26.
By the State God purposes to maintain
external order among men. 1 Tim. 2, 2.
In like manner, the means which Church
and State employ to gain their ends are
entirely different The Church must not
employ any other means than the preach-
ing of the Word of God ; she detests, in
particular, all external force and coer-
cion. John 18, 11. 36. On the other hand,
the State makes laws bearing on civil
life and rightly employs for their execu-
tion also the sword and other corporal
punishments. Rom. 13, 4. Accordingly,
we oppose the practise of those who de-
sire to see the power of the State em-
ployed “in the interest of the Church,”
thus making the Church a secular king-
dom, to the great detriment of the
Church. We likewise reject the foolish
attempts of those who would make the
State a church, by striving to govern the
State by the Word of God, instead of
ruling it by external, civil laws.
Church Politu — Synod has scrupu-
lously guarded the rights of the local
congregation. In its relation to its mem-
bers Synod is not a governing body, exer-
cising legislative or coercive powers. In
all matters involving the congregation’s
right of self-government Synod is but an
advisory body. No resolution of Synod
is binding upon the congregation which
appears unsuited to its condition, and all
resolutions of Synod become binding
through their acceptance by the congre-
gations. Only the congregation and the
ministerial office are by divine law (jure
divino) ; Synod and all its officers are
by human right (jure humano). — Synod
receives into membership pastors, candi-
dates for the ministry, professors, and
teachers of parochial schools; but the
unit of the Synod is the congregation.
Therefore only congregations have the
right to vote in synodical matters.
Every congregation has two votes, which
are cast by the pastor and a lay delegate.
In order to become a member, a congre-
gation must send in its constitution for
approval, and the first duly elected lay
delegate of a congregation must sign the
Constitution of Synod as the representa-
tive of his congregation. Pastors in
charge of a congregation or without a
charge, candidates, and teachers of paro-
chial schools applying for membership,
if not graduates from a seminary of the
Synod, must submit to an examination
(a colloquium), to prove their fitness
and their orthodoxy. After they have
been found eligible, they sign the Con-
stitution. Pastors whose congregations
do not hold full or voting membership
in the Synod, assistant pastors, ministers
of the Gospel without a charge, profes-
sors at the Synod’s educational institu-
tions, teachers of parochial schools, can-
didates for the ministry or for the office
of a teacher in a parochial school, are
called advisory members. Barring the
right to vote, they stand in the same re-
lation to the Synod, and under the same
supervision of the officers of the Synod
as the voting members. The congrega-
tions of advisory pastors are called upon
to contribute for missionary and synod-
ical purposes in the same manner as the
congregations in full membership, and
they, in turn, are entitled to the care
and the advice of the officers of Synod.
Officers^ ,.,-t¥he President of Synod, be-
sides performing the usual duties of such
an officer, is charged with the supervision
of the doctrine and official practise of all
other officers of Synod, of the District
presidents, and of the Districts as such,
attends the meeting of the Districts,
visits annually all educational institu-
Missouri Synod
493
Missouri Synod
tions, gives advice whenever requested,
admonition whenever needed, and seeks
to promote and maintain the unity of
doctrine and practise among the Dis-
tricts. Tile four vice-presidents act
whenever requested to do so by the Presi-
dent, in his stead. The District presi-
dents are charged with the supervision
of the doctrine, life, and administration
of office of the pastors and teachers of
their Districts and of the spiritual con-
dition of the congregations, for which
purpose they employ the institution of
visitation, ordain and install, in person
or by proxy, the candidates for the min-
isterial office and the pastors and teach-
ers called to congregations in their Dis-
tricts, and suspend from membership in
the synod, until the next regular meeting
of the District, such pastors, teachers,
and professors as adhere to false doctrine
or have given public offense by an un-
godly life. They are assisted by the
visitors, who are charged with visiting
each congregation and school of their
circuit at least once in three years for
the purpose of guarding the welfare of
the congregation, fostering fraternal re-
lations, and promoting the work of the
Church. Besides, there are the other
usual officers of such an organization;
also the Board of Directors and the va-
rious other boards, charged with the
execution of the multifarious business of
Synod. — The presidents of Synod were :
C. F. W. Walther, D. D„ 1847—1850 and
1864—1878; F. C. D. Wyneken, 1850 to
1864; H. C. Schwan, D. D., 1878—1899;
F. Pieper, D. D., 1899—1911; F. Pfoten-
hauer, D. D., 1911 — . Present officers:
President, F. Pfotenhauer, D. D. ; First
Vice-President, Rev. F. Brand; Second
Vice-President, Rev. W. Dallmann, D. D. ;
Third Vice-President, Rev. F. J. Lan-
kenau; Fourth Vice-President, Rev. J.
W. Miller; Secretary, Rev. M. F. Kretz-
mann; Treasurer, E. Seuel. Board of
Directors : The President, Secretary, and
Treasurer, ex officio ; Rev. W. Hagen,
Messrs. H. W. Horst, A. H. Ahlbrand,
Walter H. Schlueter.
The Delegate Synod. After the Synod
had been divided into four Districts, in
1854, all the pastors, professors, teach-
ers, and a delegate from each congrega-
tion assembled every third year as the
Synod proper. But as this body soon be-
came too large to be conveniently enter-
tained by even a group of neighboring
congregations, and as the proceedings
were greatly impeded by the vastness of
the assembly, the convention assembled
in St. Louis in 1872 resolved that in the
future groups of congregations composed
of from two to seven should elect out of
their midst one clerical and one lay dele-
gate, and of the advisory pastors and
also of the teachers one out of every
seven should be delegated. Since 1917
the groups of congregations are made up
of from five (larger) to ten (smaller)
congregations; the advisory groups, of
fifteen.
The District Synods. The rapid growth
of SyhTOVfafter three years there were
75 pastors and 10 teachers; parishes:
23 in Missouri, 16 in Illinois, 12 in In-
diana, 9 in Michigan, 9 in Ohio, 3 in
New York, 2 in Wisconsin, 1 in Mary-
land) soon called for the division into
Districts. The great distances, the poor
facilities for traveling, and the great ex-
pense of the annual trip to Synod partly
imposed too great a burden either upon
the congregations or the pastors and
teachers and partly interfered with a full
attendance. The matter came up in 1849,
but it was found advisable to defer it,
as a division so soon after the founding
of the Synod might prejudice the ac-
complishment of some of the purposes
for which Synod had been founded.
Synod not yet being sufficiently knitted
together, it was feared that the forming
of branch synods would impair the unity
of the Spirit and favor the growth of
conflicting tendencies. But the division
soon became imperative. The resolution
was passed 1852 and 1853 that Synod be
divided into four Districts, these to meet
two years in succession separately and
the third year in a General Convention.
The four Districts first met in 1855.
They were: the Western District, com-
prising the States of Missouri, Illinois,
and Louisiana : 22 voting and 25 advisory
pastors and 11 teachers (first president,
G. A. Schieferdecker) ; the Central Dis-
trict, comprising Ohio and Indiana :
34 voting and 13 advisory pastors and
6 teachers (first president, W. Sihler) ;
the Northern District, comprising Michi-
gan and Wisconsin: 12 voting and 7 ad-
visory pastors and 6 teachers (first
president, 0. Fuerbringer) ; the Eastern
District, comprising New York, Pennsyl-
vania, the District of Columbia, and
Maryland: 10 voting pastors, 1 advisory
pastor, 6 teachers (first president, E. G.
W. Keyl) . Of these original Districts only
the Central covers the same territory to-
day; all the others have been divided or
even redivided in the course of time, as
they not merely grew in numbers of
members, but also in territory. — In 1874
the first Delegate Synod advised the con-
gregations and pastors of Illinois to form
a District in their State. The Illinois
District had 139 pastors and 114 teachers
(first president, H. Wunder). Pursuant to
Missouri Synod
494
Missouri Synod
action by the same Delegate Synod the
members residing in the States of Wis-
consin and Minnesota formed the North-
western District, and the members living
in Michigan, together with those in the
Canadian province of Ontario, continued
as the Northern District. The reorgan-
ized Northern District met for the first
time in Saginaw, in 1875; 36 voting and
5 advisory pastors from Michigan ; 5 vot-
ing and 6 advisory pastors from Canada ;
30 teachers from Michigan, 4 from Can-
ada ( president, 0. Fuerbringer ) . The
Northwestern District organized 1875 in
Watertown, Wis. : 32 voting and 13 ad-
visory pastors and 27 teachers from Wis-
consin, 6 voting and 13 advisory pastors
and 3 teachers from Minnesota. 15 pas-
tors, 5 teachers, and 1 congregation were
received into membership at this meet-
ing; first president, C. Strasen. Pur-
suant to a resolution passed by the Syn-
odical Conference in 1876, the Delegate
Synod of 1878 instructed the members
of the Western District residing in the
State of Iowa to organize a District in
their State. It numbered 44 pastors and
2 teachers; first president, J. L. Craemer.
In the same year the pastors and con-
gregations in the Canadian province of
Ontario, petitioned Synod to permit them
to form a separate District, the Canada
(now called the Ontario) District.
Though their number was very small,
14 pastors, 1 teacher, 11 congregations,
their wish was granted; experience had
shown that such a move makes for a
more vigorous prosecution of the work
of the Church; first president, A. Ernst.
The Northern District was now restricted
to the lower peninsula of Michigan, the
upper peninsula being attached to the
Wisconsin District, and the name Michi-
gan District was adopted. In 1881 the
Delegate Synod dissolved the Northwest-
ern District, forming the Wisconsin and
the Minnesota and Dakota Districts.
The Wisconsin District met for the first
time in Milwaukee, in 1882. 72 pastors,
40 teachers, and 44 congregations were
in full membership and 30 congregations
had not yet become members of the or-
ganization; first president, C. Strasen.
The new Minnesota and Dakota District
met in St. Paul, Minn., in 1882; 49 pas-
tors, 13 teachers, and 21 congregations in
full membership ; first president, O. Cloe-
ter, the former Indian missionary. In
1881 the Delegate Synod also instructed
the members of the Western District re-
siding in the State of Nebraska to or-
ganize a new District; first meeting in
1882 at Logan: 32 pastors, 1 teacher,
19 congregations in full membership;
first president, J. Hilgendorf. Finally
the same Delegate Synod authorized the
members of the Western District residing
in Texas, Louisiana, and the adjoining
States to constitute a new District, to be
known as the Southern District; first
synodical meeting in New Orleans, 1882:
20 pastors, 15 teachers, 13 congregations
in full membership (9 congregations in
Texas, 3 in Louisiana, 2 in Alabama) ;
first president, Tim. Stiemke. In 1887
two new Districts were detached from
the former Western District, the Kansas
and the California and Oregon Districts.
The constituting meeting of the Kansas
District (Kansas, Colorado, and Okla-
homa) was held in Leavenworth, 1888:
42 pastors, 6 teachers, 30 congregations
in full membership; first president,
F. Pennekamp. The Pacific coast had
been a part of the Western District since
1860, when the first Lutheran minister
settled in San Francisco, Rev. J. M.
Buehler. The new District took the
name of California and Oregon District;
first meeting in San Francisco, 1887 :
12 pastors, 2 teachers, 7 congregations;
first president, J. M. Buehler. But be-
fore the close of the century all the pas-
tors and congregations of this District
came to the conclusion that it would be
best to divide the Pacific coast into two
synodical Districts, the California and
Nevada and the Washington and Oregon
Districts. This project was sanctioned
by the 1899 Delegate Synod. The Cali-
fornia and Nevada District organized in
Trinity Church, Los Angeles, 1900; 9 vot-
ing and 13 advisory pastors, 6 teachers;
first president, J. M. Buehler. The Ore-
gon and Washington District (including
Idaho) met for the first time in Port-
land, Oreg., 1900: 7 voting and 2 ad-
visory pastors, 1 teacher ; first president,
H. A. C. Paul. 1904 the second foreign
District was added, the Brazil District.
(See Brazil.) The Delegate Synod as-
sembled in Detroit, 1905, granted a peti-
tion of the Southern District for a parti-
tion, by which the State of Texas became
a separate District; first meeting in
Houston, 1906: 42 pastors, 23 congrega-
tions, 11 teachers; first president, A. W.
Kramer. The Southern District, through
this partition, was reduced to small
numbers : 33 pastors and professors,
1 1 teachers, 8 congregations. Rev. G. J.
Wegener, who had been president of the
Southern District, retained the office. In
the same year Synod sanctioned also the
division of the Eastern and of the Min-
nesota and Dakota Districts. The New
England States, New Jersey, the eastern
Section of New York State, and London
(England) constitute the Atlantic Dis-
trict: 95 pastors, 58 congregations, 27
Missouri Synod
495
Missouri Synod
teachers; first meeting in Boston, 1907;
first president, E. C. Schulze. The re-
duced Eastern District comprises the
western part of New York State, Penn-
sylvania, Maryland, Virginia, the Dis-
trict of Columbia, and North Carolina;
first meeting in York, Pa., 1907 : 95 pas-
tors, 79 congregations, 42 teachers; Rev.
H. H. Walker remained in office as presi-
dent. Prom the Minnesota and Dakota
Districts the State of South Dakota was
detached, and several parishes in the
State of Nebraska were added to it:
39 pastors, 26 congregations, 3 teachers;
first meeting in Freeman, S. Dak., 1906 ;
first president, A. F. Breihan. In 1880
the Illinois Synod, formerly a part of
the General Synod, had united with the
Illinois District of the Missouri Synod,
bringing into the District 10 congrega-
tions, 22 pastors, and 2 teachers, which,
with the increase the District had ex-
perienced in the six years of its existence,
brought the numbers up to 96 congrega-
tions, 161 pastors, and 116 teachers. As
the prospects for uniting all confessional
Lutherans living in the various States
into state synods had by this time about
vanished, Synod 1907 decided to divide
the territory of the Illinois District into
three parts, to be known as the Northern,
Central, and Southern Illinois Districts.
The Northern Illinois District met for
the first time in Chicago, 1909: 108 vot-
ing pastors, 40 advisory pastors, 8 pro-
fessors, 179 teachers, 108 congregations;
first president, W. C. Kohn. The Central
Illinois District met for its first session
in Springfield, 111., 1909 : 60 voting pas-
tors, 26 advisory pastors and professors,
37 teachers, 62 parishes; first president,
F. Brand. The Southern Illinois District
met for its first session in Staunton, 111.,
1909 : 54 voting pastors, 9 advisory pas-
tors, 30 teachers, 55 congregations ; first
president, U. Iben. In 1910 North Da-
kota, together with the pastors and con-
gregation in Montana, was organized as
the North Dakota and Montana District;
first meeting in Great Bend, N. Dak. :
20 voting pastors in North Dakota, 1 in
Montana; 18 advisory pastors in North
Dakota, 7 in Montana; 23 congregations
in North Dakota, 1 in Montana; 3 teach-
ers; first president, T. Hinck. The Min-
nesota District retained the vast mission-
territory in all of Western Canada, to
the coast until 1921. Since 1911 the
Missouri Synod has an exclusively En-
glish District; first president, H. Eck-
hardt. (See Missouri, Synod of, and
Other States.) In 1910 the Wisconsin
District was divided into the South
Wisconsin District (100 pastors, 77 con-
gregations, 74 teachers; first session in
Watertown, 1918; first president, Ed
Albrecht) and the North Wisconsin Dis-
trict (105 pastors, 76 congregations, 20
teachers; first session in Clintonville,
1918; first president, J. G. Schliepsiek.
In 1921 the State of Colorado was de-
tached from the Kansas District to form
a District of its own, together with the
congregation in Salt Lake City, Utah,
and other preaching-stations in that
State: 21 voting and 4 advisory pastors,
6 teachers ; first meeting in Colorado
Springs, 1921; first president, O. Lues-
senhop. In the same year two of
the western provinces organized as
a separate District, the Alberta and
British Columbia District: 20 congrega-
tions, 18 voting and 10 advisory pastors,
besides 22 congregations about to join
the organization; first meeting in Cal-
gary, Alberta; first president, Aug. J.
Mueller. In 1922 the Manitoba and Sas-
katchewan District was organized at
MacNutt, Saskatchewan, with 32 voting
and 8 advisory pastors; first president, P.
E. Wiegner. In 1921 two Districts formed
in the territory of the Nebraska District :
the Southern Nebraska (78 parishes in
full membership, 18 advisory pastors, 45
teachers; first president, C. F. Brom-
mer) and the Northern Nebraska, includ-
ing parts of Wyoming (66 parishes, 57
voting pastors, 31 teachers; first presi-
dent, W. Harms ) . The 32d convention of
the Missouri Synod, Fort Wayne, 1923,
granted the petition of the members of
the Kansas District living in the State
of Oklahoma to organize the Oklahoma
District, which takes rank as the 28th
District (first meeting near Okarche,
1924: 28 voting and 6 advisory pastors,
2 teachers, 29 congregations; first presi-
dent Hy. Mueller.
Additional Data t,h<? Growths of
Syn»sh~-‘ ¥he""ATEenburg college and sem-
in»ry"was moved to St. Louis in 1849.
Prof. Walther was elected president. To
accommodate the ever-increasing atten-
dance, a new building was erected in
1883, and in 1924 the greatest building
operation ever undertaken by a free body
of Lutherans was begun, the erection of
new buildings, in a new location, at a
cost of $2,500,000. In 1861 the college
was moved to Fort Wayne and the Fort
Wayne seminary to St. Louis, in 1874
and 1875 to Springfield. The Teachers’
Seminary, established as a private ven-
ture in Milwaukee (1855), was combined
with Fort Wayne in 1857 (P. Fleisch-
mann, president ) , moved to Addison, 111.,
1864 (J. C. W. Lindemann, president),
and 1913 to River Forest, 111. A second
normal school was founded in Seward,
Nebr., 1893. The college at Milwaukee
Missouri Synod
496
Missouri Synod
was opened 1881; Bronxville, the same
year (then in New York) ; Concordia,
Mo., 1884; St. Paul, 1893; Winfield,
Kans., the same year ; Conover, N. C.,
1879; Concordia Seminary, Porto Alegre,
Brazil, 1904; Portland, Oreg., 1905;
Oakland, Cal., 1906; Edmonton, Al-
berta, Can., 1921 ; and in 1926 a college
was established in Texas, at Austin.
Students enrolled in 1924, 2,656; pro-
fessors, 115. Up to 1926 St. Louis
had graduated 3,143 and Springfield
1,647 candidates of theology. (See
Concordia Seminary, etc. ) The Lu-
theraner was joined in its work of
spreading confessional Lutheranism by
Lehre und Wehre in 1855; Schulblatt
(now School Journal), 1865; Magazin
fuer ev.-luth. Homiletik und Pastoral-
theologie, 1877; Lutheran Witness, 1882;
Theological Quarterly (now Theological
Monthly), 1897; Missionstaube and
Pioneer (Syn. Conf.), now (1926) in
their forty -eighth year; Kinder- und
Jugendblatt, fifty-fourth year; Young
Lutherans’ Magazine, twenty-fifth year;
Concordia Junior Messenger, fourth year;
Lutheran Guide, thirty -fourth year ; Fuer
die Kleinen, thirty-first year; Kalender
and Annual. Confessional Lutheranism
produced Walther’s Die Stimme unserer
Kirche in der Frage von Kirche und
Amt, Die rechte Gestalt einer vom Staate
unabhaengigen Ortsgemeinde, Die evan-
gelisch-lutherische Kirche die wahre
sichtbare Kirche Gottes auf Erden, Ge-
setz und Evangelium, etc., the St. Louis
edition of Luther’s Works, Stoeckhardt’s
commentaries, etc., A. Graebner’s Doc-
trinal Theology, etc., F. Pieper’s Christ-
liche Dogmatik, etc., Krauss’s Lebensbil-
der aus der Geschichte der christlichen
Kirche (Church History), the Concordia
Triglotta, Bente’s American Lutheran-
ism, etc., Dan’s Reformation series, etc.,
Tli. Graebner’s Evolution, etc., Kretz-
mann’s Popular Commentary , etc., Zorn’s
commentaries, etc., C. C. Schmidt’s pos-
tils, Dallmann’s Ten Commandments, etc.,
and various other writings; the fifteen-
foot shelf of Synodalberichte ; a volu-
minous day-school and Sunday-school
literature; hymn-books, Agen'de and
A gendg, etc. Concordia Publishing House
was founded 1869 (see Concordia Pub-
lishing Llouse). — After twenty-five years
the Missouri Synod had a membership of
72,120 baptized members, 485 congrega-
tions, 428 pastors, 251 teachers; in
1896: 1,527 pastors and professors, 830
teachers, 1,915 congregations and 634
preaching - stations, 380,000 communi-
cants; to-day (1926) : 2,747 pastors
(adding the professors, the pastors em-
ployed by the charitable organizations,
and the retired ministers, many of whom
frequently do supply-work, there are
3,272) ; 3,565 congregations, of which
2,570 are in full membership, and 995
are preaching-stations; 1,083,800 bap-
tized members, 667,987 communicants,
and 171,078 voting members; 1,388
Christian day - schools, 80,173 pupils
taught by 1,272 teachers, 447 woman
teachers, and 401 pastors; 776 pastors
in 940 Saturday- and vacation-schools
with 20,812 pupils; 2,297 Sunday-
schools, 162,148 pupils, 15,282 teachers.
— r In 1917 the Lutheran Laymen’s League
was organized CyTT.). Tiicotne of Synod
during the year 1925: $4,566,471.70.
Contributions for congregational, synod-
ical, and charitable purposes (1925):
$13,771,026. The $3,850,000 Building
Fund Collection of 1923 — 25 amounted
to $4,325,893.29 by November, 1926.
Value of the property of the congrega-
tions: ca. $59,988,294; of Synod:
$4,503,500; of the charitable institu-
tions: $4,748,570. — “There are few
church-bodies which, in the face of the
most adverse conditions, have had such a
wonderful growth as the Missouri Synod.”
Sources of Its Strength. The real
strehgtTrtrf' a church organization does
not lie in numbers or money or social
position. Like the company of Jesus,
the Missouri Synod has, indeed, its Jo-
seph of Arimathea, the counselor, its
Nicodeinus, the ruler of the people, but
the overwhelming majority of its mem-
bers are, and always have been, of the
common people, people of moderate means
and little social influence. That accounts
for the fact that the Missouri Synod is
so inconspicuous among the American
church-bodies. What, then, constitutes
its strength ? The Word of God, the posi-
tion which the Word of God holds in its
midst. Dr. Walther and the other lead-
ing men of the Synod: Sihler, Fuer-
bringer, Craemer, Schaller, Lange, Guen-
ther, and others, placed it squarely on
the Word of God, on the Confessions of
the Lutheran Church, and their succes-
sors, Dr. Stoeckliardt, Dr. Graebner, Dr.
Pieper, his associates at St. Louis, and
others, kept it there. The members of
the Synod have been thoroughly indoc-
trinated with the teachings of the Bible,
the pastors and teachers in the semi-
naries, the lay members in the wonderful
parochial school. . This unique training
of the clergy, which is continued by
means of the pastoral and teachers’ con-
ferences and the study of the periodicals
and publications of the Synod, unique in
their thorough and constant presentation
of, and insistence on, the teachings of the
Bible, is vividly described by Dr. 0. C.
Missouri Synod
497
Missouri Synod
Schmidt in Ebenczer: “The pastor of the
Missouri . Synod always has been a pupil
of the Catechism. When as a little boy
he was sent to school, he began commit-
ting it to memory before he.could read it.
As he advanced in learning, he discarded
book after book, but the Catechism was
never discarded throughout the grammar
school. And when he was promoted to
the college, the Catechism was there
again. And when after studying it six
years, he entered the seminary, where he
was to study theology, behold, the pro-
fessor stepped to the front with a little
hook he would now expound to him, Lu-
ther’s Smaller Catechism. So, after an
additional three years’ thorough study,
he learned just enough to come to the
conclusion that, if he wanted to become
an efficient pastor he could do no better
than continue learning the Catechism.”
— Some wiseacres among the Norwegians
in Wisconsin used to deride the pastors
of the Norwegian Synod as Catechismus-
praesten; with these pastors the pastors
of the Missouri Synod are proud of the
title, “Catechism priests,” Luther’s
Smaller Catechism is not merely in-
variably their text-book for the in-
struction of the catechumens, but the
truths set forth in the Catechism are
also the groundwork of their discourses.
Missouri preachers are noted for their
doctrinal sermons. They have always
something definite to say, something that
really pertains to the one thing needful.
They preach the Gospel, not politics or
sociology. - — Differences of character,
temperament, and qualifications indeed
are evident, but all Missourians are led
by one spirit; therefore, having heard
one is practically having heard all. —
Jjie. Missouri Synod is at the same time
the most tolerant and the most intoler-
ant church-body — most tolerant as to
all adiaphora, most intolerant as to
every teaching, polity, and practise that
is contrary to God’s Word. — Where no
other means for the proper education of
the youth are available, Sunday-, Satur-
day-, and vacation-schools are held; the
proper thing is a Christian day-school, in
which the child is instructed in the Word
of God every day, is led to pray, is really
brought up in the nurture and admoni-
tion of the Lord. When the school course
is about to be completed, another thor-
ough course of instruction in the Cat-
echism is given preparatory to confirma-
tion. — Such receptions of masses into
the church as are common among the
sectarians is impossible in the Missouri
Synod, for those who come from other
denominations or have received no re-
ligious instruction before are thoroughly
Concordia Cyclopedia
instructed in the truths of the Catechism
before they can become members of a
local congregation or be admitted to
Holy Communion. Private confession
lias fallen into disuse, hut its place has
been taken by “the announcement for the
confession”; by means of it the needs of
the communicant for instruction, admo-
nition, and exhortation are supplied in
an evangelical manner. Lodgery is re-
garded as a sin, chiefly against the First,
Second, and Third Commandments, and
treated as such. Worldliness in all its
forms is unhesitatingly denounced as be-
longing to the works and ways of the
devil. Unionism in all its forms is de-
nounced as unscriptural, wicked, insin-
cere, and hypocritical. Missourians will
not hold fraternal intercourse with har-
dened errorists. The doctrine of the
Evangelical Lutheran Church, being the
doctrine of the Bible, is to them holy
and inviolable. They never understand
how a distinction can be made between
the doctrine of the Bible and the doc-
trine of the Church, for to their mind
the Church has absolutely no business to
teach anything but the doctrine of the
Bible, and the Church attempting such
a tiling becomes a sect. Much might be
said of the self-denial, aye, the self-
sacrifice with which pastors, teachers,
and also numerous laymen serve their
Church and their Synod, but the real
strength of the Missouri Synod is, as
Hochstetter states in his Geschichte
(p. 288 ) that its preachers and teachers
and members as a whole are poor and of
a contrite spirit, and tremble at the
Word of the Lord.
Language. The original title of the
Synod was: Deutsche evangelisch-luthe-
rische Synode von Missouri, Ohio und
andern Staaten. The constitution pro-
vided for the exclusive use of the German
language on the floor of Synod, making
an exception in favor of only such guests
as were unable to use the German. Cir-
cumstances compelled the fathers to
stress the use of the German. With very
few exceptions the people who consti-
tuted their congregations in the first dec-
ades, as also the pastors, professors, and
teachers, had been horn in Germany, had
received their religious training from
German teachers, and what they saw and
heard of “English religion,” even from
those who laid claim to the name Lu-
theran, was of such a nature as to fill
them with aversion. Only very few of
them had come into intimate contact
with English-speaking people: Professor
Craemer, who had spent some years in
England and had even formed connec-
tions with the University of Oxford ;
32
Missouri Synod
468
Missouri Synod
Professor Biewend, who had been teacher
of Languages and Natural Sciences in
Columbia College, Washington, D. C.;
and Prof. R. Lange, a graduate of the
Altenburg Concordia, who devoted all his
spare time to the study of English.
Again, they found their field of labor
among the German immigrants. They
were also conscious of the superiority of
Luther’s translation of the Bible as com-
pared with other versions, of the un-
paralleled beauty and fervor of the Ger-
man choral, or religious hymn, and of
the great value of the German devotional
and theological books. They felt that
more than the language would be lost
if the German were at once or altogether
discarded. But from the beginning the
Missouri Synod has been mindful of the
fact that its first and chief duty was, not
the preservation or propagation of the
German or any other language, but the
propagation of the Gospel and the ad-
vancement of true Christianity. Already
in 1855 Der Lutheraner admonished espe-
cially the younger generation to learn
English thoroughly, not merely for busi-
ness reasons, but as a duty they owed
both their Church and their English-
speaking neighbors. In 1850 Rev. G.
Schaller confirmed a lady in the English
language, who became a member of St.
Peter’s Lutheran Church in Baltimore,
the first English congregation of the Mis-
souri Synod. (This congregation also
had a parochial school, the first English
congregation in the Missouri Synod to
have this institution. Its teacher was
C. W, Miller. It disbanded during the
Civil War, was reorganized 1875, and
joined the Ohio Synod, at that time
in fellowship of faith with the Missouri
Synod.) In 1857 Synod declared: “We
account it our sacred duty to found En-
glish churches as soon as it has become
manifest that for the organization of a
congregation there is a sufficient number
of such as understand English better
than German.” In the day-schools the
use of the English language took on
ever-increasing proportions. In 1872 an
English edition of Dietrich’s Catechism
was published. In the colleges and semi-
naries English was taught almost from
the beginning. Of the 1881 graduates of
the St. Louis seminary one was assigned
to an English mission in the vicinity of
New Orleans. A second member of this
class established an English preaching-
station in Southern Kansas. In 1884
Synod advised the pastors of New Or-
leans to preach in the English language
as often as possible and organize English
congregations. By the time the English
Synod became a District of the Missouri
Synod, in 1911, English had spread to
such an extent that there were more
English congregations and preaching-
stations in the German than in the En-
glish Synod. The designation 1 “German”
was eliminated from the title of Synod
by the adoption, in 1917, of the revised
constitution. According to the Statistical
Year-hook for 1925 52 per cent, of the
whole Synod uses the German language
in religious services and 48 per cent, the
English. There was a French congre-
gation among the original twelve par-
ishes forming the Missouri Synod, the
congregation on the Saminac River,
served by the Rev. Poeschke, Peru, 111.
In the eighties and nineties of the past
century there was a demand for French
preaching, which Synod, however, was
unable to supply. TlieWendish language
had been employed in Texas by Pastors
Kilian, father and son ; their successors
found that “preaching in the Serbian lan-
guage is no longer necessary.” — The
Missouri Synod is practicaUy bilingual.
The great majority of its preachers and
teachers make use of German and En-
glish. In a manner, its preaching is
polyglot. Missourians are preaching the
Gospel in at least 16 languages.
Missions. — - H ome Missio ns, i. e., bring-
ing'TlTe'rneans'orgrace. to"those who have
lost their church connections, have al-
ways been the most important missions
of the Missouri Synod. Wyneken, Ernst,
Sillier, Lochner, and others, the men sent
over to America by Pastor Loehe, came
here for this purpose, and they had been
engaged in this work before Synod was
founded; and as there was so crying a
necessity for it, it naturally became one
of the chief activities of the new organ-
ization. At the first convention of Synod
Candidate Frincke was delegated as vis-
itor, or missionary-at-large, for Wiscon-
sin; but shortly afterwards he became
pastor of the congregation in Indian-
apolis because Synod had no funds to
support him. Despite the dire poverty
of the first decades, however, the work
was carried on vigorously. The pastors,
aided by members of their congregations,
explored the country as best they could,
and where they found an opening, they
established preaching-stations, outposts
of the kingdom of Christ, placing suit-
able men there as soon as possible. The
minister would frequently have charge of
a dozen or more such places, and in his
absence the teacher of the school, which
was established as soon as possible, or a
layman would conduct “reading-services.”
Extended exploration-trips were made
into new settlements. For instance, Rev.
F. Sievers, Sr., of Frankenlust, Mich.,
Missouri Synod
499
Missouri Synod
who in 1856 set out on a missionary visit
to the Chippewa Indians in Minnesota,
was requested by the Northern District
to look up also tlie scattered German Lu-
therans in that territory. He preached,
baptized children, administered Holy
Communion, and organized congregations
in Minneapolis, Henderson, St. Peter, and
Le Seur. His work there was taken up
in the following year by Revs. 0. Cloeter
and Kalimeyer. Almost every station
founded by Rev. Sievers became a base of
operations for new campaigns. In an-
swer to a very urgent letter from a Chris-
tian woman in San Francisco, Cal., to
Professor Walther, J. M. Bueliler, a grad-
uate of Concordia Seminary, was in 1800
sent by Synod as a missionary to the
Pacific coast. For many years he was
the only representative of the Missouri
Synod there; but he held the field till
it pleased God to give increase also on
that spiritually barren ground. In 1872
Rev. J. Hilgendorf in Omaha, Nebr., at
the request of Rev. J. F. Buenger, presi-
dent of the Western District, made a trip
of exploration to Colorado, receiving $50
and the instruction: “The money cer-
tainly will not suffice, but a missionary
always knows how to take care of him-
self.'’ Railroad fare was 10 cents a mile;
yet Rev. Hilgendorf managed to reach
Denver, Pueblo, and other points, and
established stations. These are fair
samples of how the work was carried on
in various sections of the United States,
on the prairies, in newly settled wooded
regions, and in the cities; how the Great
Northwest was opened (read the epic as
told in Ebenezer by Dr. F. Pfotenhauer,
who began his ministry as one of these
Reiseprediger) ; how these loyal men
inarched toward the Pacific coast, la-
bored, and are laboring, in the South-
west, Southeast, and Fast; how they
planted the banner of Lutheranism in
Northwestern Canada and down in
Brazil and Argentina. — The Synod and
every District had Boards for Inner Mis-
sion to direct and finance the work. But
the financial means were sadly inade-
quate. As late as 1881 candidates were
sent out on a salary of $200 per annum.
One of them, whose field extended fifty
miles, on applying for about $35 to buy
an Indian pony, was told: “If you have
no money to buy a horse, follow the
example of St. Paul and walk.” And the
men were willing to work under these,
conditions — - and the boards were will-
ing to work under these conditions. But
all these privations and hardships did
not extinguish the zeal of these men. The
Missourians, pastors, teachers, and all,
have not, like the monk, vowed poverty,
1 nit. fliev somewhat nra.otifip. it. — Svnnd
now has a General Treasury for Home
Missions, out of which the weaker Dis-
tricts receive assistance, and every Dis-
trict has its own mission treasury, out
of which the traveling missionaries are
salaried either entirely or in part. — In
1925, 680 pastors, 68 male and 36 female
teachers and 53 students worked at 1,593
Home Mission stations at a cost of
$642,881. — -In connection with, and in
support of, this mission-work a General
Church Extension Fund was established
in 1902, from which non-interest-bearing
loans or loans at a low rate of interest are
granted in order to assist mission-congre-
gations in erecting houses of worship. An-
nual repayments of at least 10 per cent,
are required. The working capital of this
fund, in 1925, was $897,322.01. In addi-
tion to this, 26 Districts have similar
funds of their own, amounting, in all,
to $866,225.26. — -Several of the Districts
have also field secretaries, whose duty it
is to reconnoiter the field and regularly
to visit the mission-congregations and
preaching-stations; their work has been
very beneficial. — Besides this, Inner
Mission, Home Missions in a restricted
sense, is carried on in the larger cities.
Missionaries visit the inmates of the
institutions of public charity, infirma-
ries, hospitals, institutions for deaf-mutes
and the blind, and also the penal insti-
tutions and, wherever permitted to do
so, conduct divine services. Similar
work is carried on in the smaller towns,
wherever possible by the local pastors. —
Im migrant and Seamen’ x Missions. The
Immigrant Mission ~oF“'Syriod has been
the handmaiden of Home Missions. Be-
sides caring for the bodily and spiritual
needs of the immigrants at the port of
disembarkation, it directed them to Lu-
theran centers and kept the various mis-
sion boards informed of their movements.
The mission in New York was estab-
lished 1869 (see Keyl, Missionary ) and
has done extensive work; it had its own
Rilgcrhaus. It has, of course, declined
with the ebb of immigration. Two mis-
sionaries. In New York also a Seamen’s
Mission is conducted. For many years
this work was being done also in Balti-
more and Boston and for a time in
Philadelphia. These missionaries worked
in conjunction with men stationed at
German ports. — The Student Welfare
Committee was created in 1923 in the
interest of Synod’s young people attend-
ing secular universities and colleges.
There are five student pastors (Mis-
souri, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Wiscon-
sin) and three Student Club-houses, and
over fifty local pastors are doing Student
Welfare work.
Indian Mission was the first Heiden-
Missouri Synod
500
Missouri Synod
m ission of the Missouri Synod. W. Hatt-
staedt (Monroe, Mieli., 1843) had been
charged by Pastor Loelie to look for
opportunities for mission-work among
the American Indians, and he reported
that the Michigan Synod was about to
undertake the work, having already
called Rev. F. Audi to Sebewaing for
that purpose. Loelie proposed to carry
on the work along new lines, not by
sending individual missionaries, but by
establishing Lutheran colonies in the
immediate vicinity of the Indian villages
to serve as centers for the mission, the
pastors of the congregations to act at
the same time as missionaries. In pur-
suance of this plan, Frankenmuth, near
Saginaw, was founded. The pastor, Rev.
A. Craemer, undertook the work with
wonted energy. He gained the confi-
dence of Chief Bemasikeh, who brought
two boys to him to be educated. Craemer
visited the Indians along the Kawkawlin,
Swan, Chippewa, Pine, and Bell rivers.
In his school at Frankenmuth 30 Indian
children, in 1840, received instruction in
the Catechism and in Bible History.
That same year 31 Indian children and
young people were baptized. At the re-
quest of Loehe the Mission House in
Leipzig sent E. Baierlein, who was to
settle among the Indians. He was in-
stalled as missionary September 6, 1849,
and was received into the tribe of Chief
Bemasikeh. He erected a log church,
with a belfry, and a log cabin for his
home, cleared some land, setting aside
a part of it as “God’s acre,” and
named the place Bethany. In a remark-
ably short time he mastered the Chip-
pewa language. The Roman Catholic
missionary, afterward Bishop Baraga,
permitted him to use his outlines of a
Chippewa grammar and dictionary. In
1850 he had a book in the Chippewa
language printed in Detroit, which con-
tained a primer, appropriate reading-
lessons, Bible stories, a number of hymns,
the Ten Commandments, the Apostles’
Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, both the morn-
ing and the evening prayer of Luther’s
Small Catechism, and a collect. He also
translated the New Testament, some of
the psalms and parts of Isaiah into the
Chippewa language. In 1849 four boys
and a girl were baptized with the con-
sent of their parents. The first adult
baptized by him was a widowed daughter
of Chief Bemasikeh, in 1849. The old
chief, though dying unbaptized, admon-
ished his people to follow the advice of
the missionary. In 1853 the congrega-
tion had grown to 00 members. In the
missions at Sebewaing and Sliabayonk
(Missionaries Audi and Maier) pros-
pects were also very bright, 'flie whole
mission came under the control of the
Missouri Synod in 1849. Rev. C. J. H.
Fick, Rev. A. Craemer, and Mr. F. W.
Barthel constituted the first mission
board. Most unfortunately the Leipzig
Society transferred Rev. Baierlein to
East India in 1853. The Indians sor-
rowfully took leave of him, even the
heathens lamenting: “We shall be like
a heap of dry leaves when the wind
blows into it.” The work was continued
by Rev. Miessler, who had been Baier-
lein’s assistant for eighteen months. But
it no longer prospered. Whisky dealers,
traders, and false prophets, white and
Indian, filled the people with prejudice
and distrust and persuaded many to
leave the missions. In 1854 the whole
congregation at Sliabayonk turned back
to heathendom. Sebewaing soon fol-
lowed. In 1860, owing to the migratory
habit of the Indians, also Bethany was
abandoned. Only “God’s acre,” with
20 graves, remained to serve as a memo-
rial of the good work done. A new mis-
sion was begun in Isabella Co., Mich.,
where many of the Indians had settled
temporarily; but the results were very
unsatisfactory. In 1856 a mission-post
was established among the Cliippewas in
Minnesota at Mille Lacs or Rabbit Lake,
Rev. O. Cloeter taking charge. But in
the Indian war the Christian Indians
were massacred, the missionary and his
family driven away, and the station was
laid waste. The Indian Mission was dis-
continued until 1899, when a mission
was established in Shawano Co., Wis.,
among the Stockbridge Indians, “the last
of the Mohicans.” (The Mohicans were
driven from the Upper Hudson in 1664
and found a new home in what is now
Stockbridge, Mass. The remnants of the
tribe, about a century later, moved to
Western New York, in 1833 to Green
Bay, Wis.; amalgamated with the Mun-
sees; settled on a reservation near Sha-
wano in 1856. In 1909 they numbered
582 souls, all United States citizens.
They had been ministered to by Congre-
gationalist and Presbyterian mission-
aries; some time before 1899 this work
had ceased.) Upon their request Rev.
Th. Nickel, of Shawano, served them,
1898, and the next year Rev. J. D. Larson
was ordained and installed as their first
missionary, stationed in Red Springs.
The church was built in 1901, the day-
school established in 1902, and a board-
ing-school was built in 1920. There are
127 pupils enrolled, 30 of these from the
Oneida Reservation; there are 2 woman
teachers besides the missionary; 300
souls. In 1923 Candidate Cornelius
Missouri Synod
561
Missouri Synod
Aaron, of tlie St. Louis seminary, an In-
dian, was called to work among the
Oneidas near Green Bay. Having failed
to establish a post on the White Barth
Reservation in Minnesota, Synod is rec-
onnoitering the Red Lake Reservation.
J<’ore.ign Missions. — India. For over
four'~dei!ades _ rnembers ~oT~the Missouri
Synod supported European Lutheran
mission societies, principally the Leipzig
and the Hermannsburg missions. But as
conditions in the congregations became
more settled and the people were grow-
ing wealthier, devout men, especially
Rev. F. Sievers, Sr., of Frankenlust,
Mich., began to urge Synod to send out
its own missionaries into the heathen
world. In compliance with this urgent
and incessant demand, Synod, in 1893,
created a Board for Foreign Missions.
( The venerable Rev. F. Sievers, Sr., the
lifelong advocate of Foreign Missions
and a member of the Board, was called
to his reward in heaven before the lirst
meeting of the board took place.) Prep-
arations were at once made to carry the
Gospel to Japan; but India was chosen
instead. Unfavorable conditions in
Japan and recent happenings in Indian
missionary circles prompted the board to
change its plans. Missionaries Theo.
Naether and F. Mohn, who had labored
in India for some time, had been dis-
missed by the authorities of the Leipzig
Mission because of the stand they took
on the question of the verbal inspiration
of the Scriptures. They held to the
Biblical doctrine that “all Scripture is
given by inspiration of God,” is there-
fore absolutely infallible and the only
source of the Christian doctrine. Being
on all questions in hearty accord with
the Missouri Synod, they were ready to
return to India in the missionary service
of that synod. They "were commissioned
to do so at a solemn service held during
the meeting of the Western District
in St. Charles, Mo., October 14, 1894.
Among those officiating at these services
were Rev. C. M. Zorn, D. D., and Prof. F.
Zucker, D. D., who, in 1870. had been
forced out of the Leipzig Mission for
having sidpd with Missouri in its defense
of strict Lutheranism. Naether sailed
for India at once; Mohn followed a year
later. They were charged not to build
on ground occupied by other missions,
but to select a territory where the Gospel
had not been preached before. Naether
began his work in the city of Krishna-
giri, in the Salem District of the Madras
Presidency. The work afterward was ex-
tended into the North Arcot District,
where the stations of Ambur, Bargur,
and Vaniyambadi were established and
round about them a number of outsta-
tions. In 1907 a young native Christian,
G. Jesiijasori, a Pariah, who had ad-
vanced to the position of secretary to
the British Resident at Trivandrum, in
Travancore, sent an urgent appeal to the
missionaries in behalf of an independent
Christian congregation at Vadasery,
near Nagercoil. Here the missionaries
found an open door. Many villages
gladly heard them; in fact, at various
times the missionaries were urged to ex-
tend their work to new places; but they
had to refuse on account of a shortage of
men. In 1912 missionary activities were
also begun at Trivandrum, although here
not the Tamil language is spoken, as in
the other fields, but Malayalam, and this
work also prospered beyond expectations.
In Ambur, Nagercoil, and Trivandrum
institutes were erected for the training
of native helpers — evangelists, cate-
chists, and teachers. In Ambur a small
industrial school of sericulture is being
conducted; at Nagercoil an attempt has
been made at the manufacture of brooms
and brushes. That comes under the head-
ing of “industrial mission-work.” Up to
the first year of the World War twenty
missionaries had entered the service on
the two mission-fields in India. Theo.
Naether died of the bubonic plague in
1904. G. Kellerbauer died in 1914, while
on furlough in Europe. Eric Ludwig lies
buried in Ambur. Sickness forced out
four missionaries. British war-measures
removed three missionaries from their
fields, prevented three from returning
from a home furlough, and barred new
men from reinforcing the depleted ranks;
only five remained in the field. After
the World War several of the veterans
returned, and a goodly number of re-
cruits entered the service. During the
triennium 1920 — 1922 eleven candidates,
two pastors, and four unmarried women
(two nurses, one zenana worker, and one
teacher) took up the work. The Austra-
lian Synod is lending a helping hand.
In 1921 the first native pastor was or-
dained, G. Jesudason, mentioned above.
The Tamil Lutherans of the South India
Ev. Luth. Church, after vainly protesting
against the un-Lutheran doctrines and
the unionism of the Church of Sweden
Mission, which had taken over the sta-
tions of the Leipzig Mission, placed
themselves under the care of the Mis-
souri Synod Mission. A chapel was ded-
icated in Madras in 1923 and the station
placed under the care of Rev. N. Samuel,
the veteran native pastor, who had be-
fore this, for the same reasons, entered
the service of the Missouri Mission. The
medical mission-work was begun in 1913,
Missouri Synod
502
Missouri Synod
with Miss Lulu Ellerman, R. N., in
charge. Dr. Theo. Doederlein organized
this branch of the mission for two years.
The Bergheim (Mountain Home) at Ko-
daikanal, founded and sustained by the
women of the Missouri Synod, provides
a home and school for the children of the
missionaries and is a retreat for them
and their families in the hot season and
a health resort in cases of sickness. —
The first Director of Missions was Kev.
F. Sievers, Jr.; the second, Prof. F.
Zueker, D. D.; the third, Eev. J. Fried-
rich, who personally inspected the field;
and the present director is Vice-President
F. Brand, who spent 15 months in visit-
ing the India and the China field (the
latter he visited for the second time in
1926). — Statistics: Mission-fields: Sa-
lem and North Arcot Districts and Mysore
State, Madras Presidency ( 1895 ) . Trav-
aucore: Nagercoil (1907), Trivandrum
( 1911 ), Tinnevelly (1922). Stations and
outstations, 145; congregations, 72.
South India Evangelical Lutheran Church
(1925): Congregations, 5. Missionaries:
Religious : 21 male, 1 female. Educa-
tional : 1 male. Medical : 3 female.
Total : 22 male, 4 female. Native
helpers : 2 pastors ; 44 catechists. Male
teachers: 74 Lutheran, 32 professed
Christian, 45 heathen (for secular
branches only ) . Female teachers : 16 Lu-
theran, 1 professed Christian, I heathen
(for secular branches only). Total of
teachers: male, 151; female, 18. Grand
total of teachers, 169. 8 Bible women;
1 native doctor (professed Christian);
1 male nurse; 1 female nurse; 4 female
industrial workers. Number of villages in
which Christians live, 222; souls, 6,589;
baptized members, 3,671; communicant
members, 891; catechumens, 2,740. Min-
isterial acts in 1925; Baptisms, 524;
heathen, 237 ; children of Christians,
287; confirmed, 71; communed, 2,085;
marriages, 67; burials, 88. Schools:
Day-schools, 69; night schools, 7. Total
primary and secondary schools, 76. Pu-
pils in primary schools, 2,326; in sec-
ondary (high and middle) schools, 894.
— China. The father of the China Mis-
sidris~73~~fkv. E. L. Arndt. His glowing
appeals aroused many hearts within the
Synodical Conference to take a Christian
interest in China and its 400,000,000 in-
habitants. In 1912 the China Mission
Society was organized. It sent out Kev.
Arndt as the first missionary, in 1913,
He selected the large city of Hankow for
the field of his labors and took up the
study of the extremely difficult Chinese
language with such fervor and zeal that,
though no longer a young man, he began,
after half a year, to preach and teach, to
translate the Symbolical Books, to pub-
lish Lutheran literature, and, in time,
even to translate hymns into that lan-
guage. On September 27, 1914, he bap-
tized his first convert catechumens. By
1921 there were 104 baptized converts.
After many unsuccessful efforts to secure
more missionaries, E. Riedel was sent as
his associate in 1915. In 1917 the Mis-
souri Synod, upon request of the China
Mission Society, took over the mission.
In 1920, 8 missionaries were at work; in
1921, 5 more went over, one of these
being Rev. G. Lillegard, a member of the
Norwegian Synod of the American Lu-
theran Church, now cooperating with the
Missouri Synod in Foreign Missions.
Miss Olive Gruen, an experienced
teacher, entered the mission the same
year, a second young lady in 1923. The
city of Shihnanfu, 700 miles west-
southwest of Hankow, a territory sup-
plied by no other Protestant mission,
was selected as the second main station,
the third being Ichang, lying between
these two points. A physician from Ger-
many and a nurse were secured in 1923
for the medical mission in Shihnanfu.
Statistics: Mission-fields: Hupeh Prov-
ince: Hankow (1913), Ichang (1922),
Sliihnan (1920),Shasi (1923). Szechwan
Province: Kweifu (1923), Wanhsien
(1923). Missionaries: Religious: 13
male. Educational: 2 female. Medical:
2 female. Native helpers: Student
helpers, 7; teachers, 32; Bible women, 2.
Chapels, 12. Schools: Primary schools,
11; Boys' Middle School (boarding-
school ) , l ; Lutheran Girls’ School
(Lower and Higher Primary), 1; sem-
inary, 1 ; Sunday-schools, 4. Souls, 477 ;
communicants, 309; voting members,
164; catechumens, 285. Baptisms in
1925, 182; confirmed, 21; burials, 30;
marriages, 4; communed, 1,424; aver-
age attendance at services, 610. — The
overwhelming majority of the foreign
missionaries are, of course, graduates
of Synod’s seminaries. — Chairman R.
Kretzschmar of the Board says (Ehene-
zer, p. 405) : “More men and women
than ever before are willing to consecrate
themselves to the great cause of bringing
the Gospel to the heathen. One family
is witling to give the salax'y of one mis-
sionary. A little congregation pledged
the salary of another one. The Walther
League is assuming the responsibility
for the support of five men in the field.”
It is supporting 10 men, besides 2 pas-
tors in Germany and one missionary to
tiie Apache Indians and is back of the
Bergheim in Ruling, China. “Individuals,
societies, schools, and Sunday-schools are
sending an annual contribution of $35,
Missouri Synod
503
Missouri Synod
wliicli will pay the way for one year for
a native student. Ladies’ missionary so-
cieties are sewing for the poor Hindu
schoolchildren. A Lutheran medical
auxiliary has recently been organized.”
Deaf-mute Missions. In 1893 a deaf
man of Michigan City, Ind., a graduate
of our Lutheran School for the Deaf at
Detroit, Mich., wrote to the director of
the school with regard to services for
the deaf. This letter was sent to Rev.
Augustus Reinke, pastor of Bethlehem
Church in Chicago, with the request that
he preach to the deaf since he had twelve
Detroit graduates in his congregation.
Assisted by this Michigan City deaf-
mute, Rev. Reinke began the study of the
sign-language, and a month later he con-
ducted the first Lutheran service in the
sign-language in our country with 16
deaf. In the monthly services the atten-
dance soon mounted from 16 to 60 and
more. Calls for services came from Lu-
theran deaf in other cities, and soon
Pastor Reinke was preaching in Milwau-
kee, Fort Wayne, Louisville, St. Louis,
and other cities. At the St. Louis Con-
cordia Seminary he also instructed four
members of the graduating class in the
sign-language and thus prepared them
for the Gospel-ministry among the deaf.
In 1896 he requested Synod at Fort
Wayne to take over the work. Synod
elected a Board for Deaf-mute Missions,
which extended calls to two candidates,
one to Milwaukee and the other to Louis-
ville. Rev. A. Reinke still had charge of
the work in Chicago and in October,
1896, organized the first Lutheran con-
gregation of deaf-mutes. The work now
extends from New York City to Seattle
and from Winnipeg, Can., to Austin,
Tex. In New York City, Cleveland, De-
troit, Chicago, St. Louis, Kansas City,
Omaha, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, St. Paul,
Duluth, Spokane, Portland, and Seattle
sixteen missionaries now preach in 134
cities of 22 States and Canada and in-
struct in 16 state schools. They have
ministered also to nine blind deaf. The
mission numbered 1,013 communicants in
1925. There are 10 organized congrega-
tions) with a total of 185 voting mem-
bers in Chicago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis,
and Seattle.
Jewish Mission. This mission was
established in 1881, in New York City.
The first missionary, D. Landsmann, was
succeeded in 1899 by the present worker,
N. Friedmann. The work in New York
is confronted by the same peculiar diffi-
culty as characterizes the mission among
this nationality everywhere and at ali
times. Not many can be led to turn to
Jesus Christ, and those who do must
face ostracism of a most brutal type.
A Jewish antimission league has been,
and is, making determined qfforts to put
an end to the mission. Mob violence has
been of frequent occurrence. At times
services could be held only under police
protection. But there have always been
a few who recognized in Jesus of Naz-
areth the Messiah and turned to Him for
salvation of their souls. The distribu-
tion of New Testaments and Bibles, as
well as of tracts, sermons, and Luther’s
Catechism, translated into Yiddish by
the missionary, has lately been increas-
ing; also the opportunities for private
instruction. “Eternity may reveal that
much of the seed has not been cast in
vain.” ( Synodical Report, 1923.)
Foreign-Tongue Missions. The origin
of these missions dates back to 1892,
when under the supervision of Pastor A.
Biewend work was begun among the
Letts and Esthonians in Boston. The
Foreign-tongue Missions were taken over
by Synod in 1899. Pastor II. Rebane
began work among the Letts in 1896 an<}
organized congregations in Cleveland,
Chicago, Wisconsin, South Dakota, Can-
ada, the Western and the Pacific coast
territories being later assigned to other
missionaries. At present there are four
missionaries in the field, with head-
quarters at Boston, Chicago, Philadel-
phia, and Gleason, Wis. Work among
the Lithuanians on the Atlantic coast
was begun in 1903. First pastor, Rev. H.
S. Brustat, Boston. Later the work was
taken up in Philadelphia, Scranton, Pa.,
Baltimore, Chicago, and in New York
and Connecticut. At present there are
3 missionaries. In 1894, at the instance
of Rev. F. Sattelmeier, pastor of an inde-
pendent German-Polish congregation, the
Eastern District began work among the
Poles. Synod took it over in 1908. Sta-
tions at Baltimore, New York, Philadel-
phia, Disputanta, Va., Trenton, New
Hampton, and Bayonne, N. J., Buffalo,
Detroit (now self-supporting), Saginaw,
Chicago, in Manitoba, and in Saskatche-
wan. Three missionaries. The Finnish
and Esthonian mission in Arizona was
begun by the California and Nevada Dis-
trict and taken over by Synod in 1911;
C. Klemmer, missionary. At present he
is working in Bogota, N. J., and New
York. Rev. Joli. Pascha, working at
eight stations in the East, among the
Persians, called attention to great pros-
pects there as well as in Pittsburgh and
Chicago. Synod took over the mission
in 1911, but expectations did not mate-
rialize; neither were later efforts to re-
vive this mission of any avail. The work
among the Slovaks was begun in 1912, in
Missouri Synod
504
Missouri Synod
Detroit (now self-supporting), and taken
over by Synod, with the sanction of the
Slovak Synod, in 1914. A second mis-
sionary supplies stations in Connecticut,
Rhode Island, and New Jersey. In 1917
Synod took over the work among the
Italia/ns, Pastor A. Bongarzone, a con-
verted priest, in charge; headquarters,
West Hoboken, N. J.
Foreign Work and Foreign Connec-
tions. The influence and work of Synod
was not confined to America, North and
South (see Canadian Districts and
Brazil; since 1913 in Cuba, at present
two pastors; since 1922 in Mexico, one
missionary preaching in Mexico City and
four other stations), but has spread to
other continents. The state churches of
Germany having yielded to the baneful
influence of unionism and modern “scien-
tific” theology, the Missouri Synod found
it impossible to maintain fraternal rela-
tions with them, but was glad to greet
and treat as brethren the men of the
Saxon Free Church (q.v.). The relations
established with Pastor F. Brunn (q.v.),
whom Dr. Walther visited in 1800, bene-
fited both parties. Brunn’s preparatory
school furnished the Missouri Synod a
great number of pastors and teachers,
and Missouri sent over men to assist
Brunn. It has always been in close con-
nection with the Saxon Free Church,
championing its cause, strengthening its
ranks, and giving whole-hearted financial
assistance (in 1925, $38,100). Through
the munificence of the Freikirclie Aid
Society (T. Lamprecht, president) the
Saxon Free Church has come into pos-
session of a theological seminary at
Berlin-Zehlendorf, on the faculty of
which Dr. G. Mezger, of St. Louis semi-
nary, served temporarily until the sum-
mer of 1920, when he was permanently
released bv the Synod to the German
brethren. — The four pastors of the Alsa-
tian Free Church are Missouri men; its
Sanitarium at Aubure is receiving finan-
cial aid from America, — The Missouri
Synod has always stood back of the
Danish Free Church (see Saxon Free
Church). — Connections have been estab-
lished with Lutherans in Finland, where
Pastor Wegelius, who attended Concordia
Seminary. St. Louis, for a year, and three
other pastors are endeavoring to establish
a sound Lutheran Free Church; for a
while they were permitted to use Paimen,
a state church paper as also their organ,
but conditions having changed of late,
they began to publish their own paper, Lu-
terilainen. — In 1896 a pastor of the Mis-
souri Synod took charge of the Lutheran
congregation established in London. This
and a second congregation, later organ-
ized, have been served and financially
assisted by Synod to the present day.
They belong to the Atlantic District.
Since 1921 one pastor has charge of the
work. — Since the World War repre-
sentatives of the Missouri Synod — one
of them Dr. W. H. T. Dau — have visited
Germany and neighboring European
countries, strengthening the old fraternal
relations and establishing new connec-
tions. — The closest fraternal relations
exist between the Missouri Synod and
the Ev. Luth. Synod in Australia (see
Australian Synod). Missouri supplied
it with pastors and teachers as long as
it was necessary, also with its first mis-
sionary among the natives of South Aus-
tralia. In turn, the Australian Synod
was glad to come to the assistance of
the Fast Indian Missions of Missouri
during and after the World War and has
helped to fill the depleted ranks of the
missionaries. In 1902 relations were
established with Lutherans in New Zea-
land (q.v.).
Benevolences. A survey of the char-
itable activities of the Missouri Synod is
presented in Eheneeer, p. 446 ff. We sum-
marize and add a few details. These
charities may he divided into two classes:
those fostered and supervised directly by
Synod and those fostered and supervised
by private organizations within the
bounds of Synod. Class A comprises,
first, the support of invalid pastors,
teachers, and professors and of the needy
families of deceased servants of the
Church. It has always been felt that
this rests, as a sacred duty, both upon
the congregations and, because of the
community of interests arising from the
nature of the ease, upon Synod. The
very first number of the Lutheraner,
after it had become Synod’s official or-
gan, reports a gift for the sainted Pastor
Buerger’s widow amounting to $40, con-
tributed by members of a few congrega-
tions. District boards have the matter
in charge. In 1917 a General Board of
Support was created, which works in
conjunction with the District hoards.
The Support Fund derives its income
from contributions of pastors and teach-
ers, from collections of congregations
(until 1926 10 per cent, of the net profits
of Concordia Publishing House also flowed
into that treasury), and from the pro-
ceeds of legacies and of the Three Million
Dollar Fund raised by the Lutheran Lay-
men’s League. In 1918, 750 persons were
given assistance; in 1925, 154 pastors,
54 teachers, 166 wives of disabled pastors
and teachers, 278 pastors’ widows, 78
teachers’ widows, 524 children below the
age of sixteen, 66 students (a total of
Missouri Synod
505
Missouri Synod
1,313 persons). Total disbursements in
1925, $231,535.83. — Next comes the
maintenance of indigent students at the
colleges. From the beginning the con-
gregations took this up as a matter of
course. Pastor J. F. Buenger, of St. Louis,
founded a young men’s society for this
purpose. Many ladies’ and young people’s
societies to-day have made it one of their
aims. District boards control the dis-
bursements. In 1920 about 400 students
were supported or assisted at an outlay
of $04,304.22. — The Immigrant Mission,
already mentioned in another connection,
eared for 27,000 immigrants from 1870
to 1883 and lent newcomers $47,252, all
but $5,000 of which sum was paid back.
- — The General Relief Board cares for
sufferers from fire, flood, etc. From 1917
to 1920 it disbursed $21,410.94. The
$1,205,000 contributed to the Red Cross,
of which the official statistician has a
record, do not include all the sums given
by our people in their local communities.
— The Board for Relief in Europe, called
into existence by the appalling distress
following the World War, has up to
February, 1920, handled in cash alone,
$1,310,283.03, and sent over 3,000,000
pounds of foodstuffs. From January 1
to December 31, 1925, 1,108,000 meals
were distributed. China Relief: $15,928.69
contributed in 1921. — The legacies ad-
ministered by Synod in the interest of
missions and charities, exclusive of the
legacies consisting of real estate and
those controlled by Districts and colleges,
have a value of $227,506.51. — -Class B:
City Missions, combining charitable ac-
tivities with their chief work, mission
proper, are conducted in twelve of the
larger cities, such as New York, Chicago,
Detroit, Cleveland, St. Louis, San Fran-
cisco, by seventeen missionaries. Insti-
tutions served in 1925, 137 ; hearers at
services, 154,395; tracts and church-
papers distributed, ca. 80,000; Bibles
and Testaments, ca. 2,500; communed,
ca. 3,000; burials, 172. — Hospitals.
The Lutheran Hospital at St. Louis,
founded in 1858 by Pastor F. Buenger,
was the first Protestant hospital in that
city. Hospitals are maintained by Mis-
souri Lutherans in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
Springfield, 111., Sioux City, Iowa, Fort
Wayne, lnd., Norfolk, Nebr., Beatrice,
Nebr., Hampton, Iowa, York, Nebr., Chi-
cago, Cleveland. The sanitarium for
tubercular patients at Wheat Ridge,
Colo.; was founded 1905; the Walther
League and other friends erected, in
1921, a hospital pavilion at a cost of
$225,000. There is also a sanitarium at
Hot Springs, S. Dak., and a Convalescent
Home at St. Louis. — Training-schools
for nurses are connected with several of
these hospitals. — ’The Lutheran Deacon-
ess Association (Synodical Conference).
Motherhouse and school at Fort Wayne
(21 enrolled) ; schools at Beaver Dam
and Watertown, Wis., and at Hot Springs,
S. Dak. A number of branch societies. — -
Orphanages at Des Peres, near St. Louis,
founded 1 868 by Pastor J. F. Buenger ;
West Roxbury, Mass.; Addison, 111.;
New Orleans, La.; Marwood, Pa.; In-
dianapolis, lnd. ; Fort Wadsworth, N. Y. ;
Baltimore, Md. They have harbored
ca. 4,400 children. — Home-finding Soci-
eties, fourteen in number, that of Wis-
consin being the original one, founded in
1890 by Rev. C. Eissfeldt and others,
place homeless children in Lutheran fam-
ilies; some of them have fine receiving-
homes for the temporary care of home-
less children. — The Deaf-mute Institute
in Detroit, Mich., was founded in 1873;
first director and teacher, Rev. G. Speck-
hard. In place of the spoken language
the sign-language is now being taught.
Average enrolment, 50. — The Home for
Feeble-minded and Epileptics in Water-
town, Wis., was founded in 1903 by the
home-finding societies (Synodical Confer-
ence). It can take care of about 50 in-
mates. — The Manual 'Draining and In-
dustrial School at Addison, 111., was
founded in 1916. — Homes for the Aged
at Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Monroe, Mich. ; Ar-
lington Heights, 111. ; Marwood, Pa.; Bal-
timore, Md.; Wauwatosa, Wis.; St. Louis,
Mo.; Buffalo, N. Y. Total of inmates in
1925, 493; since founding of the homes,
1,072. — Walther League Hospices, provid-
ing temporary homes for young Lutherans
coming from other cities. The first one
established 1912 in Buffalo; others
in Chicago, Milwaukee, Sioux City,
St. Louis, Washington, D. C., Omaha,
New York, Los Angeles, Detroit, St. Paul,
and San Francisco. There are hospice
secretaries in the various cities. — The
Lutheran Associated Charities Confer-
ence within the Synodical Conference,
representing the charitable agencies of
Class B, meets annually. Rev. Pli.
Wambsganss is president. Report of
1924: 67 institutions and societies; 374
persons employed; 207,296 persons bene-
fited in 1923; maintenance cost 1923,
$1,095,484; value of property, $6,078,900.
Doctrinal Controversies. Men speak ill
of the Missouri Synod for having been
engaged in so many controversies. They
do not blame nations for waging defen-
sive wars. Missouri owed it to the Bible
and the Confessions to guard its doc-
trines against any perversion. And these
controversies did not, in the providence
of God, hamper her external growth ;
Missouri Synod
506
Missouri Synod
they did serve, by the grace of God, to
give her that increase in spiritual
strength which goes with the deeper and
clearer conception of the divine truth. —
Lutheraner and Lehre und Wehre, later
the Theological Quarterly (Monthly) ,
and the Lutheran Witness were at all
times the fearless champions of Lutheran
Confessionalism. The Lutheraner met
the attacks of a Dr. William Nast, chief
spokesman for the German Methodists,
and of other sectarians, who were much
put out at having these staunch Lu-
therans come between them and the Ger-
man Lutheran immigrants, whom they
had considered their lawful prey. —
M. Oertel, who had come over with the
Saxons, but apostatized to Romanism
and ridiculed and reviled all things Lu-
theran in public print, also demanded
attention. — The attacks of the infidels,
those at the head of the German Turner-
bund, those in the lodges and in the Pro-
testantenverein, and those of other world-
lings had to be repulsed. - — The older
synods did not take kindly to Missouri.
The Lutheran Missionary , Lutheran Ob-
server, and other periodicals accused it
of exclusiveness, unpardonable one-sided-
ness, bigotry, etc. They branded the love
and veneration Missouri showed for
Lutheranism as “rigid symbolism,”
“German Lutheranism,” “deformities of
Pharisaic exclusiveness,” denounced the
Missourians as “Jesuits in disguise,”
stigmatized their synod as “a new sect,”
and spoke of its “Roman Catholic pro-
clivities”; and when the Lutheraner glo-
rified the distinctive Lutheran doctrines,
the Observer called it to order for “gath-
ering these old rags, tying them on a
stick, and calling upon all Lutherans to
agree with it on pain of excommunica-
tion.” The men at the head of the Gen-
eral Synod, Dr. S. S. Schmucker, Dr. B.
Kurtz, Dr. S. Sprecher, loved the Re-
formed doctrines and practises "and de-
nounced the ways of the “symbolic
Lutherans” as “highly criminal.” Mis-
souri was forced to speak out for the
Confessions. It did not love strife, but
peace, and in the interest of true peace
held Free Conferences, 1856 to 1859, with
men from the Ohio, New York, and Penn-
sylvania synods. Walther had proposed
these conferences “with a view toward
the final realization of one united Ev.
Lutheran Church of North America.”
They failed of their purpose, and the
controversy had to go on. — Missouri did
not keep silence over against the sad
condition obtaining in the Lutheran
churches of Germany; there no longer
the verbal inspiration and the infallibil-
ity of the Scriptures were taught in the
universities; not the Bible, but the
Christian consciousness was made the
source of theological knowledge; the
theologians stood for the development
of doctrines; and such doctrines as syn-
ergism, and kenosis, even Arianism and
the denial of the reconciliation through
the blood of Christ, were “developed” as
Lutheran, Biblical doctrines. Everywhere
unionism dominated. And so Missouri
had to break with the German churches.
— Besides, the Missouri Synod was en-
gaged in three controversies with men
whom she loved for their Lutheranism,
but whose errors she needed to combat
in the interest of Lutheranism.
The Controversy on the Doctrine of the
Church and the Ministry and Related
Doctrines . The opportunity the founders
of the Missouri Synod had for organizing
their congregations and synod without
being hampered or hindered by “inherited
ecclesiastical conditions” and the duty
thereby placed upon them, the events
culminating in the Altenhurg Debate, the
protest of the Watertown congregation
(mentioned above), and the attempt
made by a few determined men at the
beginning of Walther’s ministry in Trin-
ity Church, St. Louis, to abrogate the
rights and duties of the ministry (Wal-
ther’s stand in the matter being branded
as Stephanistic hierarchism) and to es-
tablish an exclusive rule of the laity, - — -
all this had necessitated a most thorough
and conscientious study of the teachings
of the Bible and the Confessions on these
points on the part of Walther and his
colaborers. These prayerful investiga-
tions had occupied the time and energy
of Walther for many years. Not since
the days of Luther had these doctrines
been so clearly presented as by Walther,
and nowhere and never, since the apos-
tolic times, had the Scriptural principles
of church government, etc., as elaborated
in the great classics: The Voice of Our
Church on the Question of Church and
Office, The Correct Form of a Local Con-
gregation Independent of the State, and
The Evangelical Lutheran Church the
True Visible Church on Earth, been so
thoroughly applied as in the Missouri
Synod. It is not true, as was charged at
the time, that Walther had shaped his
doctrine to fit prevailing conditions.
Rather, “since we are here not placed
under inherited ecclesiastical conditions,
but, on the contrary, are so placed as to
be compelled to lay the foundations for
the same and to he able to lay it without
hindrance on the part of what may exist,
these conditions have rather compelled
us earnestly to inquire after the prin-
ciples upon which, according to God’s
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507
Missouri Synod
Word and the Confessions of our Church,
the constitution of a true Lutheran
church-body ( Gem einschaft ) must rest
and in accordance with which it must be
framed. . . . We have not molded the
doctrine of our Church according to our
conditions, but we have molded these ac-
cording to the doctrine of our Church. . . .
We can cheerfully refer to the proofs
we have adduced” from Scripture, the
Confessions, Luther, and the Lutheran
theologians. (Foreword, Voice of Our
Church.) This position of the Missouri
Synod was tested and strengthened by
the controversy with “the Synod of the
Lutheran Church which Emigrated from
Prussia,” popularly known as the Buffalo
Synod. Its leader, Rev. J. A. A. Grabau,
who had been persecuted and imprisoned
for his brave stand against the Prussian
Union, held a doctrinal position similar
to Stephan’s. He and his associates
maintained : that the one holy Christian
Church is a visible Church, “those who
gather about the Word and Sacraments,”
and “these church gatherings are such
as have the Word and Sacrament in
purity in the ministry,” there being thus
no salvation outside of the Lutheran
Church; regarding the Office of the
Keys, that Christ did not give the keys
of the kingdom of heaven to the Church
and to each true believer, but solely and
exclusively to the pastors; “it is there-
fore not for the congregation to judge
and to command and to declare that the
sinner is to be held as ‘an heathen man
and a publican’”; regarding the Min-
istry, that “it is not the congregation
which gives or conveys the holy ministry,
but the Son of God,” and if a congrega-
tion elects and calls a pastor without the
assistance and presence of a representa-
tive of the ministry, “this has not the
slightest validity before God and is vain
arrogance”; ordination by other clergy-
men is by divine ordinance essential to
the validity of the ministerial office;
briefly, God would deal with us only
through the ministerial office; “we also
believe and confess that this office . . .
forms a distinct and separate rank, or
class” ; regarding church government,
that the congregation is not the supreme
tribunal in the Church, but the synod as
representing the Church at large; “what
is contrary to the Word of God or not is
not decided by any one single church-
member, but by the Church itself in its
symbols, church rituals, and synods”; at
synodical meetings the laity may “listen,
ask questions, and have them answered
by the Word of God”; they are bound
to obey their minister in all things not
contrary to the Word of God; and the
congregation has no right to judge the
doctrine of its pastor. The doctrines
defended by the “Missourians” (the name
originated with Grabau) are summarized
in the. propositions forming the ground-
work of The Voice of the Church. The
Theses on the Church are an elabora-
tion and application of the Altenburg
Theses (q.v.). They read: “1. The
Church, in the proper sense of the word,
is the communion of saints, {. e., the
totality of all who are called out of the
lost and condemned human race by the
Holy Ghost, through the Gospel, sin-
cerely believe in Christ, and by this their
faith have been sanctified and made
members of the spiritual body of Christ.
2. No infidel, hypocrite, unregenerate
man nor heretic belongs to the Church
in the proper sense of the word. 3. The
Church, in the proper sense of the word,
is invisible. 4. To this true Church of
the believers and saints Christ has given
the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and
she, therefore, is the proper and sole pos-
sessor and hearer of all the spiritual,
divine, and heavenly treasures, rights,
and powers, and offices, etc,, which Christ
has gained and which are to be found in
the Church. 5. Although the true
Church, in the proper sense of the word,
is essentially invisible, her presence may
nevertheless be definitely known, her un-
failing marks being the pure preaching
of the Word of God and the administra-
tion of the holy Sacraments according to
the institution of Christ. 6. In a tropical
sense also the visible totality of the
called, i. e, the totality of all those who
hold and profess the preached Word of
God and use the holy Sacraments, good
and bad together, according to Holy
Scripture is termed the Church (the
universal catholic Church), and the va-
rious divisions of it, i. e., the congrega-
tions found in different places, in whose
midst the Word of God is preached and
the Sacraments are administered, are
called churches (particular churches),
and this for the reason that the true and
properly called Church of the believers,
saints, and children of God is contained
in the visible congregations; and the
elect must not be sought outside of the
society of the called. 7. As those visible
congregations which essentially retain
the Word and the Sacraments according
to the Scriptures bear the name of
churches in view of the fact that the
true invisible Church of believers is
found in their midst, these visible con-
gregations also, by reason of the presence
among them of members of the invisible
Church, even though’ there were but two
or three of them, possess the power which
Missouri Synod
508
Missouri Synod
Christ has given to His whole Church.
8. Although God gathers for Himself a
church of the elect also there where the
Word of God is not preached entirely
pure and the Sacraments are not ad-
ministered entirely in accord with the
institution of Christ, provided the Word
of God and the Sacraments are not re-
jected altogether, but essentially remain,
nevertheless every one is bound for the
sake of his own salvation to shun all
false teachers and to avoid all heterodox
associations, or sects, and, on the other
hand, to adhere to, and to profess, the
faith of orthodox congregations and their
orthodox preachers where he finds such.
9. It is only the communion with the in-
visible Church, to which originally all
those glorious promises concerning the
Church were given, which is indispen-
sably necessary for salvation.” — Theses
on the Ministry: “I. The holy office of
preaching ( Predig tamt) or the ministry
(Pfarramt) is not identical with the
priesthood of all believers. 2. The office
of preaching, or the holy ministry, is not
a human institution, but an office insti-
tuted by God Himself. 3. The establish-
ment of the office of the ministry is not
optional, but is divinely enjoined upon
the Church, and until the end of days
the Church may not, ordinarily, dispense
with it. 4. The ministry is not a sepa-
rate holy estate like the Levitical priest-
hood, standing out as more holy than the
common estate of all Christians, but it
is an office of service. 5. The ministry
has the power to preach the Gospel and
to administer the Sacraments and the
power of spiritual jurisdiction. 0. The
office of the ministry is delegated (ueher-
tragen) by God through the congrega-
tion. the possessor of all church-power,
or the Keys, by means of the divinely
prescribed call of the congregation. The
ordination, with laying on of hands on
those, called, is not a divine institution,
but an apostolic, ecclesiastical rite and
merely a public solemn attestation of
such call. 7. The holy ministry is the
power conveyed by God through the con-
gregation, the possessor of the priesthood
and all church-power, to administer on
behalf of the congregation (von Gemein-
sehafts ivegen) in public office the rights
of the spiritual priesthood. 8. The office of
the ministry is the highest office in the
Church, from which all other offices in
the Church are derived as from their
source. 9. Due honor and unconditional
obedience is due the ministry whenever
the minister applies the Word of God
(Gottes Wort fuehrt). But the minister
may not exercise dominion in the church ;
he therefore has no right to make new
laws, arbitrarily to arrange the adi-
aphora and ceremonies in the church, or
alone and without previous knowledge on
the part of the whole congregation to
impose and carry out the sentence of
excommunication. 10. The ministry has
indeed the divine right to judge doc-
trine; the laity, however, also has this
right ; for which reason laymen have
also seat and voice with the ministers in
church-courts and councils.” The contro-
versy began before the organization of
the synods. In 1840 Pastor Grabau is-
sued a Pastoral Letter, a copy of which
he sent to the Saxons, requesting their
opinion on it. The opinion was written
by Pastor Loeber in 1843. In a friendly
spirit, dissent as to various points of
doctrine was expressed in it. Grabau
took the brotherly admonition amiss.
Further correspondence brought out the
divergence more clearly. Grabau and
his three associates drew up a list of
seventeen charges of error against the
Missourians and declared that they could
no longer consider them Lutheran min-
isters who adhered to the Word of God
and the Lutheran Confessions. Congre-
gations which had severed their connec-
tion with Buffalo and called Missourian
pastors were branded as Rotten (heret-
ical bodies), and the removal of their
pastors was demanded by Grabau. Mis-
souri held that these congregations had
acted within their rights. The Informa-
torium, founded 1851, declared in its
first issue: “Professor Walther and his
adherents are surely heretics.” There-
upon the Lutheraner also joined in the
controversy. In the same year Professor
Walther and President Wyneken were
sent to Germany to arrange for the
printing of The Voice of Our Church and
to confer with Loehe, who did not agree
with Missouri. Many difficulties were
overcome, but a complete understanding
was not reached. Walther and Wyneken
were well received by Dr. v. Harless and
found themselves in full accord with
Dr. Guericke and others. In 1853 Pas-
tors Grabau and v. Rohr laid their case
before the Church in Germany. The
Leipzig Conference, the most important
organization of Lutheran theologians of
that period, issued an admonition to both
parties, faulting Grabau for resorting
too freely to excommunication and de-
manding of Missouri the removal of the
so-called Rottenprediger (heretical pas-
tors), which demand, however, upon
being more fully informed, they later
withdrew. As to the doctrine in con-
troversy the Leipzig Conference de-
manded that it be treated as an “open
question.” The Conference of Fuertli
Missouri Synod
509
Missouri Synod
took the same position. Missouri held
that the only source and norm of doc-
trine is Scripture; it repudiated the
modern doctrine that any matter, though
it be clearly taught in the Bible, must be
considered an open question till “the
Church has spoken.” They furthermore
declared that in the Lutheran sense “the
Church had already spoken” — in its
Confessions. The spokesmen of the Gen-
eral Synod also took a hand in the
matter; but they did not fully under-
stand the matter. Repeatedly efforts
were made to bring the parties together
in conference. Already in 1846 the
Saxons invited Grabau to a friendly
conference to be held in Fort Wayne.
St. Matthew's of Detroit asked him to
confer with Craemer in its church. The
Leipzig Conference and the Breslau
Synod urged him to meet the Missou-
rians in a “colloquium.” Grabau refused,
saying his conscience forbade it; and
while Missouri as late as 1856, when the
Ohio Synod again brought up the matter,
stood ready to establish closer rela-
tions with Buffalo, Grabau, in 1859,
prevailed upon his synod to renounce all
fraternal intercourse with the Missouri
Synod “as being heathenish and pub-
lican.” In 1866 he excommunicated
many of his own synod for “entertain-
ing Missourian principles,” in one in-
stance an entire congregation. A split
occurred in the Buffalo Synod. Grabau
and a few adherents withdrew, and a
“colloquium” was held in Buffalo (1866).
Buffalo was represented by the pastors
H. von Rohr, Chr. Hoehstetter, and P.
Brand and the laymen Chr. Krull, E.
Schnorr, and H. A. Christiansen; Mis-
souri by Professor Walther, Pastor H. C.
Schwan, and Dr. Sillier, and the laymen
J. C. D. Roemer, J. Keil, and J. C. Theiss.
The representatives of Buffalo, with the
exception of Pastor von Rohr, agreed
with the Missourians on all points of
doctrine. In 1807 a formal recognition
of fraternal unity was sealed at a meet-
ing between twelve ministers and five lay
delegates of Buffalo and five Missourians,
and eleven of the twelve ministers later
joined the Missouri Synod.
Controversy icith the Iowa Synod. The
founding of the Iowa Synod (1854) was
owing to the doctrinal disagreement be-
tween Pastor W. Loehe and the Missouri
Synod. Loehe had taken a warm interest
in the work of Wyneken and of the Mis-
souri Synod. The disagreement first ap-
peared when Loehe expressed his disap-
proval of that section of the constitution
of the Missouri Synod which recognized
the equality of the lay representatives
yvith the clergy, “the American rule of
the rabble in the Church.” The efforts
of Walther, Wyneken, and others to avert
a break with the man whom the Missouri
Synod owed such an immense debt of
gratitude proved unavailing. Other
points of divergence developed and gave
rise to the controversy with Iowa, the
exponent of Loelie’s theology. — As to
the doctrine of the Church and the Min-
isterial Office , Iowa rejected Thesis VI,
on the Ministry, of Walther’s Kirche und
Amt. (See the . preceding paragraph,
p. 508.) Rejecting Grabau’s papistical doc-
trine of the absolute rule of the ministry,
Loehe, like Grabau, did not believe that
the Christians as spiritual priests trans-
fer their rights to the pastor for public
administration, that every Christian has
all the rights and privileges of the Office
of the Keys. Missouri taught that the
office of the ministry is derived from the
spiritual priesthood of believers, who
possess all the rights of the Office of the
Keys. (“Christ indicates to whom He
has given the keys, namely, to the
Church : ‘Where two or three are gath-
ered together in My name.’ ” Smalc. Art.,
p. 5] I.) Furthermore, “we maintain,” said
Iowa in the Davenport Theses, 1873,
“that the public office of the ministry is
transmitted by God through the congre-
gation of believers in its entirety”; by
the individual congregation, said Mis-
souri; the call of the individual congre-
gation makes the minister. (Smalc. Art.,
above.) Again, ordination is simply a
church ceremony, publicly attesting the
validity of the call, said Missouri. Loehe
was not ready to admit this. The Toledo
Theses, agreed upon by the Ohio and Iowa
synods in 1909, admit it. Finally, the dis-
agreement on the doctrine of the Church
is thus stated by the Davenport Theses :
“We [Iowa] could not agree with the
Synod of Missouri when it declared that
the Church in its nature is invisible in
the sense that all that belongs to its
visibility must be excluded from the defi-
nition of its nature.” — The synods vio-
lently clashed on the question of the
basis of church unity, the completeness
of the body of the doctrine, and related
matters. Iowa held: “Because within
the Lutheran Church there are different
tendencies ( verschiedene Riohtungen),
Synod declares itself in favor of that
tendency which, by means of the Confes-
sions and on the basis of the Word of
God, strives toward a greater complete-
ness.” Missouri denied that there can
be a true development of "doctrine; all
doctrines to be taught in the Church are
clearly revealed and fully set down, once
for all, in the Scriptures; they cannot
and must not he “completed” by the theo-
Missouri Synod
510
Missouri Synod
logians. Iowa held, consistently, “that
there are doctrines, even doctrines of the
Bible, concerning which members of our
Church may hold different views and con-
victions without thereby being compelled
to refuse each other church-fellowship.”
Missouri held that the true unity of the
Church is not only desirable, but attain-
able and commanded by God and that
the basis of this unity must be the agree-
ment in the doctrines set forth in the
Bible. ( “To the true unity of the Church
it is enough to agree concerning the doc-
trine of the Gospel and the administra-
tion of the Sacraments,” Augsb. Conf .,
Art. 7 ; nothing more, nothing less.) De-
claring with Luther that “Christians
should insist upon unity of the Spirit,”
Missouri condemned the tendency which
tolerates and justifies the existence of
different tendencies in one church-body
as involving a denial of the clearness
and authority of Scripture and partak-
ing of the nature of unionism. — How
much of the Symbols has binding force?
Iowa : “As a result our Synod was from
its very beginning persuaded to make
a distinction between such articles in
the Confessions of the Ev. Lutheran
Church as are necessary articles of faith
(Glaubenslehren) and such other doc-
trines (Lehrpunkte) as are not doctrines
necessary for salvation.” Missouri re-
fused to accept the distinction made;
a Lutheran pastor is bound to abide by
the whole body of doctrine contained in
the Confessions — and, naturally, by any
other Bible doctrine not referred to in
them. — What are “ope n que stions” f.
Missouri said: Such matters a"§~frreTiot
decided in Scripture. Iowa said: Such
doctrines, concerning which, though they
are taught in Scripture, “different views
may very well he held in the Church,”
because they have not yet been symbol-
ically decided, have not yet gone through
a controversy, because the theologians
are not agreed on them; as, for in-
stance, the doctrine of the Church and
the ministry, of Sunday, of the Last
Things. The Davenport Theses give this
definition : “We have always understood
‘open questions’ to mean such doctrines
as might be the subject of difference of
views without thereby destroying the
brotherhood of faith or ecclesiastical fel-
lowship,” reference being had to doctrines
“not in themselves doubtful or uncer-
tain.” Missouri replied: a) that noth-
ing taught in .the Bible may be treated
as an “open question”; that it is papis-
tical to make of articles of faith open
questions; b) that Christians should in-
sist upon unity of the Spirit; that per-
sistent denial of any doctrine stands in
the way of church-fellowship; that it is
unionism to legitimize, for instance, the
preaching of Chiliasm side by side with
that of Anticliiliasm. — What of Sunday t
Both synods were agreed that the obser-
vance of a particular day is not divinely
commanded; but Iowa hel(l that, even
though the Augsburg Confession (Art.
28) rejects the contrary view, the con-
trary view, having been held by some
Lutheran theologians, must be tolerated
in the Church. — Missouri said : “The
Pope is the very Antichrist" (Smalc.
Art.; Trigl., p.475.) Iowa insisted that
any Lutheran is at liberty to teach that
Antichrist himself has not yet appeared.
— As to the millennium (whether or not
the “first rhsurrectio'n,'”" ’Rev. 20, is a
bodily resurrection, which shall precede
the general resurrection of the Last Day,
and related questions), Missouri rejected
Chiliasm in all its forms, as does the
Augsburg Confession (Art. 17); Iowa,
while not teaching Chiliasm as a synod,
yet held that Chiliasm was legitimate
Lutheran doctrine, a justifiable develop-
ment of the Scripture teaching. (Rev. G.
A. Schieferdecker, who had left Missouri
on account of his Chiliastic teachings,
was received into the Iowa Synod; later
returned to Missouri. President Dein-
doerfer of the Iowa Synod himself was
a Chiliast. ) — A “colloquy” on these
questions was held at Milwaukee in 1867.
Iowa was represented by President G.
Grossmann, Prof. S. Fritsehel, Prof. G.
Fritschel, and the lay delegate F. R.
Becker; Missouri by President Walther,
Dr. Sillier, Rev. J. A. Huegli, Rev. Chr.
Hoclistetter, and the lay delegates K.
Koch, C. Wassermann, F. R. Stutz, and
J. Bierlein. The attitude towards the
Symbols, the subject of “open questions,”
and eschatological matters were dis-
cussed. Harmony was not attained.
The controversy went on. True to its
principle, Iowa was always ready to
enter into church-fellowship with Mis-
souri in spite of doctrinal disagreement;
Missouri, true to its principle, held that
some of the differences involved such
weighty matters of doctrine that church-
fellowship was impossible. “However,
having come together as far as we have,
we have not at all lost the hope of seeing
church-fellowship established in the fu-
ture, God grant in the near future!”
(Walther in Milwaukee.) The “near
future,” however, only widened the
chasm. Said President Deindoerfer:
“Although in former years the difference
between us and the Missouri Synod did
not stand in the way of church-fellow-
ship, the difference now existing in the
doctrirte of elec tion i s of such a nature
Missouri Synod
Sii
Missouri Synod
lliat there can no longer be any church-
fellowship.” This latest controversy, as
also the endeavors to bring about har-
mony in the matter, is treated in the
next paragraph. In the other matters
at issue various points of divergence
have been removed, as the Toledo Theses
show, especially Thesis 4(a): “All doc-
trines revealed clearly and plainly in the
Word of God are, by virtue of the divine
authority of said Word, dogmatically
fixed as true and binding upon the con-
science, whether they have been symbol-
ically settled as such or not”; and (e) :
“Those who knowingly, obdurately, and
persistently contradict the divine Word
in any of its utterances whatsoever,
thereby overthrow the organic foundation
[of the faith] and are therefore to be
excluded from church-fellowship.”
Controversy QU-JS. lection and Conver-
sion. This controversy arose from a
divergence on the question : Does a dis-
similar conduct , in natural men over
against the converting and saving grace
of God account for the fact that some
are converted and saved while others re-
main unconverted and perish? The im-
portance of the matter lies in the bearing
it has on that other fundamental ques-
tion: Does man’s conversion and salva-
tion depend solely upon God? (Sola
gratia.) Dr. F. A. Schmidt correctly
gaged the issue when he wrote: “This
question (Does man’s conversion depend
upon God alone?) is, in a certain sense,
the cardinal question of the whole con-
troversy. The Missourians, of course,
insist upon an unconditional affirmation
of this question.” - — The controversy be-
gan in 1872, when Prof. G. Fritschel of
the Iowa Synod insisted on the “dis-
similar conduct,” and Professor Walther
answered with the article in Lehre und
Wehre: “Is It Really Lutheran Doctrine
that Man’s Salvation, in the Last Analy-
sis, Depends on His Free Self-determina-
tion?” The controversy became general
when in 1880 Prof. F. A. Schmidt of the
Norwegian Synod, at that time a member
of the St. Louis faculty, repeated the
charge of Crypto-Calvinism against the
Missouri Synod for rejecting the theory
“that not the mercy of God and the most
holy merit of Christ alone, but also in us
there is a cause why God has elected us
unto eternal life.” (Report of West.
Dist., 1877.) Professor Stellhorn and
others of the Missouri Synod sided with
him; also the leaders of the Ohio Synod.
A number of conferences and “colloquies”
were held within the Missouri Synod and
the Synodical Conference; but they
failed to reestablish harmony. In May,
1881, the Missouri Synod adopted the
following T hirteen Th eses : “1) We be-
lieve, teach, "and confess that God has
loved the whole world from eternity, has
created all men for salvation and none
for damnation, and earnestly desires the
salvation of all men ; and hence we
heartily reject and condemn the contrary
Calvinistic doctrine. 2) We believe,
teach, and confess that the Son of God
has come into the world for all men, has
borne, and atoned for, the sins of all
men, has perfectly redeemed all men,
none excepted; and hence we heartily
reject and condemn the contrary Calvin-
istie doctrine. 3) We believe, teach, and
confess that God earnestly calls all men
through the means of grace, i. e., with
the intention of bringing them through
these means unto repentance and unto
faith and of preserving them therein to
the end and of thus finally saving them,
wherefore God offers them through these
means of grace the salvation purchased
by' Christ’s atonement and the power of
accepting this salvation by faith; and
hence we heartily reject and condemn the
contrary Calvinistic doctrine. 4) We be-
lieve, teach, and confess that no man is
lost because God would not save him, or
because God with His grace passed him
by, or because He did not offer the grace
of perseverance to him also and would
not bestow it upon him; but that all
men who are lost perish by their own
fault, namely, on account of their unbe-
lief, and because they have obstinately
resisted the Word and grace of God to
the end; . . . and hence we heartily re-
ject and condemn the contrary Calvin-
istic doctrine. 5) We believe, teach, and
confess that the persons concerned in
election or predestination are only the
true believers, who believe to the end or
who come to faith at the end of their
lives; and hence we reject and condemn
the error of Huber, that election is not
particular, but universal, and concerns
all men. 6) We believe, teach, and con-
fess that divine election is immutable,
and hence, that not one of the elect can
become reprobate and be lost, but that
every one of the elect is surely saved;
and hence we heartily reject and con-
demn the contrary Huberian error.
7) We believe, teach, and confess that it
is folly and dangerous to souls, leading
either to carnal security or to despair,
vdjen men attempt to become or to be
certain of their election or their future
salvation by searching out the eternal
mysterious decree of God; and hence we
heartily reject and condemn the contrary
doctrine as a piece of pernicious fanati-
cism. 8) We believe, teach, and confess
that a believing Christian should en-
Missouri Synod. 512 Missouri Synod
deavor from the revealed Word of God
to become sure of his election; and hence
we heartily reject and condemn the con-
trary papistic error that a man can be-
come and be certain of his election and
salvation only through a new, immediate
revelation. 9) We believe, teach, and
confess, a) that election does not consist
of the mere foreknowledge of God as to
which men will be saved; b) also, that
election is not the mere purpose of God
to redeem and save mankind, for which
reason it might be termed universal,
embracing all men generally; c) that
election does not concern temporary be-
lievers, Luke 8, 13; d) that election is
not the mere decree of God to save all
those who believe to the end; and hence
we heartily reject and condemn the con-
trary errors of the rationalists, Huber-
ians, and Arminians. 10) We believe,
teach, and confess that the cause which
moved God to choose the elect is solely
His grace and the merit of Jesus Christ,
and not any good thing which God has
foreseen in the elect, even not the faith
foreseen by God in them; and hence we
reject and condemn the contrary doc-
trines of the Pelagians, Semi-Pelagians,
and synergists as blasphemous, frightful,
subversive of the Gospel and therefore
of the entire Christian religion. 11) We
believe, teach, and confess that election
is not the mere foresight or foreknowl-
edge of the salvation of the elect, but
also a cause of their salvation and what
pertains thereto; and hence we heartily
reject and condemn the contrary doc-
trines of the Arminians, the Socinians,
and of all synergists. 12) We believe,
teach, and confess that God has “still
kept secret and concealed much concern-
ing this mystery and reserved it alone
for His wisdom and knowledge,” which
no man can or should search out; and
lienee we reject the attempt to penetrate
into what is not revealed and to har-
monize with reason those things that
seem to contradict our reason, whether
this is done in the Calvinistic or in the
Pelagian-synergistic theories. 13) We
believe, teach, and confess that- it is not
only neither useless nor even dangerous,
but rather necessary and wholesome to
present publicly also to our Christian
people the mysterious doctrine of pre-
destination, as far as it is clearly re-
vealed in God’s Word; and hence we do
not agree with those who think that this
doctrine must either be entirely con-
cealed or must be reserved only for the
disputations of the learned.” — In Sep-
tember, 1881, the Ohio Synod withdrew
from the Synodical Conference. Those
of its members who protested against
this action of their synod formed the
Concordia Synod. In 1883 the Norwe-
gian Synod, reluctantly, also withdrew.
The faculty of the General Council sem-
inary sided with Ohio and Iowa; like-
wise the faculty of Rostock (Germany),
in a formal opinion; in fact, most of the
prominent Lutheran theologians through-
out the world. The Synodical Conference
stood pretty well alone. Led by Dr. Wal-
ther. Prof. F. Pieper, Rev. Stoeckhardt,
Professors Hoeneeke and A. L. Graelmer,
and others, for a time also by Prof. H. G.
Stub and others of the Norwegian Synod,
it unflinchingly maintained its position. —
Concerning Election, Ohio (thus for the
sake of brevity) taught that God did
not elect “without having foreseen some
difference in men”; that He elected
“those of whom through His omniscience
He foresaw that they would suffer them-
selves. by means of His grace and power,
to be brought unto faith in Christ and
to be preserved therein,” thus making
election depend on the foreseen faith
(intuitu fidei) or, as others put it, on
tlie foreseen conduct, the foreseen non-
resistance, of man. For Missouri’s posi-
tion see Thesis 10 and the Formula of
Concord: “We reject the following er-
rors : . . . that not only the mercy of God
and the most holy merit of Christ, but
also in us there is a cause of God’s elec-
tion on account of which God has elected
us to everlasting life.” (Trigl., p.837.)
Whatever good God foresaw in any man
could not have determined Him to elect
this person; for whatever good is found
in a man is entirely and solely the work
of God’s free grace. In other words,
Ohio taught that election is the result of
man’s persevering faith, foreseen by God;
the Synodical Conference, that faith is
the result of the election of grace.
Thesis 11. Form, of Cone,: “The eternal
election of God not only foresees and
foreknows the salvation of the elect, but
is also, from the gracious will and plea-
sure of God in Christ Jesus, a cause
which procures, works, helps, and pro-
motes our salvation and what pertains
thereto.” (Trigl., p. 1065.) Again, the
Synodical Conference repudiated the ter-
minology which identified the general
way of salvation for all men (according
to which salvation is, of course, by faith)
with election (“election in a wider
sense”) as contrary to the Scriptures and
the Confessions. — As conversion is sim-
ply the execution of God’s eternal elec-
tion of grace and as faith would not, in
this respect, constitute the “difference”
required by the synergistic theory, unless
conversion were the result, not of grace
alone, but of grace and man’s good con-
Missouri Synod
513
Missouri Synod
duct, the controversy at once took in,
and soon centered in, the doctrine of
conversion. The Missourians, as Dr.
Schmidt correctly states, insisted upon
an unconditional affirmation of the ques-
tion: Does man’s conversion and salva-
tion depend upon God alone? Ohio would
not give an unconditional affirmation.
Rather, “it is undeniable that in a cer-
tain respect conversion and final salva-
tion are dependent upon man and not
upon God alone”; “according to the re-
vealed order of salvation the actual final
result of the means of grace depends not
only on the sufficiency and efficacy of
the means themselves, but also upon the
conduct of man in regard to the neces-
sary condition of passiveness and sub-
missiveness under the Gospel-call.” And
this submissiveness, the cessation of wil-
ful resistance, must be wrought by man
himself, wrought, indeed, by the right
use made of the “new powers imparted
by grace,” but wrought while man is
still in the unconverted state, all of
which the Synodical Conference denounced
as a variety of Latermann’s species of
synergism (“the subtle synergism,” as
Dr. Schmauk of the General Council calls
it, “which has infected nearly the whole
of modern Evangelical Protestantism,
and which is, or lias been, taught in
institutions bearing the name of our
Church”), declaring that “the free will,
from its innate, wicked, rebellious na-
ture, resists God and His will hostilely,
unless it be enlightened and controlled
by God’s Spirit.” (Form, of Gone., Trigl.,
p. 888.) Ohio’s insistence on the “right
conduct of man over against converting
grace” as explaining his conversion, sal-
vation, and election, and the absolute
rejection of it on the part of the Synod-
ical Conference constituted the funda-
mental difference between the opposing
bodies; it was, said Ohio, “the cardinal
question of the entire controversy.”
Since grace is universal and all men are
equally depraved and guilty, why are
not all converted? The Synodical Con-
ference left the question unanswered, as
Scripture does. The opponents solved
the mystery by denying the equal guilt
of men : “The dissimilar working of con-
verting and saving grace is well explained
on the ground of the dissimilar conduct
of man over against grace.” The Synod-
ical Conference denied the “dissimilar
conduct,” identified it with the “dissim-
ilar action” in Melanchthon’s theory,
pointed out that those who are dead in
sins are equally, not dissimilarly, dead,
and pointed to the Formula of Concord •:
“that when we are placed alongside of
them and compared with them [and
Concordia Cyclopedia
found to be most similar to them], we
may learn the more diligently to recog-
nize and praise God’s pure, unmerited
grace in the vessels of mercy.” (Trigl.,
j>. 1083.) The opponents found the
greater guilt in the wilful resistance,
and the right conduct, upon which, in
the final analysis, all depends, in the
suppression by man of his wilful resis-
tance, natural resistance being overcome
by the Holy Spirit. The Synodical Con-
ference denied, a) that Scripture and the
Confessions make this distinction be-
tween natural and wilful resistance, and
b) that the unconverted man can over-
come his naturally wilful, his wilful nat-
ural resistance. In the later stages of
the controversy the opponents taught
that the conversion of man is due, en-
tirely and solely, to grace, but his non-
conversion is due to the occurrence in
him (such occurrence being inexplicable,
a psychological mystery) of a resistance
(wilful resistance) which cannot be over-
come by the Holy Spirit, and that he
thus thwarts His converting grace, while
the resistance in others (natural resis-
tance) is of a kind which yields to His
converting grace. The Synodical Confer-
ence objected, a) that “God, in conver-
sion, changes stubborn and unwilling
into willing men through the drawing of
the Holy Ghost” (Form, of Cone., Trigl.,
p. 915) and b) that the occurrence of
a resistance of that sort would again
constitute the dissimilar guilt. To sum
up : the fundamental difference lies, say
the opponents, in the Calvinistic lean-
ings of the Synodical Conference; ac-
cording to Dr. Pieper ( Conversion and
Election, p. 26: “The fundamental dif-
ference consists in the acknowledgment
or rejection of an insoluble mystery in
the fact that ‘one is hardened, blinded,
given over to a reprobate mind, while
another, who is indeed in the same guilt,
is again converted.’ ” (Form, of Cone.,
Trigl., p. 1081.) - — • Another question
arose : Should a Christian be sure of his
salvation? The Synodical Conference
affirmed it (Thesis 8) ; the opponents
denied it, as indeed their premises de-
manded. — The controversy also devel-
oped a divergence on the “analogy of
faith." Ohio contended that the various
doctrines of Holy Scripture must be
modified according to inferences drawn
from the various doctrines, must be har-
monized with the Lehrganzes constructed
by the theologian; the Synodical Con-
ference, that all doctrines must stand as
they are revealed; that “human reason
must not be permitted to judge whether
there be any contradiction in the articles
of faith” and thus be made the arbiter
33
Missouri Synod
514 Influence ol Missouri Synod
of faith; that, when two doctrines seem
to contradict each other, the solution
must be left to the light of glory; and
that the “analogy of faith” is simply the
sum and body of doctrines revealed. —
As to the charges of Calvinism raised
against the Synodical Conference, the
Synodical Conference always taught that
God desires the salvation of all men;
that there is no predestination to damna-
tion; that God seriously offers to all his
divine grace; that the election of grace
is not an arbitrary act of His secret will,
but the election of grace, the grace in
Christ, the grace of the Gospel; that
there are not two contradictory wills in
God; that the sole cause of a man’s
damnation is his wickedness, his resis-
tance to converting grace; that grace is
resistible, etc. See the first division of
the Thirteen Theses. The charges were
simply based on unwarranted inferences
drawn from the rejection of the theory
that man’s conduct is the ground of ex-
planation for a person’s conversion and
final salvation. — As to the term “intuitu
fidei” ( election in view of faith), this
term was coined by the ancient Semi-
Pelagians and, introduced by Aegidius
Hunnius into Lutheran dogmatics, was
used by the later dogmaticians over
against the error of Huber (universal
election) and Calvinism (absolute elec-
tion ) ; but as its employment in the doc-
trine of election explains nothing with
reference to the mystery so long as faith
is held to be the work and gift of God,
and yields a good sense only when under-
stood in an evil, synergistic sense, the
Synodical Conference would have none
of it. (For the Scripture-proofs on the
various points see the doctrinal ar-
ticles. ) - — The five Intersynodical Con-
ferences held from 1903 (Watertown)
to 1906 (Fort Wayne) hardly served to
bring the opposing bodies closer together.
Since then good progress has been made
towards reaching an agreement on the
basis of Scripture and the Confessions.
Since 1917 representatives were ap-
pointed by the Missouri and Wisconsin
synods to confer with similar committees
of the synods of Ohio, Iowa, and Buffalo.
The theses proposed by the Intersynod-
ical Committee declare that conversion
is due solely to God’s grace and in no
respect to man’s conduct, and that the
unconverted man can in no way, neither
by his natural powers nor by his new
powers granted by grace, suppress or
diminish his resistance. The agreement
on the sola gratia should carry with it
the agreement on the “equal guilt” of
man. The establishment of fraternal re-
lations, on the basis of doctrinal unity.
between these “conservative” synods
would mean much to the Lutheran
Church. God speed the day!
The Influence of the Missouri
Synod and the Synodical Conference
on the Lutheran Church in the direction
of awakening and strengthening confes-
sionalism and on the whole Christian
Church with reference to the fundamen-
tals was great. Dr. Loy of the Ohio
Synod mentions the “stimulating power”
of the Lutheraner and “the need of such
a tonic to stir us up amid the indifferent-
ism” (of those early days), “which was
destroying all earnest faith and life.”
The General Council Pilger: “If the
Missouri Synod had not so tenaciously
clung to the confession of the pure doc-
trine, if the Lord had not taken pity on
the Lutheran Church of America by plac-
ing it in her midst, we would be to-day
an insignificant body, Lutheran perhaps
in name, but otherwise the stamping-
ground for foxes and other wild things.”
F. Uhlhorn, of Germany, in his History :
“The fact is that the greatest gain the
Lutheran Church of America made came
by reason of the firm and immovable
stand men took, against unionism and
liberalism, for the old Lutheran faith.
The next result, indeed, was division
after division, but in the end their de-
termined confessionalism yielded blessed
gain. Synod after synod placed itself,
with varying degrees, indeed, of insight
and consistency, on the platform of the
symbols.” Krauth: “I have been sad-
dened beyond expression by the bitterness
displayed towards the Missourians. . . .
They have been our benefactors. . . .
Their work has been of inestimable
value.” Dr. Andrews, in his report to
the American Historical Association,
1899: “The few shiploads of Saxon pil-
grims have grown into the largest of the
Lutheran bodies, the Synodical Confer-
ence, while they have helped to raise the
general standard of confessional loyalty
in this country.” Princeton Theol. Re-
view, 1923: “They [the Missourians]
have resisted the rationalizing tendencies
of the day, holding to a Bible that is
still inerrant and to a Christ whose es-
sential deity is never ambiguous.” The
Catholic Encyclopedia: “The strict or-
thodoxy of the Old Lutherans, e. g., in
the Kingdom of Saxony and the State of
Missouri, alone continues to cling tena-
ciously to a system which otherwise
would have slowly fallen into oblivion.”
Justification by faith, it is true, is taught
to-day by many outside of the Synodical
Conference, but every synod that teaches
it and every individual preacher that
preaches it will thank God for the exis-
Missouri, Synod of, and Other St. 515
Moeekei, Johann Friedrich
tonce and testimony of the Synodical
Conference.
Missouri, Synod of, and Other
States. Before the Revolution, Lu-
therans had settled in Western North
Carolina and Eastern Tennessee, and
later some of them moved to Missouri
and Arkansas. They sought contact
with the Missouri Synod, and in 1872
Professor Walther and others held a free
conference with them at Gravelton, Mo.,
and organized “The English Evangelical
Lutheran Conference of Missouri” — - ■
Pastors Andrew Rader, J. R. Moser, and
Polycarp Henkel. New blood came into
this body by the calling of Pastor A. W.
Meyer in 1885 and Pastor William Dall-
mann in 1880, both of whom labored in
Webster County. The Western District
of the Missouri Synod appointed Pastor
C. L. Janzow, of St. Louis, visitor and
promised to pay all missionary expenses.
The conference asked the Missouri Synod
to be received as a separate English
Mission District, but were advised to
organize an independent English synod
(1887). A forward step was taken when
the first English city mission was begun
in Baltimore early in 1888; other cities
followed. The fifteenth convention was
the first one to be held in a city,
St. Louis, October, 1888. “The Consti-
tution of the General English Evangel-
ical Lutheran Conference of Missouri
and Other States,” published before in
the Lutheran Witness, was adopted,
signed by twelve pastors and eight con-
gregations, and Pastor F. Kuegele, of
Goyner’s Store, Va., was elected presi-
dent. Professor Crull’s compilation of
a hymn-book was gratefully accepted,
a Publication Board created, and a com-
mittee elected to prepare an Order of
Service. It was also resolved to join
the Synodical Conference. The next con-
vention met in 1891 at St. Louis and
changed the “conference” into a “synod.”
A revised and enlarged edition of the
hymn-book was ordered and the “Com-
mon Service” secured. Pastor C. A.
Frank, who had started the Lutheran
Witness on May 21, 1882, and presented
it to Synod in 1888, now resigned as
editor, and Pastor Dallmann was elected
in his place succeeded in 1895 by Pro-
fessor Dau. The Publication Board at
Baltimore got out the hymn-book, Dall-
mann’s The Ten Commandments, the Wit-
ness Tracts, etc. Synod, in 1893, as-
sumed control of Concordia College,
Conover, N. C., and called Pastor Dau
and Candidates Romoser and Buch-
heimer. At the same time Synod ac-
cepted Mr. John P. Baden’s gift of
St. John’s College, Winfield, Kans., for
which he promised $50,000; it whs later
turned over to the German synod.
Pastor A. W. Meyer was elected editor of
the Lutheran Guide, which had been
started in January, 1893. In 1897
Synod resolved to get out a book of
funeral sermons, a Sunday-school hym-
nal, and a revised edition of the hymn-
book, music and word editions. After
much labor the books were placed on the
market in 1912. Synod also resolved to
ask the German synod whether the bar-
riers which ten years ago had kept the
English Synod from becoming an Eng-
lish District of the German Synod could
not be removed. Negotiations were car-
ried on till 1911. In that year the Eng-
lish Synod became an English District
of the German Synod, which event was
celebrated at St. Louis, in Holy Cross
Church, with the Te Deum. The first
convention of the English District was
held in Baltimore, 1912. Membership:
00 congregations, 58 voting pastors, 14
professors and advisory pastors, 2 teach-
ers; president, Rev. M. S. Sommer.
Modernism, the designation applied
to the recent liberal movement in some
quarters of the Roman Catholic Church.
In the words of the Catholic Encyclo-
pedia, Modernism “proclaims the invio-
lable sovereignty of the individual as
against all external authorities.” Father
Tyrell, the leading exponent of Modern-
ism in England, expresses himself thus:
“The truth of religion is in man implic-
itly, as surely as the truth of the whole
physical universe is involved in every
part of it. Could ho but read the needs
of his own conscience and spirit, he would
need no teacher.” ( Scylla and Charyhdis.)
Under the leadership of Tyrell, Loisy,
Houtain, and others, Modernism made
considerable progress from 1888 to 1907.
In the latter year it was suddenly and
effectually curbed by the wrath of
Pius X. The encyclical Pascendi Qregis
condemns Modernism as “a synthesis of
all heresies” springing from pride, curi-
osity, and ignorance of scholastic phi-
losophy. The encyclical was reenforced
by the decree Saororum Antistitum of
1910 which requires a formidable oath
of all ranks of the clergy in favor of
traditional Catholic belief and against
every Modernist tenet. There were pro-
tests, but — Roma locuta, causa finita.
There is no Modernism in the Catholic
Church to-day. See Liberalism, Rational-
ism , etc.
Moeckel, Johann Friedrich, 1661 to
1729; studied at Jena; private chaplain
at Teisenort, then at Hayn ; later pastor
Moeller, Johann Joachim
516
Moziarehianism
at Neuli anas, then at Steppach and Lim-
pach; wrote: “Nun si eh die Nacht ge-
endet hat.”
Moeller, Johann Joachim, 1660 to
1733; b. at Sommerfeld; in last years
of his life Archidiaconus at Krossen;
wrote: “Ich liabe g’nug”; “Das ist je
gewisslich wahr.”
Moempelgard (Monlbtliard) Collo-
quy was called in 1586 by the Lutheran
Count William of Wurttemberg to com-
pose the differences between the Lu-
therans and the Calvinists. The Lutheran
Jacob Andreae and the Calvinist Theo-
dore de Beza discussed the Lord’s Supper,
the Person of Christ, Images, Ceremonies,
Baptism, and Election. The deeper dif-
ferences remained; both parties claimed
the victory; the gulf between the two
was widened. Like Zwingli at Marburg,
so here Beza asked the Lutherans for
brotherly love; on account of the doc-
trinal differences Andreae would grant
only general love, which Beza considered
an insult.
Moerlin, Joachim; b. 1514; Luther’s
chaplain in 1539; superintendent at Arn-
stadt; conscientious in office; deposed;
opposed Interim ( q. v.) at Goettingen ;
fled for his life in 1550; admonished
Osiander at Koenigsberg privately and
then publicly; Duke Albrecht ordered
silence; Moerlin refused and then was
banished despite the petitions of the
people; recalled in 1567; restored order
as Bishop of Samland; d. 1571.
Moerlin, Maximilian; b. 1516;
younger brother of Joachim; court
preacher at Coburg; opposed Menius for
siding with Major; first agreed with
Flacius and then helped to depose him;
was deposed himself; d. 1584.
Moettlingen. See Blumhardt.
Moffat, Bobert; b. December 21,
1795, at Ormiston, Scotland; d. Au-
gust 8, 1883, at Leigh, England. Sent
by the L. M. S. in 1816, he labored as
missionary to Africa among Bushmen,
Hottentots, and Bechuanas; won Afri-
caner, a notorious and dreaded outlaw,
for Christianity. In Kuril man, where
he lived many years, he organized a
school for native helpers. On a furlough
to England he met David Livingstone
and influenced him for African missions.
Livingstone later became Moffat’s son-
in-law. In 1857 Moffat translated the
Bible into the Bechuana language. He
returned to England in 1870.
Moffatt, James, 1870 — ; Presbyte-
rian ; Biblical scholar ; b. at Glasgow ;
minister of Free Church; professor of
Greek and New Testament exegesis at
Oxford in 1911; translated Harnack’s
Expansion of Christianity; contributed
to The Expositor’s Greek Testament ;
wrote Introduction to the Literature of
the New Testament, 1911; new transla-
tion of New Testament, 1913; also Old
Testament, 1924 ff.
Mogilas, Petrus; influential theo-
logian of the Greek Church; b. ca. 1597,
d. 1647 ; patriarch of Jerusalem, later
metropolitan of Kief; wrote several li-
turgical works, but especially the Greek
Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and
Apostolic Church of the East.
Mohr, Joseph, 1792 — 1848; ordained
priest in 1815; held various positions,
all in the diocese of Salzburg; well-
known carol: “Stille Nacht! Heilige
Nacht!” written for Christmas, 1818,
and immediately set to music by Franz
Gruber.
Molanus, Gerhard Walter, 1633 to
1722; studied at Helmstedt; professor
of mathematics, later of theology, at
Rinteln ; still later superintendent of
Brunswick -Lueneburg; wrote: “Ich
trete frisch zu Gottes Tisch.”
Moldehnke, E. E., D. D., 1835 to
19 — ; amanuensis of Tholuck, Halle;
rector of Lyck Gymnasium; field secre-
tary of missions in Wisconsin, 1861 ;
first professor at seminary and college
at Watertown, Wisconsin Synod, 1863
to 66; missionary in Minnesota, 1866;
returned to Germany as pastor ; back
in America in eighties (with General
Council ) .
Molinos, Michael, 1640 — 97; Span-
ish mystic; author of Guida Spirituale ;
persecuted by the Jesuits and, at their
instigation, by Innocent XI. See
Quietism.
Moller, Martin, 1547 — 1606; at-
tended town school at Wittenberg and
gymnasium at Goerlitz; too poor to go
to university; cantor at Loewenberg,
then pastor at Kesselsdorf; 1572 Dia-
conus at Loewenberg; 1575 pastor at
Sprottau ; regarded initial letters of his
name as a continual warning: Memento
mori; wrote: “Nimm von us, Herr”;
“O Jesu suesz”; “Ach Gott, wie manches
Herzeleid”; “Hilf, Heifer, hilf in Angst
und Not.”
Molokani. See Russian Sects.
Monarchianism (first employed by
Tertullian as a sectarian name against
the opponents of the doctrine of the
Trinity) includes, in the main, two anti-
Trinitarian theories current in the
second and third centuries, the one re-
ducing Christ to a mere man, whom God
Monarchianism
sir
Monarfticism
richly endowed with His power and
Spirit and who may therefore be called
the Son of God by adoption (Dynamic
Monarcliianisin ) , the other maintaining
the full divinity of Christ, not, however,
as a distinct person of the Godhead, but
as a manifestation of the Father (Mod-
alistic Monarchianism, Patripassianism ) .
While it has been said that the one
“prejudiced the dignity of the Son, the
other the dignity of the Father,” both
agree in denying the personal premun-
dane existence of Christ, or the personal
independence of the Logos. The contro-
versies provoked by this heresy filled the
whole third century and were not fully
composed before the Nicene age, when
the doctrine of the Trinity received fixed
and definite expression. The first class
of Monarchians are represented by :
1 ) The Alogi, sectarians in Asia Minor,
ca. 170, who rejected the Gospel of
St. John and the Apocalypse, the former
because of its Logos doctrine, the latter
because of its cliiliasm. Otherwise little
is known of them. 2) The Theodotians,
so called from Tlieodotus, the tanner, of
Byzantium, who taught in Rome and
was excommunicated by Victor (192 to
202). According to Theodotus, Jesus,
though preternaturally born of the Vir-
gin, was a mere man, differing from
others only by his exceptional piety and
because at his baptism he received pecu-
liar divine powers for the fulfilment of
his mission. Similar views were held by
the second Theodotus (the money-
changer), who, however, added that
Jesus was inferior to Melchizedek.
3) The Artemonites, the followers of
Artemon, who was excommunicated by
Pope Zephyrinus (202 — 217), maintained
that Dynamistic Monarchianism repre-
sented the original apostolic teaching
and that the doctrine of the divinity of
Christ was a relapse into heathenism.
4) Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch,
the most famous of this class of Mon-
archians, declared that Christ is “from
belo\fr” (xarm&ev). The Logos dwelt in
him not as a divine hypostasis (person),
but as an operative divine power, gradu-
ally leading him to a state of unique per-
fection, in virtue of which he becomes
entitled to the dignity of divine Sonship.
Christ began as a man and ended as a
God. Paul was deposed by the bishop
of Syria 209. Representatives of Mo-
dalism : 1 ) Praxeas of Asia Minor, re-
jecting the orthodox doctrine as trithe-
istic, declared that the Father became
incarnate in the Son and took part in
His sufferings (Pater compassus est).
2) Noetus of Smyrna. “Christ was God
and suffered for us, being the Father, in
order that He might be able to save us.”
“The Son is His own Son, not another’s.”
3) In the person of Calixtus I (218 to
223) Patripassianism won the papal
chair. 4) Beryllus, of Bostra, while a
Patripassian, denied the independent
divinity of Christ and leaned toward
Sabellianism. 5)Sabellius, the most in-
genious ante-Nicene Unitarian, included
the Holy Spirit in his speculation. God,
the absolute Monad, reveals Himself in
the world’s development in three Pro-
sopa, roles, as it were, each representing
the entire Monad. In the giving of the
Law, God appears as the Father, in the
incarnation as the Son, in sanctification
as the Holy Ghost. This is a successive
and temporary trinity of manifestation,
each Prosopon returning to the abstract
Monad after the completion of its mis-
sion. Sabellianism was condemned by
Dionysius of Alexandria (262), who,
however, in vindicating the hypostatic
(personal) independence of the Son, fell
into the error of Subordinationism (q. v.)
When Dionysius, the bishop of Rome,
heard of this, he condemned both Sabel-
lianism and SubordinationiBm in un-
equivocal terms. The Alexandrian bishop
retracted his statements, and the strife
was allayed, to be renewed later, how-
ever, by Arius.
Monasticism. 1) Definition. The
term monasticism covers a far-branching
variety of phenomena and institutions
which, however dissimilar, grow from
the common root of asceticism. Under-
lying its formations is the consciousness
of sin and the desire of a reunion with
God. This reunion the monastic seeks to
attain by renouncing self according to
certain ascetic methods. Such methods
are: renunciation a) of the every-day
world : separation from ordinary life,
more or less perfect seclusion; b) of
family: the breaking of blood-ties, celi-
bacy ; c ) of property : a minimum of
personal possessions or none at all;
d) of pleasure and comfort: simple,
poor, even insufficient food, clothing, and
shelter; e) of will: humility, obedience
to superiors; f) acts of self -mortifica-
tion, partly to aid in subduing the flesh,
partly to acquire merit before God : fast-
ing, vigils, scourging, silence, sometimes
torture and self-mutilation; g) frequent
repetition of set prayers and acts of de-
votion; religious meditation. The three
fundamental vows of the monastic are
poverty, celibacy, and obedience. By em-
ployment of the methods enumerated
monastics are supposed to gain a holi-
ness and perfection unattainable by or-
dinary Christians. — 2 ) History. Mo-
nasticism, in its essential features, was
Monasticism
518
Monica
highly developed in India before the
Christian era, presenting strange paral-
lels to Western Monasticism. In Egypt,
where the priests of Serapis lived a mo-
nastic life, began Christian monasticism.
Its first exponents, probably refugees
from the persecution of Decius (ca. 250),
lived in deserts as hermits (q.v.). Their
numbers grew with the legal establish-
ment of Christianity and the coincident
decline of spirituality. Late in the third
century, Anthony (see Anthony, St.)
began gathering hermits into colonies,
while Pacliomius founded the first mon-
astery and drew up the first monastic
rule. Thereafter the anchorite, or her-
mit, type of ascetic life rapidly yielded
to the cenobite, or social, type. Basil of
Cappadocia gave monasticism standing
in the Greek Church and drew up regu-
lations for its guidance. Through Atha-
nasius, Augustine, Jerome, and others
the monastic idea found acceptance in
the West, many monasteries being
founded under various rules. Early in
the sixth century, Benedict of Nursia
(see Benedict, St.; Benedictines ) wrote
the famous Benedictine Buie, which even-
tually superseded all others and regu-
lated the monasticism of the West for
many centuries. Its provisions are mod-
erate and remarkable chiefly for insis-
tence on permanent attachment to one
monastery (stalnlitas loci) and for em-
phasis on systematic labor. These fea-
tures made the Benedictines pioneers and
colonizers; but their operation also
helped to give the order the corporate
wealth and power which led to its de-
cline. The monks early became partisans
of the papacy against the secular clergy
and the rulers. Boniface and Ansgar,
the apostles of Germany and Sweden,
were Benedictines and faithful agents of
Rome. When the growing wealth of mon-
asteries and abbeys led to relaxation of
the Rule of Benedict, efforts at reform
were made from time to time. In the
10th and 11th centuries the Cluniac
movement (see Cluniat', Monks), which
Pope Gregory VII turned to good account
for the papacy, tried to reform monas-
ticism and, at the same time, to infuse
the monastic ideal into the Church at
large. The beginning of the 12th cen-
tury saw a new effort at reform, the
Cistercian (see Cistercians) , led by the
great Bernard of Clairvaux. In connec-
tion with it arose the military orders
( q. v.) of the age of the Crusades, such
as the Knights Templars and the Teu-
tonic Knights, constituted, like the mo-
nastic orders of secular clergy, on the
Augustine Rule. Far more radical than
earlier reforms was the establishment
(ca. 1210), by Francis of Assisi (see
Francis, St.) and Domingo (see Dom-
inic, St. ) , of the Franciscan and Domin-
ican orders, the mendicant friars ( q. v.J,
who were not to have any corporate prop-
erty, except necessary buildings, and who
were to travel about as beggars, both as
friends of the poor and as popular
preachers. Ruled by “generals,” unfet-
tered by local attachment, these orders
became a useful militia of the papacy.
They were soon active throughout Eu-
rope, and their missionaries penetrated
to the most distant lands; the Domin-
icans developed an unenviable skill as
inquisitors. Gradually the discipline
and the mendicant principle of these
orders was relaxed, and by the time of
the Reformation they, like other orders,
had become so degenerate that “monastic
corruption became the commonplace of
satire, whilst at the same time it was the
constant subject of too just lamentation
of all pious souls.” The Reformation
repudiated monasticism; but Rome con-
tinued to form new orders in large
number. The Jesuits, founded 1534, and
emphasizing a blind obedience to the Pope,
became Rome’s chief bulwark against
Protestantism, and to-day they control
the destinies of the Roman Church. It
is instructive to observe the evolution of
monastic principles. Many former rigors
have been softened; the rules of poverty
and seclusion have been greatly modified ;
the demand of celibacy has remained un-
altered; but the vow of obedience, for
obvious reasons, has been carried to its
logical extreme. There have been many
pious and upright monks and nuns, who
were benefactors of mankind. But mo-
nasticism itself is at variance with the
principles of Christ and of nature, and
much of the superstition, false doctrine,
and corruption of the Church of Rome
lies at its door. (For further informa-
tion see Nuns; Tertiaries; Profession
of Monks and Nuns; Novice; Vows;
Consilia Evangelica; School Brothers
and Sisters; Orders in United States;
also individual orders: Angelicals, Au-
gustinians, etc.)
Mongols, originally south of Lake
Baikal, now in Mongolia and adjacent
territory; in contact with Nestorian
Christianity and with the Roman Cath-
olic Church, especially in the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries; now almost
entirely heathen, with missionaries of
several denominations trying to gain a
foothold among them.
Monica (or Monnica), mother of
Augustine, the Latin Church Father;
b. ca, 332, d. 381; a devoted and loyal
Monism
519
Alonop h y si t e Controversy
Christian, even though she was married
to Patricius of Tagaste, who was coarse
and unfaithful; but such was the power
of her Christian example that he was
overpowered by its persuasion and be-
came a Christian. Her famous son,
whose early years justified the highest
hopes of the parents with regard to a
brilliant career, left the orthodox faith
and was a heretic for many years. But
such was the power of the prayers with
which Monica attended his every step
that Augustine was converted in 386,
being baptized by Ambrose of Milan,
Easter, 387. It was Ambrose who com-
forted Monica in her distress about her
son, saying : “It is impossible that a son
of so many prayers can be lost.”
Monism, the metaphysical theory
which reduces all phenomena, not to
two principles, as does dualism (q.v.),
nor to more than two, as does pluralism,
but to a single, material, or spiritual
principle. While, for instance, dualism
does not attempt to reduce such oppo-
sites as God and world, matter and
spirit, body and soul, to one causal con-
cept, asserting that they are inherently
different and that the gulf between them
cannot be bridged over, monism considers
them merely modifications of one primal
principle. Thus pantheism identifies God
and the world, materialism regards mat-
ter, and spiritualism or idealism regards
spiritual beings or ideas as the only
basis of reality. However, metaphysical
monism is not a tenable theory and,
when brought into the realm of religion,
generally becomes hostile to Christianity.
Though the attempt . to reduce varieties
of phenomena in the world to a common
causal principle is prompted by a desire
implanted in our human nature, monism
carries this process too far. The Biblical
conception of the world is both dualistie
and monistic, depending on the point of
view. Over against pantheism it asserts
the essential difference between the Crea-
tor and creation, while in regard to the
question of origins it may be called mon-
istic, since it traces all reality (except
sin) to God. In recent years the term
monism has especially been applied to
the naturalistic philosophical movement
based on biological evolution and fathered
by Haeckel (q.v.) and other materialists,
according to which only the physical
world has reality, the psychical being
understood to be an essential element of
the same and present in rudimentary
form in matter from the beginning, a
view differing only slightly from thor-
oughgoing materialism, which reduces
the psychical to mere physical processes.
On the basis of this philosophy an openly
antichristian society was organized in
Jena, Germany, 1906, called Deutacher
Monistenbund, with Haeckel as its hon-
orary president.
Monistenbund. See Monism.
Monk, William Henry, 1823 — 89;
studied under Adams, Hamilton, and
Griesbach; organist in various London
churches; professor of music in several
colleges; wrote many popular hymn-
tunes; edited Scottish Hymnal, Book of
Anthems , and others.
Monods, The. Adolphe, 1802 — 56;
French Protestant pulpit orator; pastor
at Naples and Lyons; professor at Mon-
tauban 1836; pastor in Paris 1847 ; suc-
ceeded by his brother Guillaume. —
Fr6d6ric, another brother, 1794 — 1863;
founder of Eglise Libre de France 1849;
believed in entire Bible. — Jean Paul
Frederio and Theodore, his sons, Re-
formed theologians.
Monophysite Controversy. The
Council of Chalcedon, in 451, declared
that the Lord Jesus Christ is “of one
substance with the Father, ... in two
natures, without confusion, the difference
of natures in no wise being abolished by
the union which they possessed, but
rather the properties of each nature
being preserved and united in one person
and one mode of being.” Against this
statement, which is strictly Biblical, op-
position was voiced in several quarters,
the contention being that there was only
one nature (Greek: tnone physis) in the
person of Christ, namely, the divine na-
ture, or a single compounded nature, but
not two distinct natures. The contro-
versy was connected with that of Eutych-
ianism (q.v.). When Juvenal of Jeru-
salem supported the resolution of the
council, a monk by the name of Theodosius
was set up as a rival bishop, and Juvenal
was forced to flee. In other places also
bishops of the orthodox party were driven
out, their places being filled by their op-
ponents, of whom the strongest, intellec-
tually, was Peter the Iberian. A large
part of Palestine was carried away by
the movement, which was not suppressed
there till the year 453. In Egypt, mat-
ters took an even more serious turn,
where Dioscurus, with his Eutychian
leanings, wielded a powerful influence,
so that his party even elected a patriarch
with the same tendencies, namely, Timo-
tlieus Aelurus. When he was driven
away, he returned with even greater
prestige. It was only in 460, when
Timotheus was banished, that the peace
of the Church was restored in Egypt.
Even in Antioch, otherwise generally or-
thodox, the Monophysite doctrine gained
Monothelite Controversy
520
Montantsnl
many adherents, and both Antioch and
Jerusalem were for a while occupied by
Monopliysite bishops. It was at this
time that Acacius, who had followed
Gennadius as patriarch of Constanti-
nople, proposed a document, a formula
of union, addressed to the bishops, clergy,
monks, and people of Alexandria, Egypt,
Libya, and Pentapolis. This was known
as the Benoticon and was avowedly based
on the faith confessed at the councils of
Nicea, Constantinople, and Ephesus. It
asserted the consubstantiality of the Son
of God with both the Father and with
man, insisting that it was one and the
same person who performed miracles and
endured suffering. The document was so
cleverly framed, as are most theological
compromises, as to coax back all but the
most radical into the fold of the Church.
It is true that this solution resulted in
a breach with the bishop of Rome, but
matters were adjusted some thirty-five
years later. The doctrine continued to
be a bone of contention for almost an-
other century, when the final schism of
the Monopliysite churches occurred, which
has never been healed. At the present
time the Coptic Church, the Abyssinian
Church, the Syrian Jacobite Church, and
the Armenian Church hold Monophysite
errors.
Monothelite Controversy. This
movement was closely related to the
subject of the Eutychian and the Mono-
physite controversies ( qq. v.) ; for when
the contention of a single nature in the
person of Christ met with such deter-
mined opposition on the orthodox side,
the attempt was first made, in Alexan-
dria, to harmonize the opposing parties
by using the terms “one energy” and
“one will” (Greek: monon thelema ) or
at least “one state of will” as descriptive
of the unorthodox views. Men who were
inclined strongly toward a union at all
costs, like the patriarch Sergius of Con-
stantinople, rather supported the move-
ment, so that a merger of Monophysites
and Monothelites resulted in some parts
of the Church. When Pope Honorius I
was appealed to, he sided with those who
regarded the insistence upon the resolu-
tions of Chalcedon (q.v.) as overstren-
uous, himself taking the position of con-
fessing only one will of the Lord Jesus
Christ. Sophronius, patriarch of Jeru-
salem, took exception to this stand, and
the controversy continued till 681, when
the Sixth Ecumenical Council met at
Constantinople (called Trullan because
it met in the domed hall, or troullos, of
the imperial palace ) . This council, in
the eighteenth session, accepted a decree
acknowledging the teaching of two nat-
ural wills and two natural energies in
Christ, but stating that the two natural
wills are not opposed, but that rather
the human will follows, and is subordi-
nate to, the divine will. This position
was later established by the second Trul-
lan Council, in 692, and remained the
doctrine of the Church, in agreement
with John 1, 43; 5,21; 17,24; 19,28;
Matt. 27, 34; Luke 13, 24.
Monsell, John Samuel Bewley, 1811
to 1875; educated at Trinity College,
Dublin; held various positions in the
Anglican Church, last at Guildford;
among his hymns: “Christ is Risen,
Hallelujah !”
Monstrance. The vessel used in Ro-
man churches to expose the consecrated
wafer for adoration. It has a foot and
stem like a chalice, while its upper part
represents rays issuing from the host.
Montanism was a reactionary move-
ment, initiated by Montanus, against the
increasing worldlineBS and disciplinary
laxity of the Church — an excessive and
eccentric Puritanism, which the sober
spirit of Christianity repudiated and
overcame. Montanus, a Phrygian enthu-
siast, who considered himself the inspired
organ of the promised Paraclete (cf. John
14, 16), and, associated with him, two
prophetesses, Prisea and Maximilla, be-
gan about the middle of the second cen-
tury to announce oracularly the speedy
return of Christ and the establishment
of the millennium, with its center at the
Phrygian village of Pepuza. Christians
were therefore to sever all worldly ties
and prepare for the final consummation.
Since the prediction remained unfulfilled,
the fervent glow of enthusiasm gave way
to a stern and rigorous legalism. The
kingdom of God, it was believed, had
entered its last stage of development, the
period of the Paraclete (Judaism repre-
senting its infancy; apostolic Christian-
ity, its youth; Montanism, mature
manhood). Accordingly the higher “man-
dates” of the Paraclete must be observed.
Marriage is a necessary evil; a second
marriage is fornication. Fasts must bo
frequent and martyrdom courted. Vir-
gins must be veiled, and women must
eschew all ornamental clothing. All en-
joyments are snares of Satan. In par-
ticular, those fallen into mortal sin can
never, though penitent, be restored to
church -fellowship. Montanism made in-
roads into the organized Church, gaining
many adherents in Asia Minor, Southern
Gaul, Rome, and especially in Africa,
where the great Tertullian became its
most powerful advocate. Separatistic
congregations, or conventicles within the
Montenegro
521
Moravia
established churches, acknowledged the
divine mission of the Phrygian prophets
and considered themselves the represen-
tatives of a more spiritual Christianity.
The Church condemned the movement.
Synodical decrees and imperial legisla-
tion were directed against it. Monta-
nism disappeared about the sixth cen-
tury. Had it succeeded, the Church
would have shrunk into a conventicle
of gloomy ascetics and forfeited her
position as the dominating force of
history.
Montenegro. Formerly an indepen-
dent principality of the Balkan States,
now a part of Jugoslavia, forming its
southwestern part, along the Adriatic
Sea, with a population of about 225,000,
the great majority of whom are mem-
bers of the Orthodox Greek Church, al-
though there are some Roman Catholics
in the southern districts. See also Greek
Church.
Montgomery, James, 1771 — 1854;
son of a Moravian minister; grew up
in Moravian surroundings; tried clerk-
ing, later assistant to printer of Sheffield
Register; became owner of paper and
published it as Sheffield Iris for thirty-
one years; wrote extensively, delivered
lectures on poetry, also in London ;
wrote: “To Thy Temple I Repair,” “O
Spirit of the Living God,” and many
other hymns.
Moody, Dwight Lyman, 1837 — 99;
independent evangelist; b. and d. at
Northfield, Mass.; clerk in uncle’s shoe-
store at Boston; business man, Sunday-
school worker, and lay preacher at Chi-
cago; agent of Christian Commission
during Civil War; preaching-tours in
England and America with Ira David
Sankey, who had charge of the singing;
published hymnal; founded Bible Insti-
tute, Chicago, and other institutions ;
unordained; accepted Bible literally,
preached powerfully, but with strong
chiliastic tendency.
Moore, Thomas, 1779 — 1852; edu-
cated at Trinity College, Dublin; ad-
mitted to bar; held diplomatic post in
Bermuda; poetical writer of high merit;
among his hymns: “Come, Ye Disconso-
late, Where’er Ye Languish.”
Moose, Loyal Order of the. His-
tory. This order was founded in 1888 at
Louisville, Ky., as an “international
fraternal society.” Having been inac-
tive for years, it was revived in 1906,
when James J. Davis, later Secretary of
the Department of Labor in President
Harding’s Cabinet, joined it and was
placed in control of its executive affairs.
Under his guidance the order made
steady and rapid advancement. — Char-
acter. The order admits all white men
of “sound mind and body, in good stand-
ing in the community, engaged in lawful
business, and able to speak and write
the English language.” While it claims
not “to interfere with a person’s religious
and political views,” it has an altar, a
chaplain, and a burial service. The
burial and memorial services of the
order have a distinctly religious cast.
Dr. J. A. Rondthaler, “Dean of Moose-
heart,” in a statement on “The Moose
Religion,” is quoted by the Christian
Cynosure (Vol. XIV, No. 12) as follows:
“God is in the Loyal Order of Moose.
The ritual teems with God’s thoughts
from the Bible. The Bible holds the
high place of honor on the altar in the
center of the lodge. Worship of God
swathes the ceremonies of the initiation
of every Moose. Under the most impres-
sive conditions he takes his obligation
upon the great religious book of Jew and
Gentile, of Protestant and Catholic.”
How the spirit of the Bible prevails in
the L. 0. M. is seen from the deaths of
Donald A. Kenny and Christopher Gus-
tin, who were frightened to death at
their initiation, — a most cruel and dis-
reputable affair. (Christian Cynosure,
Vol. XLVI, No. 6, p. 168.) — Member-
ship. The Loyal Order of Moose in the
World has 1,669 lodges with a member-
ship of 558,057. There is also a female
branch, Mooseheart Legion, with 32,570,
and a Junior Order of Moose, with 5,178
members. The supreme secretary resides
at Mooseheart, 111., 137 miles west of
Chicago, where the order has established
a school for orphans. It also maintains
a home for aged members in Florida,
called “Moosehaven.”
Moralities. A species of popular re-
ligious drama developed by analogy
from the miracle-plays (q.v.), the cen-
tral idea being that of an allegory rep-
resenting the conflict between virtues
and vices.
Morata, Fulvia Olympia, 1526 — 55;
highly gifted Italian woman, devotee of
humanistic culture; became acquainted
with the reformatory movement at the
court of the duchess of Ferrara; studied
the Scriptures and renounced Roman
Catholicism; married a German physi-
cian and died at Heidelberg.
Moravia. Formerly a province or
crownland of the Austrian Empire, now
the west-central part of Czechoslovakia,
belonging almost entirely to the basin of
the March, or Morava; the home of the
Moravian Brethren ( Maehrische Brue-
der), or Unity of the Brethren (q.v.).
Moravian Church
522
Moravian Church
Moravian Church. 1 ) The origin of
the Moravian churches may be traced
back to the work of John Hus, who in
1415 was burned at the stake at Con-
stance, in Germany. For several years
after the martyrdom of Hus and of his
friend Jerome of Prague their followers
had no special organization. At the be-
ginning of the Reformation the “breth-
ren” had more than 400 churches in
Bohemia and Moravia and a membership
of 150,000 — 200,000 souls. Cordial rela-
tions were established with Luther and
Calvin, although no formal union with
the German and Swiss churches was
accomplished. In 1535 the Moravian
Confession of Faith was adopted, which,
with several exceptions, was approved
by Luther. In polity the Moravian
Church was episcopal, having a supreme
judge to preside in the assembly and
a synod to decide matters of faith and
discipline. The administration of the
congregations was in the hands of elected
elders, who had supervision over the
church-members. The promotion of the
religious life of the women was in care
of matrons. Priests, living at first in
celibacy, were ordained after the apos-
tolic example and pursued trades for
their support. From the beginning of
its organization the churches pursued an
aggressive policy, being active especially
in the fields of education and literature.
In nearly' every large city they had
schools and training-houses. In 1593
they completed the translation of the
Bible into both the Bohemian and Mora-
vian languages. The Moravian churches
suffered severely during the Thirty Years’
War, when their country was devastated.
At its close, in 1648, the churches of
Bohemia and Moravia were practically
destroyed, large numbers of members
having been put to death and others
being compelled to flee to Hungary,
Saxony, Holland, and Poland, where, as
well as in Bohemia and Moravia, they
continued in scattered communities. The
last bishop of the United Moravian
Church, the famous educator John Amos
Comenius, died at Amsterdam in 1670. —
In 1722 a small band of Moravians set-
tled on the estate of Nicholas Louis,
Count of Zinzendorf, in Saxony, where
the village of Herrnhut arose. Other
colonists came from various parts of
Germany, and an association was formed
in which the religious ideals of Zinzen-
dorf and those of the Moravians were
combined. While the confessions of the
existing Protestant Church were ac-
cepted, a distinct order and discipline in
accord with the principles of the old
Moravian Church was established under
royal concessions. On August 13, 1727,
the Moravian Brethren celebrated their
first Communion as an organization in
Germany; and this day is regarded by
them as the beginning of their Church.
In 1735 David Nitschmann was ordained
as bishop, and in 1737 the episcopate
was conferred upon Zinzendorf. Thus
the Unitas Fratrum, or Church of Breth-
ren, known at the present time in En-
gland and Germany as the Moravian
Church, was established. With inimi-
table zeal, Zinzendorf devoted his time
and energy to' the congregation and
promoted its interests until his death, in
1716. The chief purpose of the Church
as conceived by him was to carry on
evangelistic work in Christian and
heathen lands. — The first Moravian mis-
sionary came to Pennsylvania in 1734.
In 1741 Bishop Nitschmann and his as-
sociates founded the town of Bethlehem
and a little later purchased the neigh-
boring village of Nazareth, which had
belonged to the evangelist George White-
field. Here a cooperative union to de-
velop the settlements and support mis-
sionary work was formed by the colonists
and maintained until 1762. Missionary
work was carried on also among the
Indians. In 1749 an act of Parliament
recognized the Moravian Church as “an
Ancient Protestant Episcopal Church,”
by virtue of which it received standing
and privileges in all British dominions.
In spite of this the Church remained a
comparatively small body. Bethlehem,
Nazareth, and Lititz, in Pennsylvania,
and Salem, in North Carolina, were or-
ganized in colonial times as exclusive
Moravian villages after the pattern of
the Moravian communities in Germany,
England, and Holland. Between 1844
and 1856 this exclusive system was abol-
ished and the Church reorganized to suit
modern conditions. — Doctrine. The doc-
trines of the Moravian Church are stated
mainly in Bishop Spangenberg’s (d. 1792)
Idea Fratrum, or Kurzer Begriff der
christlichcn Lchre in der evangelischen
Brucdergemeinde, although this state-
ment of doctrine was never received as
a public confession. In Lutheran coun-
tries, such as Germany, the doctrines of
the Moravian Church were largely in-
fluenced by the Lutheran Confessions,
while in England and America Reformed
influence prevailed. In 1848 the Augs-
burg Confession, as such, was eliminated,
and only Articles II, III, and IV were
retained. Because Lutheran and Re-
formed elements largely predominated
side by side in the Moravian Church, a
strong unionistic tendency was developed
and is maintained to this day. In the
Moravian Church
523
Moravian Chnrch
beginning of its history the Moravian
Church was not free from fanaticism and
fanatical excrescences. Thus the Trinity
was conceived of in a grossly offending
way, the first person of the Godhead
being called Papa, Grandfather, or
Father-in-law; the third person of the
Godhead, Mama and the eternal Spouse
of God the Father. The elimination of
these extravagant and fanatic tendencies
is largely due to Bishop Spangenberg.
In general it may be said that the doc-
trine of the Moravian Church, in the
main, represents the Calvinistic type of
Protestantism. The whole Scriptures
are accepted as an adequate rule of faith
and practise, and the Apostles’ Creed is
regarded as formulating the prime ar-
ticles of faith found in the Scriptures ;
but neither is consistently followed.
Foot-washing has been discontinued since
1818. Infant baptism is practised. On
arriving at adult age, baptized members,
after receiving religious instruction, are
confirmed on application, and non-bap-
tized members are received through
baptism, the usual method being by
sprinkling. Holy Communion is open to
communicant members of other churches.
— Polity. In polity the Moravian
Church is a modified episcopacy, every
congregation having a council composed
of communicant members who have at-
tained the age of twenty-one years and
have subscribed to the rules and regula-
tions of the congregation. Each congre-
gation has also a Board of Elders, com-
posed of the pastor and elected communi-
cant brethren. Besides this board there
is also a board of Trustees, composed of
elected communicant members, which has
charge of financial and secular affairs.
The general supervision of the congrega-
tion rests with the general and provin-
cial synods. The general synod deals
with matters of faith and discipline and
controls various joint enterprises of all
the provinces, particularly foreign mis-
sions. The highest authority in each
province is the provincial synod, in which
clergy and laity are equally represented.
There are three orders of the ministry —
bishops, presbyters, and deacons. Dea-
cons are authorized to preach and ad-
minister the Sacraments and are ordained
to the second order of presbyters after
having served a certain length of time.
The bishops are elected by the general
and provincial synods and have exclusive
right to ordain the ministers of the
Church. The Church has an established
liturgy, with a litany for Sunday morn-
ing, and a variety of services for different
church seasons, the general order of the
ancient church-year being observed. —
Work. The work of the Moravian Church
may be divided into three departments —
missionary, evangelistic, and educational.
The largest and best-known enterprise
of the Church is its Foreign Mission
work, established about 200 years ago;
conducted under the superintendeney of
the International Mission Board of
5 members (its seat, Europe), including
the representatives of the Continental,
British, and American provinces of the
Church; carried on in 14 fields, includ-
ing North, Central, and South America,
10 of the West Indian islands, South
Africa, East Central Africa, in the bor-
ders of Tibet, in Australia, and among
the lepers in Jerusalem. The evan-
gelistic, or Home Mission, work, is car-
ried on in English, German, and Scan-
dinavian in 14 States of the Union and
in western Canada. The work among
the Indians of California and the Eski-
mos of Alaska, although classed with
Foreign Missions, is in close connection
with Home Mission work. In the United
States the educational interests of the
Church are served by six schools of
higher education, the oldest of which,
now the Moravian Seminary and College
for Women at Bethlehem, Pa., founded
in 1749, was the second girls’ boarding-
school in the United States. Others are
at Nazareth, Pa,, founded in 1755; at
Lititz, Pa., 1794; at Winston-Salem,
N. C., 1802; the Moravian College and
Theological Seminary, at Bethlehem, Pa.,
1807. Other schools under the control of
local churches are a boarding-school for
boys and girls at Clemmonsville, N. C.,
and several parochial schools. The phil-
anthropic institutions under Moravian
auspices include, in the northern prov-
ince, a home for the widows of Moravian
ministers at Bethlehem, Pa., the Ephrata
Home for furloughed or retired mission-
aries at Nazareth, Pa., and the home
for aged women at Lititz, Pa. The
official publications of the Moravian
Church in America,, besides hymnals, cat-
echisms, etc., include two weekly, three
monthly, and two annual journals. The
headquarters for publications is the Mo-
ravian Book Store, Bethlehem, Pa. The
Moravian Historical Society, organized
in 1857, has its library and museum in
the historical Wliitefield House at Naz-
areth, Pa. Statistics, 1921: 147 min-
isters, 125 organizations, 22,745 members.
2) Evangelical Union of Bohemian and
Moravian Brethren in North America.
The origin of this body goes back to the
scattered bands of Bohemian and Mora-
vian Christians who, after the general
dispersion subsequent to the Thirty
Years’ War, retained their religious life
Moravian Church
524
Mormonlsnt
in spite of frequent persecutions which
swept over them from time to time.
Joseph II of Austria, through the Tol-
eration Patent, October 13, 1781, sup-
pressed persecution and torture and gave
an opportunity to all citizens to register
themselves. By January 1, 1783, a large
number, estimated at between 90,000 and
150,000, had registered as belonging to
the Union of Bohemian and Moravian
Brethren in Austria. This large number
caused great surprise to the government,
which now proclaimed that the patent
had reference only to the Augsburg or
the Helvetic Confession. Furthermore,
congregations could be organized only
where over 100 families or at least 500
souls were reported. Although these
laws tended to restrain the progress of
the Church, the Union of Bohemian and
Moravian Brethren nevertheless increased
considerably. After the revolutionary
period of 1848 a considerable number of
the adherents of the Union emigrated
to America, those from Bohemia and
Western Moravia settling chiefly in the
Northern States and those from eastern
Moravia turning to Texas, where the
first Bohemian evangelical sermon was
preached at Fayetteville in 1855 and the
first Bohemian evangelical congregation
was organized, in 18C4, at Wesley. Other
congregations were formed, and a num-
ber of ministers served them for varying
terms. In 1889 Bev. Adolph Chlumsky
endeavored to bring the scattered con-
gregations together, and a monthly
periodical was started in 1902 to assist
in this endeavor. The next step was the
calling of an assembly of delegates, from
all the congregations, to meet at Granger,
Tex., in 1903. Unwilling to organize a
new Church, they decided to adopt the
old name — Union of Bohemian and Mo-
ravian Brethren. At the second synod-
ical assembly at Taylor, Tex., in 1904,
a general constitution was accepted and
a state charter secured. — Doctrine and
Polity. The basis of doctrine of the
Evangelical Union of Bohemian and
Moravian Brethren is the Gonfessio Fra-
trurn Bohemorum, or the Confession of
Faith of the Union of the Bohemian
Brethren, presented to Emperor Ferdi-
nand I of Austria by the Lords and
Knights of the Union in 1608. Other
doctrinal symbols, such as the Helvetic,
or Reformed, and the Augsburg, or Lu-
theran, confessions, are accepted in so
far as they agree with the Bible. The
legislative and executive authority is en-
trusted to a synod, which meets annually
on the 6th of July in commemoration of
the burning at the stake of John Hus.
Between the sessions of the synod the
management of the Union is in the hands
of a committee. The affairs of the local
congregations are in the care of elders,
elected annually. — Work. In 1905 mis-
sionary collections were begun, with the
understanding that one half should be
appropriated to Home Mission work and
one half to work among the heathen.
For purposes of education the schools of
the German Evangelical Synod of North
America, including the theological sem-
inary at St. Louis, Mo., have been cor-
dially opened to the churches of the
Union. Statistics, 1921 : 4 ministers,
21 organizations, and 1,000 members.
3) Independent Bohemian and Mora-
vian Brethren Churches. In 1858 a group
of six families, formerly members of the
Reformed Church of Bohemia, organized
the First Bohemian and Moravian Church
in College Township, Linn County, Iowa.
In 1892 another church of the same ante-
cedents was formed in Monroe Township
and three years later another in Putnam
Township. These three congregations
formed an evangelical union without
distinct ecclesiastical organization, each
preserving its independent character.
These churches are not ecclesiastically
connected with either the Moravian
Church (IJnitas Fratrum) or the Evan-
gelical Union of Bohemian and Moravian
Brethren, but hold friendly relations
with the Presbyterian, Reformed, and
Bohemian churches of the Northwest and
East. In movements for education and
missionary work they are affiliated espe-
cially with the Bohemian Presbytery of
the Presbyterian Church of the United
States of America. — Doctrine and Polity.
The Independent Bohemian and Mora-
vian Brethren churches recognize the
Helvetic and Westminster Confessions of
faith and use the Heidelberg and West-
minster catechisms. Statistics, 1916:
3 organizations and 320 members, all in
the State of Iowa.
Moravian Missions. See preceding
article.
More, Thomas, English Humanist;
afterward Lord Chancellor of the king-
dom; b. 1478, beheaded 1535; studied
law, was in field of politics; had a con-
troversy with Tyndale and wrote against
Luther in a very bitter strain; his most
famous book Utopia.
Morley, Thomas, 1557 — 1604; studied
under Byrd, Bachelor of Music, Oxford,
1588; Gentleman of the Chapel Royal,
1592; wrote many airs for popular
songs, some of which are still in use;
little sacred music.
Mormonism. The religious system
of the Mormons, or Latter Day Saints,
MorinonUnl
525
Alormoii 1 hivI
as laid down chiefly in the Book of
Mormon, which has been supplemented
by new revelations alleged to have been
received by some of the “prophets” of
the sect, especially by Brigham Young.
— - The Mormon Church was founded
April 6, 1830, by Joseph Smith, at that
time in his twenty-fifth year. The de-
cades with which the nineteenth century
opened proved years of great religious
excitement and upheaval, and the effect
of protracted revival meetings was felt in
many parts of the United States. Smith,
being of an introspective nature and
given to strong fantasies, insisted that
he was vouchsafed visions, during one
of which his room was flooded with light
and a heavenly messenger appeared to
him, declaring that he was the angel
Moroni sent by God and calling upon
him to restore the Gospel in all its ful-
ness preparatory to the second coming
of the Messiah. He was also informed
that there was a written record on gold
plates giving an account of the former
inhabitants of the North American con-
tinent. These plates Joseph Smith
claimed to have interpreted by means
of two stones in silver bows known as
Urim and Thummim, which had also
been buried in the hill Cumorah in
Northern New York in 420 A. I). Bach
plate of the record, according to Joseph
Smith, was six inches wide and eight
inches long and was filled with engrav-
ing in Egyptian characters, bound to-
gether in a volume, the book' being
something near six inches in thickness,
a part of it being sealed. “The unsealed
portion of the plates was translated, and
the whole was again taken charge of by
the angel.” The part translated was
published in 1830, this Book of Mormon
purporting to be an abridgment of the
records of his forefathers made by the
prophet Mormon, father of Moroni. —
The Church was organized at Fayette,
Seneca Co., N. Y., Smith himself having
first been ordained to the Aaronic priest-
hood by John the Baptist and then to
the apostleship by the Apostles Peter,
James, and John. In 1831 the new
church-body numbered several hundred
souls and moved to Kirtland, 0., while
some of the members settled in Jackson
Co., Mo., where they hoped to build the
city of Zion with a magnificent temple.
But they were driven out of Jackson Co.,
Mo., in 1833, and this persecution was
one of the chief factors in directing the
attention of fanatically inclined people
to the new sect. Five years later Gov-
ernor Boggs of Missouri issued an order
against the Mormons in order to have
them exterminated, and they were driven
out of that State. They moved to Illi-
nois, where, between 1838 and 1840,
they had founded the city of Nauvoo,
over which Smith had extraordinary
civil and military authority. The city
grew, soon numbering 2,100 houses, with
a temple whose plans Smith claimed to
have received from heaven. But there
was some discontent, and the “prophet”
was accused of immoralities and other
misdeeds. Matters had reached such a
state that civil war was imminent.
Smith was induced to surrender and to
go to Carthage, 111. On June 27, 1844,
a mob attacked the jail, overpowered
the guard, killed Smith and his brother
Hiram, and wounded others of the
prophet’s party. — But the death of
Smith did not mean the death of Mor-
monism. On the contrary, Brigham
Young, the man who now assumed the
leadership of the sect, really made the
Mormon Church the powerful organiza-
tion which it is to-day. When the perse-
cution once more became fierce, in 1846,
the entire organization proceeded to
move. Traveling by easy stages, they
reached the Missouri River near the
present site of Omaha and there went
into winter quarters. An advance com-
pany of pioneers, under the leadership
of Brigham Young, set out for the valley
of the Great Salt Lake, in search of a
new home far from the haunts of the
“infidels.” The result was the founding
of Salt Lake City and the setting up of
the provisional government of the State
of Deseret. Other settlements were
formed until they were scattered over
the face of the entire region. In 1850
the Territory of Utah was created and
Brigham Young appointed governor,
being reappointed in 1854, when Colonel
Steptoe declined to accept the appoint-
ment for himself. Somewhat later, due
to a misleading report, a detachment of
2,500 men under Alfred Cummings was
sent to Utah, and matters assumed a
threatening aspect, for the Mormons har-
assed and delayed the soldiers and pre-
pared to lay waste their homes and lands
rather than have them occupied by out-
siders. But the difficulty was adjusted
through the good offices of a peace com-
mission. The army, under General John-
ston, entered Salt Lake Valley in June,
1858, camping on the west side of the
Jordan River, but subsequently marched
to a point about forty miles south of
Salt Lake City, where Camp Floyd was
laid out. — In 1877 Brigham Young died,
and in 1880 John Taylor was elected
president. He had been with Joseph
Smith at Nauvoo and was shot and
wounded when Smith was killed. He
Mor monism
526
Mormonlgm
died in 1887 and in the same year was
succeeded by Wilfred Woodruff, who, in
1890, issued his famous manifesto for-
bidding polygamy. When President
Woodruff died, in 1898, Lorenzo Snow
succeeded to the presidency of the
Church. He was succeeded, in 1901, by
Joseph Fielding Smith, a nephew of
Joseph, the founder. The present mem-
bership of the Mormon Church is ca.
405,000, and the organization is very
active in mission-work, its workers going
out by twos, not only in the various
parts of the United States, but also in
foreign countries, whence they have
lured many unsuspecting people to their
settlements in Utah and other parts of
the West.
The “Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-
Day Saints,” as the Mormons call them-
selves, has thirteen Articles of Faith:
I. We believe in God, the Eternal Father,
and in His Son, Jesus Christ, and in the
Holy Ghost. 2. We believe that men
will be punished for their own sins and
not for Adam’s transgression. 3. We
believe that through the atonement of
Christ all mankind may be saved by
obedience to the laws and ordinances of
the Gospel. 4. We believe that these or-
dinances are: First, faith in the Lord
Jesus Christ; second, repentance; third,
baptism by immersion for the remission
of sins; fourth, laying on of hands for
the gift of the Holy Ghost. 5. We believe
that a man must be called of God, by
“prophecy and by the laying on of
hands by those who are in authority, to
preach the Gospel and administer in the
ordinances thereof.” 6. We believe in
the same organization that existed in the
primitive Church, vim,, apostles, prophets,
pastors, teachers, evangelists, etc. 7. We
believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy,
revelation, visions, healing, interpreta-
tion of tongues, etc. 8. We believe the
Bible to be the Word of God, as far as
it is translated correctly; we also be-
lieve the Book of Mormon to be the word
of God. 9. We believe all that God has
revealed, all that He does now reveal,
and we believe that He will yet reveal
many great and important things per-
taining to the kingdom of God. 10. We
believe in the literal gathering of Israel
and in the restoration of the Ten Tribes;
that Zion will be built upon this conti-
nent; that Christ will reign personally
upon the earth; and that the earth will
be renewed and receive its paradisiacal
glory. 11. We claim the privilege of
worshiping Almighty God according to
the dictates of our conscience and allow
all men the same privilege, let them wor-
ship how, where, or what they may.
12. We believe in being subject to kings,
presidents, rulers, and magistrates, in
obeying, honoring, and sustaining the
law. 13. We believe in being honest,
true, chaste, benevolent, virtuous, and
in doing good to all men. — Here is
a strange mixture of statements that
sound well, of such as are obviously
and glaringly wrong, and of such as
sound well enough at first blush. But
one fact in itself is enough to condemn
the entire Mormon system, aside from
the plain statements in their official
publications which condemn the doc-
trine of justification by faith alone,
namely, this, that the Book of Mormon
is placed on a level with the Bible; for
the sacred book of Morinonism has so
clearly been shown to be a miserable
forgery that the organization which ac-
cepts its platitudes thereby condemns it-
self. “One Solomon Spaulding (d. 1816)
amused himself, after retiring from the
ministry, by writing a book, in Biblical
style, purporting to be the history of
the peopling of America by the ten lost
tribes of Israel. This manuscript Joseph
Smith secured, and after altering it a
little here and there (without, however,
improving its style, for he was very
poorly educated), he published it in 1830
under the name of The Book of Mormon
and proclaimed it to be of equal author-
ity with the Bible. . . . The plates are
said to have been hidden in the hill
about A. D. 420. Yet the inscriptions
mention Calvinism, Universalism, Meth-
odism, Millenarianism, and Homan Cath-
olicism ! Though polygamy is one of the
main tenets of Mormonism, still it is
condemned in the Book of Mormon. It
was an afterthought and was revealed to
the Church later, January 12, 1843.”
(Monson, The Difference.)
Among the strange features of Mor-
monism which often require explanation
are the following: The polygamy prac-
tised by them for about half a century
was made more plausible by the claim
that, as a result, many more faithful
would get to heaven. It was stated that
a woman could have the full benefit of
salvation only if, according to the patri-
archal ordinance, she were “sealed” to
one of the faithful, thereby becoming
his “spiritual wife.” The rites practised
in this connection as well as others of a
similar kind took place in the “temples”
of the Mormons, to which no outsider
could gain admittance. With regard to
the so-called “baptism for the dead” a
revelation of Joseph Smith stated that
such as had been ordained for salvation,
but had died without a knowledge of
the Gospel should thus be prepared for
Mori son, John
527
Mnehlmann, Johann
eternal bliss. The entire position is
partly foolish, partly blasphemous.
Morison, John, 1749 — 1798, studied
at Aberdeen; parish minister at Canis-
bay, Caithness; member of committee to
revise the Translations and Paraphrases
of 1145; a book of psalm versifications;
wrote: “To Us a Child of Hope is Born.”
Morocco, Empire of. Area, 231,500
sq. mi. Estimated population, 6,000,000,
chiefly Berbers, Arabs, Jews. Dominant
religion, Islam. Morocco is politically
a French protectorate. Missions carried
on by six societies. Statistics: Foreign
staff, 135; Christian community, 15;
communicants, 100.
Morris, J. G., 1803 — 95; Lutheran
theologian, member of General Synod ;
studied under S. S. Schmucker ; pastor in
Baltimore thirty-three years, then at Lu-
therville, Md., noted as a pulpit orator;
popular and prolific writer.
Morrison, Robert; b. January 5,
1782, Morpeth, England; d. August 1,
1834, Canton, China. Sent out as mis-
sionary by the L. M. S., he became the
pioneer missionary to China. He landed
at Macao, September 7, 1807. In 1808
he accepted a position with the East
India Company as interpreter. In 1813
the New Testament was published by
him in Chinese. In 1834 he and Milne
translated — and published — the whole
Bible into Chinese. His other great
work is a dictionary of Chinese. For
twenty-seven years he labored almost
alone at Canton, holding out against
well-nigh insurmountable odds. 1
Mosaic Painting. The art of group-
ing and combining minute pieces of hard,
colored substances, such as marble, glass,
or natural stones, in a pattern or pic-
ture, the finished product resembling a
painting.
Moses ibn-Ezra ben Jacob of Gra-
nada, Jewish writer; b. ca. 1070, in
Spain; d. ca. 1139; noted Talmudist,
professor of Greek philosophy, and poet.
Mosheim, Johann Lorenz; b. 1694
(1695), d. 1755 at Goettingen; describes
himself as “neither Pietist nor overor-
thodox” ; professor and chancellor at
Helmstedt; 1747 in the same position
at Goettingen; was considered the fore-
most theologian and scholar of the Lu-
theran Church of his days; wrote on all
branches of theology, but especially on
Church History.
Mosque. A Mohammedan place of
worship, with three essential parts : the
Mihrab, or Hall of Prayer, the place of
ablutions, and the assembly-room for the
reading of the Koran.
Mote, Edward, 1797 — 1874; Baptist
minister for the last twenty-six years of
his life, at Horsham, Sussex; published
Hymns of Praise, in which his hymn:
“My Hope is Built on Nothing Else.”
Motet. A sacred musical composition
developed during the 14th century, con-
trapuntal, and usually a eapella. Luther
applied the name to the choral tunes as
developed from a combination of the
cantus firmus with the harmony of four
or more voices in contrapuntal form.
Mott, John R. ; b. May 25, 1865, at
Livingston Manor, N. Y. ; graduated at
Yale, 1899; secretary of International
Committee of Y. M. C. A., 1888 — 1915;
general secretary of same body, 1915;
foreign secretary of same organization
since 1898; chairman of executive com-
mittee of Student Volunteer Movement,
1888 — 1920; prominent in all national
and international missionary movements
for foreign missions ; prolific author.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1756
to 1791; musical genius developed early
and practically without a teacher; his
father traveled extensively with him and
his sister; his whole life a triumphal
tour, wrote much Catholic church music,
a requiem just before his death.
Muehlenberg, William Augustus.
See Muhlenberg and Family.
Muehlhaeuser, John; b. 1803 in
Wurttemberg; studied in the Basel Mis-
sionshaus; colporteur in Austria; en-
tered the Barmen Missionshaus and was
sent to America as the first emissary of
the Langenberg Society. He came with
Oertel, who later turned Romanist, and
assisted him in mission-work in New
York City Ordained as pastor at Roch-
ester, 1837, and joined New York Min-
isterium; in Wisconsin 1846 as colpor-
teur for American Tract Society; back
at Rochester; returned to Wisconsin,
1848, with Weinmann and Wrede, Lan-
genberg missionaries; founded Grace
Church, Milwaukee, long known as
“Muehlhaeuser’s.” With his two friends
he founded the Wisconsin Synod, 1849
to 50, for which he wrote the first consti-
tution. President of synod until 1860,
when he was elected “Senior,” an office
created for him. Died in Milwaukee
1867. “By his death the synod loses its
father, founder, and advocate, ... its
development was marked by his efforts,
speeches, and struggles,” says Bading.
Muehlmann, Johann, 1573 — 1613;
studied at Leipzig and Jena; preacher
in Leipzig; diaconus in Naumburg;
pastor at Laueha; finally professor at
Leipzig; staunch Lutheran; wrote:
“Dank sei Gott in der Hoehe.”
Mueller, George
528
Muhlenberg and Family
Mueller, George; b. 1805, d. 1898;
studied at Halle, 1825; began to preach,
1826; prepared himself at London for
missionary work, 1828; joined Plymouth
Brethren; minister at Teignmouth, 1830;
started Scriptural Knowledge Institu-
tion, 1834, and Bristol Orphanage, 1836.
Relying upon prayer, he received nearly
£1,000,000 ($4,860,000) for his orphan-
age and Christian charities without
directly asking one single person for
assistance, proving, as he said, that “Eli-
jah’s God still lives.”
Mueller, Heinrich; b. 1631, d. 1675
at Rostock; among the foremost devo-
tional writers of the Lutheran Church;
in 1653 archdeacon of St. Mary’s, in
Rostock; 1662 professor of theology;
1671 superintendent. In Mueller ortho-
doxy and personal piety were most hap-
pily united. He was a very popular
preacher. Chief works: Der.himme-
lische Liebeskuss and Geistliohe Erquick-
stunden.
Mueller, Julius; b. 1801, d. 1878 at
Halle; mediating theologian, defender of
Union; professor in Goettingen, Mar-
burg, Halle ; wrote Christliche Lehre von
der Suende.
Mueller, J. A. F. W. ; b. in Planena,
Saxony, October 22, 1825; Saxon immi-
grant; first graduate of log cabin col-
lege, Perry Co., Mo.; pastor in Manches-
ter, Mo., 1847; of Immanuel, Chicago, of
the First Lutheran Church, Pittsburgh,
in Johnsburg, Pa., in Chester, 111.; died
there December 26, 1900; vice-president
of Eastern and of Illinois Districts, Mis-
souri Synod.
Mueller, J. T. See Roster at end of
book.
Mueller, Max, German-English com-
parative philologist; b. 1823 at Dessau;
d. 1900 at Oxford; many years professor
at Oxford; made researches into mythol-
ogy and comparative religion; held that
there are only two kinds of religions,
salvation by works (all pagan religions)
and by grace through faith (Christian-
ity) ; edited Sacred Books of the East,
51 volumes of translations; wrote:
Science of Language, Chips from a Ger-
man Workshop.
Muenster. A German cathedral
church, the name being applied chiefly
to cathedrals of a large and imposing
type, such as those of Ulm, Strassburg,
and Augsburg, the word dome being used
as synonym. See also Cathedrals.
Muenzer, Thomas; b. 1489; preacher
at Zwickau 1520; would surpass Luther
as a reformer; ascetic fanatic and Ana-
baptist; depreciated the Bible and fol-
lowed the “inner light” to kill the god-
less; defeated at Frankenhausen May 5,
1525, and executed.
Muhlenberg and Family. Heinrich
Melchior M., “Patriarch of the Lutheran
Church in America,” was born Septem-
ber 6, 1711, at Eimbeck, Hanover. He
entered the University of Goettingen as
one of its first students in 1735. After
bis graduation he taught for one year at
the Halle Orphanage and was pastor at
Grosshennersdorf, Upper Silesia, 1739 to
1741. Dr. Francke, of Halle, persuaded
him, in December, 1741, to accept a call
to the “United Lutheran Congregations”
in Pennsylvania. After spending a few
months with Dr. Ziegenhagen in London,
he came to Philadelphia, via Charleston,
S. C., November 25, 1742. He was recog-
nized as the duly appointed pastor of the
“United Congregations” in a service held
in Gloria Dei Church, December 27. In
1743 the building of St. Michael’s, Phila-
delphia, and Augustus Church, at The
Trappe (still standing), was begun. By
preaching and faithful pastoral and mis-
sionary work Muhlenberg soon succeeded
in establishing well-organized churches in
Eastern Pennsylvania and after the ar-
rival of some helpers extended his work
into other parts of Pennsylvania and into
New Jersey. He organized the Pennsylva-
nia Ministerium, the first Lutheran synod
in the United States, in 1748. In 1750
he traveled with his father-in-law, Wei-
ser, via Kingston to the churches along
the Hudson and in 1751 and 1752 served
the old Dutch churches in New York and
Hackensack, N. J. In 1758 and 1759 he
spent several months in the churches on
the Raritan in New Jersey. In the mean
time he had placed an assistant who had
arrived from Europe in parishes in Penn-
sylvania, Maryland, and Virginia. With
the help of the Swedish Provost Wrangel
the Ministerium was revived in 1760.
From 1761 to 1776 Muhlenberg resided
in Philadelphia, but his declining years
(1776 — 87) were spent at The Trappe. In
the winter of 1774 — 75 he visited the Lu-
therans in the South. Thus Muhlenberg’s
influence extended from Northern New
York into Georgia and was felt in most
of the original Thirteen Colonies for more
than a century afterwards. He entered
into rest October 7, 1787, and was buried
in the shadow of the old church at The
Trappe. — While Muhlenberg was with-
out doubt a staunch Lutheran, fearless
in his testimony to the truth and filled
with a burning desire to save souls, yet
“his was not the genuine Lutheranism of
Luther, but the modified Lutheranism,
then advocated in Germany generally,
notably in Halle and the circles of the
Muhlenberg? and Family
529
Muratorlan Fragment
Pietists, a Lutheranism inoculated with
legalism, subjectivism, and unionism”
(Bente), all of which injected an element
of weakness in the Lutheranism of his
planting, a weakness which became ap-
parent soon after liis death and from
which certain parts of the Lutheran
Church in America have not recovered
to this day. — Muhlenberg married, in
1745, Anna Maria, daughter of Colonel
Conrad Weiser, and thus became the
founder of “a family illustrious in
Church and State.” His three sons, J. Pe-
ter G., Frederick, and Ernest, were sent to
Halle for their education, 1763. Peter M.
(1746 — 1807) was ordained after his re-
turn to America (1768) and became the
assistant to his father in the churches
on the Raritan. After having been re-
ordained by the Bishop of London
(1772), he took charge of the church at
Woodstock, Va. In 1776 he exchanged
his clerical robe for a colonel’s uniform
and served with distinction under Wash-
ington in the Revolutionary War, being
a leader in the decisive battle at York
town. He afterwards became vice-presi-
dent of Pennsylvania (with Franklin as
president) and a member of Congress.- —
Frederick A. C. M. (1750 — 1801) became
pastor of Christ Church, New York, fled
at the approach of the British (1770),
and assisted his father till 1779. Enter-
ing political life, he became a member of
the -Continental Congress and of the
Pennsylvania Legislature. From 1789 to
1797 he was a member of Congress and
speaker of the first and the third session.
— G. H. Ernest M. (1753 — 1815), ‘‘the
American Linnaeus,” ordained 1770, was
assistant to his father in Philadelphia
and on the Raritan and (1780 — 1815)
pastor at Lancaster. His fame as a bot-
anist rests on the discovery of more than
100 new plants. — Wm. Augustus M.
(1796 — 1877), grandson of Frederick
A. C. M., became an Episcopalian rector
and the author of the well-known hymns,
“I Would Not Live Alway,” “Savior,
Like a Shepherd Lead Us,” and “Shout!
the Glad Tidings.” — - Henry Aug. P. M.,
son of G. H. E., was pastor at Reading
(1802 — 27), member of Congress for nine
years, minister to Austria, 1838 — 40,
nominated for governor of Pennsylvania,
died before election (1844). — Hiester
H. M„ M. D. (1812— -86), son of the fore-
going and grandson of Governor Hiester
of Pennsylvania, “one of the best-known
and most esteemed laymen in the Lu-
theran Church of America,” was the first
treasurer of the General Council. — Fred
Aug. M., a second son of G. H. E., was
known as “the beloved physician of Lan-
caster.” — His son. Prof. Fred Augus-
Concordia Cyclopedia
tus M., was the first president of Muh-
lenberg College at Allentown, 1867 — 77,
and afterwards professor at Pennsyl-
vania University. — The oldest daughter
of the patriarch, Eva, married Rev. C. E.
Schultze. Their son, John Andr. Schultze
(1775 — 1852), was pastor 1796 — 1804,
then member of the Pennsylvania Legis-
lature and governor of Pennsylvania,
1823 — 29. — The second daughter of
H. M. M., Margareta, married Dr. J. C.
Kunze, the most learned emissary of
Halle, pastor at Philadelphia, 1770 — 84,
then pastor of the old Lutheran Church
in New York till his death, 1807. • — Mary
Salome, H. M. M.’s fourth daughter, mar-
ried Matthias Reichert, M. C. Their son,
John W. Richards, was one of the most
active pastors of the Pennsylvania Minis-
terium, 1824 — 54. His son, M. H. Rich-
ards (1841 — 98), was for many years
professor at Muhlenberg College. (See
Mann, Life and Times of Henry Melchior
Muhlenberg ; Frick, Henry Melchior Muh-
lenberg, D. D.)
Muenchmeyer, August Friedrich
Otto; b. 1807, d. 1882; with Petri and
Muenkel one of the few defenders of
confessional Lutheranism in Hanover;
pastor, superintendent, and eonsistorial
councilor near Osnabrueck; founder of
the Hanoverian Gotteskasten.
Muenkel, Kornelius Karl; b. 1809,
d. 1888 at Hanover; eminent Lutheran
preacher and theologian in Hanover;
greatly influenced Lutheran confession-
alism in conjunction with Petri, Mueneh-
meyer, and others.
Munhall, Xeander Whitcomb,
1843 — ; Methodist Episcopal, revivalist;
1). at Zanesville, O. ; soldier during
Civil War; commenced preaching 1874;
has averaged two sermons a day for
forty years ; author.
Munkacsy, Michael (real surname:
Lieb), 1846 — 1900; Hungarian painter,
studied chiefly at Munich and Duessel-
dorf; his work mainly genre pictures;
besides secular paintings: “Christ before
Pilate” and “The Crucifixion.”
Muratorinn Fragment (Canon Mu-
ratori) is a fragment (85 lines) of a
Latin treatise on the Bible canon, giving
a list of the books of the New Testament
accepted as canonical in Italy about the
latter half of the second century. It
mentions the Gospel of Luke (which it
calls the third) and of John, the Acts,
Paul’s epistles to the Corinthians, Ephe-
sians, Philippians, Colossians, Galatians,
Thessalonians, Romans, Philemon, Titus,
Timothy, Revelation, Jude, two epistles
of John, the Wisdom of Solomon, and as
doubtful the Revelation of Peter. The
34
Murillo, Bartolomeo Estaban 530
Myconlns, Friedrich
fragment was discovered in the Am-
brosian Library at Milan (1740) by
Muratori, its librarian.
Murillo, Bartolomeo Estaban, 1618
to 1682; the greatest of all Spanish
painters; noted especially for his ex-
quisite coloring; among his numerous
works : “Immaculate Conception” and
“Holy Family.”
Murray, Andrew; b. May 9, 1828,
at Graaff -Reiner, South Africa; d. Jan-
uary 18, 1917, at Wellington, Africa;
educated in Scotland and Holland; ap-
pointed to Dutch-Reformed pastorate,
Bloemfontein, Africa, 1848; Worcester,
Cape Town, 1860 — 1864; Cape Town,
1871; founded Huguenot Seminary;
also Mission-training Institute, 1877;
prominent in mission endeavor until
1906; traveled much in interest of mis-
sions; instrumental in opening up new
fields in Bechuanaland, Nyasaland, and
Mashonaland.
Murray, John; founder of Universa-
list (q. v.) denomination in America;
b. 1741 at Alton, England; d. 1815 at
Boston; left Established Church to join
Methodists; later excommunicated for
his universalistic views; came to Amer-
ica, 1770; since 1783 pastor of Univer-
salist Society, Boston.
Musaeus, Simon; b. 1521, d. 1576 or
1582; professor and superintendent in
Jena; opposed, together with Flacius,
the synergism of Pfeffinger and Strigel;
exiled; superintendent at Bremen; took
up the fight of Hesshusius against Har-
denberg’s Zwinglian doctrine of the
Lord’s Supper ; exiled.
Musaeus, Johann, great-grandson of
Simon M. ; b. 1613; professor at Jena;
d. there 1681; defended Lutheranism
against Catholics, Reformed, sectarians.
Deists, and Pantheists; his syncretism
and .synergism combated by Calov.
Musculus (Meusel), Andreas, b. 1514;
A. M. at Wittenberg 1539 ; polemic
against the Interim, Osiander, Stancarus,
Melanchthon, Calvin; published an ex-
cerpt from Luther’s works, the Thesau-
rus; active for the Formula of Concord
at Torgau and Bergen; Superintendent-
General of the whole Mark Branden-
burg; used his influence with Joachim II
for the good of the Church; d. 1581.
Music, Church. Profane music is
music that places harmony (or dis-
harmony) of sounds into the service of
the passions or some other evil purpose;
secular music serves ends not specifically
religious, as those of art or the social
.life. Sacred music may be divided into
spiritual music, which includes all music
that has an edifying effect upon the emo-
tions and therefore incites to devotion,
directing the imagination toward the
realm of the eternal and divine, and
church music proper, which includes all
the music used in divine worship,
whether in congregational or chorus
singing or in the liturgical service
proper, that is, in both the sacrificial
and the sacramental acts. An essential
point in church music is the agreement
of the artistic effect with the effect aimed
at in worship, not in such a manner,
however, as to produce a single combined
effect, but rather so that the artistic
effect serves to enhance the idea and the
purpose of worship. Nothing that savors
of artistic effort may be permitted to
interfere with the influence of the means
of grace. Nothing connected with the
music of divine worship shall arouse in
the hearer memories or ideas which will
or may divert his mind from the attitude
of reverence proper in divine services.
For this reason operatic music in divine
worship is always out of place, even if
it be tiie “Bridal Chorus” from Lohen-
grin or the “Intermezzo” from Cavalleria
Uusticana. The transfer of compositions
known to the hearers from secular con-
nections is excluded, even if the theme or
motif is in itself chaste. Both the com-
poser and tiie organist must subordinate
the artistic purpose to the end and con-
ception of divine worship. Since the
mourners’ bench is absent in Lutheran
churches, music may not be employed
simply for its effect upon the emotions,
although tiie special character of the
season of the church-year may be indi-
cated in both preludes and interludes,
the object being to bring the congrega-
tion into the mood for singing the hymns
in tli e proper state of mind and therefore
also in the proper tempo. It follows,
then, that artistic excellence and purity
must frequently be sacrificed for imme-
diate effect and influence upon the con-
gregation. Church music, in its ideal
form, is ecclesiastical in the sense of con-
stituting a portion of the liturgy and of
animating and strengthening the presen-
tation of the Gospel. The importance of
these facts should be borne in mind by
music committees, by the pastor and the
vestry, but especially by the organist,
who will at all times do well to consult
with the officiating clergyman concern-
ing the occasion, the nature of the
hymns, and the tone of the services.
Myconius ( Mecum ), Friedrich; b. in
1490; was refused an indulgence for
God’s sake from Tetzel; entered cloister;
sided with Luther in 1517; pastor in
Mylius, Johann
531
Mysticism
Gotha, which lie kept quiet during the
Peasants’ War; at Marburg disputation,
Wittenberg Concord, and Schmalkalden ;
at London, 1538, to treat of the Augs-
burg Confession; Luther prayed him
well from a mortal illness in 1541;
d. 154G.
Mylius, Johann, a native of Themar
in Saxe-Meiningen ; circumstances of life
unknown; pastor in Thuringia 1590;
wrote : “Dieh bitt’ ich, trautes Jesulein.”
Mysteries. A species of religious
drama ( this name for it being used
chiefly in France) as developed from the
trope or sequence section of the Onto
Missae from the tenth to the thirteenth
centuries.
Mystic Shrine, Ancient Arabic
Order of Nobles of the. History. This
order claims to have originated in Ara-
bia, but really dates back to 1870, when
“Billy” Florence, an actor, and a few
associates formed the first “temple” in
New York City, which they called
“Mecca.” General Lew Wallace, the
author of lien Ilur, was among the
founders of the first temple and con-
tributed much of the Oriental atmos-
phere. The ritual was translated or
“perfected” by Dr. Walter M. Fleming, a
33d degree Slason and Eminent Com-
mander of Columbia Commandery No. 1,
Knights Templars, New York. Other
“temples” were added in the course of
time, bearing names that are usually
connected with the Mohammedan religion,
such as “Kaaba,” “Medina,” “A1 Koran,”
“’Damascus,” “Moslem,” etc. The badge
worn upon each breast shows the Moslem
emblems — the Crescent and the Scimi-
tar. — - Character. The order is secret
and closely affiliated with Freemasonry,
only Knights Templars (American Rite)
and 32d degree Masons ( q . v.) being
eligible to membership. The Mystic
Shrine in America is a charitable and
social organization, devoted to the wel-
fare of Freemasonry. The Imperial
Council is the governing body, with sub-
ordinate branches, called “temples.” —
Purpose. Organized for fun, the Shrine
is often called “the playground for
Masons.” Its principles are pleasure,
hospitality, and jollity. This seems
hardly in accord with the terrible oath
of the Mystic Shrine, which reads : “In
wilful violation whereof may I incur
the fearful penalty of having my eyeballs
pierced to the center with a three-edged
blade, my feet flayed, and I be forced to
walk the hot sands upon the sterile
shores of the Red Sea until the flaming
sun shall strike me with living plague;
and may Allah, the god of Arab, Moslem,
and Mohammedan, the god of our fathers,
support me to the entire fulfilment of the
same! Amen, Amen, Amen.” The initia-
tion is said often to consist of horse-play
and gross indecencies. — Membership.
There are 155 “temples” of the Mystic
Shrine in North America, with a total
membership of 600,000. Each year the
Imperial Council meets, and its sessions
are accompanied by spectacular proces-
sions, with uniforms and decorations
fashioned after the modes of the Orient.
Mystic Workers of the World.
History. This order was founded by G.
W. Clendenen, a Mason, Odd-Fellow,
Knight of Pythias, a member of both
branches of the Woodmen, etc., of Fulton,
111., in 1892, to pay death, sickness, and
disability benefits by means of mutual
assessments. — Character. The order has
a ritual, which emphasizes charity, has
the usual lodge paraphernalia as well as
a chaplain, etc. The various local lodges
are under the supervision of the Supreme
Lodge, located at Fulton, 111. — Member-
ship. 943 lodges, with a benefit mem-
bership of 72,955 and a social member-
ship of 154, mainly in Illinois, Wiscon-
sin, Iowa, Michigan, Missouri, Kansas,
Nebraska, Minnesota, and Texas. There
is also a juvenile department with 3,044
members.
Mysticism. Generally speaking, the
cultivation of the consciousness of the
presence of God, or the knowledge of God
and intercourse with God through inter-
nal light and the immediate operation of
grace, in opposition to revealed faith, on
the one hand, and speculative rational
knowledge, on the other. A mystic is a
person who claims to have, to a greater
or less degree, such an experience of God,
one not merely based and centered on an
accepted belief and practise, but on what
the person concerned regards as first-
hand personal knowledge. Some writers
insist that some of the outstanding
teachers of the Church were mystics,
such as Paul, John the Apostle, and Lu-
ther. That is true only in the sense that
in these men, and in others, the mystical
union (q. v. ) presented a vivid and
powerful reality, according to which
St. Paul could write: “I live, yet not I,
but Christ liveth in me.” Gal. 2, 20.
“i can do all things through Christ,
which strengtheneth me.” Phil. 4, 13. —
But the term mysticism, in its fantastic
sense, is applied to that subjective state
of mind according to which some people
have been said to become spiritually, and
even physically, united with the Godhead.
It is in this sense that history speaks
of great mystics. Dionysius the Areop-
agite was subject to such a fantastic
Naditenhoefer, IvaNjmr l^rlcdrlct) 5SS
National Christian Association
form of mysticism; so also tlie German
abbess and prophetess St. Hildegarde
(1098 — 1179), the Scotch scholar Rich-
ard of St, Victor (d. about 1173), from
whom all Medieval mystics received their
inspiration, and above all St. Bernard of
Clairvaux (1091 — 1153), to whom a con-
structive or objective form of mysticism
is generally ascribed. Among the Fran-
ciscan mystics there is St. Francis him-
self (1182 — 1226), as well as the poet
Jacopone da Todi and the pious Angela
of Foligno. In England there were Rich-
ard Roile (d. 1349), Walter Hilton
(d. 1396), and Julian of Norwich (d. after
1413). In Germany and in the Low
Countries we have Meister Eckl^art (ca.
1250 — 1328), Heinrich Suso (ca. 1295 to
1365), Tauler (ca. 1300 — 61), and Ruys-
broeck (1293 — 1381), together with the
author of Theologia Oermanioa, of which
Luther thought very highly. Among
woman mystics we have particularly
Catherine of Siena (1347 — 80), Cathe-
rine of Genoa (1447 — 1510), and Teresa
(151 5 — 82 ) . — • Mysticism has persisted
into modern times, even with its more
pronounced feature, that of stigmatiza-
tion, or the showing of the wounds of
Christ on the body of the contemplative
mystic. Among the leading representa-
tives of the inclination during the last
century are the Quaker John William
Rowntree (1868 — 1905), Lucie-Christine
(1844 — 1908), and Charles de Foucauld
(1858 — 1916). — While it is undoubtedly
true that the saner phases of an objective
mysticism may well be cultivated by a
Christian, a special warning is in order
at this time against indulging in specu-
lative or subjective contemplation, for it
is apt to cause serious trouble.
N
Nachtenhoefer, Kaspar Friedrich,
1624 — 85; studied at Leipzig; diaconus,
later pastor at Meeder, near Coburg;
pastor at Coburg in 1671; wrote:
“Kominst du nun, Jesu, vom Himmel
herunter auf Erden”; “Dies ist die
Nacht, da mir erschienen.”
Naether, Karl Gustav Theodor;
b. September 14, 1866, at Bautzen, Ger-
many; d. February 13, 1904, at Krish-
nagiri, India; Leipzig missionary to
India 1887 ; separated from Leipzig Mis-
sion for reasons of conscience in 1893;
joined Lutheran Missouri Synod; visited
the United States in company with
F. Mohn and was commissioned as the
first missionary to India of the Missouri
Synod in 1894; organized Krishnagiri
Station, Salem District, Madras Pres-
idency.
Nantes, Edict of. See Edict of
Nantes.
Nasmith, David, a Scottish philan-
thropist; b. at Glasgow, 1799, d. 1839;
founded the Glasgow City Mission in
1826 and established missions in the
principal cities of England, Ireland,
France, and the United States; the Lon-
don City Mission in 1835.
Nast, William, 1807 — 99; b. in
Stuttgart, Wurttemberg; came to Amer-
ica in 1828; Methodist minister in 1835;
formed first German society of Methodist
Episcopal Church; d. at Cincinnati;
editor of Ohristliche Apologete ; author.
Natal, a province in the Union of
South Africa within the British Em-
pire. Area, 35,201 sq. mi. Population,
1,194,043, inclusive of native Africans,
chiefly of Zulu stock. Seat of the Nor-
wegian Sclireuder Mission.
National Baptist Convention (Col-
ored). At the close of the Civil War
there were about 400,000 Negro Baptists
in the United States, and after the war
their number grew rapidly. The Na-
tional Baptist Convention was organized
in St. Louis, Mo., in 1886. In 1893 the
National Educational Convention was or-
ganized in Washington, D. C., and in
September, 1895, the Foreign Missionary
Convention of the United States of
America, the National Baptist Conven-
tion, and the National Baptist Educa-
tional Convention were united at Atlanta,
Ga., in the present National Baptist Con-
vention, its object being to do mission-
work in the United States of America,
in Africa, and elsewhere and to foster
the cause of education. In spite of tem-
porary divisions the National Convention
to-day represents a united body with
17,103 ministers, 20,486 churches, and
3,116,325 communicants (statistics of
1920) . In doctrine and polity the Negro
Baptists are in accord with the Northern
and Southern Conventions.
National Bible Society of Scotland.
This society was organized in 1861 as
the result of an amalgamation of all the
Scottish societies.
National Christian Association.
An organization which is opposed to
secret societies. Wm. I. Phillips, the sec-
retary, writes in a printed pamphlet:
“Certain Christian men called a conven-
tion to meet in the City Hall, Aurora,
National Christian Association 333
National Lntlieran Conncil
111., in October, 1867. The attendance
was large and enthusiastic. President
Jonathan Blanchard was made chairman
and delivered the principal address.
Speeches of power were also made by
the Rev. I. A. Hart, a seceding Mason,
and others.” As a result of this conven-
tion a national meeting was held at
Pittsburgh, Pa., in May, 1868, and repre-
sentatives of seventeen denominations
were enrolled. At this time “The Na-
tional Association of Christians. Opposed
to Secret Societies” was formed as a non-
sectarian association, which would fur-
nish “a rallying-point for all Christians
who had come to understand and recog-
nize this great antichrist of our age.”
Until 1874 the Association had no legal
existence. It was at that time incor-
porated as “The National Christian As-
sociation,” articles having been filed with
the Secretary of State of Illinois and
a certificate of incorporation issued.
Hon. Philo Carpenter, of Chicago, one of
the prime movers in this opposition to
the lodge, who at that time had given
more money to aid in the work than any
other man, offered to the association a
home, “so that its work of removing the
obstacles to the coming kingdom of God
might go on.” Annual meetings have been
held in Chicago, Cincinnati, 0., Worcester,
Mass., Oberlin, 0., Syracuse, N. Y., and
in many other places; in 1921 in Grand
Rapids, Mich., and in 1922 in Omaha,
Nebr. Charles A. Blanchard, president of
Wheaton College (d. 1925), was the first
agent and lecturer, 1870 — 72. He was
succeeded by the late Rev. J. P. Stoddard
as secretary and general agent. William
I. Phillips has been general secretary and
treasurer for the past quarter of a cen-
tury. At the present writing the Rev.
John P. Heemstra, Holland, Mich., is the
president of the association and a worthy
successor of the many who have preceded,
among whom were President Blanchard,
Bishop D. S. Warner, and the Rev. J.
Groen. The present lecturers are the
Rev. W. B. Stoddard, Eastern secretary;
Prof. Silas W. Bond, Western secretary;
the Rev. Francis J. Davidson, Southern
agent; and Mrs. Lizzie Woods Robertson,
representative at large. Five members
of the board of directors of the National
Christian Association respond to calls
for lectures whenever possible. The
Christian Cynosure was started in 1868
and is the official organ. — As a result of
the movement inaugurated by the asso-
ciation, books have been printed and a
large number of tracts issued, and by the
aid of thousands of coworkers, millions
have been distributed in this and many
foreign countries. — Among the denom-
inations which are committed by vote of
their legislative assemblies or by con-
stitution to the exclusion of Freemasons
from church-membership are the United
Presbyterians, United Brethren in Christ,
Seventh-day Adventists, Christian Re-
formed Church, Primitive Baptists,
Seventh-day Baptists, Scandinavian Bap-
tists, Church of the United Brethren in
Christ, Friends, Norwegian Lutherans,
Danish Lutherans, Swedish Lutherans,
German Lutherans, Church of God in
Christ, Mennonites, Moravians, Plymouth
Brethren, Associate Presbyterians, Re-
formed Presbyterians, Free Methodists,
Wesleyan Methodists, Hollanders of the
Reformed and the Christian Reformed
churches, Pentecostal Church of the Naz-
arene, Christian and Missionary Alliance,
and various indepent churches, such as
the Moody Church, Chicago; Wheaton
College Church (Cong.), Wheaton, 111.
— The office of the National Christian
Association is in Chicago, 111.
National Lutheran Council. Organ-
ized 1918. A joint board of Lutheran
church-bodies made up of appointed rep-
resentatives. According to the Lutheran
World Almanac of 1923, edited by the
Council, the purposes set forth in its
Regulations are as follows: “1. To speak
for the Lutheran Church and give pub-
licity to its utterances on all matters
which require an expression of the com-
mon conviction and sentiment of the
Church. 2. To be the representative of
the Lutheran Church in America in its
attitude toward, or relations to, organ-
ized bodies outside of itself. 3. To bring
to the attention of the Church all such
matters as require common utterance or
action. 4. To further the work of recog-
nized agencies of the Church that deal
with problems arising out of war and
other emergencies; to coordinate, har-
monize, and unify their activities; and
to create new agencies to meet circum-
stances which require common action.
5. To coordinate the activities of the
Church and its agencies for the solution
of new problems which affect the re-
ligious life and consciousness of the
people, e. </., social, economic, and educa-
tional conditions. C. To foster true
Christian loyalty to the State and to
labor for the maintenance of a right re-
lation between Church and State as dis-
tinct, divine institutions. 7. To promote
the gathering and publication of true
and uniform statistical information con-
cerning the Lutheran Church in Amer-
ica.” This statement of purposes is
qualified, however, by the following
clauses: “In stating its objects and pur-
poses, the National Lutheran Council de-
National Red Cross
534 Nanmbnrg, Convention of, 15G1
dares: That it will not interfere with
the organization, the inner life, or the
principles of fellowship of its constituent
bodies; that the execution of these pur-
poses will be carried out without preju-
dice to the confessional basis of any par-
ticipating body (i. e., without dealing
with matters which require confessional
unity) ; that it is the right of the bodies
themselves to determine the extent of co-
operation.” — Membership is held by
the following bodies: United Lutheran
Church, Norwegian Lutheran Church,
Augustana Synod, Joint Synod of Ohio,
LTnited Danish Church, Lutheran Free
Church, Danish Lutheran Church, Ice-
landic Synod, Buffalo Synod. The fol-
lowing bodies did not officially connect
themselves with the Council, but support
its work: Immanuel Synod, Jehovah
Conference, Eielsen Synod, Lutheran
Brethren, Suomi Synod, Finnish Na-
tional Church, Finnish Apostolic Church.
“The membership,” says Article III,
“shall consist of representatives from
every general Lutheran body or synod
that may cooperate in the execution of its
program. Each body shall be entitled to
one representative for every one hundred
thousand confirmed members or one-
tliird fraction thereof; provided, how-
ever, that every participating body shall
be entitled to at least one representa-
tive.” A committee report, adopted by
the council, on “An International Lu-
theran Convention” says the purpose of
the convention “should be to promote
clearer understandings within and among
the groups represented, with a view to
the possible strengthening of present co-
operation in the countries concerned and
in the Foreign Mission field and to the
preservation and strengthening of Lu-
theranism throughout the world.” Ac-
cordingly the National Lutheran Council
seeks to do more than simply cooperate
in externals; it seeks to unite the
various Lutheran church-bodies in the
world for the purpose of “preserving and
strengthening Lutheranism throughout
the world.” The National Lutheran
Council issues the Lutheran World Al-
manac. For the purpose of its world
service campaign the Council has a state
chairman in the various States of this
country.
National Red Cross. See Red Cross.
National Reform Association. Or-
ganized 1803. Its purpose is to have the
moral laws of the Christian religion em-
bodied in the laws of our Government
and, in general, to work in the interest
of moral reform. It continually mixes
Church and State. Official organ: The
Christian Statesman.
Natural History of the Bible.
A study of the fauna and flora of the
Bible, together with the weather condi-
tions and. other features which affect
plant and animal life in Bible lands.
Naturalism. A term which has a
variety of meanings, corresponding to
the different senses in which “nature”
and “natural” may be used. In its usual
modern meaning, in theology and phil-
osophy, it is the point of view according
to which no consideration is given to
anything “spiritual” or “supernatural,”
that is, to anything that goes beyond
experience. It asserts that there is no
reality except matter and that all, even
psychical, phenomena may be explained
through natural sciences, especially
chemistry and physics, and that their
ultimate basis is matter and motion.
Such a view leads to materialism ( q. v. )
and atheism (q.v.) and hardly differs
from positivism (q. v. ). In theology,
furthermore, naturalism asserts that
only nature and not revelation can be
the source of religious truth and denies
everything miraculous and supernatural,
and consequently all fundamentals of
Christianity. In ethics, naturalism is
the doctrine that nature and natural im-
pulses are the highest guide of man in
moral conduct. Such a view has been
variously developed in Stoicism, as well
as by Rousseau, Tolstoy, Nietzsche
(qq.v.), and is always hostile to Chris-
tianity, which finds the supreme rule of
conduct in divine revelation, and may
lead to such extremes as the elevation of
every personal desire to a moral law,
contempt of marriage, glorification of
the mule. In art, naturalism denotes
the decadent tendency which avoids all
idealization and portrays only reality,
whether beautiful or otherwise; in lit-
erature, a similar tendency, which pic-
tures men and circumstances true to
reality, often emphasizing the immoral,
as is done by Zola, Maupassant, Suder-
mann, Halbe.
Naumann, Emil, 1827 — 88; studied
chiefly under Mendelssohn and at Leip-
zig; director of music at Berlin; lec-
turer on History of Music at Dresden;
wrote : lias Alter des I’salmengesangs and
Die Tonkunst in der Kulturgeschichte.
Naumann, Justus H. ; b. 1865,
d. 1917; pupil of Stoeckliardt (Planitz) ;
graduated at Fort Wayne and St. Louis ;
Lutheran pastor in South Dakota; since
1895 in Minnesota Synod; nine years
Superintendent of Missions; president
of Minnesota Synod 1912 — 17.
Naumburg, Convention of, 1561.
Lutheran princes with their theologians
Nave’s Topical Bible
535
Nebraska Synod
reaffirmed the Augsburg Confession of
1530 in order to be able to enjoy also in
the future the concessions of the Augs-
burg Religious Peace. The Preface de-
clared the substantial agreement of the
Augsburg Confession with the Variata
(the changed edition) of 1540, and hence
the Dukes Ulrich of Mecklenburg and
John Frederick of Saxony withheld their
signatures. The convention declined the
invitation to the Council of Trent, since
the Pope had no right to call a council,
only the Kaiser.
Nave’s Topical Bible. This book
contains a digest of the Holy Scriptures,
giving more than 20,000 topics and sub-
topics and 100,000 references to the
Scriptures. In the preface the author
says: “The object of this book is to
bring together in cyclopedic form and
under familiar headings all that the
Bible contains on particular subjects.”
The Bible-texts are printed out under
the respective topics. Properly speaking,
the book is not a Bible, but a topical
digest of the Bible.
Navigator Islands. See Samoa.
Naville, Edouard Henri, Swiss
Egyptologist; b. 1844 at Geneva; since
1891 professor there; for many years
connected with Egypt Exploration Fund ;
wrote numerous works on Egyptology,
also in relation to Old Testament
problems.
Naylor, John, 1838 — 97; showed
musical ability as clioir-boy; organist
at Scarborough; later, organist and
choirmaster at York Minster and con-
ductor of York Musical Society; wrote
four cantatas and many anthems and
chants.
Nazarenes, a Judaizing Christian
sect, which united the belief in the
divinity and Messiahship of Jesus with
the observance of the Mosaic Ceremonial
Law (Sabbath, Circumcision, etc.), with-
out, however, rejecting the authority of
Paul and the validity of Gentile Chris-
tianity. According to Epiphanius
(fourth century) they dated their settle-
ment in Coele-Syria and the Decapolis
from the flight of the Jewish Christians
from Jerusalem to Pella immediately
before the siege, 70 A. D. They are
therefore in all probability the direct,
but degenerate representatives of the
Jewish Christians of the first century.
See flbionites.
“Nazarenes.” An informal associa-
tion of artists existing in Rome at the
beginning of the 19th century, with
Overbeck as their leader ; prominent
among them Philip Veit, 1793 — 1877
(“Simeon in the Temple”), noted for
his fine line work, and E. Steinle, 1810
to 86, with a tendency toward symbol-
ism (frescoes in Dome of Cologne).
Ne Temere Decree. A decree issued
by Pope Pius X in 1907, which states
that baptized Catholics can be validly
married only by the Catholic priest of
the parish, in the presence of at least
two witnesses. A non-Catholic, marry-
ing a Catholic, must promise not to
interfere with the Catholic party’s prac-
tise of religion and to rear any children
which result from the union in the
Catholic faith. The decree practically
places all marriages not so contracted
into the category of legalized concu-
binage.
Neale, John Mason, 1818 — 66; edu-
cated at Cambridge, where an aversion
to mathematics prevented him from ob-
taining highest honors; in delicate
health, held only minor clerical posi-
tions; founder of various charitable in-
stitutions; a church historian of note
and one of the greatest liturgiologists of
all times, both in the Oriental and in the
Medieval field; translated many hymns
and sequences, among these: “A Great
and Mighty Wonder Our Christmas
Festal Brings”; “The Star Proclaims
the King Is Here”; wrote also original
hymns, among which: “The Day, O Lord,
is Spent”; “Before Thy Face, O God
of Old.”
Neander, Joachim, 1650 — 80; the
most important poet of the Reformed
Church during the times of Pietism;
studied at the Paedagogium and at the
Gymnasium at Bremen; tutor at Frank-
furt a. M. and at Heidelberg; 1674 rector
of Latin school at Duesseldorf, where his
pietistie tendencies got him into trouble;
assistant at Bremen; wrote the popular
hymn of praise : “Lobe den Herren, den
maechtigen Koenig der Ehren.”
Neander, Johann August Wilhelm;
b. 1789, d. 1850 at Berlin; of Hebrew
descent; was strongly influenced by
Sclileiermacher’s Reden ueber die Reli-
gion; 1812 professor at Berlin; his
chief work: Allgemeine Geschichte der
christlichen Religion und Kirche. Nean-
der belongs to the school of pietistie re-
awakening and exerted great personal
influence in the Church and especially
upon the students of the University.
Nebraska, German Synod of. See
United Lutheran Church.
Nebraska Synod. John Hoeckendorf,
formerly officer in the German army,
member of P. Geyer’s church, Lebanon,
Wis., was a delegate to the meeting at
Nebraska, Synod of
536
Nestorian Controversy
which the Missouri Synod was organized.
He took exception to a statement in the
introduction to the proposed constitution
and eventually, supported by some hun-
dred families, divided his home church,
becoming pastor of the seceders. 1865 to
1866, after the ground had been scouted,
50 to 60 families decided to establish
new homes in Nebraska, taking their
flocks and traveling in prairie-schooners.
They chose the region of which Norfolk
later was the center, though then 75 miles
from the nearest railroad. Hoeckendorf
remained their pastor until his death,
1878. Having satisfied themselves on
the doctrinal position of the Wisconsin
Synod, the Norfolk church called Mich.
Pankow as their pastor on recommenda-
tion of Dr. A. F. Ernst. After three years
Pankow joined the Wisconsin Synod, his
church having by that time overcome its
aversion to synodical connections. He
soon organized other congregations and
formed a conference, which was joined by
a number of other congregations founded
in Southern Nebraska by Jul. Kaiser.
The Nebraska Conference had been or-
ganized as a District of the Wisconsin
Synod for three years, when it received
authority to establish a separate (Dis-
trict) synod of the Joint Synod, 1904, at
Clatonia. As such it emerged from the
reorganization of 1917 without any
changes, territorial or otherwise, always
having supported the institutions of the
older synod. Presidents have been: Th.
Braeuer, J. Witt. There are 25 pastors
with 35 congregations and 3,300 commu-
nicants.
Nebraska, Synod of (1871). See
United Lutheran Church.
Neoplatonism, the last of the ancient
schools of philosophy, set up as a rival
to Christianity in the third century, at-
tempting to adapt the ideas of Greek
philosophy, together with Oriental con-
ceptions, to the needB of the times. It
teaches three successive grades of emana-
tions from the Divine Being: intelli-
gence, the world-soul, and matter, the
latter being evil, and lays stress upon
asceticism as a means of liberating the
individual soul from matter and restor-
ing it to the Divinity. The best minds ,
of the age shared in this movement. The
traditional founder is Ammonius Saccas
(d. 243), of Alexandria; but the chief
expositor is his pupil Plotinus (q.v.),
followed by Porphyry (q.v.). Though
hostile to Christianity, it became, be-
cause of its asceticism and mystic char-
acter, a “bridge to Christianity” to some
of its adherents, notably Origen and
Augustine.
Nestorian Controversy. This con-
troversy takes its name from Nestorius
(q.v.), whose false teaching in Christ-
ology, namely, that there was no com-
munion of natures in the person of
Christ and that Mary could not really
be regarded as theotokos (mother of
God), that Christ was the Son of God,
the eternal Logos, in name only, stirred
up a great deal of strife in the fifth
century. The views of Nestorius were
condemned by the Council of Ephesus,
in 431, but his followers, known later
as Nostorians, refused to accept the dec-
laration of the council and set up an
organization of their own. Breaking
with the Monophysites (q.v.) , on the
one hand, and with the Catholic churches
of West Syria, on the other, they became
a mighty church party, which was called
after Nestorius and extended its mis-
sionary influence far into China. — - The
doctrine wh i ch Nestorius developed and
to which he clung tenaciously, although
permitting himself an occasional lapse
in the direction of a compromise with
the orthodox party, stood out with pecu-
liar force in the Christological contro-
versies of the fifth century. He taught
that the incarnation did not consist in
this, that the Son of God assumed true
human nature in the womb of the Virgin
Mary, but that through the mediation
of the Holy Ghost Mary had given birth
to a man who was in a peculiar and
extraordinary sense an organ for the
divinity, in which man the Logos had
taken up His abode as in a temple. The
union of the natures, therefore, was only
moral. Nestorius conceded that Mary
might be called a Christotokos, mother
of Christ, but not a theotokos, mother
of God. — The first extension of Nestori-
anisrn was from the eastern boundary of
the Roman Empire into Persia. The
movement was aided by the expulsion
of the Nestorian teachers from the school
at Edessa and by their settlement in
Nisibis. From this school, as a center,
the leaven spread throughout the Chris-
tian communities of the country. For
some time afterwards the believers re-
mained in outward connection with the
Western churches; but the break with
the Occidental Church came at the very
end of the fifth century. This was done
by Bebaeus II, and his successors fol-
lowed his course also in this respect;
for they placed Nestorians in all epis-
copal vacancies and eagerly sought to
extend their domain in all directions.
It was not long before Nestorianism was
carried throughout Arabia and then
toward the East; and there can be no
doubt that not only China had many
Nestorius
537
New Apostolic Oh ureii
Christians of this type, but that India
likewise was visited by the Nestorian
missionaries. In spite of the persecu-
tions of Turks and other enemies the
Nestorians have managed to survive,
their present number in Kurdistan and
Persia being about 150,000, in Chaldea
100,000, and in India 120,000.
Nestor ius. After 428 patriarch of
Constantinople; objected to the term
“mother of God” as applied to Mary and
became a heretic in the doctrine of
Christ.
Nestle, Christopher Eberhard;
b. 1851; d. 1913; since 1898 professor
at the Evangelical seminary at Maul-
bronn, Wurttemberg; belongs to the me-
diating school of theology; edited the
Greek New Testament and wrote an In-
troduction to the Greek New Testament.
Netherlands’ Foreign Missions.
Only very little missionary work was
done by the Dutch in the 17th century
among the natives of their extensive
colonial possessions. Now and then a
chaplain interested himself in the spir-
itual condition of the natives, but this
cannot be said of most of them. As a
rule, the trading companies exploited
the people and opposed missions. In
1722 a colonial missionary seminary was
organized at Leyden, but flourished only
a short time. Not until the end of the
18tli century was a missionary society
organized. The oldest is “The Nether-
lands Missionary Society” Nederlandseh
Zendelinggenootschap) , 1797. The first
missionaries were sent to Ceylon, at that
time a Dutch possession. Later, work
was taken up in Java and the other
Dutch dependencies. In 1826 Karl
Friedrich Guetzlaff (b. July 8, 1803;
d. Hongkong, August 9, 1851) was sent
to Batavia. For additional missionary
societies see World Missionary Atlas
1925.
Neuendettelsau Missionary Society
(Gesellschaft fuer Innere und Aeusscre
Mission im Sinne der lutherischen
Kirohe), founded 1849 in Neuendettelsau,
Bavaria, by Pastor J. K. W. Loehe (q.v),
with special reference to work among
German immigrants in America and the
American Indians. Later, work was
begun in connection with the Lutheran
Immanuel Synod in Australia among
the natives in that country and in New
Guinea, 1886. “The former work of the
Mission in Australasia was transferred
to the United Evangelical Lutheran
Church of Australia by the Australian
government in 1921, with the under-
standing that the Evangelical Lutheran
Synod of Iowa and Other States would
assist in the work. The German mis-
sionaries in New Guinea remained at
their stations after the Society’s admin-
istrative relationship ceased in 1914 and
are continuing to work under the new
administration.”
Neukomm, Sigismund, 1778 — 1858;
studied under Weissauer and M. Haydn;
organist at fifteen; made many tours
in Sweden, France, Brazil, Russia, Eng-
land; wrote much sacred music, in-
cluding five German and two English
oratorios.
Neumann, Kaspar, 1648 — 1715;
studied at Jena; chaplain of Prince
Christian of Gotha; later held positions
as pastor at Altenburg and Breslau;
celebrated preacher; wrote: “Jesu, der
du Tor’ und. Riegel”; “Gott, du hast in
deinem Sohn.”
Neumark, Georg, 1621 — 81 ; edu-
cated first at Sehleusingen and at Gotha,
after some vicissitudes, which taught
him the trust expressed in his best
hymn, at Koenigsberg; studied law, also
poetry under Daeh; lived at Warsaw,
Thorn, Danzig; finally court poet, libra-
rian, and registrar of the administration
at Weimar; secular poems forgotten,
but his hymn “Wer nur den lieben Gott
laesst walten” still very popular.
Neumeister, Erdmann, 1671 — 1756;
studied at Leipzig; pastor at Bibra;
court preacher at Weissenfels; later
senior court preacher, konsistorialrat,
and superintendent at Sorau; finally
pastor at Hamburg; earnest and elo-
quent preacher; staunch upholder of
sound Lutheranism against Pietism and
unionism ; prolific hymnist ; wrote :
“Jesus nimmt die Suender an”; “I eh
weiss, an wen ich glaeube.”
Neve, J. L. (General Synod) ; Lu-
theran; b. 1865; educated at Breklum
and Kiel; ordained 1883; professor in
Chicago Seminary, 1887 — 92; Atchison
Seminary, 1898 — -1909; since then at
Springfield, 0.; author of Doctrinal
Basis of General Synod; Free Church
Compared with State Church; Brief
History of the Lutheran Church in
America, etc.
Nevin, John Williamson, 1803 — 86;
Reformed; b. near Strasburg, Pa.; pro-
fessor at Allegheny, Mercersburg, Lan-
caster; part founder of Mercersburg
theology; d. at Lancaster, Pa.; editor
of Mercersburg Review; author.
New Apostolic Church. (See Cath-
olic Apostolic Church.) An organiza-
tion of essentially the same type, with
the same doctrine, as the Catholic
Apostolic Church. The New Apostolic
New Britain Archipelago
538
New England Theology
Church holds that there may be any
number of apostles (that is, more than
twelve), that there should always be an
apostleship among men, and, to this end,
that the living apostles may and should
select bearers of the title according to
their needs. The New Apostolic Church
commenced with a priest named Preuss,
who was elected “through the spirit of
prophecy” in 1862. Afterwards a Ger-
man bishop, named Schwarz, was selected
as apostle. The first church in the
United States was organized in 1897.
New Britain Archipelago. See
Melanesia and Bismarck Archipelago.
New Brunswick. See Canada.
New Caledonia, an island in the
South Pacific Ocean belonging to France
and containing a French penal colony.
Dependencies : Isle of Pines, Wallis Ar-
chipelago, Loyalty Islands, Huon Islands,
and Fortuna and Alofi. Area, 7,650
sq. mi. Population, estimated, 50,000,
Melanesians, Polynesians, and of convict
origin. Roman Catholic missions are
conducted by the French Marists. Re-
cently French Protestants have founded
a station. The Loyalty Islands have
been successfully taken hold of and
Christianized by the L. M. S in spite of
Roman Catholic counter-efforts.
New England Theology. The orig-
inal theology of New England was the
strict Calvinism of the Reformed stand-
ards. The Westminster Confession had
been formally adopted in 1648 by a synod
convened at Cambridge, and it remained
the standard of faith for all the New
England churches until 1680, when the
“leaders and messengers” of the churches
in the Massachusetts Colony substituted
the confession drawn up by the Congre-
gationalists of the mother country known
as the Savoy Declaration. The same
change was made by the Connecticut
churches in 1708. Although the Calvin-
ism set forth in the Savoy Declaration
was as strict as that of the Westminster
Confession, not long after this men ap-
peared in the ranks of the New England
ministry who were no longer satisfied
with the Calvinistic system of theology.
Various influences accelerated this change
of religious opinions, such as the rise of
English Unitarianism, the introduction
of Universalism, the planting of Method-
ism by the visits of Charles Wesley and
George Whitefield, the defection from
orthodoxy of Harvard College, the end
of the compulsory support of religion by
taxes, the rise of the transcendental
school of philosophy, the extension of the
Baptist, Methodist Episcopal, and Prot-
estant Episcopal churches over the New
England States, etc. All these factors
united in tending to modify the tradi-
tional Calvinistic system of doctrine, so
as to make it more rational, more accept-
able to the believer, and more easily
defensible against the assailant. Ever
since the day of Jonathan Edwards this
process had been going on. New doc-
trines were suggested and popularized by
free pulpits, and new generations grew
up under the influence of the improved
indoctrination. In their earliest develop-
ment the more generally received of these
new views were styled “New Light Di-
vinity,” then “New Divinity,” afterwards
“Edwardian,” and sometimes “Hop-
kinsian.” The new system of doctrine
was also called the “Berkshire Divinity,”
from the fact that Edwards, Hopkins,
West, and others interested in the new
movement resided in Berkshire County,
Mass. In England it was known as the
American theology, and in this country
it has frequently been called the “New
England Theology” in order to differen-
tiate it from systems that have prevailed
in other parts of the land. However,
this term is altogether too vague and
unsatisfactory. The most prominent of
the advocates of New England Theology
were the two Edwardses, Bellamy, Em-
mons, Trumbull, the elder Robinson,
Strong, Dwight, West, Catlin, Appleton,
Austin, etc. The New England Theology
rapidly spread in the orthodox Congre-
gational churches in New England and
the Western States and was favored by
many in other Calvinistic bodies. It was
taught in the theological seminaries of
Andover, New Haven, Bangor, Chicago,
and disseminated through various organs,
such as the Bibliotheca Sacra, the New
Englander, etc. The specific principles
of New England led the adherents of
New England Theology to deviate from
the old Calvinistic system on the fol-
lowing theological, anthropological, and
soteriological points: 1) With regard to
predestination the advocates of New En-
gland Theology taught that God’s decrees
secure the certainty of men’s choices, but
do not secure their necessity. At the
same time the agent is able in any case
to choose otherwise than he actually does
and ought to make a holy choice, even
where God foresees that the choice will
be sinful. 2) As regards original sin,
the advocates of the New Theology repu-
diated the old Calvinistic doctrine re-
specting the imputation of Adam’s guilt
to his posterity, both in its mediate and
immediate forms, maintaining in its
place that in consequence of Adam’s
transgression all men are so made and
placed that they will informally, cer-
Newfoundland
539
Newman, John Henry
tainly, but freely, choose wrong rather
than right. This constitution, however,
is not sin, but merely the sure occasion
of it. 3) As to the nature of the atone-
ment, the Edwardians taught that the
sufferings of Christ were a satisfaction,
not to the retributive, but only to the
general justice of God, since Christ suf-
fered not the exact penalty of the Law,
but pains substituted for that penalty
and answering its purpose in the secure-
ment of the ends of the moral govern-
ment. The atonement was designed not
only for the elect, but was made for all
men. 4) Justification does not consist
in any real transfer of the righteous-
ness of Christ to the believer, but in
pardoning his sin for Christ’s sake and
in treating him as if innocent or holy.
5) Regeneration. Objecting to the old
Calvinistic description of regeneration,
the New England theologian defined it
as a spiritual illumination or a restora-
tion of that life union with God which
was lost by sin. According to some, the
soul in this change was regarded as
wholly active, by others as wholly pas-
sive, and by still others as both active
and passive. C ) Perseverance. The elect
can fall after regeneration, even totally
and finally, but never will, whereas ac-
cording to old Calvinism the final end of
God in creation and providence was the
manifestation of His justice and mercy.
According to New England Theology,
that end consisted in the production of
the largest amount of happiness, to
which holiness was simply a means.
Newfoundland. A British colony
in North America, comprising the island
known by this name and its dependency,
Labrador. Area, 42,734 sq. mi. Popula-
tion, 242,000, chiefly of English, Scotch,
and Irish extraction and almost equally
divided between Roman Catholics, Epis-
copalians, and Methodists. There is
practically no native aboriginal repre-
sentation.
New Guinea (British). See Papua,.
N ew Guinea ( German ) was the name
given to all those territories held by
Germany in the Western Pacific which
were governed from Rabaul, the capital
of these possessions. It included : Kaiser
Wilhelm’s Land, Bismarck Archipelago,
the German Solomon Islands, Nauru, the
Caroline Islands, the Marshall Islands,
and the Marianne, or Ladrone, Islands
(excepting Guam). Since the World
War the Marshall, Caroline, Pelew, and
Ladrone (Marianne) Islands are to be
administered as a mandatory by Japan;
the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon
Islands, and German New Guinea are
assigned to Australia. German Samoa
is assigned to New Zealand (q.v.).
New Hebrides. An island group in
the South Pacific under a commission of
French and British officials. Area, 5,500
sq. mi. Population, 70,000. The natives
belong to the Papuan race and are orig-
inally animists, head-hunters, and can-
nibals. Missions have been eminently
difficult and successful. In 1839 John
Williams of the L. M. S. came to Erro-
manga and was at once killed. In less
than twenty years fifty missionaries,
white and colored, lost their lives. The
Presbyterians of Scotland and Canada
later entered the work. In 1848 J. Ged-
die came to Aneiteum, and in ten years
the whole island was Christianized. In
1858 the United Presbyterians sent J. G.
Paton (d. 1907), who won the whole
island of Aniwa. In 1871 Bishop Patte-
son, of the S. P. G., was killed on Na-
kapu Island. The three northern islands
of the group now have more than 2,000
Christians. Erromanga, Efate, Fotuna,
and Tongoa are reported entirely Chris-
tianized. Others are fast becoming evan-
gelized. Only in a few the inhabitants
are still pagan. The Roman Catholic
Church also conducts missions on these
islands.
New Jersey Synod, organized Febru-
ary 19, 1861, at German Valley, N. J., by
6 pastors and 4 laymen, who had re-
ceived their dismissal in 1859 from the
New York Ministerium. It consisted
chiefly of the churches in the Raritan
Valley, which had been founded more
than a century before by Justus Falck-
U#r and had been fostered by Muhlen-
berg. In 1872 this body merged with the
Synod of New York (founded 1867).
New Jerusalem, Church of the.
See Swedenborgians.
Newman, John Henry, 1801 — 90;
cardinal; b. in London; Episcopalian in
his early years; Fellow in Oriel Col-
lege, Oxford, with Pusey as brother-Fel-
low ; vicar of St. Mary’s, the university
church, 1828; fascinated by Catholicism
on visit to Southern Europe 1832 — 3;
wrote 23 of the Tracts for the Times,
applying his views to doctrinal and prac-
tical conditions; was ordered to discon-
tinue the series on publishing No. 90
(claiming right to hold Roman doctrine
in Anglican Church) 1841; retired to
Littlemore; embraced Catholicism in
1845; priest of Rome in 1846; rector
of Catholic university in Dublin; an-
swered Kingsley’s charge of insincerity
with his Apologia pro Vita Sua in 1864;
Cardinal in 1879; d. in Birmingham.
Numerous works, including poetry.
New Thought
540
New York, Minister! tim of
New Thought. A system of psycho-
logical philosophy which has, to some
extent, encroached on the field of re-
ligion. As a movement it has not pro-
gressed beyond the nebulous stage, al-
though some of its exponents insist that
it furnishes a complete and thorough-
going philosophy of life. “The philo-
sophic bent of New Thought exponents
varies all the way from naturalism to
mysticism and the religious temper all
the way from fervent Christianity to
avowed pantheism or implicit atheism.
The classification clearly does not fix
a man’s philosophy. And it is doubtful
whether New Thought as such can be
said to carry any religious implications.
It is a philosophy of life rather than
a religion, but a philosophy which re-
flects, in some of its many phases, almost
all the newer movements in philosophy,
science, psychology, theology, psychical
research, and the like.” (Youtz.) — Very
much depends upon the individual ex-
ponent of New Thought with whom one
is dealing, as this summary indicates.
In some instances the articles in the
magazine The Nautilus, which is devoted
to the movement, are not quite so ob-
jectionable. At other times the vagaries
of Eddyism (see Christian Science),
with which New Thought has some affin-
ity, appear with a startling unpleasant-
ness. On the whole, the movement can
certainly not be classed with the ad-
visable philosophies, for it savors too
much of the unhealthy condition deplored
by St. Paul in his Pastoral Letters. New
Thought insists that the mind has abso-
lute power over, and should have absolute
control of, bodily conditions. It affirms
that life as a whole and in all its proc-
esses can be controlled from the stand-
point of mind, for Mind is the world’s
master. Some writers on New Thought
have employed the terminology of Mod-
ernism and Liberalism ( qq. v.) in order
to explain their tenets. Thus the idea of
the “immanence of God” is brought into
connection with the life of God as one is
supposed to attain it by introspection
and contemplation, always with the
proper background of optimism. New
Thought also stresses the healing of dis-
eases on much the same lines as that
practised by Christian Science (q.v.).
It is Coueism of a kind, but it has strong
elements of danger. Autosuggestion is
employed by some New Thought writers
and lecturers in much the same way as
in Eddyism. The following criticism
may be generally applied to the move-
ment: “New Thought is not interesting.
Its literature nauseates with its ceaseless
repetition of banal commonplaces and
sweetish optimisms. The commercial ap-
peal is blatant, shameless. . . . Its blas-
phemies are blood-curdling. But its dul-
ness and its pointless chattering are,
after all, its outstanding feature. Yet
even in this there is a deep Satanism.
As in the case of Scienee and Health, the
reader who forces himself to the task
and pores over the pages of New Thought
literature soon falls into a condition of
mental dizziness, the reasoning faculties
are benumbed, and suggestion dominates
the intellect. New Thought will pass
away; but while it lasts, it looms a ma-
leficent upas-tree, with flowers of evil
and its leaves glistening with sensuous-
ness,” (Theol. Monthly, March, 1921.)
Newton, Sir Isaac, 1642 — 1727;
mathematician, natural philosopher;
professor at Cambridge; most famous
of his scientific works the Principia,
1687 ; published also some theological
works, which do not justify the charge
that he entertained Arian views.
Newton, John, 1725 — 1807; after
death of pious mother godless sailor, infi-
delity strengthened by reading of Shaftes-
bury; later in intercourse with White-
field, Wesley, and others ; curate at Olney,
where he published Olney’s Poems; later
rector of St. Mary Woolnoth, London;
noted for warm heart, candor, tolerance,
and piety; wrote, among others: “Glo-
rious Things of Thee are Spoken” ; “How
Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds.”
New York and New England Synod.
See United Lutheran Church.
New York and New Jersey, Synod
of, formed 1872 by a merger of the En-
glish Synod of New York (founded 1867)
and the New Jersey Synod (organized
1861). At the time of the merger it
numbered 32 pastors, 33 congregations,
and 5,249 communicants. Dr. H. N.
Polilman was its first president. It be-
longed to the General Synod. In 1908
it merged with the Hartwick and the
Franckean Synod in the New York
Synod (II).
New York, German Synod of
("Steimle Synod”), founded March, 1866,
by F. W. T. Steimle and a few others, for
whom the New York Ministerium was
not “German” enough and who were not
satisfied with the “Ministerium’s attitude
to the Confessions of the Lutheran
Church.” After the New York Ministe-
rium had taken its stand with the Gen-
eral Council, the members of the “Steimle
Synod,” with the exception of Steimle,
reunited with the New York Ministerium
(1872).
New York, Ministerium of. See
United Lutheran Church,
New York, Synod of
541
Nicea, Council of
New York, Synod of (1908). See
United Lutheran Ohureh.
New York, Synod of (I), organized
October 22, 1867, by 17 pastors and
10 congregations, who under the leader-
ship of Dr. H. N. Pohlman, the president
of the New York Ministerium, seceded
from that body because of its break with
the General Synod in 1866. In 1872 it
was merged with the Synod of New
Jersey.
New York, English Synod of (1868).
See Synods, Extinct.
New Zealand, Church in. New Zea-
land has no established Church, although
the Anglican Church is the most prominent,
with a membership of about 400,000. The
Presbyterian Church, enforced by a large
immigration from Scotland, numbers
about 300,000 members. The Methodists,
mainly Wesleyans, number about 90,000
and the Congregationalists about 10,000,
the Lutherans and Baptists about 5,000
each. Besides these denominations there
are twelve or fifteen minor sects, such as
the Plymouth Brethren, with about 8,000
members, and the Church of Christ, or
Christian Disciples, with about 7,000
members. The Boman Catholic Church
numbers about 150,000 members. Of non-
Christians there are Jews, Buddhists,
and Confueianists, about 3,000. The Ma-
oris are mostly reckoned among the
Christian population.
New Zealand, Mission in. An au-
tonomous island colony of the British
Empire in the South Pacific Ocean, 1,200
miles east of Australia. Area, 103,568
sq. mi. Population in 1921, 1,218,913.
The native Maoris, all of whom are now
civilized, numbered 52,781. Induced by
Samuel Marsden, the C. S. M. began
operations in 1809. On Christmas Day
1814 the first religious service was held.
The Wesleyan Society followed in 1822.
The Presbyterians began work in 1844.
The Roman Catholic Church came in
1836. Missions among Asiatics and ab-
origines are conducted by the Presbyte-
rian Church of New Zealand, Church
of England, Methodists, New Zealand
Church Missionary Society, Presbyte-
rians, Salvation Army. Statistics: For-
eign staff, 70; Christian community,
20,900; communicants, 3,717.
New Zealand, Lutherans in. The
first German settlers came to Nelson in
June, 1843. Four missionaries of the
North German Mission Society were in
their company. Others came in Septem-
ber, 1844. Because of difficulties with
the Maoris about half of the emigrants
went to Australia. The others founded
the first Lutheran church of New Zealand
in Nelson City. Missionary J. W. C.
Heine became their pastor. They wor-
shiped in a house presented to them by
an Englishman, Mr. Sukelt, in 1848,
until they were able to dedicate their
church in 1876. Other settlements were
begun at Waimea (1849) and Upper
Moutere, the main colony (1850), both
being served by Pastor Heine until 1865,
when Pastor Christian Meyer began work
at Waimea. In the same year a church
costing £300 was dedicated at Upper
Moutere. In 1882 Pastor Heine resigned,
and Missionary Wm. Kowert became his
successor. A little later Pastor Meyer
went to North Island to serve some Ger-
mans in the province of Taranaki. After
Pastor Kowert had left New Zealand,
Pastor J. Thiel was sent there by the Lu-
therische Qotteskasten. Lutheran churches
were established at Norsewood (German
and Swedish), Halcombe, Waitotara,
Midhurst, Marton, Rongotea, and Wel-
lington. Through two missionaries of
the Hermannsburg Free Church, Pastors
G. Blaess and J. Klitscher, the Missouri
Synod was asked to interest itself in New
Zealand. Dr. A. L. Graebner, in 1902,
paid them a visit, as a result of which
Pastor Martin Winkler, a graduate of
St. Louis, was sent there in 1903. He
was followed, in 1904, by Pastor A. H.
Teyler and, in 1905, by Pastor F. Has-
sold. Through their efforts a native
Maori, Hamuera Te Punga, was sent to
the Springfield Seminary of the Missouri
Synod, and he entered upon the work
among his kinsmen. Since 1914 the New
Zealand Lutherans, formerly affiliated
with the Missouri Synod, have been a
part of the Ev. Luth. Synod in Australia.
In 1924 the New Zealand District of that
Synod numbered 4 pastors, who preached
at 29 places, and 491 communicants.
Nicea, Council of. The main facts
concerning this first general council of
the Church are given under Arianism.
We here add some supplementary matter.
The exact number of bishops assembled
seems uncertain. The usual opinion that
there were 318 rests on the authority of
Athanasius ; but Eusebius gives only 250.
About one-sixth of the entire number of
bishops of the empire wap present. The
Latin Church was represented by only
seven delegates. It is especially note-
worthy that the bishop of Rome (who
was not present in person) exercised no
influence in the deliberations of the
council. The sessions began about the
middle of June (325) and continued for
over one month. The opening address
was delivered by Constantine, who ad-
vised the delegates to put away all strife
and discord. Thereupon he yielded to
Nicaragua
542
Nicoll, William Robertson
the ecclesiastical presidents (who they
were is doubtful) of the assembly, and
the discussions began. On the importance
of the council it is needless to dwell. It
is “the most important event of the
fourth century.” “It forms an epoch in
the history of doctrine, summing up the
results of all previous discussions on the
deity of Christ and the incarnation.” On
the other hand, it established a bad prec-
edent in inflicting civil punishment on
Arius and his followers and thus ini-
tiated the long train of evils resulting
from the union of Church and State.
Nicaragua. See Central America.
Nicene Creed. The creed takes its
name from the first Ecumenical Council
convened at Nicea (325) for the settle-
ment of the Arian controversy. Three
forms of the confession are to be dis-
tinguished: the original Nicene Creed of
325, the enlarged Constantinopolitan of
381, and the later Latin version. The
creed of 325 grew out of the immediate
necessity of safeguarding the apostolic
teaching concerning the deity of Christ
against the Arian heresy. Regarding the
third person of the Trinity it merely
adds in conclusion: “and [seif., we be-
lieve] in the Holy Ghost.” The Constan-
tinopolitan Creed, adopted in 381, differs
from the original Nicene chiefly in the
extension of the Third Article, which
asserts the true divinity of the Holy
Spirit against the Pneumatomachians.
The additional clauses, however, already
existed in 374, in the Ancoratus of Epi-
phanius, and are therefore not original
with “the 150 fathers” convened in 381.
The Latin form of the confession, apart
from minor changes, differs from the
Constantinopolitan by the addition of the
Filioque; that is to say, the Western
Church taught the double procession of
the Spirit from the Father and the Son,
while the East maintained a single pro-
cession from the Father alone. The
Filioque first occurs in the acts of the
third council of Toledo (589) and sig-
nalizes the triumph of orthodoxy over
the Arianism of the West Goths.
Nicholas, St. One of the most popu-
lar saints in East and West; bishop of
Myra, Lycia, in the fourth century. He
is the patron saint of Greece and Russia,
of sailors, bakers, travelers, children, —
in general, of the common people, the
poor and weak. On his festival (Decem-
ber 6), he brings secret gifts to German,
Dutch, and Swiss children. In the
United States he is identified with Santa
Claus.
Nicholas of Clemanges (Nicholas
Poillevillain Clamanges), French theo-
logical author and ecclesiastical states-
man; b. ca. 1367, d. 1437 at Paris;
studied at Paris under Gerson ( q. v.) ;
was active in the movement for healing
the Great Schism (q. v.) ; was papal sec-
retary, later canon at Langres; retired
to Cistercian cloister to pursue Biblical
studies; wrote treatises on the errors
and corruptions of the Church of his
time; a precursor of the “humanistic
reformation.”
Nicholas of Cusa (Nikolaus Cryftz,
or Krebs), prominent German scholar
and churchman; b. 1401, d. 1464;
studied law and the humanities ; was
papal legate, cardinal, then archbishop
of Brixen; imprisoned by Archduke Sig-
mund of the Tyrol in 1460 and did not
return to Germany; opposed to scho-
lastic theology; wrote De Docta Igno-
rantia (Of Learned Ignorance) and sim-
ilar books ; belonged to those who tried
to reform the Church in the fifteenth
century.
Nicholites, sect founded by Joseph
Nichols in latter half of 18th century in
Maryland, with religious beliefs much
like those of Quakers, with whom they
united after about twenty years of in-
dependent existence.
Nicolai, Christoph Friedrich, Ger-
man rationalistic author and bookseller;
b. 1733 at Berlin; d. 1811 ibid.; edited,
for many' years, the Allgemeine deutsche
Bibliothck, which became the organ of
the crassest rationalism.
Nicolai, Philip, 1556—1608; studied
at Erfurt and Wittenberg; assisted his
father at Mengeringhausen; preacher at
Herdecke; driven away by Catholics;
diaconus, then pastor, at Niederwildun-
gen; chief pastor and court preacher at
Altwildungen ; active in Sacramentarian
controversy; instrumental in having
Formula of Concord accepted in Wal-
deck; pastor at Unna, Westphalia,
whence he had to flee before invasion of
Spanish; pastor at Hamburg in 1001;
universally esteemed as popular and in-
fluential preacher; prominent hymnist;
wrote : “Wie schoen leuchtet der Mor-
genstern” ; “Wachet auf ! ruft uns die
Stimme.”
Nicum, J., Lutheran historian, statis-
tician; b. in Wurttemberg 1851; grad-
uated from Philadelphia Seminary; pas-
tor at Rochester, N. Y., and professor at
Wagner College; wrote: Geschichte des
New York-Ministeriums.
Nicoll, William Robertson, 1851 to
1925; Scottish divine; b. at Lumsden,
Aberdeenshire; Free Church minister at
Dufftown, Kelso; author; editor; orig-
Niedlini?, Joliann
543
Nominalism
i nated and edited The Expositor’s Greek
Testament, 1897 — 1900; knighted 1909.
Niedling, Johann, 1602 — 68; b. at
Sangerhausen ; since 1626 teacher at the
gymnasium at Altenburg, holding the po-
sition of Senior at the time of his death ;
wrote: “Also hat Gott von Ewigkeit.”
Niemann, J. H.; b. 1848 at Melle,
Hanover; graduated from Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis, 1869; pastor at
Little Rock, Wyneken’s successor in
Cleveland, and president of the Central
District of the Missouri Synod 1880 to
1909; d. March 15, 1910.
Nietzsche, Friedrich, German philos-
opher; b. 1844 at Riicken, Province of
Saxony; professor of classical philology’
at Basel, 1869 — 79; pronounced incur-
ably insane, 1889; d. 1900 at Weimar.
At first follower of Wagner and Schopen-
hauer; then, rejecting both, he developed
an individualistic, antidemocratic, and
bitterly antichristian, atheistic philos-
ophy. Its fundamental idea is the “will
to power” (Wille sur Maeht), which un-
derlies the “master morality” (Herren-
moral), by which certain highly endowed
individuals rise above the common herd
by ruthlessly developing their inherent
power at the expense of the mass. It is
opposed to the “herd or slave morality”
(Sklavenmorql), represented by Chris-
tianity, which makes a virtue of piety
and humility and tends to weakness.
Christianity is a stain on the history of
mankind, while the master morality pro-
duces the highest type of humanity, the
“superman” (Uebermensch). Thus, by
a process of self-apotheosis, Nietzsche
found a substitute for God. Wrote:
Also sprach Zarathustra, 1883 — 85; Jen-
seits vort Gut und Boese, 1886; Zur
Gcnealogie der Moral, 1887.
Nightingale, Florence; b. at Flor-
ence, Italy, May 15, 1820; d. at London
August 13, 1910; Philanthropist. De-
voted her life to the care of the suffering
and did pioneer work in the care of the
wounded on the field of battle. She was
trained at the Deaconess Institution at
Kaiserswertli and later studied the nurs-
ing system of the Sisters of St. Vincent
de Paul at Paris. With the £50,000
which had been raised by popular sub-
scription and given to her in recognition
of her services in the Crimea, she estab-
lished a Nightingale Home for the train-
ing of nurses at St. Thomas’s and King’s
College Hospitals. Among others, she
wrote and published the following works :
Notes on Matters Affecting the Health,
Efficiency, and Hospital Administration
of the British Army (1859), Notes on
Nursing ( 1860 and 1900) . Life or Death
in India (1874).
Nihil Obstat. See Index of Pro-
hibited Books.
Nihilism. In philosophy, the doc-
trine that nothing exists and that knowl-
edge, therefore, is impossible. In politics,
the revolutionism of the Russian Nihil-
ists, who, impelled by the despotic abso-
lutism of the government, aimed to
destroy social and. political institutions.
At first the movement, fostered by Ger-
man materialism, manifested itself merely
in revolutionary propaganda, but since
the seventies of the past century terror-
istic methods were employed — assassina-
tion of Alexander II in 1881 and of high
government officials before and since.
Nikon of Russia, Patriarch of Orien-
tal Church; b. 1605, d. 1681 ; was priest,
then monk, later metropolitan and Pa-
triarch of Novgorod; did much to im-
prove the liturgical books and the order
of worship; spent his last years in exile
by the White Sea.
Nirvana (Sanskrit, “blowing out”).
In Buddhism (q.v.) the highest goal of
human endeavor, or salvation, which con-
sists of a sinless, unconscious state (or,
according to some texts, annihilation of
individuality), in which all passions and
desires have been extinguished, and which
constitutes the final release from the
continuous round of rebirths, with its
concomitant sorrow and misery, to which,
according to Indian doctrines of trans-
migration and karma (qq.v.), man is
subject.
Nitzsch, Karl Immanuel; b. 1787;
mediating theologian and defender of the
Union ; greatly influenced by Schleier-
maeher; wrote System der christlichen
Lehre; died as Oberkirchenra-t in Berlin,
1868.
Noesgen, Karl Friedrich; b. 1835;
d. — ; positive Lutheran theologian of
modern type; studied at Halle and Ber-
lin; 1883 professor of New Testament
Exegesis at Rostock; wrote on the sy-
noptic gospels in commentary of Strack
and Zoeckler; Commentary on Acts and
other works.
Nominalism, as opposed to Realism
and Idealism, teaches that only indi-
vidual objects have real existence, that
so-called universals, general or abstract
ideas, are but names, nomina. Thus the
general idea “tree” does not really exist
in itself, but only many individual trees
exist. All trees resemble one another in
some point, which point of resemblance
the mind can consider apart from the
points of difference. However, the idea
N on-Con form i s ( m
544 Northern Buiitist Convention
we obtain by abstraction of all common
points has no independent existence, no
reality; it is merely a name. Roscelinus
(1050) and Abelard (1079) were leading
exponents of Nominalism.
Non-Conformists. A name applied
to the two thousand clergymen who, in
1062, rather than submit to the Act of
Uniformity, left the Church of England.
Later the name was applied in general
to those Protestants who at any period
in history have refused to conform to the
doctrines and practises of the Established
Church.
Norlie, Olaf Morgan; b. 1876; grad-
uate of St. Olaf College (1898), A. M.;
University of Wisconsin (1900), cand.
theol. ; United Norwegian Church Sem-
inary (1907), Ph. D.; University of
Minnesota (1908) ; student at many in-
stitutions ; teacher, pastor, author of
books and articles; professor at Luther
College; statistician of National Lu-
theran Council; editor of Lutheran
World Almanac.
North Carolina, Synod of. See
United Lutheran Church.
Northwest, Synod of the. See
United Lutheran Church.
North Carolina, United Synod of.
See United Lutheran Church.
Northern Baptist Convention. His-
tory. After the withdrawal of the South-
ern Baptist churches (see Baptists) the
Northern churches continued to flourish.
Free from the intense controversies of
the eighteenth and the early part of the
nineteenth century, the churches cen-
tered their efforts in the development
of educational and missionary work.
The independent individualism, which
had proved so harmful to the spread of
the Church, gave way to a closer as-
sociationalism. Various organizations,
tending toward mutual church action,
were adopted into the denominational
life. Among them the Young People’s
Union, which rallied the forces of the
young people, both for church life and
general denominational activity, proved
to be of great value. For the considera-
tion of matters pertaining to the general
welfare of the churches the Baptist Con-
gress was formed, which did much to
solidify the various branches. Also the
various missionary societies, the Amer-
ican Baptist Missionary Union, which
took over the foreign work of the general
convention ; the American Baptist Home
Mission Society, and the American Bap-
tist Publication Society, continued their
work with increased energy. The chief
change, however, in denominational
methods of late years was the organiza-
tion of the Northern Baptist Convention
at Washington, D. C., in 1907, which is
a strictly delegated body from the Bap-
tist churches of the North and West, and
the three great denominational societies,
including the separate societies of women,
which placed themselves under its direc-
tion. A report is made by them to the
convention each year and a budget pre-
pared for the following year on the esti-
mates of the societies, which is appor-
tioned according to States, associations,
and churches. The result has been to
consolidate agencies, eliminate useless
expenditures, prevent overlapping of mis-
sionary work, and, in general, to secure
what was lacking before: unity, econ-
omy, and efficiency. As in other denom-
inations, so also the Baptist churches
have felt the influence of the trend
toward denominational union and fel-
lowship, and questions are discussed with
regard to a closer affiliation with the
Disciples and with the Free Baptists.
Arrangements with the Free Baptists for
securing harmony, if not unity, of ad-
ministration along certain lines of mis-
sionary work have developed until there
is practically a complete union of the
two bodies in their denominational life.
The Convention is a constituent member
of the Federal Council of the Churches
of Christ in America and of the Advisory
Committee on a World Conference on
Questions of Faith and Order, initiated
by the Protestant Episcopal Church.
Following the World War of 1914 to
1918, a huge, thoroughly planned pro-
gram has been outlined for the pur-
pose of stimulating greater interest in
education (students and funds for col-
leges and seminaries), in missions, home
and foreign, and in the work of gaining
converts. The figures run into millions;
however, the stupendous task is being
phenomenally accomplished. Statistics,
1920, of the Northern Convention: 8,566
ministers, 8,409 congregations, 1,253,878
communicants. — Doctrine and Polity.
In doctrine and polity the Northern Bap-
tist churches agree to the general confes-
sions of the Baptist denomination. The
Northern churches, however, are less
rigidly Calvinistic in their doctrine than
the Southern churches, with which they
interchange members and ministers on
terms of perfect equality. However, the
dividing-line between the white and the
Negro churches stressed in the Southern
Convention is not as sharply drawn in
the Northern Convention, white and
Negro associations mingling freely with
each other. In general, the Northern
Convention has less resisted the en-
Northern Baptist Convention 545
Norway
croachments of destructive criticism than
the Southern, and there is a pronounced
tendency to disregard the confessional
standards of the Church. — Work and
Expansion. There are various organiza-
tions through which the home missionary
work is carried on, such as the American
Baptist Publication Society, which is di-
vided into three departments — publish-
ing, missionary, and Bible, the mission-
ary department employing Sunday-school
and chapel-car missionaries and distrib-
uting Bibles and literature through col-
porteurs; the American Baptist Home
Mission Society, which was organized in
1832 and employs general missionaries
and pastors among people both of English
and foreign tongues in the United States,
Mexico, Porto Rico, and Cuba, aids city
missions, builds meeting-houses, main-
tains schools for Negroas and Indians,
and promotes general evangelism; the
Woman’s American Baptist Home Mis-
sion Society, which was organized in
1877 and consolidated in 1909 with the
Women’s Baptist Home Mission Society;
and the Society of Michigan, with head-
quarters in Chicago. Its object is prin-
cipally to employ women missionaries,
mainly among foreigners, Negroes, and
Indians, and to maintain training schools
for workers. The foreign missionary
work is carried on by the American Bap-
tist Foreign Mission Society, organized
in Philadelphia in 1814 as the General
Missionary Convention of the Baptist
Denomination in the United States of
America for Foreign Missions. This
name was changed in 1846 to American
Baptist Missionary Union and in 1910 to
American Baptist Foreign Mission So-
ciety. This society, cooperating with the
Woman’s American Baptist Foreign Mis-
sion Society, occupies mission-fields in
India, China, Japan, Africa, and the
Philippine Islands and carries on work
in Sweden, Germany, France, Belgium,
Spain, Finland, Denmark, Norway, and
Russia. The educational work, under
the care of the Board of Education of
the Northern Baptist Convention, was
represented in 1916 by 61 colleges, acad-
emies, etc., with 22,417 pupils, including
8 theological seminaries, with 102 teach-
ers and 997 students. There were also
13 higher schools and 11 of secondary
grade, maintained for Negroes in the
Southern States, under the care of the
American Baptist Home Mission Society.
Besides these educational institutions
the report for 1916 shows 34 philan-
thropic institutions, including 6 hospi-
tals, 8 orphanages, and 20 homes for the
aged. — Tlje principal publication organ-
ization of the Northern Baptist Conven-
Concordla Cyclopedia
tion is the American Baptist Publication
Society, with headquarters in Philadel-
phia. It has branches and agencies in
the principal cities of the United States,
as well as in Toronto, Canada, and Lon-
don, England. The German Baptist Pub-
lication Society, with headquarters at
Cleveland, 0., publishes 6 papers and
periodicals and reports annual receipts
amounting to $116,895. The Swedish
Baptists of the North maintain their
own publication society, with headquar-
ters at Chicago, and to some extent pub-
lication work is done by Hungarian,
Roumanian, Polish, Italian, and Slovak
Baptist organizations. Among the other
organizations identified with the North-
ern Baptist churches are: The Baptist
Young People’s Union of America, a fra-
ternal organization for all Baptist young
people’s societies, with 7,936 Baptist
Young People’s Unions, having 281,550
members, and 1,315 Christian Endeavor
Societies, with 52,982 members; the
American Baptist Historical Society, or-
ganized in 1853, with headquarters at
Philadelphia; the Backus Historical So-
ciety, organized in the same year, with
headquarters at Boston; the American
Baptist Education Society, organized in
1888, having for its object the assistance
of Baptist educational institutions; the
General Baptist Convention, organized
in 1905, which meets every three years
for the discussion of general denomina-
tional, moral, and religious questions.
Northern Rhodesia. See Africa,
South.
North German Missionary Society
(Norddeutsche Missionsgesellsohaft ) , or-
ganized in 1836 by a merger of seven
smaller missionary organizations in
North Germany. A missionary institute
was founded in 1837 at Hamburg. The
society is unionistic in policy. Stricter
Lutheran elements withdrew in the
course of time, forming their own or-
ganizations. Missions were begun in
New Zealand, 1842; India, 1843 (later
handed over to American Lutherans) ;
Gold Coast, Africa. The work of this
society suffered greatly during the World
War. At this writing part of the Gold
Coast mandated to France is not oc-
cupied.
Norway heard of Christianity through
the Vikings, who made piratical raids on
England, Scotland, Ireland, and France.
King Ivar “fell asleep in Jesus”; an-
other was baptized with his family.
King Haakon the Good (d, 961) failed
to get his people to embrace Christianity.
King Olav Trygvesson was baptized in
England, and the English bishop Sigurd
35
Norwegian Clmrch Mission
546
Norwegian Synod
became the Apostle of Norway, ca. 1000.
King Olav Trvgvasson was baptized in
Normandy, and he took the Englishman
Grimkjell as his missionary bishop and
organized the Church along English lines.
Both kings helped the preachers of the
Gospel with the force of the royal sword.
The introduction of the Reformation
came in 1536, when Norway became a
province of Denmark, and it came by
force. The priests, however, remained
until properly trained Lutheran preachers
could be substituted. Master Torbjoern
Olafssoen Bratt in Drontheim had studied
two years at Wittenberg and had lived
in Luther’s house and later became
prominent at home. Master Joergen
Erichssoen in Stavanger was the ablest
man of the period, a mighty preacher,
“the Luther of Norway.” Ca. 1600 all
Norway was. outwardly Lutheranized.
From Germany, Pietism and Rationalism
spread into Norway. The “Awakening”
was led by C. P. Caspari into the con-
fessional channel. (See Caspari.) See
also H. N. Hauge. To-day Higher Crit-
icism and Liberalism have caused much
dissension, though the common people
still adhere to the Gospel and the Lu-
theran faith. • - Religious toleration
came in 1845. The Lutheran Church
is the state church. The six bishops and
all other church officers are appointed
by the king; the bishop of Oslo is
the head. The people are active in mis-
sionary work in Africa, in China, and
especially in Madagascar. Population,
2,691,855. Lutherans (1921), 2,596,917,
which includes the “dissenting” Lu-
therans, most of whom, 18,204, belong to
the Free Church, which stands for Lu-
theran confessionalism. Of the rest, the
Methodists have gained 11,445; the Bap-
tists, 7,214; the Roman Catholics, 2,612.
Norwegian Church Mission by
Schreuder (Den Norske Kirkes Mission
ved Schreuder) was founded by Bishop
Hans Schreuder (q. v.) through his
A Few Words to the Church of Norway,
1842. Work was begun among the Zulus
in Natal, Africa. The mission was much
retarded by war between England and
the Zulus. Work was also begun on
Madagascar, which for some time was
under the supervision of Schreuder.
Schreuder remained in connection with
the Norwegian Church Mission until
1873, when he separated. A special com-
mittee was then formed for the Church
of Norway, headed by Bishop Tandberg.
Norwegian ( European ) Foreign Mis-
sions are being conducted by 1 ) the Nor-
wegians among the Finns, since 1888.
The work was originated by Bishop
Skaar, of Tromso; 2) the Norwegian
Mission Society (Norske Missionssel-
skap), Stavanger. The society is a union
of various minor missionary societies
which sprang up in Norway since 1814.
These at first cooperated with the Basel
Mission (q.v.), later with the Rhenish
Mission (q.v.), and ultimately founded
the N. M. S., consisting chiefly of lay
elements, 1843, the state church and
clergy as such holding a rather reserved
position. The mission-school at Stavan-
ger was founded 1843. The missionaries
must be ordained. Present fields : China,
Africa, Madagascar.
Norwegian Lutheran Church of
America. A body formed in June, 1917,
by the union of the United Norwegian
Lutheran Church, the Hauge Synod, and
a large part of the Norwegian Synod,
the movement being largely nationalistic.
The organization resulting from the co-
alition is the third largest Lutheran
body in America.
Norwegian Synod of the American
Ev. Luth. Church. When “The Nor-
wegian Lutheran Church of America”
was organized in June, 1917, a number
of the members of the “Synod for the
Norwegian Ev. Luth. Church in America,”
both clergymen and laymen, refused for
conscience’ sake to enter the merger and
were bound to continue in the old paths.
At a meeting held at St. Paul, Minn.,
June 8 — 11, 1917, a temporary organiza-
tion was effected, a periodical founded,
and a regular meeting of synod called
for the next year. This first regular
meeting was held June 14 — -19, 1918, at
the Lima Creek Church, near Lake Mills,
Iowa. It was a blessed meeting, devoted
primarily to the study of God’s Word.
Those participating resolved “to unite
for the purpose of continuing the old
Norwegian Synod’s work on the old
foundation and according to the old prin-
ciples.” They chose the synod’s present
name, adopted certain paragraphs of the
old constitution, elected a committee to
complete the constitution, and reelected
the temporary officers for one year.
These were: Rev. B. Harstad, president;
Rev. J. A. Moldstad, vice-president; Rev.
C. N. Peterson, secretary; Rev. A. J. Tor-
gerson, treasurer. At the second meet-
ing, held in Our Savior’s Church, Albert
Lea, Minn., -May 29 to June 4, 1919, the
constitution was completed and adopted,
and officers elected for two years. The
incorporation of the synod was effected
June 10, 1920, at the third synodical
meeting, held at Fairview Church, Min-
neapolis, Minn., June 4 — 10, 1920. The
Ev. Luth. Synodical Conference, assem-
Notker, the Stammerer
547
A undo, Papal
bled at Milwaukee, Wis., in August, 1920,
accepted the Norwegian Synod as a mem-
ber. The synod has as yet no college and
seminary and no independent missions.
Its students have been welcomed by the
schools of the Missouri and Wisconsin
synods. A Church Extension Fund was
established in 1919. Home Mission work
lias been carried on as opportunities
offered themselves. The Colored Mis-
sions of the Synodical Conference, the
Indian Missions and the Foreign Mis-
sions of the Missouri Synod are being
supported. The official organ of the
synod is the Evangelisk Luthersk Tidende
and Lutheran Sentinel, weekly, alter-
nately in Norwegian and English. The
synod has a book concern, located at
Minneapolis, Minn. At the close of 1924
it numbered about 7,000 souls, 60 congre-
gations and preaching-places, 29 active
pastors, 1 missionary, 3 professors,
5 pastors emeriti, and 2 pastors studying.
Notker, the Stammerer (Balhulus),
ca. 840 — 912; entered school of famous
Benedictine Abbey of St. Gall at an early
age and spent all his life there; the first
important writer of sequences and one
of the most famous of all times.
Notkerus Vetustior (St. Gall). See
Father, the Stammerer (Balhulus).
Notre Dame (nuns). The name of
several religious congregations of women,
the most important being the School Sis-
ters of Notre Dame and the Sisters of
Notre Dame (of Cleveland, O.), both
engaged in teaching.
Notz, Eugen, b. 1847 ; brother of
Dr. F. W. Notz; educated at Maulbronn
and Concordia Seminary, St. Louis; pas-
tor of Wisconsin Synod at Menomonie;
professor at Milwaukee Seminary (Wau-
watosa), 1878; d. 1903.
Notz, Friedrich W. A. ; b. 1841 in
Wurttemberg; passed Landesexamen and
entered Maulbronn; studied theology,
philosophy, and philology at Tuebingen,
1859 — 04; Ph. D. in 1863 (degree was
formally renewed by faculty of Tuebin-
gen, 1913); came to Georgia as tutor,
1866; professor at Pennsylvania College,
1868; at Muelilenberg College, 1869,
where he translated Dietrich’s Institu-
tiones Gatecheticae (Latin) into German,
a labor most useful to Lutheran America.
Attracted by the decided Lutheranism of
Western synods, he got in touch with
some Wisconsin leaders and came to Mil-
waukee for the Synodical Conference,
1872. Originally chosen to fill profes-
sorship at St. Louis, Walther suggested
he help to build up Northwestern, to
which Wisconsin and Notz agreed.
Professor, at first inspector, 1872 — 1912.
Lived in Milwaukee as emeritus until
his death, 1921.
Nova Scotia. See Canada.
Nova Scotia, Synod of. See United
Lutheran Church.
Novatian, Schism of, resulted from
conflicting principles of church discipline
represented, on the one hand, by Nova-
tion and his party and, on the other, by
the dominant Church. It broke out after
the Decian persecution, when the treat-
ment of the lapsed was a paramount
question. Bishop Cornelius of Rome
(251 — 53) favored a mild discipline,
while Novatian, his defeated rival for
the bishop’s chair, advocated the severest
rigorism. The Novatianists, though ad-
mitting that God might pardon the
lapsed, strenuously denied that the
Church had any right to readmit them
to its communion. They called them-
selves Katharoi (Puritans), contending
that the Church, the visible Church,
should be a communion of saints, and
of saints only. They even rebaptized all
who came to them from the Catholic
Church. Against his will Novatian was
chosen bishop by his partisans. Corne-
lius excommunicated him. In spite of
opposition, especially by Cyprian of Car-
thage, the Novatians spread nearly over
the entire empire. The Council of Nicea
assumed, in the main, a friendly attitude
towards them; but later on they were
treated as heretics. Nevertheless traces
of the sect are found as late as the sixth
century. Novatian was a prolific writer.
Jerome ascribes to him works On the
Passover; On Circumcision; On the
Priest, etc. His most important work
is his treatise On the Trinity, in which
he refutes the Sabellians and Monar-
chians.
Noyello, Vincent, 1781 — 1861; held
several positions as organist and pianist;
founded the great London music-publish-
ing firm of Novello & Co.; composed
some sacred music and published excel-
lent collections.
Novels. See Fiction.
Novena. A nine-day period dedicated,
in the Roman Church, to special prayer
and devotion, either in mourning, in
preparation for a festival, to gain peti-
tions, or to win indulgences.
Novice. A person wearing the habit
and living the life of a religious order or
congregation during the period of proba-
tion", lasting from one to three years.
Novices are still free to leave the order.
Nuncio, Papal. A permanent diplo-
matic representative of the Pope, accred-
Nunc Dlmittls
548
Oaths
ited to a foreign government and having,
besides his diplomatic character, a cer-
tain ecclesiastical jurisdiction, chiefly
appellate. Internuncios have the same
powers, but rank a degree lower. Tenure
of office depends on circumstances and
the papal will.
Nunc Dimittis. See Canticles.
Nuns. In the earliest period of the mo-
nastic movement there were female her-
mits. Monastic communities of women
came into existence in the East during
the third century, and by the end of the
following century they had become estab-
lished in the West. Augustine drew up
a rule for a nunnery, and the sister of
St. Benedict governed one under her
brother’s direction. The rule of enclo-
sure was, at first, not strictly enforced,
but more stringent provisions were made,
until Boniface VIII made strict enclosure
an inviolable law for all professed nuns.
This law automatically precluded nuns
from almost all works of charity, leaving
to them only the education of girls. As
a result, pious associations were formed
which had no solemn vows (see Votes),
but whose members led a common life
and performed various works of charity
(e.ff., the Daughters of Charity). Such
associations, formed for missions, for
teaching, for nursing, etc., have steadily
multiplied. Of nuns properly so called,
who have taken solemn vows and are
strictly enclosed, there are in the United
States only a few convents of Visitan-
dines. All others are under simple vows,
either perpetual (religious congrega-
tions ) or temporary ( pious societies ) .
Nuremberg, Diet of, 1522 — 3. Pope
Adrian VI, through Chieregati, admitted
the corruptions in the Church “from the
head to the members,” promised to re-
form, and asked that the Edict of Worms
be carried out against Luther, “the sec-
ond Mohammed.” The Reichstag asked
the Pope to reform the Church, otherwise
they would do it themselves. Unless the
“Hundred Grievances” were corrected,
Luther could not be fought without great
dangers. It was a nullification of the
Edict of Worms and of the papal bull of
excommunication.
Nuremberg, Diet of, 1524. Pope
Clement VII, through Campegius (Cam-
peggio), declared the “Hundred Griev-
ances” the work of some evil-minded per-
sons, and insisted the Edict of Worms
be executed against Luther. The Estates,
on April 18, said they would do so “as
far as possible.”
Nuremberg Religious Peace, July
23, 1532. Sultan Solyman was marching
against Hungary and Austria, and so
Kaiser Karl had to stop his attack on
the Lutherans and promise them friend-
ship and Christian love till the next
council. Karl sanctioned this at Regens-
burg, hence also Regensburg Religious
Peace.
Nurseries, Day. Institutions in which
mothers who must go out to work during
the day can place their small children,
who cannot be left at home. They take
them to the nursery in the morning and
call for them in the evening. Some
churches have established Sunday nurs-
eries, in which infants are cared for by
the women of the church while the
mothers are at worship.
Nyasaland Protectorate in South-
eastern Africa; formerly British Central
Africa Protectorate. Area, 39,573 sq. mi.
Population, 1,204,000, chiefly African na-
tives. Missions carried on by a number
of societies. Statistics: Foreign staff,
245; Christian community, 107,388;
communicants, 39,185.
o
Oaths. An oath is a declaration or
asseveration in support of the alleged
truthfulness of a statement, usually ac-
companied by an imprecation, the latter
in the nature of a declaration inviting
some form of evil or punishment upon
the one making such asseveration in the
event that he should be deliberately tell-
ing a falsehood. — Oaths are connected
with vows, covenants, wagers, or ordeals
as they have been found among people
of every degree of civilization from very
early times. Among primitive peoples,
oaths were believed to alight on some-
thing or some one, the destruction of the
person being invariably mentioned in
connection with the asseveration. Often
the oath was accompanied with a con-
ditional curse, naming some members of
the body. Thus the Romans swore by
their eyes or by their head. Sometimes,
among the more primitive nations, a per-
son swore on another person as to his
truthfulness’ or innocence, the oaths by
near relatives, such as children or
brothers and sisters, being considered
particularly effective.
In the Old Testament, oaths by false
gods were most strictly prohibited, as
being essentially idolatry. “Thy chil-
dren have forsaken Me and sworn by
them that are no gods,” Jer. 5, 7. “They
Oaths
549
Oherlin, Jean Frederic
that swear by the sin of Samaria [the
"olden calves] and say, ‘Thy god, 0 Dan,
livetli'; and, ‘The manner of Beerslieba
liveth’; even they shall fall and never
rise up again.” Amos 8, 14. But swear-
ing by Jehovah, the true God, was re-
garded very highly. “Thou slialt fear
the Lord, thy God, and serve Him and
shalt swear by His name.” Deut. 6, 13;
ep. 10, 20. “If a man vow a vow unto
the Lord and swear an oath to bind his
soul with a bond, he shall not break his
word; he shall do according to all that
proceedeth out of his mouth.” Num.
30, 2. Therefore Isaiah speaks of the
ideal conditions in this respect in the
words : “He that sweareth in the earth
shall swear by the God of truth.” Is.
05, 10. The usual formula for the oath
was: “As the Lord liveth!” Judg. 8, 19;
Hos. 4, 15; or: “As God liveth!” 2 Sam.
2, 27 ; or : “So do God . . . and more
also!” 2 Sam. 3,9. 35; or: “As thy soul
liveth!” 1 Sam. 1, 26. The phrase: “As
the Lord liveth!” is expressly denoted as
the introduction of a proper oath. Jer.
5, 2. Oaths wore often obtained by an
adjuration, by which an oath was laid
on a person, or he was caused to swear.
1 Kings 8, 31 ; Ezek. 17, 13. In the case
of very solemn oaths and covenants the
ceremony included a sacrifice, as in
Gen. 15. Another ancient custom is that
found in Gen. 24, 2 and 47, 29, where the
one taking the oath was requested to
place his hand under the thigh (the seat
of generative power) of the one demand-
ing the oath, the idea connected with the
rite probably being that the descendants
of the person concerned should be in-
cluded in the obligation of the oath. The
simplest gesture or ceremony of swearing
was that according to which the right
hand or both hands were lifted up to
heaven. Gen. 14, 22; Ex. 6, 8; Num.
14, 30.
In the New Testament the passage in
Matt. 5, 34. 36 (cp. Jas. 5, 12) is often
understood as an absolute prohibition of
swearing in any form. But that the
Lord was speaking relatively, with re-
gard to the frivolous use of God’s name,
is evident from Matt. 23, 16 — 22, where
He explains the sin connected with this
kind of oath. It is also clear that He
permitted an adjuration to be addressed
to Him, and acted accordingly. Matt. 26,
63. 64. And His emphatic “Amen,
Amen!” (“Verily, verily!”) has the
practical force of an oath. — That the
New Testament does not absolutely for-
bid the use of the oath is clear from
Heb. 6, 16: “For men verily swear by
the greater; and an oath for confirma-
tion is to them an end of all strife.” In
this connection the use of the oath in the
writings of St. Paul cannot be over-
looked, for we find such expressions in
a number of passages: Rom. 1,9; Phil.
1, 8; Gal. 1, 20; 1 Tbess. 2, 5; 2 Cor.
1, 23. Nevertheless, the ideal and proper
situation is that pictured by Christ when
He says : “Let your communication be,
Yea, yea; Nay, nay; for whatsoever is
more than these cometli of evil.” Matt.
5, 37.
The attitude of the Church has, in
general, been conformable to the position
taken in Scriptures. It is true that
Chrysostom called the oath a snare of
Satan and wanted by all means to avoid
it, and that also Augustine disliked the
oath, chiefly on account of the fear of
perjury. But the majority of the
teachers declare that, while trifling,
frivolous, and profane swearing should
undoubtedly be condemned and avoided,
the serious use of the oath is too clearly
established in Scriptures. This was the
position taken especially by Athanasius.
In later centuries the practise was fixed
by the Canon Law, which required, for
the validity of an oath: 1) Veritas in
mcnte (truth in the mind), that is, that
the words used must be an actual,
straightforward expression of what the
swearer means to state; 2) judicium in
jurante (judgment, or discretion, in the
one who swears), that is, that the person
concerned have attained to the age and
to the understanding required to take an
oath properly, the further requirement
of a sound mind and sobriety being in-
cluded, and that the person concerned
have not been convicted of perjury;
3) justitia in objecto (justice in the ob-
ject) , that is, the object of the oath must
be legitimate, for even an oath cannot
bind a person to commit a sin.
At the present time, in order to sur-
round the taking of oaths with the
proper solemnity, certain formulas have
come into use, the one most frequently
employed being, “So help me God!”
Writers on ethics also mention that
solemn oaths should ordinarily be ad-
ministered only in the proper surround-
ings, in rooms which are suitably fur-
nished, where the associations are of a
nature to make a deep impression and
to discourage the notion of perjury. In
view of the general disregard of the
sacredness of the oath in our days it
behooves all Christians to uphold the
position of the Bible with respect to
both the First and the Second Command-
ment.’
Oberlin, Jean Frederic; b. 1740,
d. 1826; pastor in the Steintal, 1767,
a barren valley in the Vosges, inhabited
Oberlln Theology
550
Ochs, Carl Ernst Christoph
by lazy and vicious people, half dullards
and half brigands, among whom he spent
his entire life and transformed them into
thrifty and exemplary Christians.
Oberlln Theology. Views inculcated
at Oberlin College by the late Rev.
Charles G. Finney and his associates.
The general type of doctrine inculcated
has been the new-school Calvinism, of
which the predominant thought is this,
that all responsible character pertains
to the will in its voluntary attitude and
action and that each moral agent deter-
mines for himself, in the exercise of his
own freedom, under the motives which
gather about him, whatever is morally
trustworthy or blameworthy in his char-
acter and life; that sin is a voluntary
failure to meet obligation and that noth-
ing else is sin; that righteousness or
holiness is a voluntary conforming to
obligation, such as is always in the
power of every moral agent. Anything
in the nature of thought or feeling which
lies beyond the range of voluntary action
is not a matter of immediate obligation
and can be neither holiness nor sin. The
guilt of sin which is not voluntary can-
not be reckoned to any one in whose will
it has not originated; hence neither sin
nor holiness can be transmitted or in-
herited or imputed. No one can be
blamed for any sin but his own, as little
as any one can be forgiven for any sin
but his own. — The repentance required
as a condition of salvation is the renun-
ciation of sin, an obligation which
presses upon every sinner and which is
always within his power. The power to
sin involves the power to renounce, and
this voluntary renunciation of sin is the
change required of every sinner in order
to obtain acceptance with God. The
work of the Holy Spirit in the sinner’s
conversion is a moral work, accomplished
by the presentation of motives which in-
duce repentance, and the subsequent
work of sanctification and preservation
is essentially of the same nature, a work
accomplished by the Spirit through the
truth. The sovereignty of God always
works in harmony with the freedom and
responsibility of the creature, so that
one factor in man’s salvation must al-
ways be his own voluntary consent and
cooperation, a position clearly at variance
with Scripture. See Conversion, Free
Will, etc.
Oblate Fathers (Oblates of Mary Im-
maculate). A society of priests and lay-
men leading a common life, formed in
1816 to repair the havoc of the French
Revolution. It seeks especially to in-
fluence rural and industrial populations
through missions and retreats which in-
culcate devotion to the Sacred Heart and
to Mary as a supernatural means of re-
generation. The society also fosters young
men’s associations. Catholic clubs, etc.,
and has numerous institutions of learn-
ing, including industrial and reform
schools.
Obligation, Feasts of. See Saints’
Days, R. C.
Observantists. See Franciscans.
Occasionalism. See Malebranche,
Nicole.
Occam, William. A Franciscan
schoolman (Doctor Invincibilis) ; b. near
London, ca. 1280, d. in Munich, ca. 1349;
studied at Oxford and at Paris, teaching
for some years at the latter place; held
the ideal of absolute poverty; impris-
oned by the Pope at Avignon for four
years; later excommunicated for oppo-
sition to the Pope; his chief book:
Quaestiones et Decisiones in Quattuor
Libras Sententiarum (Questions and De-
cisions on the Four Books of Sentences),
and the two parts of a greater work :
De Sacramento Altaris and De Corpore
Christi, which Luther valued rather
highly; considered one of the men whose
works had some influence on events dur-
ing the Reformation period.
Occom, Samson, 1723 — 92; a Mohi-
can Indian of Connecticut, missionary
among his own people; received Presby-
terian orders in 1759; wrote, as critics
believe: “Now the Shades of Night are
Gone,” and other hymns.
Ochino, Bernardino, 1487 — 1564;
“one of the most striking and pictur-
esque characters” of the Italian Prot-
estants; the most powerful preacher
since Savonarola; broke with Rome
when he was past fifty, fled to escape
the Roman inquisition ; spent three years
at Geneva; fled from Augsburg, Ger-
many, to escape the hands of Charles V;
spent seven years in England as an evan-
gelist among Italian merchants and re-
fugees; returned to Switzerland (1553)
and served a congregation at Zurich ;
published (under the influence of Soci-
nus, it would seem) a catechism, which
resulted in his deposition and expulsion
(1563). Driven out successively from
Basel, Nuremberg, Cracow, he died at
Schlackau, in Moravia, 1564, a victim of
his skeptical speculations and the intol-
erance of his age.
Ochs, Carl Ernst Christoph; b. Feb-
ruary 10, 1812, at Greglineng, Wurttem-
berg; d. November 16, 1863; Leipzig
missionary to India, 1842; furloughed
1855; returned to India 1856; sepa-
Odd-Fellows
551
Oehler, Theodor
rated from Leipzig Mission June 2, 1859,
engaging in independent mission-work;
united with Danish Lutheran Missionary
Society 1863.
Odd-Fellows. Odd-Fellowship, which
originated in Manchester, England,
among destitute laborers, was introduced
into America in 1819, where it has re-
peatedly altered its so-called secret
ritual. It calls its collective bodies
“Grand Lodge,” “Supreme Grand Lodge,”
“Grand Encampment,” etc., and its offi-
cers assume such grandiloquent titles as
“Noble Grand,” “Past Grand,” ‘‘Vice
Grand,” etc. In the “Encampment” we
have a “Chief Patriarch,” a “High
Priest,” etc. — Character. Odd-Fellow-
ship is a caricature of Christianity; it
teaches a false religion. It has prayers,
altars, chaplains, rituals with an order
of worship, and funeral ceremonials.
The “standard work of the order,” the
New Odd-Fellows’ Manual, by the Rev.
A. B. Grosh (New York: Maynard, Mer-
rill & Co., 1895), contains the following
informing sentences: “Religious instruc-
tion is given,” p. 39; “We have a re-
ligious test,” p. 364; “We use forms of
worship,” p.364; “Odd-Fellowship was
founded on great religious principles,”
p.348; “It is founded on great prin-
ciples — - the Fatherhood of God and the
brotherhood of man,” p. 380 ; “No lodge
or encampment can be legally opened
without the presence of a Bible,” p. 364.
Odd-Fellowship, therefore, is paganism.
Its god, common to Jew, Christian, and
Mohammedan, is an idol; its worship,
idolatry. The “Past Grand’s Charge,”
at the initiation of members (see the
Independent Order of Odd-Fellows’ Rit-
ualistic, Secret, and Floor Work, p.35)
reads in part: “We seek to improve and
elevate the character of man; to imbue
him with proper conceptions of his capa-
bilities for good; to enlighten his mind;
to enlarge the sphere of his affections;
in a word, our aim is to lead man to the
cultivation of the true, fraternal relation
designed by the Great Author of his
being.” — Divisions. Owing to many
schisms there are a large number of
organizations, large and small, which are
comprised under this generic term. From
The Ancient and Honorable, Loyal Odd-
Fellows, the patriotic order of Odd-
Fellows, and various independent Odd-
Fellow lodges, merged as The Union
(later United, afterwards Grand United )
Order of Odd-Fellows sprang many minor
lodges, with the following three main
divisions: 1. The Independent Order of
Odd-Fellows, Manchester Unity, England;
from this 2. The Independent Order
of Odd-Fellows of the United States of
America, with its Daughters of Rebekah,
Daughters Militant, Patriarchs Militant,
and the Imperial Order of Muscovites ;
also 3. The Grand, United Order of Odd-
Fellows in America (Negro) with its
Households of Ruth. The Independent
Order of Odd-Fellows is the oldest and
largest of the beneficiary secret societies
in the United States and is representa-
tive of Odd-Fellowship in general. It
has three initiatory degrees: the Degree
of Friendship, the Degree of Brotherly
Love, and the Degree of Truth. In addi-
tion to these initiatory degrees there are
the degrees of the “Patriarchal Branch,”
namely, 1. the Patriarchal Degree, 2. the
Golden Rule, or Second Encampment De-
gree, 3. the Royal Purple, or Third En-
campment Degree, and 4. the Patriarchs’
Militant Degree, created in 1885. Each
degree involves a mockery of some Old
Testament narrative, such as Abraham’s
sacrifice of Isaac, Abraham’s rescue of
Lot from Chedorlaomer, etc. — Other
orders of Odd-Fellowship. The so-called
female Odd-Fellowship was instituted in
1851 by Schuyler Colfax as the Daughters
of Rebekah. In 1923 the I. O. 0. F. at its
convention in Cincinnati established “a
junior order,” known as Loyal Sons. It
bears about the same relation to the
adult order as the De Molays bear to
Masons. It was conceived by J. J. Stotler
of the De Molay order in Kansas City,
Mo. There are already about 75 “chap-
ters.” There is also a “side degree” of
the I. O. 0. F. known as the Oriental Or-
der of Humility and Perfection. — Mem-
bership. Odd-Fellowship has become the
largest of all secret orders in America
and is still growing more rapidly than
all others. According to the latest re-
ports of the supreme bodies of these
organizations they have altogether
3,418,883 members.
Oecolampadius (Grecized for Heuss-
gen = Hausschein = candlestick ) , Johan- ,
nes, 1482 — 1531; b. in Wurttemberg;
assisted Erasmus in publication of Greek
New Testament; was stirred by Luther’s
writings, but later came under Zwingli’s
influence; carried through reformation
at Basel (since 1523) ; attended Mar-
burg Colloquy; d. at Basel. Luther, al-
ways zealous for purity of doctrine, con-
sidered his early death “a retribution for
his obstinately held errors.”
Oehler, Gustav Friedrich; b. 1812;
professor at Tuebingen, later at Breslau,
then again at Tuebingen; opposed rad-
ical criticism; d. 1872.
Oehler, Theodor; b. June 8, 1850, at
Tuebingen, Wurttemberg; d. June 15,
1915, at Basel; 1878 — 84 at Leonberg;
Oder, Mwlg
552
Ohio, Joint Synod of
1884 inspector at Basel; 1889 he visited
India, China, and other countries; Di-
rector of Basel Missions.
Oeler, Ludwig. Circumstances of life
not known. Canonicus in Leipzig about
1530; wrote: “Ehr’ sei dem Vater und
dem Sohn.”
Oettingen, Alexander von; b. 1827,
d. 1905; positive modern Lutheran theo-
logian; professor of systematic theology
at Dorpat; chief work: Moralstatistik
und die christliche Sittenlehre.
Offermann, H. F. ; b. 1806 in Hano-
ver; educated at Kropp and at Pennsyl-
vania University; pastor in Camden and
Philadelphia, 1889 — 1912; since 1910
professor of New Testament Theology in
Philadelphia Seminary, United Lutheran
Church.
Office of the Word (Liturgical) . See
Worship, Parts of.
Ohio, English Synod of, originally
the (second) English District of the
Joint Synod of Ohio; was organized as
such in 1841 by the remnant of the first
English District, which had joined the
General Synod (East Ohio Synod). In
1855 the second English District also se-
ceded from the mother synod and joined
the General Synod as the English Synod
of Ohio. From 1867 to 1872 we find it
in the lists of the General Council. In
1872 it disappears from the roll of the
Council “without a reference to the
fact.” Sheatsley says it disbanded. Some
of its members are found in the Indiana
Synod (II), which joined the Council
in 1872.
Ohio and Other States, Ev. Luth.
Joint Synod of. History. In the “Great
Crossing” over the Alleghany Mountains
at the close of the eighteenth century
many Lutherans of the older settlements
found their way into the Northwest Ter-
ritory. The number increased when Ohio
was made a State in 1802. These pio-
neers were soon followed by pastors, the
first of these being John Stauch, who
had been licensed by the Pennsylvania
Ministerium in 1793 and ordained in
1804. He settled in Columbiana Co., O.,
in October, 1806. He was followed by
Wm. ( Geo. ) Foerster, who made his
headquarters in Fairfield Co., in the
same year (d. 1815). About the same
time Paul Henkel, who had helped to
organize the North Carolina Synod in
1803; began to make missionary journeys
through the State. In October, 1812, the
first conference of Lutheran ministers
west of the Alleghany Mountains met at
Stecher’s Church, Westmoreland Co., Pa.
Those present were Stauch, Foerster,
John Reinhard, Jacob Leist, Henry Huet,
A. Weyer. G. H. Weygandt and Heim at-
tended as guests. Steck, Butler, Paul
Henkel, and Simon were absent. Yearly
meetings of this “Special Conference”
were held until permission was obtained
from the mother synod (Pennsylvania
Ministerium) to organize a separate
ministerium. This was done on Septem-
ber 14, 1818, when at Somerset, Perry
Co., O., the first “General Conference of
Ev. Luth. Preachers in the State of Ohio
and Adjacent States” was formed, with
John Stauch as its first president, Paul
Henkel as secretary, and G. H. Weygandt
as treasurer. Fifteen pastors and two
catechists were enrolled, the largest num-
ber to. constitute a Lutheran synod in
America up to that time. Owing to the
great distance and, partly, to the in-
fluence of the “Henkelites,” the Ohio
Synod declined to join the General Synod
in 1820. During the earlier years fra-
ternal relations were maintained with
the Tennessee Synod. At the meeting of
1826 16 pastors reported from four to
eight congregations each, a total of 98,
while 15 congregations were without a
pastor. The lack of ministers induced
the newly organized synod (1818) to re-
quest Rev. Jacob Leist, with the help of
Candidate David Scliuh, to instruct
young men for the ministry. A semi-
nary was established in 1830 at Canton
and, in 1831, transferred to Columbus.
Candidate Wm. Schmidt became the first
professor. In 1831, when Andrew Henkel
was president, the synod was divided
into an Eastern and a Western District.
Other Districts were added in the course
of time. Since 1833 it has been called
the Joint Synod of Ohio. Since 1854 it
meets biennially as a delegate synod.
Prof. W. F. Lehmann was president 1854
to 1859 and again in 1878, Dr. Loy from
1859 to 1894 (except in 1878), Dr. C. H. L.
Schuette since 1894, Dr. C. C. Hein since
1925. The first English District, founded
1836, left the mother synod and joined
the General Synod in 1841 (East Ohio
Synod). A second English District,
formed in 1841, seceded in 1855, joined
the General Synod and then the Gen-
eral Council ( English Synod of Ohio ) .
A third English District was organized
in 1857, but without the consent of the
mother synod it joined the General Coun-
cil in 1867 (English District Synod of
Ohio). The fourth English District dates
from 1869. The other Districts added
were the Southern (merged into the
Western), the Northwestern (largely by
secession from “Missouri” during the
Predestinarian Controversy), the North-
ern (1851), Concordia (1876), Wisconsin
Ohio, Joint Synod of
553
Ohio, Synod of Bant
(1890),Minnesota(1890),Kansas-Nebraska
(1890), Texas (1890), Canada (1908),
Australia (1908). — Theology. The doc-
trinal basis of the Joint Ohio Synod in
its early days was nominally that of the
Tennessee Synod; but still more than
that synod it was affected by the union-
ism and the Methodistic measures of
those days. The Lutheran Standard was
established in 1842 and Die Lutherische
ICirehenzeitung in 1860. Through Ernst
and Burger, relations were established
with Loehe, and the influx of German
candidates strengthened the conservative
party under the leadership of Dr. Wm.
Sihler in the early forties. Though the
conservatives withdrew in 1845, the
synod, under the leadership of Lehmann
and Loy, declared its unconditional ac-
ceptance of the Lutheran Confessions in
1848. Its contact with Missouri in the
free conferences of 1855 to 1858 deepened
the confessionalism of the Ohio Synod
and caused it to take a determined stand
against antichristian secret societies. It
was the failure of the General Council to
define its position on the “Four Points”
that caused the Ohio Synod to withdraw
after having been present at the prelimi-
nary meetings in 1866 and 1867. In 1868
fraternal relations were established with
Missouri, and in 1872 the Joint Ohio
Synod assisted in the organization of the
Synodical Conference at Milwaukee. In
January, 1878, the Ohio Synod conferred
the degree of D. D. on Professor Walther.
Only two years later Prof. F. A. Schmidt
of the Norwegian Synod accused Walther
of Crypto-Calvinism. That was the be-
ginning of the Predestinarian Contro-
versy, which caused the Ohio Synod to
withdraw from the Synodical Conference
in September, 1881. The main contro-
versialists in those days were Walther,
Pieper, and Stoeckhardt on the side of
the Missourians and Stellhorn, F. A.
Schmidt, Allwardt, C. H. L. Schuette, and
Ernst on the side of Ohio. At the inter-
synodical conferences, 1903 to 1906, efforts
were made to heal the breach, and they
are still being made by means of discus-
sions in committees and conferences.
Fraternal relations have existed between
the Joint Synod of Ohio and Iowa for
several decades. — Missions. The Joint
Synod of Ohio has been active in the
field of home missions, especially in the
Northwest. It also conducts a mission
among the colored in Baltimore and in
the Black Belt of Alabama. In 1912 it
took over part of the Hermannsburg field
among the Telugus in India; since the
World War the whole field has been
assigned to it. — Besides its theological
seminary in Columbus it has the follow-
ing educational institutions : Capital
University, Columbus (1850), Luther
Seminary, St. Paul, Minn. (1884), He-
bron Academy, Hebron Nebr. (1911), Lu-
tber Academy in Saskatchewan (1913),
St.John’s Academy, Petersburg, W. Va.
(1921). The Woodville Normal School,
established 1882, closed its doors in 1923.
The Pacific Seminary in Spokane, Wash.,
was opened in 1907, but discontinued in
1918. There was a practical seminary in
Hickory, N. C., 1887— 1912. — The Joint
Synod of Ohio participates in the work
of the National Lutheran Council. Of
Inner Mission institutions the synod
maintains orphans’ homes at Richmond,
Ind. (1879), Mars, Pa. (1893), Knox-
ville, Tenn. (1889) ; homes for the aged
at Springfield, Minn. (1901), Mars, Pa.
(1892); hospitals: St.John’s, Spring-
field, Minn. (1901), Grace, San Antonio,
Tex. (1913); hospices in Columbus (1915)
and Toledo, O. (1917). In 1925 the Ohio
Synod numbered 717 pastors, 908 congre-
gations, and 160,631 communicants, in-
cluding Australia (1,361) and India
(1,626).
Ohio, Ev. Luth. District Synod of,
originally the English District (the
third) of the Joint Synod of Ohio, was
organized August 26, 1857. It joined
the General Council in 1867 against the
will of the mother synod and thereby
severed its connection with Joint Ohio.
This body entered the United Lutheran
Church in 1918 and on November 3,
1920, merged with the Synod of Miami,
the Wittenberg Synod, and the East Ohio
Synod (all of the General Synod) into
the Ohio Synod of the U. L. C. At the
time of this merger it numbered 56 pas-
tors, 86 congregations, and 12,667 com-
municants. See following article.
Ohio, Synod of East, originally
called “The English Synod and Ministe-
rium of Ohio”; organized November 7,
1836, at Somerset, O., by 4 pastors,
6 candidates, and 4 lay delegates. This
body was to remain within the bounds of
the Joint Ohio Synod; but in 1840 the
new synod became independent of the
mother synod and joined the General
Synod. In 1858 it adopted the name
“Synod of East Ohio.” Wittenberg Col-
lege was established in 1845 at Spring-
field, O. It was one of the most liberal
bodies in the General Synod, declaring
itself in full accord with the “Definite
Platform” (q.v.). In 1918 this synod
entered the United Lutheran Church and
on November 3, 1920, merged with the
Synod of Miami, the Wittenberg Synod,
and the District Synod of Ohio (General
Council) into the Ohio Synod of the
Ohl, Jeremiah Franklin
554
Old Catholics
U. L. C. At the time of this merger it
numbered 52 pastors, 72 congregations,
and 12,900 communicants.
Ohl, Jeremiah Franklin, clergy-
man; b. June 26, 1850; graduate of
Lutheran Theological Seminary, Phila-
delphia, 1874; organizer and rector of
Lutheran Deaconess Motherhouse, Mil-
waukee, and instructor at Lutheran
Theological Seminary, Chicago, 1893 to
1898; city missionary in Philadelphia,
1899; superintendent of Philadelphia
Lutheran City Mission, 1903; lecturer
at Lutheran Theological Seminary, Phil-
adelphia, 1910 — 11; engaged in prison
reform; president of Inner Mission So-
ciety; author of a number of books;
contributor to Encyclopedia of Missions;
writer of hymn-tunes and other church
music.
Oil, Holy. Three kinds of holy oil
are consecrated by Roman bishops on
Maundy Thursday and delivered to
parish priests: 1) oil of catechumens
(olive-oil), used at baptisms, ordination
of priests, coronation of kings and
queens, consecration of churches and
altars; 2) chrism (olive-oil mixed with
balsam), used after baptism, at confir-
mation, and consecration of bishops,
Communion vessels and fonts; 3) oil
of the sick (olive-oil), used in extreme
unction and the blessing of bells.
O’Kelly, James, ca. 1757—1826; first
seceder from Methodist Church; b. in
Ireland; itinerant preacher in America,
1778; elder of Methodist Episcopal
Church, 1784; withdrew 1792 and formed
the Republican Methodist Church; d. in
Virginia.
Old Catholics. Name applied to those
Catholics who reject the Vatican decree
of papal infallibility and absolutism as
an arbitrary dogmatic innovation and
therefore have seceded from the Roman
communion and established an indepen-
dent organization. Foreshadowed by the
anti-infallibilist literature which pre-
ceded the Vatican Council and by the
stand of the eighty-eight bishops who
voted against the new dogma at the
council itself ( all these bishops sacrificed
conviction and conscience later on), the
Old Catholic movement took its rise in
the hostility of some of the leading
scholars and divines of the Catholic
Church, men who prior to the council
had been esteemed as pillars and orna-
ments of the Church. Among these were
von Schulte, professor at the Univer-
sity of Prague; Reinkens, professor of
Church History at the University of
Breslau; Friedrich, who held the same
chair at Munich; Reuseh, professor of
theology at Bonn; and, above all, John
Joseph Ignatius von Dollinger, the noted
scholar and historian, who, when called
upon by the Archbishop of Munich to
subscribe to the new dogma of papal
infallibility, gave this classic answer
March 28, 1871 (his words are well
worth quoting in full) : “As a Christian,
as a theologian, as a historian, as a citi >
zen, I cannot accept this dogma. Not as
a Christian, because it is incompatible
with the spirit of the Gospel and with
the plain utterances of Christ and His
apostles. Not as a theologian, because
the entire genuine tradition of the
Church is irreconcilably opposed to it.
Not as a historian can I accept it be-
cause as such I know that the persistent
efforts to realize this theory of world
dominion have cost Europe streams of
blood, have ruined and thrown whole
lands into confusion. ... As a citizen,
finally, I must reject it because by de-
manding the subjection of states and
rulers and the whole political order to
the papal power ... it lays the founda-
tion of endless discord between Church
and State, between the clergy and the
laity.” Dollinger was excommunicated,
and all the adherents of the Old Catholic
movement were branded by Pius IX in
his encyclical of November 21, 1873, as
“miserable sons of perdition,” who seek
to undermine the foundations of the
Catholic religion. In June of the same
year the Old Catholics had effected a
church organization at Constance in the
very hall where, 360 years before, the
Council of Constance had asserted its
superiority over the papacy. Reinkens
was elected bishop, and a constitution
was drawn up providing for clerical and
lay representation in the government of
the Church. Doctrinally the Old Cath-
olics represent Tridentine Romanism as
against Vatican Romanism, with a more
friendly attitude, however, toward Prot-
estant principles. They recognize as the
rule of faith the Scriptures and tradi-
tion, but limit the latter to the Ecumen-
ical Creeds held in common by orthodox
Christianity, Catholic or Protestant.
They also encourage Bible-reading, admit
the use of the vernacular instead of the
Latin in public worship, and allow the
clergy to marry. Still too close to Rome
and, on the other hand, too far from
Protestantism, the Old Catholics hold a
position which has naturally failed to
enlist much popular sympathy. In Ger-
many there are about forty congrega-
tions, with a membership of 50,000.
Austria has about 16,000, Switzerland
50,000, while smaller numbers are found
in Holland, Spain, Italy, and elsewhere.
Old Order German Baptist Br. 555
Onderdonk, Henry TTstic
In America the Old Catholic movement
is represented chiefly by the Polish Cath-
olic National Church, which numbers
about 30,000 members.
Old Order German Baptist Breth-
ren. Fearful lest “the Scriptures suffer
violence” through neglect of the special
customs of the earlier times, this body
withdrew from the general brotherhood
in 1881. It accepts foot-washing as a
permanent rite, practises close commu-
nion, demands non-conformity to the
world in war, politics, secret societies,
dress, and amusements; its members
refuse to take an oath, consider it
wrong to salary ministers, anoint the
sick with oil, insist upon total ab-
stinence,. oppose divorce, and refuse to
perform a marriage ceremony for any
divorced person. They regard missions,
Sunday-schools, and ecclesiastical schools
as opposed to the true essence of Chris-
tianity. In 1921 they reported 214 min-
isters, 60 congregations, and 3,500 com-
municants.
Old People’s Homes. These homes
have been established to care for desti-
tute old people who are left without rela-
tives or whose relatives will not care
for them. According to the Scriptures,
relatives should care for their own, and
members of Christian churches should
be so instructed. 1 Tim. 5, 4. Some old
people’s homes require that a certain
sum of money be paid by individuals or
churches when an old person is received
into the home, after which the home as-
sumes all obligations, including a decent
burial.
Old Roman Catholic Church, an or-
ganization under the leadership of J. R.
Vilatte, assisted hy Bishop Miraglia, who
ministers to the Italians. The head-
quarters are in Chicago. Membership,
4,700. See Old Catholics.
Olearius, Johann, 1611 — 84; a very
distinguished Lutheran hy mnologist ;
studied at Wittenberg; adjunct of philo-
sophical faculty; superintendent at Quer-
furt in 1637 ; court preacher and private
chaplain at Halle in 1643; Itirchenrat
in 1657; superintendent-general in 1664;
d. at Weissenfels; wrote commentary on
the entire Bible and various devotional
works; his Geistliche Singehunst is a
collection of more than 1,200 hymns, 208
of them by himself; among his hymns:
“Nun kommt das neue Kirehenjahr”;
“Gelobet sei der Herr”; “O grosser Cott,
du reines Wesen”; “Wenn dich Unglueck
hat betreten”; “Lass mich, o treuer Gott,
dein liebes Schaeflein bleiben.” See also
next article.
Olearius. The following are the most
notable of this family of prominent theo-
logians: 1. Johann; b. 1546 at Wesel,
d. as pastor and superintendent at Halle,
1623; son-in-law of Heshusius and strict
Lutheran. 2. Gottfried, son of the for-
mer; b. 1604 and died at Halle 1685.
3. Johann, brother of preceding, b. 1611,
d. 1684; hymn-writer (g.v.). 4. Johann
Gottfried, son of No. 2; b. 1635; d. 1711
as consistorial councilor at Arnstadt;
wrote: “Komm, du wertes Loesegeld.”
5. Johann, brother of the former; born
1639; d. 1713 as senior of the theolog-
ical faculty at Leipzig. 6. Johann Chris-
tian, son of No. 3 ; b. 1646; d. 1699 as
consistorial councilor at Halle; moder-
ately pietistic. 7. Johann Christophorus,
son of No. 4; b. 1668 at Halle; d. in
1747 as superintendent at Arnstadt;
eminent hymnologist. 8. Gottfried, son
of No. 5; b. 1672, d. 1715; professor of
theology at Leipzig; had leanings toward
Spener.
Olevianus, Kaspar, 1536 — 87; Ger-
man Reformed; b. at Treves; professor
of theology at Heidelberg 1561 ; Calvin-
ized the Palatinate; prepared Heidel-
berg Catechism with Ursinus ; one of
judges who ordered Silvanus (anti-Trini-
tarian) beheaded; Berleburg; Herborn
(d. there).
Olive Branch Synod. See Synods,
Extinct, and United Lutheran Church.
Olympia ( Olimpia ) Morata, Italian
Protestant; b. in Italy, 1526; d. at
Heidelberg, 1555; received a thorough
education in Latin and directed Latin
plays at the court; married the physi-
cian Gruendler of Schweinfurt in 1550;
forced to flee with her husband and en-
dured severe hardships and afflictions,
which were the cause of her death.
Omoto-Kyo (Japanese, “fundamental
faith” ) , an offshoot of Shintoism (g.v.) ;
originated by a poor woman, O Nao Baa-
san, of the village of Ayabe, Province
Tamba, Japan, in 1892, who claimed to
have had divine revelations. The system
is both imperialistic and socialistic, hav-
ing had over 1,000,000 adherents in 1921,
mainly among the laboring classes. Its
other characteristics are faith-healing,
millenarianism, communism, perfection-
ism, mysticism, and the inculcation of
patriotism. The writings of the founder
form their sacred book and are known as
O Fade Sabi. The Japanese government
declared the movement hostile to the
state and its followers guilty of trea-
son and took stringent measures to sup
press it.
Onderdonk, Henry Ustic, 1789 to
1858; educated at Columbia College, New
Oneida Society
556
Oratorio
York; Episcopalian; rector in Brooklyn
and in Philadelphia; later bishop of
Philadelphia; leading member of com-
mittee of American Prayer-book ; wrote:
“The Spirit in Our Hearts.”
Oneida Society, also called Perfec-
tionists; a communistic settlement,
founded in 1847 at Oneida, N. Y., by
John Humphreys Noyes, former Congre-
gationalist minister and believer in per-
fectionism. Characteristic was their
practise of “complex marriages,” a kind
of polyandry. Under certain restrictions
any man could have intercourse with any
woman, and permanent attachments were
prohibited. Children were cared for by
the community. Owing to public pres-
sure this system was abolished in 1879
and the community reorganized into a
stock company in 1881.
Ontario. See Canada. '
Oosterzee, Johannes Jacobus Van,
1817- — 82; Dutch Reformed; b. at Rot-
terdam; preacher at Alkmaar, Rotter-
dam; professor of theology at Utrecht
1863; profound scholar; d. at Wies-
baden; wrote Theology of the New Tes-
tament, etc.
Opera Supererogationis (“works
paid in addition”). The Roman Church
teaches that the saints, by works of
penance and charity, gained more merit
than was needed to remove the temporal
punishment of their own sins and that
this excess, together with the merits of
Christ, is in the keeping and at the dis-
posal of the Church and can be applied
by it to the needs of those who have not
enough merit of their own to keep them
out of purgatory. From this “treasury
of the Church” Rome claims to impart
in granting indulgences ( q. v.) . Con-
cerning this horrible idea, that the just
and holy God had nothing more to ask
of the saints, but that, on the contrary,
they made Him gifts of much that they
did not owe Him, the Apology of the
Augsburg Confession (VI, 45) says: “No
one does as much as the Law requires;
therefore it is ridiculous when they pre-
tend that we can do more.” (Cf. Luke
17, 10.)
Opitz, Martin, 1597 — 1639; studied
at Frankfurt and Heidelberg; was em-
ployed in various political and diplo-
matic offices; poems noted for style, but
lack depth; wrote: “Brich auf und
werde lichte.”
Opus Operatum. A term used by Ro-
man Catholic theologians with reference
to the Sacraments to express their doc-
trine that these Sacraments confer the
grace of God by the working of the work
( opere operato), that is, by the perform-
ance of the outward sacramental act,
apart from the spiritual condition of the
recipient (opere operantis). The Council
of Trent says plainly: “If any one saith
that by the said Sacraments of the New
Law grace is not conferred through the
act performed (ecc opere operato), but
that faith alone in the divine promise
suffices for the obtaining of grace, let
him be accursed.” (Sess. VII, can. 8.)
The Roman doctrine demands only that
the recipient do not place an obstacle to
grace (can. 6), e.g., by mortal sin or un-
belief, and avers that if such obstacles
do not intervene, grace is automatically
conferred. The Apology of the Augsburg
Confession (XIII, 18) says: “We con-
demn the whole race of scholastic doc-
tors, who teach that on one who does not
place an obstacle the Sacraments confer
grace ex opere operato, without a good
movement (sine bono motu) of the re-
cipient. This is simply a Jewish notion,
to think that we are justified by the cere-
mony, without the good movement of the
heart, that is, without faith.”
Orange Free State. Member of the
Union of South Africa within the British
Empire. Area, 50,389 sq. mi. Popula-
tion, 628,360, mostly native Bantus.
Official language, Dutch. The Dutch Re-
formed Church predominates. For mis-
sions see Africa, South.
Orange, Second Council of. See Pe-
lagian Controversy.
Oratorians. A congregation of secu-
lar priests, founded (1550) at Rome by
Philip Neri, who attracted the half-
heathen Roman populace by simple
preaching and good music (beginnings of
the oratorio). Oratorians are restricted
to prayer, the administration of the Sac-
raments, and preaching. They take no
vows, retain their property, and may
withdraw at any time.
Oratorio. A form of musical drama,
always sacred in composition and music
and without stage presentation, ‘Consist-
ing of airs, recitations, duets, trios, cho-
ruses, antiphonal singing, and other va-
riations in the form of presentation.
The text is usually derived from some
Scriptural subject, as that of Handel’s
Messiah, of Haydn’s Creation, of Men-
delssohn’s Elijah, of Bach’s Matthaeus-
passion. The origin of the oratorio is
somewhat obscure, the most probable ac-
count ascribing it to Philip Neri, who,
ea. 1550, organized certain musical per-
formances in Rome, which were built up
with a unit idea and thus offered a form
of oratorio. The four-part compositions
used at that time were later developed
into the splendid and ambitious composi-
Oratory
557
Ordination
tions which were afterward perfected,
especially in Germany, later also in Eng-
land and America, the names of Bach,
Beethoven, Mozart, Haydn, and Handel
leading all the rest.
Oratory. In the Roman Church a
structure, other than a parish church, in
which Mass may be said. Oratories are
either public, semipuhlic (as in semina-
ries, colleges, hospitals, etc.), or private
(granted by papal indult to individuals
or families).
Order of Worship. The chief service
of the Lutheran Church may, in general,
be divided into two large groups: I. The
Word group, or homiletical part: a) In-
troit, Kyrie, Gloria; h) Salutation, Col-
lect, Epistle, Gospel; e) Creed, Sermon,
Hymn. II. The Eucharist, or sacramen-
tal part: a) Salutation, Preface, Sanc-
tus, Exhortation; h) Lord’s Prayer,
Consecration, Distribution; c) Postcom-
munion. A more detailed division is
the following: I. Service of the Word:
a) Confession, b) Declaration of Grace.
II. The Service Proper. Part I: The
Word. Div. 1: a) Introit, b). Kyrie,
c ) Gloria in Excelsis ; Div. 2 : a ) Salu-
tation, b) Collect, c) Epistle, d) Halle-
lujah, e) Gospel, f) Glory Be to Thee,
O Lord; Div. 3: a) Nicene Creed, b) Ser-
mon, c) Offertory, d) General Prayer.
Part II : The Communion. Div. 1, Intro-
duction: a) Salutation, b) Preface with
Sursum, Gratias, Dignum, c) Sanctus
with Hosanna, d) Exhortation; Div. 2,
Consecration: a) Lord’s Prayer, h) Words
of Institution, c) Pax; Div. 3, Distribu-
tion: a) Agnus Dei, h) Distribution
proper; Div. 4, Postcommunion: a) Nunc
Dimittis, b) Versicle, c) Collect, d) Bene-
dicamus and Benediction. The Common
Service is a masterpiece of liturgical art
and will well repay a thorough study,
with the aid of an authoritative dis-
cussion.
Orders in the United States. In
1494, when Luther was eleven years old,
the first Christian chapel in America was
consecrated by the first band of Roman
Catholic missionaries. The Spanish con-
Cfiierors found it possible to be, at the
same time, brutal, inhuman fiends and
pious promoters of the Roman faith.
They were accompanied, on their expe-
ditions, by monks, chiefly of the Fran-
ciscan, Dominican, Jesuit, and Carmelite
orders, who established native missions.
Dominicans, in 1547, made an unsuccess-
ful attempt to missionize Florida; Fran-
ciscans, somewhat later, met with better
success. Franciscans started missions in
New Mexico (near Santa Fd, 1542),
Texas (1546), and California (San
Diego, 1769). While Mexico was the
focal point of these Southern missions,
the French possessions in Canada, par-
ticularly the city of Quebec, bore a like
relation to the North. As early as 1615
Franciscans labored in Maine. The chief
activity, however, was unfolded by the
Jesuits, of whom Bancroft writes: “The
history of their labors is connected with
the origin of every celebrated town in
the annals of French America: not a
cape was turned, not a river entered, but
a Jesuit led the way.” Under incredible
difficulties and privations they pene-
trated the wilderness and established
missions from Pennsylvania to Missouri
and from Michigan to Louisiana. Many
suffered martyrdom under excruciating
torture. As the number of Roman Cath-
olics grew, the various monastic orders
established themselves in America, until,
at the present day, every important or-
der is represented. Frequently commu-
nities which were expelled from European
countries found an asylum here. The
Paulists originated in America. Some
of the orders lead an enclosed monastic
life, but most of them are engaged in
educational, missionary, and charitable
undertakings. The present professed
membership (1921) of the more familiar
orders in the United States is as follows:
Alexian Brothers, 102; Augustinians,
200; Benedictines, 1,371; Capuchins,
322; Carmelites, 111; Christian Broth-
ers, 963; Dominicans, 339; Franciscans,
1,587; Jesuits, 1,826; Lazarists, 320;
Brothers of Mary, 517 ; Brothers Marists,
109; Oblate Fathers, 233; Paulists, 70;
Premonstratensians, 38; Redemptorists,
71^; Salesians, 58; Trappists, 83 ; Ser-
vites, 94; Xaverians, 270. See also
School Brothers and Sisters.
Ordinary, The. In the nomenclature
of the Roman Church, one who has juris-
diction in his own right, as distinguished
from one who has only delegated juris-
diction. The term is usually applied to
diocesan bishops, who are held to exer-
cise all functions of teaching, adminis-
tration, and government in their dioceses
in their own right, while parish priests
and others perform their functions by
virtue of power delegated to them by
their bishops.
Ordination. Ordination, or holy or-
der, in the Roman Church, is held to be
“truly and properly a sacrament, insti-
tuted by Christ the Lord” (Council of
Trent, Sess. XXIII, can. 3). Though all
ranks of the hierarchy of order (see
Hierarchy ) are ordained, only the ordi-
nation of bishops, priests, and deacons is
commonly held to confer sacramental
grace, consisting in spiritual power to
Ordination and Installation
558
Organ
discharge the duties of the office in-
volved. In witness of this power an
indelible mark is supposed to be im-
pressed on the soul of the ordained (see
Character Indelebilis) , which forever
distinguishes him from the laity and by
virtue of which all his future official
acts are valid and supernaturally effica-
cious, even should he be deposed. Order
is considered one sacrament, the deacon-
ship conferring a part of its power (espe-
cially to assist at Mass), new powers
being added by priesthood (especially
that of offering the sacrifice of the
Mass), and the fulness of power being
reached in the bishop’s consecration
(administration of all sacraments, in-
cluding order itself ) . Ordinarily only
a bishop can ordain, and he does so by
imposition of hands and invocation of
the Holy Ghost. To a deacon he says :
“Receive the power of reading the Gospel
in the Church of God, both for the living
and for the dead”; to a priest: “Re-
ceive power to offer sacrifice to God and
to celebrate masses as well for the living
as for the dead,” and: “Receive the
Holy Ghost: whose sins you will remit,
they are remitted to them, and whose
sins you will retain, they are retained.”
A bishop commissioned by the Pope, as-
sisted by two other bishops, officiates at
the ordination of a new bishop. See
Bishop; also Priesthood.
Ordination and Installation. Al-
though the Reformation rejected the
doctrine of the Roman Church concern-
ing the sacramental nature of the act of
ordination and of the impartation of an
indelible character, it provided for ' a
proper ceremony of ordination and in-
stallation in a truly evangelical spirit.
The form qf ordination which Luther
adopted, and which was used extensively
at Wittenberg and elsewhere, had noth-
ing in common with the Roman ordo
for the consecration of a priest. Luther’s
form is given as follows: Hymn “Veni,
Creator Spiritus”; Collect; the Lessons
of Ordination: Acts 13, 3; 20, 29; 1 Tim.
3, 1 ff.; Titus 1,6; Questions addressed
to the ordinand; Admonition and Lord’s
Prayer; Prayer and Benediction; Hymn
“Nun bitten wir den Heiligen Geist.”
The essential features of this form have
been included in most Lutheran formu-
las, the only difference being that the
questions to the ordinand are longer
and enumerate more of the pastor’s
duties. The section on obligation upon
the symbols of the Church in itself is
long. In many formulas an admonition
addressed to the congregation is included,
since an ordination or installation offers
the best opportunity for broaching this
subject and dealing with it more exten-
sively than upon other occasions.
Organ. The most comprehensive and
important of all wind instruments, the
queen of all instruments and combina-
tion of instruments for use in churches.
Its history goes back to earliest times,
when a syrinx (a small pipe) and a col-
lection of graduated pipes were first in
use. The ugab, or organ, of Gen. 4, 21
and Job 21, 12 was probably a row of
small pipes placed over a windbox, or
sounding-board, the wind being admitted
to the individual pipe at the will of the
player by means of a sliding strip of
wood, this mechanism being the origin of
our modern keyboard. The next step
was to have more than one series of
pipes; strips of wood passing lengthwise
under the mouths, or openings, of each
set enabled the player, by pulling a stop,
to exercise a choice as to which he placed
in use. The essential principles of organ
construction having thus been discovered,
the use of pipes of varying lengths, the
use of series of pipes, and the use of
stops, the expansion of the instrument,
was possible, 1 ) by the placing of several
sets of pipes or separate organs under
the control of one player, with a separate
manual for each organ ; 2 ) by the use of
keys, or pedals, to be played with the
feet; 3) by the increase of the compass;
4) by the introduction of a great variety
of tone; 5) by perfecting the bellows
and wind supply and placing all the
registers under the organist’s control by
means of mechanical appliances. — The
organ in its more primitive form, known
in that period as hydraulic organ, on
account of the use of water for the pur-
pose of graduating the passage of air
from the air-chamber to the pipes, was
in use in the Church by the time of
Augustine and Cassiodorus. Charlemagne
introduced organs north of the Alps, and
the art of building these instruments
soon reached a comparatively high state
of perfection, although they were un-
usually clumsy from the modern point of
view. Wolstan gives an account of an
organ which had 400 pipes and required
the services of seventy men to pump suf-
ficient air. The keys were connected
with the valves of the pipes by means of
heavy ropes and were usually three
inches wide and one and one half inches
thick. Since the mere pressure of the
fingers would have had little effect upon
such ponderous keys, it was necessary to
strike them with the clenched fist in or-
der to produce a tone, and the length of
the notes was correspondingly extended.
In the course of time the improvements
in the mechanism of the organ were of
Orientation
559
Oroslus, Panins
such a nature as practically to change
the entire instrument. — In America the
art of organ-building has reached a very
high degree of perfection, and one can
hardly compare the modern instruments,
having thousands of pipes, complete
orchestration, and pneumatic and elec-
trical control for every part of the mech-
anism, with the organs of the Middle
Ages. Among the largest organs in the
world at the present time are the follow-
ing: that of Yale University; that of
the Cathedral of the Incarnation, Garden
City, N. Y. ; of Royal Albert Hall, Lon-
don; of the Town Hall, Sydney, Aus-
tralia; of the Cathedral, Liverpool,
England; of the Wanamaker Store,
Philadelphia, the last-named instrument
being a marvel of the organ-builder’s art.
As far as the structure of the modern
pipe-organ is concerned, only the very
small organs have one manual, two, four,
and even five rows of keys often being
found, each representing a distinct in-
strument, the latter being named after
its use or characteristics: as, the great
organ, that used for grand effects, the
principal manual ; choir organ, that used
for the accompaniment of voices; solo
organ, that containing stops for solo use ;
swell organ, pipes placed in a distant
box, with shutters opening and closing
like Venetian blinds, by means of which
the tone may gradually be increased or
reduced; pedal organ, the pipes con-
trolled by the pedals. The stops of a
pipe-organ control the passage of wind to
the various sections, the mechanical stops
being the coupler-stops controlling the
various sections, or separate organs, and
the sounding, or speaking, stops control-
ling the quality of the tone produced or
imitated; as, flute, violin, oboe, clari-
net, etc. In reed organs the tone is pro-
duced by the passage of air under pres-
sure through reeds of metal of the proper
length to produce tones of the proper
pitch and quality.
Orientation. The custom of placing
a church in such a manner that in the
'axis of the structure the altar is given
its place in the east end, while the main
portal is on the west end. The symbol-
ism of this feature, which goes back to
early times, is readily seen. The Chris-
tian congregation faces the East, where
the heavenly Sun, the Sun of Righteous-
ness, arose. There are other good rea-
sons for retaining the ancient custom.
Origen, 185 — 254; the most famous
representative of the Alexandrian theol-
ogy, which aimed at a reconciliation of
Christianity and Hellenistic thought;
a man of brilliant talents, vast erudition,
prodigious industry, and, at the same
time, of a highly speculative and mys-
tical turn of mind. Born of Christian
parents, he was placed under the tutelage
of Pantaenus and Clement and, eighteen
years old, became the leader of the
catechetical school in Alexandria. ■ He
studied Hebrew, made journeys to Rome
(211), Arabia, Palestine (215), and
Greece. Ordained a presbyter by the
bishops of Caesarea and Jerusalem, he
was excommunicated by Demetrius of
Alexandria on the ground of heresy and
self-mutilation. Thereupon he opened a
theological school at Caesarea and devel-
oped a remarkable literary activity. Un-
der Decius he was captured and cruelly
tortured, which caused his death (254).
— Origen’s theology is vitiated by his
philosophy. He denied the physical res-
urrection and assumed the preexistence
and pretemporal fall of souls, an eternal
creation, the final restoration of all men
and fallen angels, etc. His commenta-
ries, though useful and suggestive, are
marred by allegorizing fancies. Works:
Hexapla, the first polyglot Bible; com-
mentaries; Against Oelsus; De Princi-
•piis, on the fundamentals of Christian-
ity; Stromata, and a multitude of tracts,
homilies, and letters.
The Origenistic Controversy arose over
the question of Origen’s orthodoxy and
was carried on, at times with fierce per-
sonal rancor and bitterness, upwards of
two centuries. Already attacked by Me-
thodius of Tyre (d. 311), Origen was
finally condemned as a heretic by the
Fifth Ecumenical Council of Constanti-
nople (553). The quarrel, however, was
at its height between 394 and 438 and
raged especially in Egypt, Palestine, and
Constantinople. The monks of Egypt
were divided into two bitterly hostile
factions, the one slavishly following Ori-
gen in all his aberrations, the other, un-
der the lead of Pachomius, condemning
his mysticism and spiritualism. The
leading men of the age, among them
Jerome (who, at first an admirer, be-
came a fierce opponent of Origen), Chrys-
ostom, and Pope Anastasius, were drawn
into the conflict. Anastasius condemned
Origen at a Roman synod. The great
leaders of the opposition were, however,
Epiphanius of Salamis in Cyprus, who
traveled over land and sea to purge the
Church of Origenistic leaven, and The-
ophilus of Alexandria, who launched a
great literary attack upon Origen. After
553 the authority of Origen was com-
pletely discredited.
Ormuzd. See Zoroastrianism.
Orosius, Paulus. A patristic writer
at the beginning of the fifth century;
d. ca. 418; was a presbyter in Africa;
Orphanages
560
Osiandrian Controversy
attacked Pelagius; his chief book a his-
torical work: Historiarum adversus Pa-
ganos (a book of history, against the
pagans ) .
Orphanages. These are a product of
Christianity. At first orphans were
cared for at the expense of the congrega-
tion by widows or received into families.
Then they were placed into institutions
together with the sick and others who
were in need of such care. As early as
the fourth century there was, however, an
orphanage at Caesarea, in Cappadocia.
In 1090 an orphanage was built by Em-
peror Alexios in Constantinople. Charle-
magne was a protector of widows and
orphans. Germany preferred to care for
the orphans by placing them into fami-
lies, which even to-day is thought to be
the ideal way, and orphanages were not
built until about the sixteenth century.
Notable among orphanages is that of
A. H. Prancke at Halle.
Orr, James, 1844 — 1913; United Pres-
byterian; native of Glasgow; pastor;
professor of church history; promoter
of union (1900) between United Presby-
terian and free churches; repeatedly in
America; wrote: Problem of the Old
Testament ; The Virgin Birth.
Ort, S. A., 1843—1911; a “middle-of-
the-road” man in the Lutheran General
Synod; graduated from Wittenberg Sem-
inary 1863; held pastorates in Louis-
ville, Ky., and New York City ; professor
at Wittenberg College and Seminary,
1880 — 1911. “An orator of note and an
inspiring teacher.”
Orthodox. The term orthodoxy and
its opposite, heterodoxy, imply conform-
ity with a certain standard of religious
truth. Orthodoxy is soundness in doc-
trine, the confession of the doctrines re-
vealed in the Word of God. Departure
from the principles of Christianity is
heterodoxy. The adherents of the Refor-
mation were obliged to defend themselves
against the accusation of heresy. By
applying the only valid standard, Scrip-
ture, they proved their unity of dsctrine
with the true Church of Christ and in
the Formula of Concord rejected from
their association those who did not con-
form to that standard. See Heresy, Con-
fessions.
Orzechowski, Stanislaus, a high ec-
clesiastic of Przemysl, Poland; married
Magdalene Chelmicki in 1549; with fiery
eloquence pilloried the clerical immoral-
ity in his De Lege Coelibatus in 1551 ;
expelled, but returned to Romanism.
Osiander, Andreas; b. December 19,
1498; a “home-made theologian” ; priest
at Nuremberg in 1520; introduced the
Reformation; got acquainted with Lu-
ther in 1529; sided with him against
Zwingli at Marburg; opposed the peas-
ants and fanatics; at Augsburg, in 1530,
courageous over against Melanchthon’s
concessions; worked on the Branden-
burg-Nuremberg order of service 1530 — 2,
at Schmalkalden in 1537, at Hagenau
and Worms in 1540 and 1541; reformed
Pfalz-Neuburg in 1542 — 3. In 1537 he
got out the first Protestant gospel har-
mony in Greek and Latin; in 1539 he
attacked Eck; in 1543 he published Co-
pernicus’s Motion of the Heavenly
Bodies ; in 1544 his Conjectures' on the
Last Times, in which he put the end of
the world in 1656 and proved the papacy
to be the Antichrist. In 1548 he opposed
the Interim and in 1549 went to Koenigs-
berg and as professor taught falsely con-
cerning justification. See Osiandrian
Controversy. D. October 17, 1552. — His
son, Lukas the Elder, b. 1534, became
prominent in Swabia since 1555, formu-
lated the Maulbronn Formula, the basis
of the Formula of Concord, and got out
the Osiander Bible, attacked the Jews,
and was deposed in 1598; d. 1604. — His
son, Lukas the Younger, h. 1571, promi-
nent theologian in Swabia; attacked
John Arnd’s True Christianity in 1623,
d. 1638. — His older brother, Andreas the
Younger, h. 1562, chancellor of Tuebingen
University; got out a new edition of the
Osiander Bible and wrote The Wurttem-
berg Communicants’ Booklet for Young
and Plain People that Desire to Go to
the Lord’s Table, the basis for the later
Wurttemberg Confirmation Booklet. —
His nephew, Johann Adam, chancellor of
Tuebingen University, was a friend of
Spener, d. 1697. — His son, Johann, born
1657, prominent in Church and State, in-
troduced confirmation; d. 1724.
Osiandrian Controversy. Started by
Andreas Osiander when he left' Nurem-
berg to become professor at Koenigsberg
and in 1550 published his long-harbored
error on justification by faith. He
taught that God does not declare the
sinner just, but makes him just; does
not impute Christ’s obedience and right-
eousness to the sinner, but has Christ
Himself dwell in the sinner for his justi-
fication; does not act as a judge, but as
a physician. The blessed assurance of
salvation is not based on the objective
work of Christ for the sinner, but on the
pseudomystical union of Christ with the
believer. Osiander’s justification is not
based on the atonement; it minimizes
it; in fact, does not really require it.
It is virtually the Romanist doctrine.
He says himself good Romanists had
found his teaching quite tolerable, and
Osier, T’lhvarfl
561
Taine, John Knowles
bo it is no wonder Joachim Moerlin, Me-
lanchthon, Chemnitz, and others vigor-
ously attacked it. Osiander also held
that Christ is our Righteousness only as
to His divine nature. Francesco Stancaro,
the Italian, opposed this with the equally
erroneous statement that only the human
nature of Christ is our righteousness.
Even Calvin and those of Zurich wrote
against him. Art. Ill of the Formula of
Concord settled the trouble by teaching
that Christ is our Righteousness accord-
ing to both of His natures.
Osier, Edward, 1798 — 1863; educated
for the medical profession at Falmouth
and London; later devoted himself to
literary pursuits ; prominent in hym-
nological work; wrote: “May We Thy
Precepts, Lord, Fulfil,” and others.
Ostiarius. See Minor Orders; Hier-
archy.
Ott, John Henry; b. January 4, 1861,
at Tell City, Ind.; graduated at North-
western College; attended Amherst, Ber-
lin, and Halle universities ; Ph. D„ Halle,
1892; professor of English and History
at Northwestern College of the Wiscon-
sin Synod, 1886; librarian and bursar.
Ott works untiringly for Northwestern
and is the father of its fine library.
Otterbelnians. See Church of the
United Brethren in Christ.
Ottesen, Jacob Aall; b. 1825,
d. 1904; graduate of Christiania Uni-
versity 1849; came to the United States
1852; one of the founders of the Nor-
wegian Synod, its secretary; the first
to ally himself with the Missouri Synod
(1857); coeditor of Maanedstidende ;
author.
Our Lady of Mercy, Sisters of.
A congregation of women conducting
schools, hospitals, etc., and engaged chiefly
in educating the poor, visiting the sick,
and protecting distressed women of good
character.
Overbeck, Fritz, 1789 — 1869; mod-
ern romantic idealist; one of a group
of painters in Rome; excellent coloring,
fresco work; among his paintings:
“Joseph Sold by His Brethren.”
Owen, John, 1616 — 83; learned Non-
conformist; b. at Stadhampton; Pres-
byterian; Independent; preached before
Parliament on day following execution
of King Charles; vice-chancellor of Ox-
ford 1652; pastor in London; d. at
Ealing; prolific author.
Owen, Robert; English socialist and
philanthropist; b. 1771 at Newtown,
Wales; d. 1858, ibid.; endeavored to
improve social conditions of working-
men; founded numerous communistic
societies in Great Britain, also one at
New Harmony, Ind., all of which failed;
sought to abolish religion, marriage,
family, private property, because sources
of all evil; was atheist, later spiri-
tualist.
Oxford Tracts. (See Tractarianism.)
The Tracts for the Times, which began
to be published in 1832 and ended in
1841, set forth the theology of the Ox-
ford School, a name given to those
clergymen of the English Established
Church who adopted a theology which,
according to the evangelical party, was
a dangerous approach to Roman teach-
ing. The tenets of the Oxford School
were largely spread by Dr. Edward B.
Pusey (1800 — 82), canon of Christ
Church and Regius Professor of Hebrew
in Oxford University, after whom the
movement is known as Puseyism.
P
Pachelbel, Johann, 1653 — 1706; stud-
ied at Nuremberg, Altdorf, and Ratisbon ;
organist in a number of cities, last at
St. Sebald’s, Nuremberg; wrote much in
style of J. S. Bach; published 78 Cho-
rae/e gum Praeamhu Keren.
Pacific-Northwest Synod. This dis-
trict of the Joint Synod of Wisconsin
had its beginning with the Tacoma in-
dependent congregation, which asked to
be admitted to Wisconsin Synod, 1895.
It was received with its pastor, F. Wolf.
Other congregations, such as Leaven-
worth, Mansfield, North Yakima, Ellens-
burg, Clarkston, were added from time to
time through the efforts of home mis-
sionaries sent out by the Home Mission
flnncordla CvcloDedla
board of the Wisconsin Synod. As such
missionary district it remained part of
the mother synod until the reorganiza-
tion of 1917 authorized its independent
status. The congregations met and or-
ganized as the Pacific-Northwest District
of the Joint Synod in 1917 and elected
F. Soil, Yakima, president. There are
10 pastors, 16 congregations, 600 com-
municants. Congregational property to
the value of $24,000 is reported. It is
still, nearly entirely, a field for mission-
ary work.
Pacific Synod. See United Lutheran
Church.
Paine, John Knowles, 1839 — 1906;
studied chiefly at Berlin, under Haupt,
36
Paine, Thomas
562 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi S.
Fischer, and Wieprecht; organist in
Boston; professor of music at Harvard
after 1876; leader in American musical
development; oratorio St. Peter.
Paine, Thomas, English-American
author; b. 1737 at Thetford, England;
d. 1809 in New York; took part in
American Revolutionary War and French
Revolution ; was a freethinker and bitter
enemy of Christianity; wrote The Rights
of Man and The Age of Reason. In the
latter he expounds Deism and states
reason for rejecting Bible. Prophecy,
miracles, mystery, are the three prin-
cipal means of imposture. Rabidly at-
tacked redemption and vicarious atone-
ment. His language is satirical, often
blasphemous.
Paleario, Antonio, ca. 1500 — 70;
Italian Humanist; thrice accused of
heresy, one charge, the last time, being
that of teaching justification by faith ;
wavered temporarily, but at last attained
martyr’s courage and crown ; wrote
Della Pienezza, Sufficienza ed Efficacia
della Morte di Christo. See also Christ,
Benefits of.
Paleario, Aonio. See also Christ,
Benefits of. Wrote Della Pienezza, Suf-
ficienza ed Efficacia della Morte di
Christo.
Palestine is the name originally ap-
plied to the coastal plain inhabited by
the Philistines (Hebrew, Pelishtim) and
lying along the southeastern Mediter-
ranean. The Greeks, however, employed
the name to denote the entire southern
half of Syria, giving it the wider mean-
ing with which we are familiar to-day.
In its physical aspects Palestine may be
roughly divided into four longitudinal
sections running north and south.
These are: The maritime plain border-
ing the Mediterranean, the central range
of mountains, broken indeed by the
Plain of Esdraelon in the north, the
eastern range beyond the Jordan, and
the great gorge of the Jordan running
from the foot of Lebanon to the Dead
Sea. Though small in extent, its entire
area being somewhat less than one-
fourth of the State of Illinois, Palestine
was especially fitted to hold a chosen
people destined to perform a peculiar
mission. Separated by sea and desert
from the surrounding nations, yet hold-
ing a central position among them, it
was providentially appointed as the
home of the people to whom were com-
mitted the oracles of God and from
whom sprang the Messiah, the world’s
Redeemer. Population of Palestine in
1922, 755,858: 589,564 Mohammedans,
83,794 Jews, 72,926 Christians of all de-
nominations, 7,028 Druses; the remain-
der Samaritans, Bahais, Hindus, Sikhs,
and Metawihles. — Missions. The fanatic
jealousy of the various religious adher-
ents made Protestant missions almost
impossible. In 1820 the American Board
began operations by sending mission-
aries, chiefly to the Mohammedans and
Jews, but without appreciable results.
The C. M. S. entered early, but made no
progress until, in connection with Fred-
erick William IV of Prussia, it founded
the Bishopric of Jerusalem (1840), of
which Samuel Gobat, (1846 — 1879) was
second bishop. Gobat succeeded in win-
ning an opening among the Arabian or-
thodox population by Bible-readers and
by schools. German and English mission-
societies were called upon for assistance,
and the Kaiserswerth deaconesses re-
sponded by founding a hospital and the
girls’ school Talithakumi. In 1853 the
Berlin Jerusalem Society followed, tak-
ing over work in Bethlehem and the
neighboring sections. Spittler sent a
few missionaries to Jerusalem from the
St. Chrischona school at Basel. Follow-
ing upon the Lebanon massacres in 1860,
Ludwig Schneller gathered the orphans
and founded the Syrian Orphanage near
Jerusalem. The C. M. S. also continued
its work, founding stations from Jaffa
to Es Salt and Kerak. Latterly this
society has gone deeper into medical and
woman’s work, doing especially good
work among Mohammedans. Since the
World War the Zionistic hopes of the
Jews have been greatly quickened, and
strenuous efforts are being made to
colonize Palestine. — Missions are being
carried on by the American Friends, the
Christian and Missionary Alliance, Brit-
ish and Foreign Bible Society, Church
Missionary Society, Jerusalem and the
East Mission, Nile Mission Press, Trust
Society, Furtherance of Gospel (Mora-
vians). Statistics: Foreign staff, 160;
Christian community, 3,021; communi-
cants, 1,519.
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi
Sante, 1515 — 94; early life obscure;
admitted to Pontifical Chapel as singer
by Pope Julius III in recognition of liis
genius as shown in a published book of
masses; Pope Paul IV appointed him
maestro di capella at the Lateran; his
Improperia (q.v.) so excellent that they
were transferred to the Sistine Chapei,
where they are performed on every Good
Friday; during movement for reform of
church music wrote Missa Papae Mar-
celli, so satisfactory that polyphonic
music was retained; later composer to
the Pontifical Chapel, finally maestro of
St. Peter’s ; greatest composer of Cath-
Paley, William
563
Pantheism
olio Church and of the Roman School;
fame rests principally on his masses.
Paley, William, 1743—1805; Angli-
can, apologist; b. at Peterborough; or-
dained 1767; rector of Bisliopwear-
mouth 1795; d. at Lincoln. Moral and
Political Philosophy, 1786 (essentially
utilitarian) ; Truth of Scripture His-
tory of St. Paul, 1790 (Paley’s most
original work) ; View of Evidence of
Christianity, 1794 (combats Deism) ;
Evidences of Existence and Attributes of
the Deity, 1802 (teleological argument
popularized).
Pallium. A band of white wool, about
two inches wide, worn on the shoulders
and having two pendants, twelve inches
long, one hanging down in front and one
behind. The pallium is ornamented with
six black crosses and is worn over the
chasuble. Its use is reserved to the Pope
and to archbishops, the latter being un-
able to exercise metropolitan functions
till they have received the pallium from
the Pope on payment of a goodly fee.
The sale of the pallium was one of the
crying abuses of the papacy before the
Reformation. Part of the money raised
by Tetzel’s sale of indulgences was to
cover the pallium fee of Albert, Arch-
bishop of Mainz. Bishops sometimes re-
ceive the pallium as a mark of special
favor. An archbishop may wear it only
within his province and only on certain
occasions. The pallium . is supposed to
represent the “fulness of the episcopal
office.”
Palme, Rudolf, 1834 — ; studied
under A. G. Ritter; musical director
and organist at Magdeburg; composed
much organ music for church use, also
vocal music; his Orgelschule widely
used.
Palmer, Ray, J808 — 87 ; studied at
Phillips Academy, Andover, and at Yale ;
held various positions in the Congrega-
tional Church ; published many works in
prose and verse ; wrote : “My Faith
Looks Up to Thee,” and others.
Pamperrien, Karl Heinrich Ferdi-
nand Ludwig; b. August 11, 1845, in
Mecklenburg, Germany; educated at
Berlin and Rostock ; ordained at Rudol-
stadt April 22, 1877 ; Leipzig mission-
ary to South India 1877; Tranquebar,
1878 — 80; Tanjore, 1880 — 84; instruc-
tor at Leipzig Mission Seminary, India,
since 1885; • returned permanently to
Germany 1920, residing at Tostedt, Han-
over; d. 1926.
Pamphilus, presbyter at Caesarea in
Palestine, friend of Eusebius (Eusebius
Pamphili) ; founder of a theological
school and of a famous library at Caes-
area; d. a martyr (309).
Panama. See Central America.
Pancosmism. See Pantheism.
Pantheism. The monistic religious
and philosophical system according to
which God and the universe are one.
While theism and deism (qq.v.) assume
a personal, transcendant God, pantheism
denies the personality of God, ascribes
to Him merely an immanent existence in
the world, and identifies the two, assert-
ing that they are merely two names for
the same reality. However, as there are
two factors, either one may be considered
as absorbing the other, and therefore two
pantheistic views have developed. Ac-
cording to one view, proceeding from
the unity of nature, God is merged in
the world. This view, which is called
pancosmism and which, by emphasizing
nature, almost loses sight of God and
consequently approaches atheism, was
held by Spinoza, Goethe ( qq. v. ) , the
German and English Romanticists,
Haeckel (q.v.), and other materialists.
According to the other view, proceeding
from the infinite and eternal God, the
universe is merged in God. This view,
which is called acosmism and which
fundamentally denies the world or re-
gards it as an illusion, is found in Brah-
manism and Neoplatonism (qq. v.).
Though the term pantheism is modern,
having been coined by John Toland
(q.v.), 1705, the idea is quite old. It
is the fundamental doctrine of the Greek
Eleatic School. Neoplatonism looked
upon the phenomena of the universe as
emanations of the Deity. The Middle
Ages produced only isolated cases of
pantheism, as in the systems of Scotus
Erigena and the mystic Meister Eckart.
The most precise and consistent pan-
theist, not only of modern, but of all
times, is Spinoza, according to whom the
All is deus sive natura, and the great
multiplicity of phenomena in the uni-
verse are merely modes of the two at-
tributes of God, thought and extension,
and God has no reality except through
his manifestations in nature. Spinoza’s
pantheism exerted a great influence on
Herder and Goethe and the post-Kantian
philosophers and theologians, Fichte,
Schelling, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Schleier-
maclier (qq.v.). Brahmanic philosophy
created the conception of Brahma, the
world-soul. Only he can obtain salva-
tion, that is, release from transmigra-
tion (q.v.), who through profound con-
templation has come to the realization
of the illusion of phenomena and the
identity of the ego with Brahma. The
Papacy
584
Papias
great fallacy of pantheism is that, in ad-
dition to destroying the personality of
God and reducing Him to a lower rather
than to a higher object of worship, it
also destroys the personality of man,
who is merely one of the numberless
parts that constitute the All. Thereby
also individual responsibility and the
moral world order are destroyed.
Neither does it explain the existence of
evil. Christ’s redemptive work becomes
an illusion. Pantheism is but a short
step removed from atheism ( q.v .), and
the latter term is sometimes used as
embracing it. Mysticism, which en-
deavors to identify the thinker with the
Deity, is often associated with pan-
theism.
Papacy. (See also Primacy of Pope ;
Temporal Power.) The papacy was of
gradual growth, and its small beginnings
are involved in obscurity. That Peter
was the first bishop of Rome is legend,
not history ; in fact, it appears that
there were no bishops, in the present
sense of the word, till the second century.
Very early the church at Rome occupied
a prominent place, for it was the oldest
church in the West and was in the
world’s capital. Irenaeus, at the end of
the second century, mentions the honor-
ary preeminence of the church, not the
bishop, of Rome. He even rebuked
Bishop Victor as a troublemaker. A grow-
ing tendency appears in the history of
the first three centuries to accord first
the church, and then the bishop, of Rome
a preeminence of honor in the Church.
There also appears an increasing ten-
dency of the Roman bishops to assert a
supremacy of right, which was emphat-
ically denied in all parts of the Church.
The Christianization of the empire opened
new opportunities. Still the First Ecu-
menical Council (Nicea, 325) mentions
the bishop of Rome only incidentally,
and the following councils were neither
convened by him, nor did he or his leg-
ates preside. In spite of his protests the
Synod of Chalcedon (451) declared the
patriarch of Constantinople his official
equal. The fall of the empire in the
West (476) enabled the Roman bishops
to increase their power and to subject
one province after another to their spir-
itual sway. They soon proclaimed them-
selves the superiors of earthly rulers.
(See Church and State.) Monasticism
became a useful tool. With Gregory I
(590 — 604) began the papacy of the
Middle Ages, and documents were forged
to uphold all the papal pretensions.
While the spread of Islam freed Rome
from her Eastern rivals, her missiona-
ries, as they converted the Germanic
peoples to Christianity, simultaneously
inculcated obedience to Rome. Pepin and
Charlemagne, in return for papal favors,
laid the foundation of the temporal
power (q.v.). There followed nearly two
centuries of eclipse and degradation for
the papacy, while the papal chair was
stained with every form of crime and vice.
Then Emperor Henry III made some at-
tempts to reform the Church, and soon a
new race of Popes, supported by convenient
forgeries, the False Decretals, aspired to
greater power than any former Pope had
possessed. Through the genius of Greg-
ory VII the papacy rose to the meridian
of its power, maintaining itself in the
ascendency for more than two centuries
(1073 — 1303). The Crusades and the
establishment of the mendicant orders
were important factors. During this
time the Popes became lords of the earth.
They triumphed over the imperial house
of Ilohenstaufen, humbled and deposed
rulers, bestowed kingdoms, and wielded
the scepters of both the spiritual and the
political worlds. With the last years of
Innocent III (t 1303) a rapid decline of
papal power began. France, England,
and Germany revolted against political
interference by Rome. For nearly sev-
enty years (1309 — 76), the Popes were
practically captives at Avignon. Then
two and even three Popes simultaneously
claimed the pontifical chair during the
Great Schism (1378 — 1417). The de-
mand for a reform of the Church “in
head and members” grew more and more
insistent throughout Christendom; but
though the Council of Constance (1414
to 1418) healed the schism, it brought no
actual reform, but burned Hus, the re-
former. By the end of the 15th century
the papacy had regained much of its
power, and the papal throne was occu-
pied by some of the most degraded
wretches on record. Through the Refor-
mation, God definitely broke the. power
of the papacy, and since then, despite
all efforts of the Jesuits and others,
papal power has been only an emaciated
shadow of its former self. Even so-called
Catholic countries have shown themselves
less and less tractable to the political in-
trigues of the Roman Curia and have
enacted laws to curb the power of the
hierarchy and to protect their own sov-
ereignty. The same year which saw the
declaration of papal infallibility (1870)
was also made memorable by the aboli-
tion of the last vestiges of the Pope’s
temporal power.
Papal States. See State of the Church.
Papias, bishop of Hierapolis in
Phrygia; disciple of John ( ? ) and friend
of Polycarp; b. ca. 70 A. D.; suffered
Papua
565
Paramentles.
martyrdom about the same time as Poly-
carp ; best known as the author of Ex-
planations of the Sayings of the Lord ,
comments on the words of Christ to-
gether with much additional material
derived from oral tradition. The frag-
ments preserved have been the subject
of heated controversy in the critical dis-
cussions on the origin of the gospels.
Papua, the largest island on the globe
after the continent-island Australia, be-
longs to the Melanesian group. Esti-
mated area, 234,708 sq. mi. Population,
ea. 1,000,000. The southeastern section
formerly belonged to Great Britain (Brit-
ish New Guinea), but was transferred to
the Commonwealth of Australia in 1906.
The northeastern section, belonging to
Germany until the World War, was
called Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land and has
now been placed under the administra-
tion of Australia. The western portion
belongs to the Netherlands. The aborigi-
nes are Papuans, related to the Negro
race. Missions were conducted in Dutch
New Guinea by the Berlin Gossner Mis-
sion Society since 1855, the first mis-
sionaries, Ottow and Geissler, doing val-
iant pioneer work. The Utrecht Mission
Union (Utrechtsohe Zendingsvereeniging)
succeeded to their work. Good success
was achieved, especially near the Geel-
vink Bay. — In British Papua the L. M. S.
began operations in 1871 with such out-
standing men as Murray, Macfarlane,
Chalmers, and Lawes. Than Lawes “no
white man had ever had a more wide and
varied knowledge of the mainland of New
Guinea, or visited more tribes, or made
more friends, or endured more hardships,
or faced more perils.” Since the baptism
of the first converts in 1881 steady prog-
ress has been made. A Wesleyan Metho-
dist Mission was begun 1881 off the
southeastern coast. The Roman Church
entered in 1889.- — In Kaiser Wilhelm’s
Land . the Rhenish Missionary Society be-
gan work in 1887, waiting long for re-
sults, which finally came. The Society
for Home and Foreign Missions Accord-
ing to the Principles of the Lutheran
Church (Neuendettelsau, Bavaria) began
to work in 1886. This work has been
taken over since the World War by the
American Lutheran Iowa Synod.
Paraguay. See South America.
Paramentics. The study of para-
ments, or church vestments, coverings,
and hangings, especially those pertain-
ing to the furniture of the chancel, a dis-
tinction being observed between para-
mentics proper, as here defined, and
paramentics in the wider sense, which
includes the knowledge of the clerical
vestments with the embroidery pertain-
ing to them. As far as the altar vest-
ments and the Eucharistic cloths are
concerned, the white linen paraments are
used at all seasons of the church-year,
since they signify the unchanging doc-
trine of the Christian Church. There
are mainly three white vestments to be
considered in the first group of altar
cloths: the white cloth covering of the
mensa (linen), with its overhanging
border of geometrical drawn-work or lace
(Cluny, Tulle, Hardanger) ; the Corpo-
ral, a square white linen cloth placed
under the Eucharistic vessels, with a
narrow fringe of Cluny or Hardanger
lace; the Veil, a square (30X30, 36X36
in.) of the finest linen procurable, its
purpose being to cover the sacred vessels
when they are on the altar and not in
use. The place of the Lavabo (a hand-
cloth ) and the Maniple ( a small towel ) ,
prescribed by the Catholic ritual, may
well be taken at this time by small nap-
kins used to keep the edge of the chalice
clean. Many altar sets now include also
a Palla, or a number of palls, one for
each vessel, chalices and paten. They
are preferably made of linen and folded
or hemmed over a piece of cardboard,
their purpose being to cover the ele-
ments when not in use. The decorative
vestments of the altar and of the read-
ing-desks (lectern, pulpit, and altar) are
properly in the colors of the season.
There are altogether five liturgical col-
ors : white, the color of the angels and
of all saints, as Luther calls it, sym-
bolizing innocence and holiness, majesty
and glory; red, the majestic color of
dominion, of joy, of light-giving doc-
trine, of the fire of the Holy Ghost, of
blood and of martyrdom, symbolizing
especially love, the love of the Bride, the
Church, to Christ, the Bridegroom ;
green, the every-day color of the earth,
the restful and refreshing color of hope,
of peace, and of victory ; violet, the
solemn, earnest color of penitence and
mourning, humility, concentration, and
prayerful self-communion; and black,
the color of the most profound humilia-
tion, sadness, and deepest mourning. It
may be said, briefly, that white is used
on the great Christ festivals, Christmas
and Easter, and during their season
proper ; red, on the festivals emphasiz-
ing the relation between Christ and His
Church, on Pentecost, Trinity, Michael-
mas, Reformation Festival, and Dedica-
tion Day and its anniversaries; green,
during the last part of the Epiphany
season and on all Sundays during Trin-
ity season (also on Maundy Thursday) ;
violet, during the seasons of Advent and
Lent; black, during Holy Week (except
Pardieck, E.
566
Parker, Theodore
Maundy Thursday) and when funeral
services are held in church.
Pardieck, E.; b. at Indianapolis,
April 29, 1867 ; graduated at St. Louis
Seminary 1890; pastor at Chicago, 111.;
professor at St. Paul’s College, Concor-
dia, Mo., 1902 — 12; at Concordia Sem-
inary, St. Louis, Mo., 1912 — 23; d. at
Madison, Ind., March 21, 1926.
Pardons. Pardons, or indulgences,
are defined as follows by Leo X in his
bull Cum Postquam (1518): “The Ro-
man Pope, successor of Peter, the key-
bearer and vicar of Jesus Christ on
earth, . . . can, for reasonable causes,
grant the same saints of Christ who,
joined by charity, are members of Christ,
whether they be in this life or in purga-
tory, pardons out of the superabundance
of the merits of Christ and the saints;
and he has been accustomed, by granting
pardon both for the living and the dead
with apostolic authority, to distribute
the treasure of the merits of Jesus Christ
and the saints, to confer the pardon it-
self after the manner of an absolution,
or to transfer it after the manner of a
suffrage.” See Indulgences, Opera Super-
erogationis.
Parents, Rights and Duties of.
Just as privileges are the correlate of
obligations, so duties are the correlate of
rights. To insist upon rights without
paying proper attention to duties would
amount to a most serious neglect of pa-
rental obligations. Children are gifts of
God to the parents. Ps. 127, 3 — 5; 128,3.
In accordance with this fact, children
ought to be regarded most highly and
guarded most carefully. The sinfulness
with which they are born into this world,
John 3, 3. 6, makes it necessary that they
be born again by the water and the Word,
Eph. 2, 1. 5; 5, 26. Not only are parents
to bring their children to the Lord in
and by Holy Baptism, but they are also
to instruct them, or have them in-
structed, in the Holy Scriptures, which
alone are able to make them wise unto
salvation through faith which is in Christ
Jesus. 2 Tim. 3, 14 — 17. The fundamen-
tal passage laying this obligation upon
parents is Eph. 6, 4: “Ye fathers, pro-
voke not your children to wrath, but
bring them up in the nurture and ad-
monition of the Lord.” This makes it
necessary for the attitude of parents to
follow this rule. Cp. Ps. 103, 13 ; Col.
3,21. To acknowledge a child as a gift
of God, to accept it in the name of Jesus,
to treat it as one of the redeemed of the
Lord and as an heir of eternal life, that
is the privilege of Christian parents. - —
The proper understanding of all these
facts demands that parents feel the di-
rect concern for the bringing up of their
children in the instruction which is nec-
essary for salvation. They are reminded
of the example of Abraham, of whom the
Lord Himself says: “I know Kim that
he will command his children and his
household after him, and they shall keep
the way of the Lord to do justice and
judgment.” Gen. 18, 19; cp. Deut. 6, 6. 7 ;
11, 19.20. This meansjthat parents will
acquaint their children with the one
thing needful just as soon as possible.
They will, of course, pray for them and
over them even before the little ones are
able to speak. They will teach them
little prayers and tell them about their
Savior just as soon as the first signs of
response and understanding are evident.
They will have regular home devotions,
or family worship, at least once a day,
making it a point to draw the' children
into the circle of the wonderful facts
presented. They will send them, if at all
possible, to a Christian day-school and
at least to a Christian Sunday-school
and to catechumen classes, showing their
eager interest in the work of the children
in every way. They will prayerfully and
tactfully watch over the children of the
adolescent age, to keep them with the
Church and to lead them ever more
deeply into the Book of books. Thus
only will the end and aim of a complete
education be reached, namely, that the
man of God may be perfect, thoroughly
furnished unto all good works.
Paris Evangelical Mission Society,
organized by French Reformed Protes-
tants, 1822, through the merger of sev-
eral already existing societies in France,
which, however, remained auxiliaries.
First general meeting 1824, when a
training-school for missionaries was es-
tablished. During and since the World
War the society fostered some of the for-
mer German missions in Africa. Fields:
Africa and Australasia.
Parker, Joseph, 1830 — 1902; elo-
quent Congregational clergyman; b. at
Hexham; did not attend seminary;
pastor at Banbury, Manchester, London
(City Temple); visited America; d. in
London; wrote The People’s Bible, etc.
Parker, Theodore, American Unita-
rian clergyman; b. 1810, at Lexington,
Mass.; d. 1860 in Florence, Italy; pas-
tor of Unitarian Church, West Roxbury,
Mass., 1837 ; through study of German
rationalists was led to deny authority of
Bible and supernatural origin of Chris-
tianity, which older Unitarians still ac-
cepted, and saw that to base Unitarian-
ism on Bible was untenable, thereby
Parochial School
567
Parochial School
becoming leader of new school of Unita-
rians; repudiating all fundamentals of
Christianity, he was ostracized by the
Unitarian clergy, resigned pastorate in
West Roxbury, and preached for four-
teen years in a concert hall in Boston.
Parochial School. A primary or
grammar school, organized, owned, main-
tained, and controlled by a local Chris-
tian congregation for the purpose of
instructing children in the elementary
branches of general knowledge, teaching
them the Word of God, and educating
them according to Christian principles —
a Christian day-school. Also the state
maintains elementary schools ( see Public
School), which, in our country, do not
offer any religious instruction. The
parochial school stresses the moral and
religious education of its pupils, at the
same time, however, fully teaching all
those things which ‘make for intelligent
citizenship. The right and duty to teach
religion rests not with the state, but
with the home and the Church. From
Deut. 6, 6. 7; Ps. 78, 1—6; Eph. 6, 4
we learn that it is primarily the duty
of parents to give to, or provide for,
their children religious instruction and
education. But from Matt. 28, 18 — 20;
John 21, 15; Acts 20, 28 we see that
this duty is enjoined also upon churches
and pastors. It was the consciousness of
this duty that from the beginning of the
Christian era has prompted congrega-
tions and pastors to make some provision
for the religious instruction and educa-
tion of their youth. And the best and
most effectual means found so far is the
Christian day-school. For Christian
schools before the Reformation see Cat-
echumenate; Education, Popular and
Christian.
A new epoch in the history of Chris-
tian elementary schools began in the
third decade of the 16th century, when
Luther and his colaborers Melanchthon
and Bugenhagen emphasized the neces-
sity of teaching and training the young.
Luther’s Epistle to the Councilmen of
All German Cities to Found and Foster
Christian Schools, 1524, virtually made
him the founder of common schools
(Volksschulen). “The universal igno-
rance of the people in secular and, espe-
cially; religious matters appealed power-
fully to these men, and through their
effort, in absence of provisions by the
state for the maintenance of schools, a
plan was worked out according to which
the pastors were held to teach the chil-
dren of their parish the fundamental
principles of religion as laid down in the
Catechism and, as far as possible, to
raise the standard of intelligence by
embracing common branches in their
school plans. By degrees, larger parishes
elaborated this duty to such an extent
that special teachers were employed,
superintended, and salaried by the
church. Such schools were named paro-
chial or congregational schools.” ( Luth .
Cyclopedia) . As a result of the labors
of these men we find Christian schools
springing up everywhere in Protestant
communities. In cities old schools were
reorganized; new ones were founded id
hamlets ; monasteries and nunneries were
often changed into schools for boys or
for girls. These were common schools,
whose aim was not specifically to pre-
pare for the ministry or some public
office, but to offer to children of all
classes a general common school educa-
tion by teaching them reading, writing,
arithmetic, history, singing, and music,
and instructing them in the truths of the
Christian religion. And though these
schools were at first handicapped by lack
of interest on the part of parents and
want of competent teachers, the Refor-
mers aroused the interest of the people,
trained teachers, devised school plans,
wrote text-books, and visited these
schools. They were the best in their
day and far surpassed the schools of the
old order. This educational renaissance
in Germany in the course of time affected
the schools also in other, even Catholic,
countries. In England, France, and
Italy we soon find common schools in
which instruction in religion was the
chief object sought. During the follow-
ing centuries these schools shared the
fate of the Church; the Thirty Years’
War, deism, and rationalism worked
havoc also in these Christian schools.
Yet the idea of the Reformers of giving
to all classes of children a Christian
common school education was still ad-
hered to. During the 17th century Cuius
regio, eius religio (Whoso region, his
religion) became a generally accepted
maxim of statecraft. The state church
meant a state school. Hence the idea
of a purely parochial school as we now
understand the term was not generally
realized, and if so, soon abandoned, in-
asmuch as the state took the matter in
hand and from ampler means provided
better school facilities. However, due
regard was had for the religious instruc-
tion of the children; hence the religious
state schools as we find them in Euro-
pean countries. At present the tendency,
at least in Germany and France, seems
to be not only to separate State and
Church, but also to eliminate all re-
ligious instruction from state-controlled
schools.
Parochial School
568
Parochial School
In our country, where the Government
subsidizes no particular denomination
nor interferes with the exercise of re-
ligion of any of its citizens, there was
an excellent opportunity for the develop-
ment of a real parochial school, in which
Christians could educate tlieir children
according to the dictates of their con-
sciences. The first Lutheran pioneers
brought with them from the fatherland
the parish school. Beside the rude log
church a schoolhouse always arose, and
II. M. Muehlenberg (1748), who is said
never to have lost sight of the training
of the children, built a schoolhouse at
The Trappe even before he began the
erection of a house of worship. The
Salzburgers, who settled in Georgia in
1734, at once made provision for the
education of their children. At synod-
ical meetings “the condition of the paro-
chial schools” was considered, each pastor
reporting on the wants and prospects of
his school. In 1804, 2(1 congregations
reported 89 schools; in 1821, 206 paro-
chial schools in 84 congregations were
accounted for. In the latter part of the
18th and the first decades of -the 19th
century there wore many flourishing
parochial schools in New York, Penn-
sylvania, Ohio, North Carolina, and
Virginia, indeed, wherever Lutherans
settled. However, there came a change.
The public or free school system spread,
immigration from Lutheran countries de-
creased, it was quite difficult to secure
competent teachers, and, chiefly, a spirit
of indifference and lack of interest in
the religious instruction and education
of children became manifest in Lutheran
congregations. While a number of parish
schools continued in the East, new col-
onists from Germany settled in the Cen-
tral and Western States. In 1839 about
750 Lutheran immigrants came from
Saxony and settled in St. Louis and in
Perry Co., Mo. They at once proceeded
to organize Christian schools for their
children. P. Winter was the first teacher
in Altenburg, Perry Co.; in St. Louis
L. Beyer and J. F. Buenger taught school.
Rev. F. C. D. Wyneken labored in Ohio,
Indiana, and Michigan, preaching and
teaching the young as well as circum-
stances would permit. In 1845 Lutheran
Bavarians settled in Frankenmuth, Mich.,
and at once established schools, not only
for their own children, but also for their
Indian neighbors. When the Synod of
Missouri, Ohio, and Other States was
organized 1847 in Chicago, 111., its con-
stitution required of each congregation
“to provide for Christian instruction at
school of the children of the congrega-
tion.” Hence from the very start,
schools were opened for the young where-
ever the Gospel was preached to the old.
The pastors, from devotion to the cause,
usually taught school themselves. But
as soon as the means of the congregation
permitted, a regular teacher was called.
As to buildings, equipment, hooks, these
schools, like the public schools of their
day in similar communities, were, indeed,
primitive, if judged by modern stand-
ards; the rooms were overcrowded;
often 100 and even more children were
under the care of one teacher. However,
as a means for indoctrinating and truly
educating the young and for building
the Church they have never been sur-
passed; they were the nurseries of the
congregations and one of the chief causes
of the healthy and prosperous growth
of the Synod. In 1848 Synod had 14
schools, with 508 pupils; in 1858: 113
schools and 4,974 pupils; in 1868: 367
schools and 22,687 pupils; in 1916:
2,313 schools and 96,737 pupils; in
1921: 1,277 schools and 73,120 pupils,
1,062 male teachers, 300 woman teachers,
and 473 pastors teaching school; in
1925: 1,388 schools and 80,173 pupils,
1,272 male teachers, 447 woman teachers,
and 401 pastors and 97 students teaching
school. The decline after 1916 is thus
accounted for: Formerly also all Satur-
day-sehoois and summer-schools were
counted, while the statistics for the last
years take in only regular, full-week
day-schools; during the World War
war-crazed Councils of Defense in some
localities forced the closing of some
schools because they imagined they car-
ried on German propaganda and held
that true and genuine American citizens
could grow up only in the public schools;
furthermore, in some congregations the
first love and the former interest in the
religious education of children has grown
cold, and Sunday-schools are believed to
be sufficient; finally, there is a decrease
in the birth-rate. But the outlook is by
no means discouraging; on the contrary,
many schools have been reopened, new
ones are being founded, others are being
reorganized and enlarged, at conferences,
synods, and in the meetings of congre-
gations the school question is discussed,
hostile legislation is fought, and the
danger threatening the schools quickens
and increases the proper appreciation
of their merit. In 1913 the General
Conference of Lutheran schoolteachers at
Laporte, Ind., inaugurated a movement
which was to increase interest in paro-
chial schools, to raise still more the
standard of efficiency, to unify schools
of the same grade, and, in general, to
promote the cause of parochial schools.
Parochial School
569
Parochial School
As a result of this movement school
boards and superintendents were elected
in several synodical Districts, and Synod
elected a General School Board and a
General School Superintendent. These
measures have proved very helpful, and
their helpfulness will be increased in
proportion as the plans outlined will be
more generally applied. The American
Luther League, organized 1919 at Fort
Wayne, Ind., makes the support and
safeguarding of Christian education its
chief aim, and its local organizations
can do much to stimulate interest in
the Christian schools of their own con-
gregations. Desiring to have their chil-
dren not merely instructed in secular
branches, but also, indeed, above all, in
the Word of God and to have them truly
educated and brought up in the nurture
and admonition of the Lord, Lutheran
Christians, besides helping to support
the public schools with their taxes, cheer-
fully and liberally, from private funds,
contribute towards the maintenance of
their parochial schools. Ownership of
these schools is therefore vested in the
local congregation, which exercises con-
trol over all matters pertaining thereto
through a school board elected by the
congregation. The immediate supervision
is usually delegated to the pastor. Many
spacious and modern school-buildings
have been erected in recent years, and
congregations are bent upon increasing
the efficiency and equipment of their
schools. In rural districts there are
“mixed” schools, one teacher having
charge of all the grades, but as the
number of pupils increases, more teach-
ers are called. In villages and cities
there are many schools that have 2 to
8 teachers, the grades, in the main, con-
forming to those of the public schools.
The school-year usually begins in the
first week of September and ends in the
latter part of June or in the first part
of July. A distinctive feature of these
schools is the corps of teachers. Men
properly prepared for 'their vocation and
graduated from accredited normal schools
(Kiver Forest, 111., and Seward, Nebr.)
are called, and they make their profes-
sion a life-work. Female teachers are
employed only as assistants, never being
called to their position, but serving tem-
porarily. Many pastors take charge of
the schools in their congregations until
a regular teacher can be called. All
these men consider it their duty, not
merely to instruct and to impart knowl-
edge, but to educate, to form and build
the character of the child. The plan of
study embraces all the common school
branches taught in the public school :
reading, grammar, composition, arith-
metic, United States history, and the
elements of civics, geography, nature
study, elementary physiology, drawing,
penmanship, singing. In the past, Ger-
man was taught in nearly all of these
schools, and in many it is still being
taught as a language. However, the
American language is the medium of
instruction in all the common branches;
in fact, since the rising generation is
more conversant in this tongue, German
has been discontinued in many schools
or is optional. Because of the fact that
also the German language was taught,
these schools have often erroneously been
called German schools, as though the
American language were not taught
there. But while the Lutheran immi-
grants from Germany indeed wished
their children to learn their mother
tongue, the congregations insisted on
teaching also the language of the coun-
try. The knowledge of any language
tesides that of one’s own country is a
valuable asset to any man, and these
schools have demonstrated the possibility
of teaching two languages without in-
jury to the common school branches.
Strenuous work and faithful application
on the part of teacher and pupil make it
possible to handle this high school sub-
ject already in the grades. However, the
chief purpose of these schools was and is,
not to perpetuate the knowledge of the
German language, but to teach the Word
of God and to educate the pupils accord-
ing to Christian principles. Therefore
these schools are more fittingly called
Christian day-schools. Religious instruc-
tion and Christian education are the out-
standing features. The first period in
the morning is usually devoted to re-
ligious instruction : Catechism, Bible
stories, recitation of hymns and of Scrip-
ture-texts, Bible-reading. As a means of
developing mental activities the method
of religious instruction as it obtains in
these schools is equaled by few, sur-
passed by none, of the other studies.
But we must discriminate between in-
struction concerning religious subjects
and religious education, the aim of which
is to produce religious men and women
who, prompted and. actuated by a living
faith in Christ, shape their lives accord-
ing to His Word. In Christian education
the heart, which means both sentiment
and will, is central. Religious instruc-
tion, therefore, is given not for its in-
tellectual value, but chiefly that children
may learn to know Christ and to believe
in Him as their personal Savior, to lead
Christian lives in the power of such
faith, and to be saved by such faith.
Parr, Samuel
570 Fassavant, William Alfred
This Christian education is observed not
only in the periods set aside for religious
instruction, but as long as the children
are at school. Thus these schools truly
educate, for this life and for the life to
come. There is no true education with-
out religion. Says Dr. Stanley Hall in
an address to the National Education
Association: “I am really sorry for you
people. You are going home to your
schools with roseate hopes. You believe
that your work will be a blessing and
that the welfare of the country depends
upon your work. But I repeat, I am
sorry for you. You cannot educate in
the public schools because the Word of
God is lacking! Your work simply con-
sists in training the reason of the chil-
dren entrusted to you. The only people
in this country who know how to educate
are the Lutherans and the Catholics in
their parochial schools.” It is therefore
of utmost importance that children dur-
ing the formative and impressionable
period of life attend such schools where
they receive a Christian education. The
results have been most gratifying. These
Lutheran parochial schools have turned
out children who were well founded in
the teachings of Scriptures and became
loyal church-members; and thus these
schools proved themselves nurseries of
the Church. These schools filled our col-
leges with students preparing for the
service of the Church, and proportion-
ately these schools have furnished the
largest number of loyal and law-abiding
citizens, whose patriotism and obedience
to the laws of the land is not a matter
of expediency and enthusiasm, but of
conscience and religion. Open-eyed and
unbiased representatives of the leading
churches in our country have advocated
the religious or church schools for all
who desire to have the education of
their children governed and permeated
by religious principles. Other Lutheran
church-bodies take the same stand and
are fostering church schools, notably the
Wisconsin Synod, but also the Ohio
Synod and the Iowa Synod. And some
churches besides the Lutheran, such as
the Roman Catholics, the Dutch Re-
formed, the Jews, and the Mormons, have
acted upon this principle; but the prin-
ciple has been acknowledged also by
Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Congrega-
tionalists, and Methodists. All that is
necessary is that these churches reduce
to practise what they preach and live up
to their avowed educational ideals.
Parr, Samuel, 1747 — 1825; Anglican;
b. at Harrow-on-the-Hill ; assistant mas-
ter at Harrow; priest in 1776; vicar at
Hatton (d. there) 1783; author; Cice-
ronian Latinist; famous for learning
and dogmatism.
Parsees. Modern adherents of Zoro-
astrianism (q. v . ), of whom about 10,000
live in Persia and 101,778 (census of
1921) in India, chiefly in the Bombay
Presidency, where their Persian ances-
tors settled in the 8th century, when
Moslems conquered Persia. Because of
their wealth and their social position
they now form an important element of
the population of India. They have
tenaciously clung to their old religion,
whose main tenets are the Zoroastrian
dualism, belief in angels, demons, future
life, sacredness of fire, veneration of the
cow. Their dead are exposed on “towers
of silence,” to be devoured by vultures.
See also Fire-worshipers.
Pascal, Blaise, 1623 — 62; celebrated
French thinker, mathematician, and man
of letters; known to the world as the
author of Provincial Letters and
Thoughts. Born at Clermont, he was
educated at Paris and Rouen and
showed remarkable genius and precocity.
About the year 1655 he became asso-
ciated with the Jansenists at the con-
vent of Port Royal (near Paris) and
soon championed their cause against
the Jesuits. The Provincial Letters
(“Letters written to a provincial . . .
on the subject of morals and politics of
the [Jesuit] fathers”) appeared in 1656.
Written with delicate irony and keen
satire, these letters, the nearest modern
approach to the Socratic dialog, con-
stitute “the most fearful attack that any
dominating party of the Church ever
sustained” (Harnack). But Pascal as
a Catholic and a Frenchman could not
adopt the manner of Luther, and there-
fore his blows were less effective. The
Thoughts (Pensees) are a series of de-
tached fragments of composition, the un-
organized material of a projected defense
of Christianity, which the author did
not live to complete.
Fascha (Passah). The Feast of the
Passover in the Old Testament, the word
being widely applied to the Festival of
Easter in the New Testament, in its Lat-
inized form, paschal hymns, paschal
offerings, and paschal candles being
spoken of.
Passavant, William Alfred, Lu-
theran; b. at Zelienople, Pa., October 9,
1821; d. at Pittsburgh, June 3, 1894;
graduated 1842 from the Lutheran theo-
logical seminary at Gettysburg and or-
dained the same year; pastor in Balti-
more 1842 — 4, in Pittsburgh 1844 — 55;
editor of the Workman 1880 — 7 ; intro-
duced the Kaiserswerth system of
Passion and Passion Plays
571
Patrick, St.
deaconesses in America. Hospitals at
Pittsburgh, Milwaukee, Chicago, and
Jacksonville, 111., were established
through his efforts, orphanages at
Rochester, Zelienople, Pa., and Mount
Vernon, N. Y., and Thiel College, Green-
ville, Pa.
Passion and Passion Plays. In the
narrower sense, the species of religious
drama of the medieval age which was
developed from the responses and read-
ings of Holy Week and of the Lenten
season, this form rapidly growing into
a cycle portraying the events of Holy
Week; in the wider sense, especially as
used in Germany, all forms of religious
drama dealing with the life of Christ,
other designations being Corpus Christi
or Whitsun Plays, Osterspiele, and Fron-
leichnamsspiele.
Passionists. A mendicant congrega-
tion under the immediate protection of
the Pope, founded in Italy in 1737. Its
members lead an austere life and, besides
the usual vows, promise to practise and
promote devotion to the Passion of
Christ. They entered the United States
in 1852 and are active in conducting
missions and retreats.
Pastor Aeternus, Constitution, the
name usually applied to a decree of the
Vatican Council concerning the papacy
and its authority. It treats in four
chapters: 1. The primacy of Peter;
2. the transmission of such primacy to
the Roman Pontiff; 3. the power and
nature of the primacy of the Roman
Pontiff ; 4. the infallibility of the Ro-
man Pontiff. For additional details see
Vatican Council.
Pastor Hermae, an allegorical didac-
tic romance, takes its name from the
circumstance that an angel in the garb
of a shepherd appears in it and commu-
nicates with Hermas. Though overloaded
with fantastic figures and images and of
small literary value, the Shepherd was
read in public worship until the days of
Eusebius and treated almost as a part of
Scripture in the Codex Sinaiticus. Its
three divisions (Visions, Mandates, and
Similitudes) are an urgent call to re-
pentance. The author’s view of Chris-
tianity is that of a new law, while much
of his theology is based on Jewish apoc-
alyptic sources. The date of the book
cannot be fixed. The view placing it at
about 100 A. D. seems most plausible.
The author can hardly have been the
friend of Paul mentioned Rom. 16, 14.
Pastoral Theology. That branch of
practical theology which includes chiefly
the pastor’s care of the souls in his
charge or of the direction of the Chris-
tian life in the congregation.
Paton, John Gibson, Presbyterian
missionary; b. at Kirkmahoe, Scotland,
May 24, 1824; d. at Canterbury, Austra-
lia, January 28, 1907 ; served as city
missionary in Glasgow 1847 — 57 ; began
work in Tanna, New Hebrides, 1857, in
the service of the United Presbyterian
Church; after extensive journeys located
on Aniwa, where he was eminently suc-
cessful; translated and published parts
of the Bible into the Aniwan language.
Patriarch. The title of the highest
dignitary in the ecclesiastical hierarchy
as the latter developed after the days of
Constantine. A patriarch’s jurisdiction
corresponded, in the main, with a civil
diocese, which since the reorganization
of the Roman Empire under Diocletian
included various provinces. Thus he
ranked above the metropolitan, or pro-
vincial bishop. This tendency toward
centralizing ecclesiastical authority is-
sued ultimately in the four great patri-
archates of Constantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch, and Jerusalem. In the West,
the bishop of Rome, claiming the pri-
macy, refused the patriarchal title, and
the name archbishop was commonly ap-
plied to the highest representatives of
the episcopal order. In modern times
the heads of the Armenian, Coptic, and
Jacobite churches are called patriarchs,
as also the archbishops of Venice and
Lisbon. The Russian patriarchate, which
since 1589 had become independent of
Constantinople, was abolished by Peter
the Great (1721) and was replaced by
the Holy Synod, the highest executive
tribunal in the Eastern Church.
Patrick, St., is reputed to have been
the apostle of Ireland, winning it to
Christianity from 432 on. But it is
probable that Ireland was Christianized
before that date from England and that
Patrick merely played a prominent role
in the Irish Church. His name was
really Sucat, and he seems to have called
himself Patricius because he hailed from
a patrician family. He was probably
born ca. 380 in Banaventa, Scotland, and
was rather loose in morals in his early
youth, though, as some say, he was the
son of a deacon and the nephew of a
presbyter. In his sixteenth year he was
kidnapped by pirates and compelled to
herd swine in Ireland, was converted,
went to Rome, and there was probably
consecrated as bishop of Ireland, but not
in order to spread Christianity, but to
combat the false doctrines of Pelagius.
However, it is denied by many that he
was ever in Rome. Some say that he
Patrologry and Patristics
572
Pax V olilscuin
was sent from England to Ireland;
others, from Gaul. D. ca. 460. We have
an autobiography of him, entitled Gon-
fessio. Patrick has become almost en-
tirely a legendary figure. His own con-
fession seems to have been tampered
with and is therefore not reliable. It
is not reasonable to doubt his ever hav-
ing existed, as some do, but.it is quite
sure that too much has been made of
him and his work in the Irish Church.
Patrology and Patristics. Two sub-
jects pertaining to church history,
closely related, the former denoting the
historical side, the latter the formal
study of writings of the Fathers.
Patron Saints. As patrons are per-
sons who protect and promote the in-
terests of others, so patron saints, in the
Roman Church, are supposed to be the
special protectors and celestial advocates
of those by whom they are elected or to
whom they are assigned. They are hon-
ored by their clients with a special
veneration. Only canonized saints are
eligible. Every church has its patron
saint, who is usually also the titular,
after whom the church is named. His
festival is celebrated with particular
solemnity. Countries have patron saints ;
e. g., England, St. George; Germany,
St. Michael; France, St. Denis; Ire-
land, St. Patrick ; Scotland, St. Andrew ;
Norway, St. Olaf ; Sweden, St. Bridget ;
Canada, St. Anne and St. George; the
United States, Our Lady of the Immacu-
late Conception. Among the patron
saints of trades and professions are :
Andrew (fishermen) ; Cosmas and Da-
mian (doctors) ; Christopher (porters) ;
Cecilia (musicians) ; Crispin (shoe-
makers) ; Hubert (hunters) ; Stephen
(stone-masons) ; Vitus (comedians and
dancers). For illnesses: Claire and
Lucy (eye-trouble) ; Agatha (diseases
of the breast) ; Apollonia (toothache) ;
Blasius (sore throat); Benedict (poi-
son) ; Hubert (dog bite). Persons, too,
may have patron saints, usually those
on or near whose festival they were born
or whose name they bear.
Patteson, John Coleridge, English
missionary bishop; b. April 1, 1827, in
London; d. at Nukapu, Melanesia, Sep-
tember 20, 1871. He succeeded Bishop
Selwyn of the Melanesian Mission, being
ordained a bishop in 1861. In the
Southern Gross he cruised much in the
interest of spreading the Gospel among
the Melanesians. On a missionary tour
to Nukapu he was slain by the natives.
Max Mueller wrote of him: “To have
known such a man is one of life’s
greatest blessings.” His name “will live
in every cottage, in every school and
church in Melanesia.” Besides outstand-
ing gifts for mission-work, Patteson had
a special gift as a linguist, controlling
no less than forty languages and dia-
lects.
Patton, Francis Landey, 1843 — ;
Presbyterian; b. in Bermuda; pastor;
professor of theology at McCormick;
professor at Princeton Seminary; presi-
dent of Princeton University 1888 — 1902;
of Princeton Seminary; retired 1913;
author.
Paul of Samosata. Sec Monarch-
ianism.
Paulicians, a Gnostic-Manichean-Mar-
cionite sect to be traced in Armenia
since the middle of the seventh century,
where they remained, in spite of persecu-
tions, until their removal to Thrace
ca. 970. In the eleventh century they,
in part, returned to the Church, while
others identified themselves with various
other sects. They taught a kind of
dualism. A demiurge made the material
world and man’s body, while a good god
made heaven and man’s soul. Christ
saves humanity from the former for the
latter. They reject the Old Testament
and some books of the New, adhering
chiefly to the Pauline epistles and the
Gospel according to St. Luke. See Dual-
ism, Gnosticism.
Paulists. “The Congregation of Mis-
sionary Priests of St. Paul the Apostle”
(Paulist Fathers) is of American origin,
having been founded in New York in
1858 by five native priests, all converts
from Protestantism. Its primary object
is to make converts to Catholicism.
This object is pursued through lecturing
and preaching and through a systematic
literary propaganda. “The Paulist
Fathers also consider it part of their
vocation to influence the secular press
in the interests of Catholic truth” ( Cath-
olic Encyclopedia).
Paulus Diaconus (son of) Warne-
fried, 720 (?) — 795 (f); a Longobard
historian and very distinguished scholar
at the court of Charlemagne; also a
poet, was the author of a Roman and of
a Longobard history and compiler of
a postil.
Paulus, H. E. Gottlob; b. 1761,
d. 1851 ; professor at Jena, Wuerzburg,
and Heidelberg; representative of ex-
treme rationalism; did away with the
miracles of the Bible by performing
miracles of exegesis; his dying words:
“I stand righteous before God for having
desired the right.”
Pax Vobiscum. A special benediction
spoken or chanted by the pastor after
Pedagogy
573
Pelagian Controversy
the consecration of the elements in the
Eucharist, just before the Agnus Dei:
The peace of the Lord be with you
alway !
Pedagogy, the science of leading and
educating the child, comprises a body
of facts and principles bearing on the
aims and methods of effectively equip-
ping the young for life, of aiding them
in attaining their spiritual maturity. As
all instruction should be educative, peda-
gogy includes the art of teaching and
points out methods conducive to the best
results. Especially, however, does it
point out the psychological principles
underlying these methods, for which rea-
son it may be called applied psychology.
The aim of pedagogy has been variously
defined; however, its aim is not merely
to impart knowledge, but rather by and
through such knowledge to educate. The
development of a good, moral character
must ever be the aim of the pedagog.
But as there can be no true morality
without religion, it is the business of
pedagogy constantly to lead the child
according to religious principles so as to
nurture and exercise its spiritual nature
and to develop a Christian character, so
that the child in thought, word, and deed,
will live as a child of God, in joyful obe-
dience to His Word and in the sure hope
of eternal salvation through faith in
Christ Jesus. Such pedagogy we find in
the Christian home and in the Christian
day-school. See Parochial School.
Pelagian Controversy. This con-
troversy takes its name from Pelagius,
who, to combat those who made the doc-
trines of free grace and of the total
depravity of the human heart a license
for sinning and to create a motive for
monkish asceticism, insisted much more
strongly than other teachers of the
Church before him on the existence of
natural moral powers in fallen man. He
therefore chiefly concerned himself with
anthropology, the doctrine of man, and
soteriology, the doctrine of salvation,
conversion. While, of course, the apos-
tolic churches had the full light on these
as on all other doctrinal questions and
believed in salvation by grace alone ( sola
gratia), according to 1 Cor. 2, 14; Eph.
2, 1 — 9; Rom. 8 , 7 ; 1 Cor. 12, 3; Jas.
1, 14. 15, there had not been full agree-
ment herein among the Church Fathers
of the following centuries. In general
they agreed that man’s nature has been
depraved by the Fall and that man there-
fore needs God’s grace and a rebirth;
but while some taught a total depravity
and stressed grace alone, such as Ter-
tullian, Cyprian, Hilary of Poitiers, espe-
cially Ambrose ( 55 . v, ), others, like
Clement of Alexandria and the Alexan-
drians of the third century in general,
and the Greeks Basil, Gregory Nazi ari-
zen, Gregory of Nyssa (qq. v. ) , Didy-
mus, and Chrysostom (q.v.), contended
that man has retained a remnant of free
will, which is active toward the good in-
dependently of the operation of grace.
The fifth century was to bring out this
moot question into full discussion be-
tween Augustine and Pelagius and their
respective followers.
In his earlier writings Augustine, too,
did not fully exclude the “free will” from
participating in conversion, but in the
course of his spiritual development he
came to deny it more emphatically than
any Church Father before him. On the
other hand, however, rationalistic specu-
lation led him on to the false doctrine
of absolute election. Guericke describes
his theory as follows: All men since
Adam’s Fall (which ruined human na-
ture both physically and morally) are
essentially in the same state of estrange-
ment from God and of condemnation, in
which they can do only what is displeas-
ing to God. From this state they may
be rescued solely by the grace of God in
Christ. This grace of God attracts the
depraved will of man with inner conquer-
ing necessity (gratia irrcsistibilis) , and
whoever receives it is saved. However,
not all men receive it; but out of man-
kind, equally depraved in all its individ-
uals (massa perditionis) , God, according
to His compassion in Christ, elects some
unto salvation, fitting them thereto by
kindling faith in them by His grace
(gratia pracveniens, operans et coope-
rans) ; all the remainder of mankind
God, according to His justice, leaves in
its depraved state and consigns to mer-
ited damnation. The reason why grace
is accorded only to a part of humanity
can be sought solely in an eternal, holy,
inexplicable, absolutely free decree (de-
creturn absolutum) of God.
Over against this, Pelagius taught:
Man’s nature is not depraved since
Adam’s Fall, but, on the contrary, is
still in its original state, a state of in-
difference morally, without virtue or vice
and capable of both, and it depends solely
on the will of the individual to develop
the moral germs of his nature and to be
saved. Of course, an irresistible grace
and an absolute predestination did not
fit into his system; but, on the other
hand, real grace, according to Pelagius,
was not needed to save man, and salva-
tion by Christ was rather a superfluous
exertion on~ the paft~b r~TTd5T Tile very
essSBC5~of~Th"e 'Christian religion was de-
stroyed by this system and. naturalism
Pelagian ^Controversy
574
Pelagian Controversy
substituted, though probably the author
was not aware of the fact.
The Church very quickly sided with
Augustine in this controversy. Pelagius
first taught his wrong views in his com-
mentary on the Pauline epistles; then
he spread them personally at Rome
ca. 409. Later he went to Carthage with
his disciple and friend, the .monk Coe-
lestius. When the latter applied for the
office of a presbyter, he was accused of
heresy and had to defend himself before
a synod at Carthage, 412. Two funda-
mental statements of Coelestius were
here discussed: 1) that Adam’s sin af-
fected only himself and not his progeny,
and 2) that children were born in the
state in which Adam was before the Fall.
Since Coelestius refused to retract these
statements and a number of conclusions
drawn therefrom, he was excommuni-
cated. — Meanwhile Pelagius had gone to
Palestine, where there was less accurate
definition of doctrine than in the Occi-
dent, and he managed to escape blame
at two Oriental synods, when he, too,
had been accused of heresy. But Augus-
tine wrote a book setting forth how the
Orientals had been duped by the duplic-
ity of Pelagius, and the African bishops
at the synods of Mileve and of Carthage,
416, condemned Pelagianism and induced
Bishop Innocent I of Rome to agree to
this condemnation. It was shown from
the writings of Pelagius and Coelestius
that they defended the free will, caused
man to become proud of himself, and
denied grace in the specifically Christian
sense, because they called^ the natural
powers of man grace, ' or" gav<rGr»S!£Xi&w
or also His providence that name. How-
ever, Pelagius and Coelestius succeeded
in cajoling Zosimus, the next bishop of
Rome, into pronouncing them orthodox
once more. But the Africans insisted at
the synods at Carthage, 417 and 418,
that Pelagianism be condemned, adopt-
ing eight or nine canons against the
heresy. Emperor Honorius also took a
stand against Pelagianism, and finally
Zosimus, too, was persuaded to side with
the Africans. The Occidental bishops
signed this verdict, and the eighteen who
refused were deposed from office. — Espe-
cially through the influence of the layman
Marius Mercator also the Orient agreed
to condemn Pelagianism at the ecumen-
ical synod at Ephesus, 431, because it was
found to be closely allied to Nestorian-
ism. Yet the Orient never fully accepted
the Augustinian theology. Men like
Theodore of Mopsuestia and Isidore of
Pelusium taught a system that might
be called a mean between it and Pela-
gianism.
In the Occident, too, the Scriptural
doctrine that after the Fall man is alto-
gether corrupt and can be saved only by
divine grace, that those who are saved
are saved without merit of any kind, and
that those who are lost are lost by their
own fault alone, had to be defended
against new foes, who at once took the
place of the vanquished Pelagians — the
Semi-Pelagians. While the Pelagians
held that the power of natural man for
good, “free will,” is not at all impaired,
the Semi-Pelagians held that “free will”
is only partially impaired, needing the
assistance of grace, — salvation thus de-
pending on grace and the right use of
the natural powers. In the controversy
also this problem was debated, — which
Scripture leaves, and Christian theology
must leave, unsolved, — why not all men
are saved, since grace alone saves, uni-
versal grace, and since all men are in
equal corruption and guilt. In this dis-
cussion both parties erred. Augustine
had recourse to the explanation that the
reason was to be found in God, who does
not treat all men alike, does not offer
effective grace to all — a virtual denial
of the universality of grace. His fol-
lowers ordinarily refrained from this
rationalizing deduction ; they did not
blame God for the damnation of any
man; yet at times they gave voice to
the explanation mentioned. The Semi-
Pelagians rationalized along the opposite
lines, explaining the fact that some are
saved while others are not by an alleged
inner condition and receptiveness in
man, some making the right use of their
natural powers, others not. Augustine
himself had to refute certain monks of
Adrumetum, who misconstrued his doc-
trine of absolute predestination by con-
cluding therefrom that all moral exer-
tion was superfluous and all punishment
of sin unjust. — The first real Semi -Pela-
gians whom Augustine had to oppose
were called Massilians and were a Gal-
lican party, their leader being the abbot
John Cassianus of Massilia (d. 432).
He taught that man, in spite of an in-
clination to evil in him after the Fall,
could by free choice accept the good
when it was offered him, but needed
God’s grace to increase in sanctification.
According to him there would be a con-
stant cooperation of grace and free will
to save man. Though Augustine wrote
a book to justify his system against the
attacks of these Gauls, and though after
his death his friend Prosper Aquitanus
wrote more, yet the Semi-Pelagian party
in Gaul increased. The Roman bishop
Coelestinus, induced by Prosper, made a
statement condemning the Gauls for their
Pelagian Controversy
575
Penanee
opposition to Augustine, which, however,
did not give any clear doctrinal decision.
Vincentius of Lerins, also a monk and by
the Catholics considered extremely ortho-
dox, belonged to the Semi-Pelagian party.
In fact, monkdom needed this doctrine to
support its contention of its own special
meritoriousness. — After the death of
Augustine some of his followers, e. g.,
Prosper and Leo the Great, sought to
tone down the harshness of Augustine’s
absolute predestinarian doctrine. They
distinguished a general and a special
grace ; only reception of the latter would
save. But they stated that it was an un-
explained mystery why not all men re-
ceived the special grace. Others of
Augustine’s disciples, however, clumsily
stressed the harsh features of their mas-
ter’s predestinarian doctrine. Their
statements were really nothing new; but
the Semi-Pelagians represented them as
going beyond Augustine and succeeded in
having the presbyter Lucidus condemned
and forced to recant the strict Augus-
tinian system at the synods of Arelate
and Lugdunum, 472 and 475, and having
Semi-Pelagianism, as set forth, by the
order of synod, by Bishop Faustus of
Rhegium, sanctioned. In his treatise
Faustus says that free will and grace
are as cooperative for man’s salvation
as the divine and human natures were
cooperative in the person of Christ. He
held that free will was not entirely de-
stroyed by Adam’s Fall, but that an in-
destructible germ of good remained. —
But this was a victory of Semi-Pelagian-
ism only in the Gallican Church. Again
the African bishops, chiefly Fulgentius of
Ruspe, in Niimidia, objected. Fulgentius
wrote two books in refutation of Faus-
tus’s book. Also the Gallican archbishop
Caesarius of Arelate (d. 542) again spoke
up for Augustine’s doctrine, and many
others in Gaul. Through the influence
of Caesarius it came about that, at the
Council of Orange, 529, the Augustinian
doctrine was restated, not only over
against Pelagianism, but also over against
Semi-Pelagianism. However, the harsh
portions of Augustine’s doctrine were not
accepted. A predestination unto damna-
tion was again denied, and Semi-Pela-
gianism was condemned in clear terms,
yet without mentioning of names. These
decrees were ratified in the same year by
the synod at Valence and 530 by the
Roman bishop Boniface II.
The Occident had therefore taken a
decided stand for the essential anti-
Pelagian features of Augustine’s doc-
trine, his doctrine of sin and grace. But
the speculative dialectic predestinarian
feature was not clearly settled and con-
tinued to cause confusion in church doc-
trine; that was to be removed only a
thousand years later by Luther. Semi-
Pelagianism itself also soon arose again
and became the recognized doctrine of
the Church during the Middle Ages.
Despite its clear and full refutation by
Luther the Church of Rome has re-
tained it.
Pelagius, the chief exponent of Pela-
gianism, a British monk, lived in the be-
ginning of the fifth century; had con-
siderable philological learning, but was
a shallow thinker and had little spiritual
experience, believing that monkish out-
ward probity was the true spiritual life.
He spread his heretical views in Rome,
North Africa, and Palestine. See Pela-
gian Controversy.
Pelew Islands. See Polynesia.
Penance. The fourth of the seven
sacraments of the Church of Rome.
With it are connected so many unscrip-
tural doctrines and practises that it is
not surprising that the Reformation
began with a protest against one of its
offshoots (see Indulgences). From the
Office of the Keys, as conferred by Christ,
and the ancient Church’s practise of re-
quiring public penance for grave offenses
(see Penitential Discipline) , was gradu-
ally molded, under the influence of the
Roman doctrine of the merit of works
and with the aid of the monastic spirit,
the sacrament of Penance. The follow-
ing doctrine is decreed by the Council of
Trent (Sess. VI, chap. 14, and Sess. XIV) :
Penance is a sacrament instituted by
Christ for reconciling the faithful to God
as often as they fall into sin after bap-
tism. It is necessary to their salvation
and constitutes “a second plank after
shipwreck” (Baptism being the first).
The essential parts of the sacrament are
contrition, confession, and satisfaction
by the penitent, and absolution dispensed
by the priest. Contrition is sorrow of
mind and a detestation of sin committed,
with the purpose of not sinning in the
future. (But see also Attrition.) The
contrite sinner must confess to a priest
(see Confession, Auricular), at least
once a year, every mortal sin ( q. v.J of
which he becomes conscious after exam-
ining all the folds and recesses of his
conscience, together with the circum-
stances under which it was committed.
A sin knowingly kept back is not for-
given. After confession the priest pro-
nounces absolution, which is not “a bare
declaration of the Gospel,” but a judicial
act (see Absolution), by which the peni-
tent is reconciled to God and freed from
eternal, though not from temporal, pun-
ishment (see Purgatory). To remove
Penitence, bay of
Penn, William
576
temporal punishment, the priest imposes
works of satisfaction (such as fasting,
prayer, alms ) , the doing of which ren-
ders satisfaction to God (see Works,
Merit of) and removes temporal punish-
ment, which, however, may further be
removed by other means (see Indul-
gences). — This sacrament the Roman
Church sets before the gate of heaven,
teaching that no one who sins after
baptism can be saved without it, that,
though repentance be ever so sincere and
faith in Christ’s merit ever so lively, yet
without confession, satisfaction, and ab-
solution by the priest (or, at least, the
desire for them), they avail nothing.
“If any one saith that there are two
parts only of penance, to wit, the terrors
with which the conscience is smitten
upon being convinced of sin, and the
faith generated by the Gospel or by the
absolution, whereby one believes that his
sins are forgiven him through Christ:
let him be accursed.” ( Council of Trent,
Sess. XIV, can. 4.) “If any one saith
that God always remits the whole pun-
ishment together with the guilt and that
the satisfaction of penitents is no other
than the faith whereby they apprehend
that Christ has satisfied for them : let
him be accursed.” (Can. 12.) Faith is
presupposed, but is distinctly ruled out
as in any sense a part of penance. ( Cat-
echismus Romanics, II, 5, 5.) — The
Augsburg Confession states the Scrip-
tural doctrine as follows (Art. XII) :
“Those who fall after baptism may ob-
tain forgiveness of sins at any time when
they come to repentance, and the Church
ought to grant absolution to such as
return to repentance. Repentance, how-
ever, consists properly of these two
parts : the one is contrition, or the
terrors injected into the conscience by
the knowledge of sin; the other is faith,
which arises from the Gospel or from
absolution, believes that the sins are for-
given for Christ’s sake, comforts the con-
science, and frees it from terrors. Then
good works must follow, which are fruits
of repentance.”
Penitence, Day of (Busstag). The
annual day of humiliation and prayer is
commonly celebrated either on the last
Sunday of the church-year or on Sunday
Quinquagesima, the Sunday preceding
Lent; in some congregations, which cel-
ebrate a special Harvest Home Festival,
the last Thursday in November has been
set aside for a day of penitence. A fea-
ture of the services is usually the read-
ing or chanting of the Litany.
Penitential Discipline. The proce-
dure in use in the early Christian Church
by which a person who had become guilty
of a transgression of the Moral Law or
of the decrees of the Church, or both, •
was given a form of punishment, which
was intended, at the same time, to re-
store him as a member of the respective
congregation, usually by a series of steps
in the discipline. When, even in the first
century, a worldly spirit in the form of
voluptuousness, selfishness, pride, and
other sins became apparent, it was rooted
out by apostolic exhortation and disci-
pline. If a person, at that time, caused
public scandal by serious departure from
the true doctrine or Christian conduct
and in spite of sincere and repeated
admonition persisted in error, he was ex-
communicated; but the penitent was re-
ceived again after his sincerity had been
proved. 1 Cor. 5, 1 ; 2 Cor. 2, 5; Matt. 18.
In later times, stages of penance were
observed. During the first stage, the
fletio, the penitents stood at the door of
the church in mourning dress, making
supplication to the congregation to be
restored to membership. During the
second stage, auditio, they were again
admitted to the reading of the Scriptures
and to the sermon, but were obliged to
occupy a place near the doors, that of
the lugentes or hiemanles. During the
third stage, substratio, they were once
more permitted to kneel at prayer. And
finally, in the fourth stage, consistentia,
they took part again in the whole wor-
ship, with the exception of the Lord’s
Supper, during the celebration of which
they were merely allowed to look on. It
was only after they had been received
into full membership once more by abso-
lution and reconciliation and by the
laying on of hands on the part of the
bishop and the entire clergy, together
with the kiss of brotherly love, that they
were again accounted full members of
the congregation.
Penitentiaria. See Curia,, Roman.
Penn, William, son of English ad-
miral; b. 1644 in London; d. 1718 at
Ruscomb, Berkshire; turned Quaker at
university and disowned by his father;
anti-Trinitarian; several times arrested
for preaching; received grant of lands
now constituting the States of Delaware
and Pennsylvania in satisfaction of his
father’s claims against the Crown;
founded Philadelphia 1681; went to
America, 1682, to escape persecution;
made the colony a refuge for Quakers;
treated Indians with exemplary fairness
and concluded Great Treaty with them
in 1683.; revisited Pennsylvania 1699 to
1701. Toleration was practised in his
colony from the very first; advocated
complete freedom of religion and con-
science.
Pennsylvania Mlntnterlnm
577 Pentecostal Holiness Cliureli
Pennsylvania Ministerium. See
United Lutheran Church.
Pennsylvania, Synod of Central.
See United Lutheran Church.
Pennsylvania, Synod of East. See
United Lutheran Church.
Pennsylvania, Synod of West. See
United Lutheran Church.
Pensions, Ministerial. The small
salaries paid by churches to their minis-
ters render it necessary for the Church
to support its superannuated ministers
and teachers, those who have by illness
been compelled to retire, and the widows
and orphans of ministers and teachers.
There can be no doubt that the Church
to which these men and their families
have given their service owes them such
support. Various relief systems are
used, such as the general relief plan, the
endowment fund, the retiring pension
plan, group insurance, the annuity
plan, etc. The endowment fund plan
(as, for example, the endowment fund
of the Lutheran Missouri Synod, the
moneys of which were collected by the
Lutheran Laymen’s League, which fund
now has $2,700,000, though efforts are
being made to increase it to $3,000,000)
provides that the moneys of the fund be
invested and that only the proceeds be
used for support. The annuity plan
provides that moneys are paid as gifts
into the treasury and that a contract is
made to pay the donor, or the life bene-
ficiary designated by the donor, as long
as said beneficiary may live, an annuity
or fixed yearly sum equivalent to a fair
rate of interest, such rate to vary ac-
cording to the age of the beneficiary.
This plan varies as follows : 1 ) The
single life annuity. Only one person is
the beneficiary and the annuity is paid
from the time the amount is remitted.
2) The joint, or survivorship, annuity.
Two or more persons are the beneficia-
ries. The annuity is paid from the time
of remittance. The rate is determined
by the number of beneficiaries and the
age of the younger or youngest. 3) The
deferred (single or joint) annuity. The
annuity in this case is not paid until
the beneficiary arrives at a specified age,
or until he becomes disabled, or, after
his death, to his widow. In the mean
time the amount is increased by com-
pound interest at a fair rate. As the
beneficiary grows older, he draws a
higher rate of annuity from the in-
creased amount. — The customary plan
has been to ask congregations for free-
will offerings for the pension, or support,
fund. In some cases a stipulated amount
is included in the budget. In most in-
Concordia Cyclopedia
stances two or three plans are used.
The entire problem has not yet been
satisfactorily solved by the churches.
Various changes are, therefore, being
made in the course of time. The diffi-
culty is to provide sufficient moneys for
adequate support. The tendency appears
to be to adopt a pension system with
fixed contribution features, such as the
payment of ten per cent, of the pastor’s
salary, seven and one half per cent, of
which is paid by the parish and two and
one half per cent, by the pastor himself.
Pentecostal Church of the Naza-
rene. This body was formed in 1907 — 8
by the union of several organizations of
churches which believed in the doctrine
of entire sanctification as a work of
grace distinct from, and subsequent to,
justification. As early as 1890 indepen-
dent Holiness churches in New England
associated themselves, and a similar as-
sociation was formed in New York in
1897 under the name of Association of
Pentecostal Churches of America. In
1895 a body called the Church of the
Nazarene was organized in Los Angeles,
Cal., which, together with similar con-
gregations, resulted in an association.
The two bodies were merged at Chicago,
111., in October, 1907. In 1908 there was
received into this union the Holiness
Church of Christ, a Southern body com-
posed of churches in various South-
western States, some of which had been
organized as early as 1888. The Church
carries on foreign work in Africa, China,
Japan, India, Central and South Amer-
ica, Cuba, Mexico, and the Cape Verde
Islands. The official organs of the
Church are the Nazarene Messenger, Los
Angeles, Cal. ; the Beulah Christian,
Providence, R. I. ; and the Holiness
Evangel, Pilot Point, Tex. — Statistics,
1921 : 913 ministers, 1,134 churches,
43,514 communicants.
Pentecostal Holiness Church. This
denomination was organized at Ander-
son, S. C., in August, 1898, as a result
of a revival that swept over the Western
and Southern States. At present the
Church has ten annual conferences. Its
relation to other bodies is of a fraternal
nature, but it is affiliated with those of
other communions only to a limited ex-
tent on account of “the fervor of spirit
manifested in worship.” It is opposed
to all forms of sin, inward and outward,
making purity of heart and life the
dominant feature of its purpose, although
with a false enthusiasm and emphasis. —
Doctrine. The system of doctrine is in full
accord with the tenets of Methodism and
represents a modified form of Arminian
37
Perfectionism
578
Perfectionism
theology. In addition, the Church ac-
cepts the premillennial teaching con-
cerning the return of the Lord, for which
it looks at any day, not as an event in
time, but as the advent of a person to
inaugurate a blissful time of universal
peace. In the atonement made by Christ
the denomination believes that provision
was made for the healing of the body,
and it holds that healing through prayer
is a more excellent way than healing by
medicine. Membership is bestowed upon
such only as have been consciously re-
generated, who must give evidence of the
fact that they are “pressing on to the
complete cleansing of heart and soul
from all remaining sin and to the real
Baptism of the Holy Spirit.” The polity
of the Church accords with that of the
Methodist Episcopal Church. The dis-
cipline of the Church provides that each
Sunday-school shall be organized into a
missionary society for the purpose of
disseminating information concerning
the various fields of the world and for
raising funds for the needs of the work
in these fields. The Foreign Mission
work is limited to South Africa, South
China, and Guatemala, Central America.
Headquarters of the work in Africa,
Johannesburg; in South China, Hong-
kong. The Church has no educational or
philanthropic institutions of its own in
the United States, but contributes to the
support of several. — 'Statistics, 1916:
282 ministers, 192 churches, 5,353 com-
municants.
Perfectionism. Under this term is
understood the doctrine according to
which freedom from sin is possible in
this life. That such perfection is attain-
able in this life was maintained in the
Catholic Church by the Franciscans,
Jesuits, and Molinists. They taught
that in some cases one who is justified
may, by special grace of God, attain to
such perfection as to avoid all sins and
even to offer an obedience beyond the
demands of the Law. This claim, how-
ever, was denied by the Dominicans and
Jansenists. However, in maintaining the
doctrine, its supporters usually based
many of their claims on the distinctions
between mortal and venial sins. In the
Protestant churches, while perfectionism
was denied by Luther and Calvin, “Chris-
tian perfection” is permanently a doc-
trine of all Methodists and bodies in
accord with Methodistic teachings and
tendencies. This “Christian perfection,”
which Methodist theologians have advo-
cated, is not a perfection of justification,
but of sanctification. In teaching this
doctrine, John Wesley, in a sermon on
Christian perfection, based upon Heb.
0, 1 : “Let us go on unto perfection,”
founded his arguments chiefly on the
commandments and promises of Scrip-
ture concerning sanctification. However,
he guarded his doctrine by saying that
it is neither an angelic nor an Adamic
perfection and hence does not exclude
ignorance and error of judgment, with
consequent wrong affections. Perfection,
as defined by Wesley, is not, then, per-
fection according to the absolute Moral
Law, but perfection according to the
special remedial economy introduced by
that attainment in which the heart, being
sanctified, fulfils the law by love. Its
involuntary imperfections are provided
for by that economy, without the impu-
tation of guilt, as in the case of infancy
and of irresponsible persons. The doc-
trine of perfectionism lias also been found
in the writings of Clemens Alexandrinus,
Kempis, F£nelon, and other writers, Ro-
man Catholic and Protestant. It is also
maintained by the “Converts,” who teach
that in the case of the justified the body
of death and sin comes to be crucified
and removed, and other parts subjected
to the truth, so as not to obey any sug-
gestion or temptation of the Evil One,
but to be free from actual sinning and
transgressing the Law of God and in that
respect perfect. “Yet doth this perfec-
tion still permit of a growth; there re-
maineth a possibility of sinning, where
the mind doth not most diligently and
watchfully attend unto the Lord.”' (Cf.
of the Society of Friends, Eighth Prop.)
The Oberlin School of Theology (Boston,
1839), C. G. Finney (Syst.Theol., Oberlin,
1878), teaches that it is impossible for sin
and virtue to coexist in the human heart
at the same time, “as virtue and sin belong
only to voluntary actions” ; and that the
soul is either wholly consecrated to Christ,
or it has none of His Spirit. These two
states may alternate, and this man may
be a Christian at one moment and a sin-
ner the next; however, he cannot be at
one moment a sinful or imperfect Chris-
tian. “Every lapse into sin involves, for
the time, an entire interruption of obe-
dience, which is the beginning of the
Christian life. The promises of God and
the provisions of the Gospel are such
that, when fully and continually em-
braced, they enable the believer to live
a life of uninterrupted obedience — an
attainment which may be truly encour-
aged and expected in the present life.”
The advocates of this view, however, deny
that any one may claim to be a perfect
Christian under this theory because he
does not remember any conscious failure,
“since even present failure is not always
a matter of distinct consciousness, and
Perfectionists
579
Persecution by Catholic Church
the past belongs to memory and not to
consciousness.” In addition to these ad-
vocates of perfectionism there are dis-
persed groups of Christians, usually in
doctrinal accord with the Methodist or
Arminian teachings, who advocate entire
holiness, or sanctification, or perfection,
in this life. To these belong the advo-
cates of the “victorious life,” who main-
tain that “so long as a fully surrendered
believer simply trusts the Lord Jesus to
keep him and to conquer his temptations
for him, he need not commit wilful sin.”
(lJow to Live the Victorious Life. By
an Unknown Christian.) In a general
way, the doctrine of perfectionism im-
plies that, since Jesus is a present Savior
from sin, He is able to keep those who
trust in Him from falling into any sin
whatever. Hence, if the soul would trust
Him completely, it would be preserved
from all deliberate sin, and its uninten-
tional wrong-doings, which are errors
rather than sins, would not be imputed
to it. Some of the advocates of this
theory claim to have so lived in the
presence of Christ as to have been un-
conscious of any sin for weeks and months.
More generally, however, those who hold
this view, while insisting upon the pos-
sibility of the life “without sin,” also
confess that they occasionally fail to
keep a complete and undeviating trust
in Christ and so temporarily fall away
from the condition of “perfect sanctifica-
tion,” or “the higher life,” in which they
maintain it to he their privilege to walk.
The opponents of perfectionism maintain
that this doctrine is based upon the mis-
interpretation of the Scriptural ideas of
sanctification and justification, as well
as upon defective ethical standards and
upon an unscriptural antinomianism,
quoting such proof -texts as: 1 Pet. 5, 8;
Matt. 26, 41; 1 John 1, 8, etc.
Perfectionists. See Oneida Society.
Pergolesi, Giovanni Batista, 1710
to 1736; studied at Naples; his im-
provisations attracted attention from the
beginning; wrote solemn mass for Na-
ples; composed much sacred music, his
last work being a Stabat Mater.
Pericope. A word taken from the
Greek, meaning a section, and applied to
the fixed portions of the Scripture read
as lessons on the Sundays and festivals
of the church-year. Such a division of
the Scripture-text was in use even in the
ancient synagog, the Law and the Proph-
ets being divided into 54 such lessons
each. There are indications that the
early Christians made a similar division
of the Bible-text for their use as early
as the first century, the reading of the
Apostle (that is, of the Epistle-lessons)
being added to that of the Law and of
the Prophets, as the ancient liturgies
show. The system of the Western
Church, which differs from that of the
Oriental denominations and also from the
Gallican, Mozarabic, and Ambrosian lec-
tionaries, is commonly, and doubtless cor-
rectly, ascribed to Jerome, who founded
it upon customs obtaining in his time.
His Gomes, that is, companion for the
reading of the Bible, was variously modi-
fied till the time of Charlemagne, since
when it has been fixed in the so-called
ancient pericopal system, as in use in
the Lutheran Church to this day. Many
church orders of the 16th century pre-
scribed the duty of preaching at the
principal service on the Gospel for the
day. It became the custom for devout
persons to read the Gospel- and Epistle-
lessons before coming to church and to
expect to hear the pericope expounded
and applied. The richness, order, rela-
tions, and completeness of the pericopes
raise the service of the church above the
individual peculiarities of the preacher
and the tone of the world and insure a
systematic and complete instruction of
the people. At the same time, the gen-
eral lack of information on other parts
of the Bible suggested the advisability
of using other series of pericopes from
time to time, in alternate years or less
often, and therefore other lists of peric-
opes have been arranged, those of Hano-
ver and of Sweden being the first to come
into general use. The list proposed by
the Eisenach Conference follows the an-
cient pericopal system so closely that it
may well be used. In recent years a
committee of the Synodical Conference
has issued two lists of Gospel-pericopes,
one list of Epistle-pericopes, and one con-
taining exclusively Old Testament texts.
These lists, as well as some found in
some of the recent hymnals, offer so
great a variety of texts, in accordance
with the Lutheran church-year, that no
further complaint need be voiced con-
cerning the difficulty of choosing texts
for all ordinary occasions. The pericopal
system, if properly used, prevents arbi-
trariness and the riding of hobbies.
Perronet, Edward, 1726 — 92; edu-
cated at home and probably at Oxford;
joined movement led by the Wesleys,
but with strong independent tendency;
later, minister at Canterbury; wrote:
“Awake, My Soul — Arise”; “All Hail
the Power of Jesus’ Name.”
Persecution by the Catholic Church.
Persecution, or the infliction of penalties
for deviation from an acknowledged
Persecution by Catholic Church
580
Persecutions of Christians
standard of religious belief, is an inva-
sion upon man’s original rights as an
individual personally accountable to God.
Wrong in principle, it is foolish as a
policy, since, as Luther said, “belief is
a free thing, which cannot be compelled.”
Persecution has its roots in mistaken re-
ligious zeal, in ignorant fanaticism, in
the natural malice of the human heart,
and sometimes also in the pagan notion
(bequeathed mutatis mutandis to the
Christianized Roman Empire) that uni-
formity in religion is essential to the
welfare of the state. This latter aspect
of -the matter brings us face to face with
the beginnings of persecution in the
Christian Church. Constantine, who is-
sued an edict of toleration in favor of
the Christians, banished, now Arius, then
Athanasius, according to his own chang-
ing religious opinions. Emperor Theo-
dosius, in his code of laws, made the
slightest deviation from the orthodox
Trinitarian faith subject to heavy pen-
alties, including capital punishment. In
385 the Spanish bishop Priscillian, with
six of his adherents, was tortured and
beheaded at Treves. This was the first
instance of the infliction of the death pen-
alty on the basis of heresy in the Church.
The leading divines of the Church, such
as Jerome and Augustine, advocated
physical coercion against schismatics
and heretics. Augustine justified the
theory of persecution by referring to the
Mosaic legislation and to a single New
Testament text, Oom,pelle intrarc (Luke
14, 23), which he misinterpreted. Leo
the Great, the first representative of a
universal papacy, expressly declared his
approval of the execution of the Pris-
cillianists. Thomas Aquinas, one of the
highest authorities in the Roman Catho-
lic Church, expresses himself as follows:
Si falsarii pecuniae vel alii malefactores
statim per saeculares principes juste
morti traduntur, multo magis haeretici,
statim ex quo de haeresi convincuntur,
possunt non solum excommunicari, sed
et juste ocoidi. (“If counterfeiters and
other criminals are immediately and
justly delivered unto death by the civil
authorities, much more may heretics, im-
mediately upon their conviction, not only
be excommunicated, but justly put to
death.”) The Canon Law laid down the
same principles. Among the forty-three
“heresies” of Luther condemned by the
bull of Leo X the thirty-third runs as
follows: Eaereticos comburi est contra
voluntatem Spiritus (“To burn heretics
is against the will of the [Holy] Spirit”)
— a papal approval of the burning of
heretics from the year 1520. — Such,
then, was the legal and theological basis
of the relentless attitude of the Roman
Catholic Church toward heretical belief.
Acting on these principles, she has
stained her annals with the blood of an
army of heretics much larger than the
host of Christian martyrs under heathen
Rome. We can only mention, in passing,
the crusades against the Albigenses un-
der Innocent III, the autos da fi of the
Spanish Inquisition, the frightful atroci-
ties of the Duke of Alva in the Nether-
lands, the massacre of St. Bartholomew,
the persecution of the Huguenots after
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(1685), the fires of Smithfield under
Bloody Mary, the slaughter of the Wal-
denses in the valleys of Piedmont; in
general, the dreadful work of the Catho-
lic reaction to check the Reformation. —
The Roman Catholic Church has never
officially disowned the theory of persecu-
tion and intolerance, nor has she raised
her voice in favor of religious freedom.
Pius IX, in 1864, expressly condemned
the doctrine of roligious liberty as a
pestilential error, and his successor,
Leo XIII, endorsed this position, besides
condemning as among the evil conse-
quences of the “revolution” (i. e., the
Reformation) of the sixteenth century
the separation of Church and State and
the equality of all- religions before the
law. On the other hand, Cardinal Gib-
bons frankly disavows the principle of
persecution. “From my heart,” says he,
“I abhor and denounce every species of
violence and injustice and persecution of
which the Spanish Inquisition may have
been guilty. And in raising my voice
against coercion for conscience’ sake,
I am expressing not only my own sen-
timents, but those of every Catholic
priest and layman in the land.” ( The
Faith of Our Fathers.) These liberal
sentiments of the American prelate, how-
ever, present a strange and glaring con-
trast to the authoritative utterances of
the Pope and to the notorious fact that
“no public worship except the Roman
Catholic was tolerated in the city of
Rome before 1870,” when the papacy was
shorn of its temporal power.
Persecutions of Christians. Perse-
cution may spring from blind zeal for an
accepted standard of truth, from motives
of worldly policy, or from sheer malice
and cruelty. In every case it is a gross
violation of the sacred rights of con-
science, unwarranted alike by reason and
Christianity. Yet the history of perse-
cution forms a large and lurid chapter
in the annals of mankind. In the early
Church, persecution was almost inev-
itable. Never were two powers more
diametrically opposed in their innermost
Persecutions of Christians
581
Persecutions of Christians
spirit and genius than the Roman Em-
pire and the Christian Church. The one
was carnal, the other spiritual. The one
was an earthly political fabric, fondly
believed to be the handiwork of the
national gods and to represent the
highest and eternal ideal of human so-
ciety; the other openly avowed its be-
lief in the transitory character of all
earthly kingdoms and the ultimate tri-
umph of the kingdom of God. The one
worshiped the emperor as the incarna-
tion of Roman greatness; the other
bowed the knee to none other save the
King of kings and the Lord of lords.
Here no compromise was possible. It
was a question of to be or not to be for
both antagonists. The wide cleavage
manifested itself in various ways. The
Christians were charged with arrogance
and presumption because they claimed to
possess the only true and universal re-
ligion, a notion utterly incomprehensible
to the heathen world. They were accused
— and indeed naturally from the Roman
viewpoint — of treason and disloyalty for
refusing divine honors to the emperor.
Their close union and frequent meetings
in like manner aroused the suspicion of
treasonable tendencies against the state.
The absence of all visible objects, images,
altars, etc., in their worship laid them
open to the charge of atheism. Their
aversion to the idolatrous ceremonies
attending public festivals and public
affairs in general stamped them as mis-
anthropes and haters of society. All
public calamities, such as floods, earth-
quakes, etc,, were interpreted as the un-
doubted signs of the wrath of the gods
against the inroads of Christianity.
Then, too, heathen priests, artisans, and
tradesmen, whose living depended on the
maintenance of the traditional faith,
constantly stirred up the fury and fanat-
icism of the populace against the inno-
vators (Christians). Finally, the com-
mon people readily believed the foulest
calumnies designed to stigmatize the
Christians; for example, that they were
guilty of Oedipean weddings and Thy-
estian feasts (i. e., of incest and can-
nibalism). Fortunately, the Roman
government did not at once recognize
the inherent antagonism of principles
involved. Christianity was at first re-
garded as a sect of Judaism, and as such
it shared with Judaism the protection
(and contempt) of the state; cf. Acts
18, 12 ff. As soon, however, as it became
clear that Christianity was independent
of any locality (Jerusalem), that it was
an organization held together by a com-
munity of distinctive beliefs and prac-
tises, it was looked upon as a menace to
the integrity of the empire and to the
social order and was accordingly pro-
scribed. This change in the imperial
policy came about possibly under the
Flavian emperors (69 — 96). The Nero-
nian persecution, we know, was based
on the vague charge that the Christians
were haters of society, not that the re-
ligion itself was a crime. In the days
of Trajan (112) the mere profession
of Christianity entailed condemnation.
A closer study of Trajan’s rescript to
Pliny seems to make it evident that this
emperor did not, as is commonly sup-
posed, initiate a new policy against the
Christians, but rather that he modified
an already established precedent by in-
structing his governor not to “seek out”
the Christians for trial, but to condemn
and punish them if formally denounced
and convicted. In other words, he ad-
vocated a policy of wise moderation,
though he could not blink the fact that
Christianity as such was already under
the ban of the empire. Regarding the
subsequent attitude of the state, it must
suffice to say that the more Christianity
spread, the more stringent were the
measures adopted to suppress it. Pass-
ing on to the persecutions themselves, it
is noteworthy that the first imperial per-
secution, that under Nero (64), was not
due to any settled policy, but was acci-
dental, so to speak. Suspected of burn-
ing Rome, the imperial monster incrim-
inated the Christians to shield his own
head. The gruesome tale, told by Taci-
tus, how a "vast multitude” of Chris-
tians were crucified or sewed in the skins
of wild beasts and exposed to savage
dogs in the arena or covered with pitch
and nailed to posts of pine, and then
lighted to illuminate the imperial gar-
dens by night, is familiar to all. Dur-
ing the Flavian period the persecution
of the Christians as disturbers of the
public peace was, in the words of Momm-
sen, “a standing matter, as was that of
robbers.” Domitian, in particular, who
called himself “Lord and God,” con-
demned many to death on the charge of
atheism. The persecution under Trajan
(98—117) extended over Asia Minor,
Syria, and Palestine. Among noted mar-
tyrs of his reign are Ignatius, bishop of
Antioch, who was carried to Rome and
thrown to the wild beasts in the Colos-
seum, and Symeon, bishop of Jerusalem,
who was crucified at the age of one
hundred and twenty. Hadrian (117 to
138) protected the Christians against
popular outbursts of fury, but con-
tinued the policy of punishing all who
were convicted by an orderly legal pro-
cedure. Antoninus Pius (138 — 161)
Persecutions of Christians
582 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich
adopted a similar course in forbidding
mob violence and demanding regular pro-
ceedings. In the case of Polycarp, how-
ever, whose martyrdom is to be assigned
to this reign rather than to the follow-
ing, the will of the authorities was over-
ruled by the vehement fury of the crowd.
“Away with the atheists! Give us Poly-
carp!” The aged bishop of Smyrna was
burned at the stake. He had been a dis-
ciple of the Apostle John. Marcus
Aurelius (161- — 180), the stoic philoso-
pher, abandoned the more liberal policy
of his predecessors and sought out the
Christians for trial (prohibited by Tra-
jan). An unprecedented storm of perse-
cution swept over the Church, particu-
larly in Vienne and Lugdunum (Lyons)
in Southern Gaul, where the bodies of
the martyrs lay in heaps upon the
streets, until they were burned and the
ashes cast into the Rhone. At the be-
ginning of the third century the rigid
law of Septimius Severus, which forbade
the further spread of Christianity and
Judaism, produced a violent persecution
in Egypt and North Africa, which
yielded some of the most illustrious
examples of Christian constancy and
fortitude. Passing over the minor per-
secutions of the following decades, we
next mention the great tribulation under
Decius (249 — 260), who with charac-
teristic energy determined to destroy the
Church as an atheistic and seditious
sect. This persecution extended over
the whole empire, was conducted with
more relentless vigor, and produced a
larger number of martyrs than any
which had preceded it. It also sifted
the chaff from the wheat. The numerous
apostates ( lapsi ) were classified as Thu-
rificati, i. e., such as offered incense to
the national gods ; as Libellatici, i.
such as procured from the civil authori-
ties a false certificate that they had done
so ; as Acta Facientes, i. e., such as made
false depositions concerning their Chris-
tianity. Decius’s successor, Valerian,
sought to undermine the new faith by
banishing, and, later, inflicting the death
penalty upon, the bishops and leaders of
the Church. The calm of forty years
which followed was succeeded by the last
and most violent persecution of all, that
under Diocletian and his coregents and
successors. Under the incessant goad-
ings of his son-in-law Galerius, Diocle-
tian, in 303, issued three edicts against
the Christians, to which Maximian
(a coregent) added a fourth in 304.
AH Christian churches were to be de-
stroyed, all Bibles burned, all Christians
deprived of civil rights, and all, without
exception, were to sacrifice to the gods
on pain of death. A fifth edict by
Galerius, in 308, in order to force
heathen defilement upon the Christians,
required that all provisions in the mar-
kets should be sprinkled with sacrificial
wine. The historian Eusebius, dwelling
on the horrors of this persecution, tells
us that he saw with his own eyes how
churches were razed, the Scriptures
burned, Christians hunted, tortured, and
torn to pieces in the amphitheater. The
executioners grew weary, their swords
dull. But the end of it all was the com-
plete victory of the Cross. Constantine’s
edict, in 313, which granted et Christia-
nis et omnibus liberam potestatem se-
quendi religionem, quam quisque voluis-
set (in a word, religious liberty), marks
the downfall of heathenism and the be-
ginning of a new era.
Persia. A country of Western Asia.
Area, ca. 628,000 sq. mi. Population,
ca. 10,000,000, mostly Mohammedans,
though there are some Armenians and
Nestorians. Christianity found an early
home in Persia, but was almost exter-
minated by Islam. The Moravians made
unsuccessful mission-attempts in the 18th
century. Henry Martyn attempted mis-
sion-work in 1811, spending ten months
in Shiraz, where he translated the New
Testament into the vernacular. In 1831
0. Dwight and E. Smith, sent out by the
American Board (A. B. C. E. M.), essayed
missions in Persia. The Basel Mission
sent out C. G. Pfander in 1829, but no
permanent result ensued. In 1871 the
American Presbyterians took over the
work of the American Board. In 1875
the C. M. S. entered the mission-field,
occupying Kerman in 1897, Yezd in 1898,
Shiraz in 1900. Medical work has been
a feature of modern missionary endeavor
in Persia, hospitals for men and women
being conducted in Espahan, Yezd, and
Kerman. The following societies are
doing active work: The Evangelical Lu-
theran Intersynodical Orient Mission So-
ciety, the Presbyterian Church in U. S. A.,
Seventh-day Adventists, the British and
Foreign Bible Society, Church Mission-
ary Society. -Statistics: Foreign staff,
164; Christian community, 2,071; com-
municants, 865.
Peru. See South America.
Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich; b. at
Zurich 1746, d. at Brugg 1827. One of
the world’s greatest pioneer educators
and a Swiss patriot, who did much for
his country by his work for social regen-
eration through educational reform. Be-
cause of incapacity for business his life
was full of failures, while his educa-
tional endeavors were crowned with sig-
Peter Lombard
583
Pflelderer, Otto
nal success. His educational institution
at Burgdorf became a center of educa-
tional experiments, investigation, and
training such as the world had not hith-
erto seen. His purpose was to “psychol-
ogize” education. All educational proc-
esses must start from “nature,” i. e., the
child’s own interest and activities. Edu-
cation must be essentially religious, must
develop man as a whole, must stimulate
and guide self-activity, and be based
upon intuition ( Anschauung ) and exer-
cise. Works: Lienhard and Gertrude;
How Gertrude Teaches Her Children.
Peter Lombard (d. 1164), one of the
foremost Schoolmen, a scholar of Ab6-
lard, but greatly influenced by St. Ber-
nard and Hugo of St. Victor, was teacher
of theology at, and bishop of, Paris. His
dogmatic treatise Sententiarum Libri
Quattuor was for centuries the text-book
in theological seminaries and won for
him the title of Magister Sententiarum.
His book is the first real system of dog-
matics in the Occidental Church; it is
a collection of the doctrinal utterances
of the Fathers systematized and contra-
dictions resolved dialectically. By him
the Church was entirely won over to the
speculative system of the Scholastics.
The Lateran Council of 1215 officially
authorized his Sentences as the theolog-
ical text-book. He also effectively helped
to blend Mysticism with Scholasticism.
Peter Martyr (Vermigli), 1500 — 62;
the ablest and most learned among the
Italian Protestants of the sixteenth cen-
tury and an inflexible champion of Cal-
vinism; b. in Florence; visitor-general
of Augustinians; taught at Strassburg,
Oxford, Zurich ( d. there ) ; wrote : Trac-
tatus de Sacra Eucharistia, Disputatio
de Eodem Sacramento, etc.
Peter’s Pence. Originally an annual
tax of a penny on every hearth in En-
gland, paid to the Pope (probably sine*
the 8th century ) . At first a free gift, it
later became a legal exactment, but was
not paid regularly. The tax was ex-
tended to the Scandinavian countries and
to Poland, and Gregory VII unsuccess-
fully tried to impose it on France and
Spain. With the Reformation it ceased.
Since the middle of the last century vol-
untary contributions under the name of
Peter’s Pence have been gathered for the
Pope among Romanists, especially in
France. They are said to have reached
an annual total of $4,000,000 at one time,
but in recent years have greatly declined.
Petri, Ludwig Adolf; b. 1803, d. 1873;
senior pastor at the Kreuzkirche at Han-
over; considered the most influential Lu-
theran theologian of his time in Han-
over ; staunch opponent of rationalism
and the Union.
Petri, Olavus; b. 1497; studied under
Luther in 1516; furthered the Reforma-
tion in Sweden after 1520; routed Ro-
manism at the Diet of Westeraas in 1527 ;
published the Swedish New Testament in
1526, the whole Bible in 1541, the hymnal
in 1530, a postil, short catechism, and
Cqjnmunion service in 1531. Condemned
to death in 1540 by Gustavus Vasa; par-
doned; d. 1552. — His brother Lauren-
tius, b. 1499, was professor at Upsala in
1523; first Lutheran Archbishop of Swe-
den in 1531; introduced the Lutheran
order of service in 1571 ; d. 1573.
Petursson, Hallgrimur, 1614 — 74;
Icelandic hymnist; studied at Holar,
later at Copenhagen; made use of secu-
lar subjects first, later religious; the
Icelandic Paul Gerhardt, his Passion
hymns especially notable.
Pfaff, Christoph Matthaeus; b. 1686,
d. 1760; chancellor of the University of
Tuebingen, at seventy years chancellor of
Giessen; wrote on almost every depart-
ment of theology; lived in the transition
period from Pietism to Rationalism;
was inclined to Pietism; advocate of
unionism; originator of the Kollegial-
system of Church government. See Col-
legiate System.
Pfaff’s Bible. Christoph Matthaeus
Pfaff, ( q. v. ) directed the German trans-
lation of the Bible which appeared at
Tuebingen, 1727, also known as The
Bible of Tuebingen. Pfaff’s erudition
was immense, but he was of a doubtful
moral character. He made several un-
successful attempts to unite the Lu-
theran and the Calvinistic churches.
PfefEer, Paul, 1651 — 1710; b. at Neu-
stadt, in the principality of Glogau; at
the time of his death mayor of Bautzen;
wrote: “Ach, jawohl bin ich nunmehr
entgangen.”
Pfefferkorn, Georg Michael, 1645 to
1732; studied at Jena and Leipzig; pri-
vate tutor at Altenburg; last position:
Konsistorialrat and superintendent at
Graefentonna; wrote: “Was frag’ ich
nach der Welt.”
Pfeiffer, August, Orientalist; b. 1640;
professor of theology at Leipzig ; d. 1698
as superintendent in Luebeck. His chief
fame rests on his exegetical and herme-
neutical works: Dubia Vexata, Critica
Sacra, Thesaurus Hermeneuticus.
Pfleiderer, Otto; b. 1839, d. 1908;
1870 professor at Jena; 1875 till his
death professor of systematic theology at
Berlin; an extreme liberal; denied the
divine origin of Christianity.
Pfofenhatter, F., D. D.
584
Philippi, Friedrich Adolf
Pfotenhauer, P., D. D. See Roster
at end of book.
Phelps, Sylvanus Dryden, 1816 — 95;
educated at Brown University; pastor in
Baptist denomination; number of pub-
lications; among his hymns: “Savior,
Thy Dying Love.”
Philanthropinism. A humanitario-
educational movement which derived its
name from Basedow’s Philanthropintun
at Dessau, 1774. It drew attention to
existing defects in education and led to
salutary reforms. Aiming to educate
men who recognized the community of
interest among all human beings, it re-
spected distinction neither of class nor of
creed. Manual work was introduced for
social and educational reasons; the ver-
nacular was emphasized; object-teach-
ing; language was taught by improved
methods. Everything was done to make
learning attractive and experience as
broad as possible. Special attention was
given to physical exercises, health, and
diet. Suitable text-books for children
were written, and juvenile literature was
published. Basedow, Campe, and Salz-
mann were the chief promoters of the
movement.
Philanthropinum. See preceding ar-
ticle.
Philip II, son of Emperor Charles V ;
king of Spain 1556 — 98. His chief aim
was to restore Catholicism throughout
Europe; drove northern provinces of the
Netherlands into rebellion and failed to
conquer England, but crushed out Prot-
estantism in Spain. Said to have laughed
aloud first time in his life on hearing
news of the Massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew’s.
Philip of Hessen, b. 1504; met Luther
at Worms in 1521 and opposed the break-
ing of the safe-conduct; studied the New
Testament and Luther’s works; made
war upon Sickingen and the peasants;
introduced reforms and founded the Uni-
versity of Marburg. After the Protest
at Speyer, in 1529, he tried to unite all
Evangelicals, the German Highlanders,
and the Swiss, and had Luther and
Zwingli meet at Marburg. He signed the
Augsburg Confession, though not satis-
fied with the article on the Lord’s Sup-
per. He formed a league with the Swiss,
but could not help them at Kappel, in
1531; however, he became the soul of the
Smalcald League. In 1534 he reinstated
Duke Ulrich of Wurttemberg, and the
Reformation was introduced, and the
Anabaptists at Muenster were crushed;
and he sought to win England, France,
and Denmark for the Smalcald League
against the threatening Kaiser. Though
a man of family, Philip very often com-
mitted adultery, and while his conscience
condemned him, he was too sensual to
quit; he thought to compromise by mar-
rying a wife in addition to the one he
had. Luther and Melanchthon tried hard
to dissuade him, but gave no absolute
refusal to the unhappy project. It was
a private confessional advice, and it was
to be kept secret. The secret leaked out
and caused a scandal, in 1540. The Cath-
olic Nicholas Paulus admits Luther acted
“with a good conscience,” and the Jesuit
Grisar says Luther’s position was “forced
upon him by his wrong interpretation of
the Bible,” — - so at worst, on their show-
ing, an error in exegesis. (See Theol.
Monthly, V, p. 33 ff.: “From all this it
appears beyond the shadow of a doubt . . .
that Luther’s opinion as to the admissi-
bility of the second marriage in the Land-
grave’s case was based upon peculiar cir-
cumstances confided to him . . .; that
Luther never uttered a doubt as to the
correctness of that opinion, while, at the
same time, he rejected and strenuously
denied the right of bigamous or polyga-
mous marriage.” Ed. ) — Philip was in
danger of losing his lands and his head;
he saved himself by promising the Kaiser
to favor at all times the house of Haps-
burg, to break off with foreign powers,
and to draw the sword for the Kaiser.
At the outbreak of the Smalcald War he
was put under the ban. He gathered
a considerable army; but lack of unity
in the command of the Protestant army
kept it from scoring a decisive victory,
and the Kaiser won the victory at Muehl-
berg, in 1546, and the Landgrave made
an unconditional surrender. Contrary to
the imperial promise, he was kept a close
prisoner in the Netherlands. He was
broken and accepted the Interim, though
his clergy did not. The Treaty of Passau,
in 1552, gave him freedom, and he re-
turned home and devoted himself to the
welfare of his people; d. 1567.
Philippi, Friedrich Adolf; b. 1809,
d. 1882; son of a Jewish banker; early in
life came under Christian influences ; was
induced by Hengstenberg to study theol-
ogy; found in the Lutheran Confessions
the truth that satisfied the longings of
his heart and defended them to the end
of his life with all the means of his great
learning. He became Privatdozent in Ber-
lin 1837, professor at Dorpat 1841, at
Rostock 1851 (to his end). He exerted
a great influence both at Dorpat and at
Rostock. His chief works are his Com-
mentary on Romans and Kirohliche Glau-
henslehre. One of the very few modern
German theologians who upheld the
Scriptural doctrine of inspiration.
Philippine Islands
585 Philosophy and Christianity
Philippine Islands, since 1898 a pos-
session of the United States of America.
In the Western Pacific Ocean, belonging
to the Malay Archipelago. Discovered
by Magellan in 1521, conquered by Spain
in 1542, ceded to the United States by
the Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898,
following the Spanish-American War.
Embraces some 7,083 islands of various
dimensions. Total area of land surface,
115,026 sq. mi. Population in 1918 was
10,350,640. The native inhabitants are
Malay. Manila is the capital. In some
sections a high type of civilization ob-
tains ; in others, coarse savagery. Spanish
is the official language until 1930. It is
rapidly being supplanted by English.
Islam has many followers. The Span-
iards introduced Roman Catholicism.
A National Catholic Church was organ-
ized by Gregorio Aglipay since American
occupation. This Church (latest sta-
tistics) has a following of more than
1,360,000. Protestant missions are con-
ducted by a number of American socie-
ties. Total foreign staff, 7,663 ; Christian
community, 111,299; communicants,
64,184.
Philippists, followers of Philip Me-
lanchthon, who toned down Luther’s doc-
trine of monergism, sola gratia, and, like
Erasmus, attributed to man a faculty of
applying himself to grace. Melanchthon
also toned down the Lutheran doctrine
of the Lord’s Supper in order to open
the doors to the Calvinists. When he
compromised the truth by accepting the
Interim, fire was opened by the true Lu-
therans, e.g., Flacius. At first the Philip-
pists gained ground, and true Lutheran-
ism seemed doomed; but their duplicity
became known, and they were suppressed
in 1574, and the Formula of Concord
brought peace to the torn Church.
Phillimore, Greville, 1821 — 84; edu-
cated at Westminster and Oxford; vicar
of Downe-Ampney ; later rector of Henley-
on-Thames, finally at Ewelme; published
sermons; wrote “Ev’ry Morning Mercies
New.”
Philology, Biblical. That branch of
theological science which deals with the
study of the original languages in which
the Bible was written, the Hebrew and
Aramaic in the Old Testament and the
Greek of the New Testament.
Philosophy. The science of the prin-
ciples which underlie all knowledge and
existences. Endeavors to unite all hu-
man knowledge and present a harmoni-
ous and comprehensive view of the world.
While the separate sciences have to do
with various fields of knowledge, phi-
losophy investigates knowledge itself, its
principles and methods. Of Greek origin.
Plato ( 427 — 347 B. C. ) created the first
philosophic system. The main divisions
are: 1. epistemology, or theory of knowl-
edge, dealing with the limitations and
grounds of knowledge; 2. metaphysics,
dealing with the principles at the basis
of all phenomena; 3. natural philosophy,
dealing with the nature and origin of the
world ; 4. psychology ; 5. logic ; 6. ethics ;
7. esthetics. Philosophy is related to re-
ligion in so far as it, too, is concerned
with the nature of God and His relation
to the world.
Philosophy and Christianity. Phi-
losophy, according to its etymology, sig-
nifying the love of wisdom, has almost
from the beginning been identified with
the search for this wisdom, and the re-
sulting body of knowledge of general
principles explaining facts and exist-
ences, elements, powers or causes, and
laws, has engaged some of the most bril-
liant minds in the history of the world.
Nor is this fact surprising to one who
follows the history of philosophy, also in
its relation to religion in general and to
Christianity in particular. For philos-
ophy, in its most interesting form, the
knowledge of being, differs from the spe-
cial sciences, which are concerned with
some special object of the universe ac-
cording to the rules of scientific proce-
dure, in being the general or universal
science of the universe. Philosophy is
naturally divided into two groups :
formal philosophy, which is the science
of knowledge, and material philosophy,
which tries to grasp the truth and the
essence of the universe. Formal phi-
losophy is divided into logic and meta-
physics, the former dealing with the
science of the intellect or the mind, the
latter with reason and the domain of
ideas. After formal philosophy has laid
the foundation of all scientific procedure,
the material, or real, philosophy at-
tempts an understanding and an expla-
nation of the universe, that is, of nature,
of spirit, of God. The philosophy of
nature deals with matter and energy as
expressed in the organism. The philos-
ophy of spirit treats of the individual
spirit in the science of psychology, of
organized community life in political
science, of beauty in its various forms
in the science of art. And the philos-
ophy of God, finally, takes up the idea
and the reality of religion in the philos-
ophy of religion, morality in the science
of ethics, and the development and prog-
ress or retrogression of humanity in the
philosophy of history. — It is evident,
then, that we are here concerned with
philosophy chiefly as it appears in the
Philosophy and Christianity 586 Philosophy and Christianity
philosophy of religion, in ethics, and in
the philosophy of history. We are anx-
ious to know just how near the intellect
and reason of man has come to the un-
derstanding of God and of things divine
and to the explanation of the relation
which obtains between the Deity and the
mundane sphere, or the universe as such.
'That the human mind, by careful rea-
soning, is able to arrive at some knowl-
edge of God (Rom. 1, 18 — -25) is evi-
dent from the writings of various phi-
losophers, even before the time of Christ.
It is true that it is hard to distinguish
between pure philosophical reasoning and
traditional material which has been
elaborated to some extent. Nevertheless,
it is amazing to find that the ancient
philosophers were able to draw a picture
of the Supreme Being which shows Him
as the one Ruler of the universe, one in
essence, though He may have many
names: the Father of men and of all
created things, omnipotent, omnipresent,
omniscient, eternal, holy, just, wise, and
truthful. The statement of Paul, Rom.
1, 18, is in thorough agreement with the
facts presented in the writings of many
tribes and nations, namely, that “they
know God, but worship Him not." ■ — If
the science of philosophy, especially that
of the philosophy of religion, had con-
tinued along the lines of the last remnant
of the natural knowledge of God, as
shown by St. Paul in both Rom. 1 and 2,
there would have been no need of debates
and encounters between himself and the
Epicureans and the Stoics in Athens.
Acts 17, 18. Nor would it have been
necessary for him to warn the Colos-
sians to “beware lest any man spoil you
through philosophy and vain deceit, after
the tradition of men, after the rudiments
of the world, and not after Christ.” Col.
2, 8. Although he undoubtedly had in
mind chiefly the Judaizing, Gnosticizing
errorists who were at that time infesting
Asia Minor, the tenor of his words is
such as to carry with them the condem-
nation of every form of philosophy which
is not in agreement with revealed Truth.
The Apostolic Church, on the whole,
took a very uncompromising stand over
against all philosophy, whether it was
outspokenly heathenish in character or
paraded with the mask of truth. The in-
junction not to be conformed to this
world, Rom. 12, 2, was literally followed,
especially since the great majority of
Christians expected the return of the
Lord at a very early date. While the
doctrines of the Scriptures and the heav-
enly mysteries were taught with much
love and devotion, the wisdom of this
world was largely ignored. The Chris-
tians considered themselves strangers and
pilgrims, who had no continuing city
here, but sought one to come.
Matters were changed with the estab-
lishment of the first catechetical schools.
While Irenaeus and Tertullian were suc-
cessfully combating the influence of Gnos-
tic philosophy in the West, the Christian
Stoic Pantaenus founded the catechetical
school of Alexandria. At the beginning
of the third century his pupil and as-
sistant, Titus Flavius Clemens, took up
his work. The object which he had in
mind is apparent from his books Admoni-
tion to the Greeks, and Paidagogos ( Con-
cerning True Philosophy) . His idea was
an amalgamation of traditional Chris-
tianity with the philosophical culture of
his day in order to gain a Christianity
of a higher order. His ideas were car-
ried out by Origen and Plotinus ( qq. v. ) .
The doctrines of the latter, as published
by his disciple Porphyry (q.v.), contain
a merger of Christianity and heathenish
philosophy in the form of Neoplatonism
(q.v.). By this move, philosophy had
ceased to be a rival and an enemy of
Christianity, and the ideas of Plotinus,
as popularized by Porphyry, had their
influence upon the Christian Church for
centuries. The school of Neoplatonism in
Athens, in which Proclus (d. 485) taught
the system after the manner of the later
scholastics, was not closed till 529.
During the Medieval Age the theology
of the Church was governed by the phi-
losophy of Aristotle (q.v.). Scholasti-
cism (q.v.) was a controlling movement
among the leaders of the Church, and
this was governed entirely by Aristote-
lian logic and Neoplatonism, which later
developed into a full acceptance of the
Aristotelian philosophy. This is evident
from the writings of the scholastics, such
as John Scotus Erigena of the ninth cen-
tury, Lanfranc, Roscellinus, and Anselm
of the eleventh century, Abelard, Gilbert
of Poitiers, Peter Lombard, and John of
Salisbury in the twelfth century, and
Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus,
Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus in the
thirteenth century ( qq. v. ) . Due to this
fact, theology degenerated to a point
where it could hardly be designated as
such, and the decay of the Church’s life
is largely attributable to this fact.
The Reformation was directed squarely
against all scholastic systems; for Lu-
ther realized at a very early date that
the Aristotelian influence had been most
detrimental. Some late traces of scho-
lastic influence nevertheless are notice-
able, even in some of the Protestant lit-
erature of the 17th century. Nor is the
danger any less serious nowadays than
PliotlnlaniMiit
587
Pilgrim PatheM
it was then; for all movements opposed
to the pure and complete doctrine of the
Bible are in reality efforts of human phi-
losophy to replace the revealed truth of
the Word. Philosophy may be the hand-
maiden of Christianity, of Christian the-
ology, but the reverse must not take
place. Though theology has often been
despised by philosophers, who did not
appreciate its fundamental importance,
it is not elated over the decay of philo-
sophical studies. If philosophy will
serve theology in the proper way, both
will be able to serve the Church.
Photinianism, the Christology of
Photinus, bishop of Sirmium, in Pan-
nonia. Denying the separate personality
of the Logos, Photinus, like Paul of
Samosata, held that Christ was merely
a supernaturally begotten man, who be-
came the Son of God by adoption.
Photius; b. between 815 and 820,
d. 891; one of the most learned men of
his days ; twice appointed — though not
a cleric, but statesman and soldier —
patriarch of Constantinople and twice
deposed by succeeding rulers and twice
banned by the Pope; played a prominent
part in the events connected with the
schism between East and West (q.v.);
his chief polemic work: Treatise on the
Mystagogy of the Holy Spirit. See also
Filioque Controversy.
Pick, Bernhard, 1842 — 1918; noted
Orientalist; b. in Prussia; studied at
Breslau, Berlin, and Union Seminary,
New York; served Presbyterian churches
1868 — 81; joined Lutheran Pennsylvania
Ministerium 1884; contributor to en-
cyclopedias ; authority on modern ver-
sions of the Bible; wrote: Luther as a
Hymnist, The J ews in the Time of J esus,
The Talmud, etc.
Pieper, August; b. at Carwitz, Pome-
rania, September 27, 1857. He was a
graduate of Northwestern College and
Concordia, St. Louis, when he accepted
his first pastoral charge at Kewaunee,
Wis., 1879 — 85. Was compelled to leave
his next parish, Menomonie, Wis., 1890,
because of broken health. After regain-
ing strength, he became pastor of St.
Mark’s, Milwaukee, 1891. His rare gifts
as a preacher and organizer made him
a central figure in the development of
the Wisconsin Synod, supported as these
qualities are by a keen mind and sound
scholarship. He left St. Mark’s 1902 and
has filled the chair of Isagogics and Old
Testament Exegesis at Wauwatosa Semi-
nary since then. A close observer of con-
temporary Lutheranism and a fearless
critic of the sins of the times within and
without his Church, he impresses his
students with the Gospel as an intensely
practical force. His opinions command
respect because they are the result of
painstaking, accurate scholarship/ as his
Commentary on Isaiah (German) and
his contributions to Quartalschrift show.
A volume of Hwusandachten testifies to
his pastoral interests.
Pieper, B,.; b. March 2, 1850, at Car-
witz, Pomerania; graduate of Water-
town and, 1876, of Concordia Seminary,
St. Louis; pastor at Wrightstown, Wis.,
and Manitowoc (Wisconsin Synod) ; 1891
president and professor of Exegetics,
Homiletics, and Church History at Con-
cordia Seminary, Springfield ( successor
to Prof. F. A. Craemer) and pastor at
Chatham and Riverton, 111., retired 1914,
retaining charge of his congregations up
to his death, April 3, 1920. Contributor
to Lehre und Wehre ; published five vol-
umes of sermons, a text-book on homi-
letics, and three volumes of lectures on
Luther’s Catechism. He had a compre-
hensive knowledge of Lutheran theology
and was exceptionally able to impart it
to his pupils.
Pieper, Francis A. O., D. D. See
Roster at end of book.
Pierson, Arthur Tappan, b. March 6,
1837, in New York City; d. June 3,
1911, in Brooklyn, N. Y. ; was graduated
at Hamilton College in 1857, Union
Presbyterian Seminary, N. Y., 1860;
filled pastorates at Binghamton, N. Y.;
Norwalk, Conn.; Waterford, N. Y.; De-
troit, Mich.; Indianapolis, Ind. ; Phil-
adelphia, Pa.; London, England; editor
of the Missionary Review of the World
since 1888; an authority on missions
and a voluminous and forceful writer;
d. immediately after return from a trip
to the Orient.
Pieta. The technical term for a repre-
sentation of the lament of Mary, the
mother of Jesus, after His death, a fav-
orite subject during the Middle Ages,
both painters and sculptors using it
freely.
Pilgrim Fathers. The name given
to 102 Separatists, who, because of per-
secution on account of their dissension
from the state church, sailed from En-
gland in the Mayflower on September 6,
1620, to seek religious liberty in America.
They landed at Plymouth, Mass., Decem-
ber 25, 1620, and there founded the first
Congregational church on American soil.
A few years later, when the Puritans
came to America, the differences between
Separatism and Puritanism, which had
been emphasized in England, became less
marked, and little by little they united
into Congregationalism.
Pilgrimaged
588
Planck, Gottlieb Jakob
Pilgrimages. It was but natural
that, from the earliest times, Christians
visited the places associated with the
Savior’s earthly life. Increasing num-
bers journeyed to the Holy Land after
Helena, the mother of Constantine, had
at an advanced age devoutly explored
the Bible scenes. Soon the notion de-
veloped that special virtue dwelt in such
“holy places” and that prayer offered
there was of unusual efficacy. When
a special boon was desired of God, a
pilgrimage was undertaken, or a vow of
pilgrimage was made if the favor should
be granted in advance. In course of time
new places of pilgrimage were added,
particularly Rome and the graves of
martyrs. Reports of miraculous cures
at certain shrines found eager believers
and multiplied the number of pilgrims.
They began to travel in organized com-
panies, under armed protection. Hos-
pices were built for them, notably in the
Alps, and their feet wore new roads.
Gradually the pilgrimages changed their
character: they appeared as actions in-
herently pleasing to God, as works of
merit, which would either avail toward
salvation or counterbalance sin. Under
the latter aspect they were prescribed as
works of penance, the penitents travel-
ing barefoot, in coarse garb, often fast-
ing and sometimes bearing chains. Pil-
gnmizing became a part of the normal
life of the times, of which the law took
cognizance. Even in war a kind of sacro-
sanct character was accorded the pil-
grims. The outrages committed against
them by the Moslems were one of the
reasons which caused the Crusades,
and the military orders ( q. v.) were
formed for their protection. Some be-
came professional pilgrims and wandered
all their lives from one shrine to another.
Domestic duties were neglected, and vices
and gross superstitions of every descrip-
tion were bred. The Imitation of Christ
might well say : “Who wander much
are but little hallowed.” Since pilgrims
did not come empty-handed, there was
lively competition between the guardians
of the various shrines. The shrine which
could boast the most astonishing relics
and the most stunning miracles reaped
the largest revenue. New inducements
were added by the development of indul-
gences : during the jubilee ( q. v.) of
1300, the daily average of pilgrims in
Rome was estimated at 200,000. The
Reformation dealt pilgrimages a hard
blow, even among Romanists. In the
last century, however, there began a re-
vival of the practise, which, in some
instances, gathered crowds that compare
with medieval figures. Centers of mod-
ern pilgrimage are Loreto (Italy), Ein-
siedeln (Switzerland), and especially
Lourdes (France). Even the United
States has places of pilgrimage, one of
them at Auriesville, N. Y., where three
priests were killed by Indians.
Pisa, Council of, 1409, the first of
the three so-called Reforming councils,
was called through, and dominated by,
the influence of the French theologian
Gerson, who taught that the authority
of a council was greater than that of
a Pope and that such a council should
convene to reform the corrupt Church in
head and members. The Council of Pisa
was especially to make an end of the
papal schism (1378 — 1417). It declared
both the Pope at Rome, Gregory XII,
and the one at Avignon, Benedict XIII,
deposed because they would not appear
before the council and in their stead
elected Alexander V. Since the other
two still retained a large following, there
were now three Popes, who anathema-
tized each other, and the council was
dissolved without effecting any reform
whatever.
Pitkin, Horace Tracy; b. October 28,
1809, in Philadelphia, Pa.; d. in Boxer
uprising, China, July 1, 1900; graduated
from Presbyterian Union Theological
Seminary, New York; American Board
missionary to Paotingfu, China, 1897.
Before his death he said to one of his
assistants: “Laoman, tell the mother of
little Horace [Mrs. Pitkin] to tell Horace
that his father’s last wish was that
when he is twenty-five years of age, he
shall come to China as a missionary.”
Shortly after these words he was be-
headed.
Pittsburgh. Synod I. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Pittsburgh Synod II (General
Synod). See United Lutheran Church.
Pittsburgh Synod III (1919). See
United Lutheran Church.
Pius IX, Syllabus and Encyclical
of. See Syllabus and Encyclical of
Pius IX.
Pius II (Aeneas Sylvius Piccolo-mini ) ,
Pope 1458 — 64. At Basel, and later, he
upheld the superiority of the ecumenical
council over the Pope. As Pope he dis-
carded his liberal ideas and in the bull
Execrubilis denounced the appeal from
the Pope to the council as heretical and
treasonable. His repeated efforts for a
crusade against the Turks failed.
Planck, Gottlieb Jakob; b. 1751,
professor at Goettingen; d. there 1833;
church historian; rational supernatural-
ist in theology; his works are marred
Plath, Karl
589
Poland
by a subjectivistic interpretation of his-
torical facts.
Plath, Karl; b. September 8, 1829,
at Bromberg, Germany; d. July 10,
1901, in Berlin; filled positions in sem-
inary at Wittenberg and at the Francke
institutions in Halle, 1856 — 63; inspec-
tor of Berlin I Missionary Society, 1863
to 1871; of Gossner Missionary Society,
1871 — 7; first inspection visit to India,
1877 — 8; second to India and Palestine,
1887 — 8; third to India, 1895 — 6.
Pledge Card. A card about 3X5
inches on which members pledge the
amount which they promise to give for
the support of the church. The card is
used in connection with the every-mem-
ber canvass ( q. v. ) and should read some-
thing like this: I herewith promise to
pay, God granting me health and ability,
the sum of $ weekly for the support
of my congregation and $ for the
support of the work of my synod
(budget). The pledging of certain
moneys for the support of the church
is an old custom. Formerly pledge cards
were not used, but so-called subscription
lists ( Unlerschriften ). Such pledging is
not contrary to the Scriptural method of
free-will offerings; for it not only re-
mains optional with the individual
Christian to determine the amount of
his pledge, but also to pay more if the
Lord increases his income and to pay
less if his decreased earnings prevent
him from fulfilling his pledge.
Plitt, Gustav Leopold; b. 1836;
d. as professor at Erlangen 1880; wrote
on the Augsburg Confession and its
Apology and began a life of Luther
(completed by E. F. Petersen). To-
gether with Herzog he was engaged, at
the time of his death, in preparing the
second edition of the Realenzyklopaedie
fuer protestantisehe Theologie und
Kirche.
Plockhorst, Bernhard; b. 1825,
d. 1895; idealist, but influenced by the
historical school; known for his excel-
lent coloring; among his paintings:
“Christ Taking Leave of His Mother”
and “The Consoling Christ.”
Plotinus, most prominent Neoplatonic
philosopher; b. ca. 205 A. D. in Egypt;
taught in Rome since 244 ; d. 270 in
Campania. His philosophy is the last
important attempt of the Greeks to solve
the riddle of the universe. See Neo-
platonism.
Pluetschau, Heinrich. With Bar-
tholomaeus Ziegenbalg (q.v.) the pio-
neer Lutheran missionary to India.
B. 1678 at Wesenberg, Mecklenburg-
Strelitz; d. 1747 near Itzehoe, Schles-
wig-Holstein. Educated in Halle, he was
sent out with Ziegenbalg as missionary
from Denmark on the Sophie Hedwig,
arriving at Tranquebar, July 9, 1706.
Much opposition was encountered from
the Danish East India Company; but
undaunted by opposition and affliction,
he soon mastered the native Tamil lan-
guage and began to preach and minister
to the natives. His chief work consisted
in superintending the educational activi-
ties of the Portuguese and Danish
schools. Returning to Germany and
Denmark in 1711, he reported on the
work at Tranquebar and pleaded for
understanding and support. Later he
accepted a pastorate at Itzehoe (Beiden-
fletli). Thus Ziegenbalg and Pluetschau
became the founders of the Danish-
Halle mission in India.
Plymouth Brethren. See Brethren
(Plymouth) .
Pneumatomachi. The term means
“adversaries of the Holy Spirit” and
may properly be applied to all who
entertain false views of the doctrine of
the Holy Spirit. The name originated
subsequently to the Arian controversy.
When the controversy regarding Christ’s
divinity ceased, the denial of the divinity
of the Holy Spirit became the distin-
guishing doctrine of the Semi-Arians,
some of them denying His divinity,
others also His personality. The term
Pneumatomachi dates from A. D. 360,
when it was applied by Athanasius to
the Macedonians (after Macedonius,
their leader), who declared the Holy
Ghost to be a mere creature and inferior
to the Son. The heresy was condemned
by the Council of Constantinople (381).
Pococke, Edward, 1604 — 91; Angli-
can, Orientalist; Oxonian; chaplain at
Aleppo 1630; professor of Arabic at Ox-
ford 1636, of Hebrew 1648; commen-
taries, etc.; assisted in preparation of
Walton’s Polyglot Bible.
Poimenics. See Pastoral Theology.
Poland. At the time of the Reforma-
tion a mighty kingdom, extending from
the Baltic to the Black Sea. It received
its Christianity both from the Greek
Church (through Bohemia) and from the
Roman Catholic, coming under the au-
thority of the latter during the 10th cen-
tury. Never specially devoted to Rome
and affording hospitable reception to
anti -Roman movements (Waldenses,
Hussites, Beghards, etc.) before the Ref-
ormation, Poland was prepared to re-
ceive the new ideas emanating from Wit-
tenberg and Geneva. Luther’s writings
were from the first eagerly and widely
read. Polish students resorted to Wit-
Poland
590
Polemic*
tenberg and returned home filled with
enthusiasm for the Reformer and his
teachings. As early as 1524 there were
five Lutheran churches in the city of
Danzig. In the same year we find Lu-
ther in correspondence with professors
of the evangelical doctrine in Riga, Reval,
and Dorpat. Concurrently with Luther-
anism the Reformed type of doctrine
found acceptance. The reform movement
was strengthened by the Bohemian Breth-
ren, who sought refuge in Poland from
the persecutions in their own land. The
accession of Sigismund Augustus ( 1548
to 72), a friend of reform, augured well
for further progress. Unfortunately he
lacked the qualities necessary for inde-
pendent and decisive action. To present
a united front against their enemies, the
three main branches of Protestantism ef-
fected an organic union (a rather me-
chanical one, to be sure) at the general
synod of Sendomir (1570). This was fol-
lowed, in 1572 (when the monarchy be-
came elective ) , by the so-called Pax Dissi-
dentium (Peace of the Dissidents), an
agreement among the nobility opposed,
of course, by the Catholics, which re-
quired every new sovereign to declare
under oath his willingness to extend
equal protection to the Protestants and
Catholics of the kingdom. But the forces
of reaction were in operation. The first
king, Henry of Anjou, took the oath re-
luctantly and left Poland in 1574 to oc-
cupy the throne of France. Stephen
Bathori (1575 — 86) took the same oath,
but later joined the Roman Church and
opened the door to the Jesuits. Sigis-
mund III ( 1587 — 1632) was educated and
converted by the Jesuits, and open per-
secution began, including the burning of
Bibles and Protestant literature. The
Colloquy of Thorn (1645), designed to
restore unity between Catholics and Prot-
estants, not only failed in this, but sev-
ered the factitious bond between the Lu-
therans and Calvinists. In 1717 the
Protestants were denied the right to build
churches; in 1734 they were barred from
the diet and from civil offices. Nor was
Protestant liberty regained until the
downfall of Poland toward the end of
the century. This also meant a loss of
over two million Roman Catholics to the
Russian Church. Polish insurrections
against Russian rule in the 19th century
(1830 and 1861) cost the Romish Church
severe retrenchments of her liberties. All
immediate intercourse with Rome was
prohibited, all episcopal authority in the
schools withdrawn, and all mixed mar-
riages made subject to the Russian law
(1832). In 1867 the affairs of the Cath-
olic Church were put in the hands of
a special commission in St. Petersburg.
The introduction of the Russian lan-
guage in the services of the Church ( 1870 )
was strongly resisted, but the trouble was
finally settled by means of a compromise.
Czarism and Vaticanism could, of course,
never live peaceably under one roof. — - In
the present republic of Poland (since
1918) the Roman Catholic Church is by
the constitution declared to be the domi-
nant religion, though freedom of con-
science is granted to all. The relative
strength of the leading religious bodies
will appear from the following figures:
Roman Catholics, 5,965 churches and
8,142 priests; Greek Catholics, 3,275
churches and 2,413 priests; Protestants,
604 churches and 590 ministers.
Polemics. The controversial side of
theology; in a narrower sense, the prin-
ciples and methods of argument as ap-
plied to controversy within the Christian
Church. In this sense polemics is dis-
tinguished from apologetics, which is con-
cerned with the defense of Christianity
against those who attack it from with-
out. See Apologetics.
True as it is that brotherly love is an
indispensable criterion of true Christian-
ity and that uncharitable wrangling and
quarreling can be productive of nothing
but evil, still this is by no means a rea-
son why we should hold that the time
lias now come for us to discontinue the
struggle for the pure doctrine of our
Church. Of the true faith St. Jude says
that it is “once delivered unto the saints.”
V. 3. The true faith, or, which is the
same, the pure doctrine, is delivered to
the saints, not conveyed to them as their
property to lord it over and with a high
hand to dispose of it, but only confided
to them as a sacred trust, which, remain-
ing the property of another, of God, they
are to guard and administer as obedient
servants and faithful stewards. Now,
then, does charity demand of a steward
that he quietly suffer the treasures of his
lord, which were delivered to him for
safe-keeping, to be taken from him ? Con-
troversy must continue. That in all
Christendom there should be unceasing
contention and endless warfare is a dis-
tressing fact. Many unbelievers take of-
fense at this and are deterred from be-
coming Christians by the thought that
a religion whose adherents are, so to say,
cutting and tearing each other cannot be
the true and only saving religion. And,
indeed, if no one adulterated the Word
of God, no struggle would be required,
and contention would be a grave and
fearful sin. But Satan, the world, and
the flesh are continually bent upon falsi-
fying the Word of God or the pure doc-
Poliali Nat’l CIi urch of America
591
Polity, Ecclesiastical
trine. Had no one ever contended against
error from the days of Athanasius to our
own, the knowledge of salvation would
long ago have disappeared from the face
of the earth, and thus the salvation of
innumerable souls would be undone. “He
who performs what God commands can-
not but be blessed in time and eter-
nity. Yea, even though we should, on
account of our struggle for the pure
doctrine of our Church, stand disgraced
before men to the Last Day, if we but
persevere, remaining firm and steadfast
in the fight, as surely as God is just and
true, the Last Day shall be our corona-
tion day, and all eternity shall be an
everlasting celebration of victory and
peace for all the innumerable host of
God’s own warriors from Adam to the
last of the faithful champions who shall
triumph at the throne of God.” ( O. F. W.
Walther. )
Polish National Church of Amer-
ica. An organization of Polish Catholic
churches which owes its origin to the re-
sentment of Polish parishioners against
the autocratic religious, political, and
social power exercised by the priests in
various American cities — • Chicago, Buf-
falo, Cleveland, Scranton, and others. In
1904 an organization was effected at
Scranton, Pa., where a convention was
held, attended by 147 clerical and lay
members from various States. This or-
ganization rejects papal infallibility and
the exclusive claims of Romanism. Its
doctrinal position may be judged by the
following thesis: “Faith is helpful to
man toward his salvation, though not
absolutely necessary.” In polity the
synod is the highest authority. The con-
gregations are governed by a board of
trustees, elected by the members. The
movement, initiated in Chicago by Rev.
Anthony Kozlowski, was finally merged
in the Polish National Church. The
membership of the latter is 28,245
(1916).
Polity, Ecclesiastical. That branch
of theology which treats the principles
of church government. As a visible so-
ciety the church must preserve external
form and order for the efficient adminis-
tration of the Word and Sacraments.
The exercise of discipline in the case of
sinning or lapsed members (Matt. 18) is
a fundamental part of this administra-
tion, intimately bound up with the power
of the Keys. (See Keys, Power of.)
Where our Lord instructs His disciples
in the right use of the keys, He says:
“Tell it unto the church.” V. 17. This
cannot mean the Church Universal,
which no man’s voice can reach; but the
brother who would gain a brother is di-
rected to the church before which they
can both appear, which in its assembly
may hear the complaint and admonish
the offender. It is immaterial whether
this church, or assembly, be large or
small. “For where two or three are
gathered together in My name, there am
I in the midst of them,” says Christ in
the context. V. 20. “To the church of
God which is at Corinth,” 1 Cor. I, 2,
Paul, as an apostle of Jesus Christ, says :
“Put away from among yourselves that
wicked person,” 1 Cor. 5, 13; and the
apostle himself judges concerning the
offender as present in spirit where this
congregation is gathered together, v. 3.
He considers it the business of the con-
gregation at Colossae to provide for
ample preaching of the Word in its midst
and to admonish Archippus to the faith-
ful performance of the duties of his
office. Col. 4, 17. All the admonitions of
Rev. 2 and 3 to watch over, and main-
tain, purity of doctrine and holiness of
life are addressed to local churches by the
Spirit of Christ. The various churches
in Macedonia, Achaia, and Galatia were
severally called upon to contribute toward
the collection for the needy brethren in
Judea. 1 Cor. 16, 1; 2 Cor. 8 and 9. All
the tasks of the Church and the powers
requisite for their valid performance are
thus seen to be allotted to local congre-
gations. Accordingly, the local church,
the congregation of believers locally cir-
cumscribed, is the seat of authority in
the Church of Christ. That form of
government will be pleasing to its Lord
which recognizes in the fullest degree the
authority of the local congregation.
In the early Christian Church we
find the institution of elders or bishops
for the administration and guidance of
the churches. Locally the officers of the
churches were designated by the concur-
rent action of the membership. At the
election of Matthias (Acts 1) the entire
congregation selected the candidates, and
choice was made by lot. In Acts 6 the
congregation elected the seven deacons.
Thus in the regulation of its internal
affairs the congregation is supreme. Ec-
clesiastical polity, however, is concerned
specifically with the relation of congre-
gation to congregation. Such relations
existed from the earliest days of Chris-
tianity. At first the apostles formed the
main external bond, since it was a char-
acteristic of the apostolate that it was
undivided, and every apostle belonged to
each Christian congregation. The results
of apostolic work were communicated to
the several congregations and befcame the
subject of their deliberations. The
Polity, Ecclesiastical
592
Polity, Ecclesiastical
church at Jerusalem sent its deputies to
Antioch to learn the result of the preach-
ing of the Word in that region, Acts 11,
19 — 26 ; and that at Antioch provided
for the temporal relief of the church at
Jerusalem, Acts 11, 29. 30. Letters of
commendation are given from one church
to another. Acts 18, 27 ; Rom. 16 , 5 ;
2 Cor. 3, 1. Churches in a province
united in appointing a common repre-
sentative. 2 Cor. 8, 19. 23. In the synod
at Jerusalem, Acts 15, we find delegates
from the churches at Antioch and Jeru-
salem, a full report of the discussion, the
record of the resolution passed, and the
letter formulated to he sent to the church
at Antioch.
It was at a later time that the out-
ward organization of the Church was
gradually effected. The congregations
united into dioceses and the dioceses
into larger aggregates under a metro-
politan bishop. This process of cen-
tralization was at last accompanied by
the claim that the organization was
of itself of divine origin and authority
and that obedience was to be uncon-
ditionally rendered it under the pen-
alty of the loss of salvation. Yet
there is also another extreme — that of
absolute detachment of the congrega-
tional units. Undoubtedly there is not
only a right, but also a duty of external
fellowship among congregations. Every
local church has its share in the work of
the Church Universal. Because there is
only “one body and one Spirit, one hope,
one Lord, one faith, one Baptism, one
God and Father of all,” therefore not
only every individual Christian, hut also
every local church, or congregation,
should be “giving diligence to keep the
unity of the Spirit in the bond of peace.”
Eph. 4, 3 ff. The natural result is the
organization of churches into larger as-
semblies, or synods, in which their repre-
sentatives meet on an equal footing.
Such synods are consociations of sister
churches, not judicatories whose enact-
ments must be respected as binding upon
the several churches thus united in a
common cause. “In their relation to the
several congregations, synods are advi-
sory bodies only, as far as the internal
affairs of the congregations are con-
cerned.” (A. L. Graebner , ) Civil gov-
ernments, being endowed with legislative
authority, can enact laws which the sub-
jects are hound to obey “for conscience’
sake.” But churches are not endowed
with such power, and in the Church
there are no subjects but unto Christ.
The Church shall use those powers which
Christ has delegated to it; and when
one church exercises such powers accord-
ing to Christ’s instructions, such action
should be respected by all other churches.
Thus, when a sinner, after due admoni-
tion, has been excommunicated by a con-
gregation, he should be held excommuni-
cate by all other congregations. Of
course, the right to use does not imply
the right to abuse, and when one congre-
gation finds that another congregation
has abused the power of the keys, it is
not bound by such tyrannous action any
more than one is held to honor the un-
lawful acts of an agent who openly dis-
regards the will and instructions of his
principal. But when a church thus sets
aside the judgment of a sister church,
it does not exercise a superiority over
it, but carries out the command of
the common Head of the Church, whose
will the sister church has not performed,
but violated. Thus, also, every congre-
gation is charged to preach the Gospel
and to administer the Sacraments. But
no church, no apostle, no angel from
heaven, is empowered to alter the Gospel
or a Sacrament; and when a church
harbors or disseminates false doctrine, it
becomes the duty of every other church
to reprimand the erring church by cor-
rection and reproof, not because of any
superior dignity or authority of its own,
but because of the superior dignity and
authority of Christ and His Word.
In the above has been sketched the
Scriptural fundamentals of church gov-
ernment. It is sometimes called the Con-
gregational System as distinguished from
the Papal, the Presbyterian, the Epis-
copal, and others. (See articles on vari-
ous denominations; also Territorial Sys-
tem.) Most of the Lutheran synods of
America are organized on strictly con-
gregational lines, although some, notably
the United Lutheran Church, yield undue
judicial functions to the synod assembled
in convention and otherwise in its rela-
tion to the congregations. In Lutheran-
ism, where properly constituted, the con-
gregation as a body has the highest
power in the management of all its in-
ternal and external ecclesiastical and
congregational affairs. No arrangement
or decision for the congregation or for
a church-member as such has any valid-
ity, whether it proceed from an individ-
ual or from a body in the congregation,
if it is not made in the name of, and
according to the general or particular
authority given by, the congregation ;
and that which is arranged or decided
by individuals or smaller bodies in the
name and by authority of the congrega-
tion may at any time be brought before
the congregation, as the highest tribunal,
for final decision. Hence the right to
Polity, Ecclesiastical
593
Polyearp
call, to elect, and to install the minister,
or ministers, teacher, or teachers of the
parochial schools and all other officers of
the congregation rests entirely with this
local church.
The Monarchical , or Papal, System.
Here the government is vested in the
Pope, to whose infallible commands the
people are subjected. The Papal System
may also be termed the Hierarchical. In
the postapostolic age an error crept into
the Church regarding the function of
bishops. Whereas this title had been
synonymous with elders (and equiv-
alent to the more modern pastor or
minister) in Biblical and apostolic
usage, it gradually was restricted to
the heads of dioceses. Moreover, a
priestly function was attributed to
the ministry. From this time date
the various orders of the clergy, grad-
uated in rank from archbishops, metro-
politans, and bishops down to the lower
ranks of deacons, lectors, catechists,
notaries, etc. At the head of the entire
system is the universal episcopate, or
papacy. See Papacy.
The Episcopal System. According to
this view of the constitution of the
Church the bishops are the successors of
the apostles, who have a perpetual gov-
erning power in the Church. Apostolic
Succession is a doctrine of the Anglican
Church, particularly of the High Church
party in that denomination. ( See Apos-
tolic Succession.) The strict Anglican
does not acknowledge the validity of any
other ordination but that conferred by
the laying on of hands by some bishop
in Apostolic Succession. He acknowledges
the true ministry only in the Roman
Catholic, Greek Catholic, Anglican, Prot-
estant Episcopal, and Swedish Lutheran
Church, the assumption being that epis-
copal consecration can be traced in the
ministry of these denominations clear
back to the Twelve. As a matter of fact,
the notion of the divine right of the his-
toric episcopate and the hypothesis of
an apostolic succession of manually con-
secrated bishops are without warrant in
either the Scriptures or in the earlier
monuments of Christian antiquity. The
Lutheran Church of certain parts of Ger-
many and of the Scandinavian countries
has retained the title of bishop for its
chief regional heads or superintendents.
But the Lutheran Confessions constantly
emphasize the inherent right of every
congregation to set apart its own pastor
and the absolute equality of all pastors.
The early Lutheran instructions and con-
stitutions nowhere regard the episcopate
as the exclusive form of church govern-
ment and never reserved confirmation
Concordia Cyclopedia
for it. As the Wittenberg Reformation
(1545) was careful to state: “When our
Lord Jesus Christ says: ‘Tell it to the
church,’ and with these words commands
that the church should be the highest
judge, it follows that not only one class,
namely, bishops, but also other God-fear-
ing learned men from all classes are to
be set as judges and to have decisive
votes, as it was yet in the council of
Ephesus, where priests and deacons had
decisive votes (voces decisivas) ."
The Presbyterian System. In this sys-
tem the government “is exercised by the
people through representatives whom
they elect, and who are called presbyters,
or elders.” Of these there are two kinds,
the teaching elders, or ministers, and the
ruling elders, or laymen. “They hold to
the unity of the Church, and the gov-
ernment is administered through a series
of ascending courts : The General As-
sembly, covering the nation; the Synod,
covering the State; the Presbytery, cov-
ering the country or territory corre-
sponding thereto; and the session, which
deals with the local congregation.” In
the Presbyterian Church of the United
States “the General Assembly is the
highest judicatory. It shall represent, in
one body, all the particular churches of
this denomination.” “To the General
Assembly also belongs the power of
deciding in all controversies respecting
doctrine and discipline, of reproving,
warning, or bearing testimony against
error in doctrine or immorality in prac-
tise.” Accordingly, the General As-
sembly is the supreme court of the Pres-
byterian Church. Its interpretations are
therefore final and mandatory as the in-
terpretation of the Church. Locally, all
ministers and an elder from each congre-
gation “within a certain district” con-
stitute the Presbytery, and all are under
the care of, and required to report to, the
Presbytery. The Assembly is given the
authority “of superintending the con-
cerns of the whole Church.” It has
charge of the work of the Church in such
matters as education and missions. It
may also systematize the plans of, and
regulate the aid secured for, missions
within the bounds of the presbyteries.
Throughout the Presbyterian System the
elders have the balance of legislative,
executive, and judicial power.
Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna ; b. ca.
69 A. D., a disciple of John and friend of
Ignatius; burned at the stake during the
persecution under Antoninus Pius (155).
According to Irenaeus, his pupil, he was
a man of saintly character and deeply
concerned in preserving the purity of the
38
Polygamy
594
Polygamy
apostolic teaching. His testimony is sub-
stantiated by the whole tenor of Poly-
carp’s letter to the Philippians, which
breathes a noble Christian spirit and
warns against the vanity of false teach-
ing. “Every one,” says he, “who does
not confess that Jesus Christ has come
in the flesh is an antichrist.” (Cf.
2 John 7.) He understood and quotes
“the blessed and glorious Paul.” “By
grace ye are saved, not by works, but
by the will of God through Jesus Christ.”
{Cf. Eph. 2, 8. 9.) Indeed, Polycarp
shows acquaintance with nearly all the
New Testament writings. “His letter is
full of the New Testament” (Gregory),
a fact of prime importance for the his-
tory of the New Testament canon. The
circumstantial account of Polycarp’s
martyrdom, contained in a letter from
the church of Smyrna to the church of
Philomelium, is substantially true.
Polygamy. A peculiar perversion of
the original order of God (see Mar-
riage ) , amounting almost to a subversion
of the real object of the married estate,
according to which one person enters into
marital union with two or more persons
of the opposite sex. Polygamy is com-
monly divided into polygyny, or the mar-
riage of two or more women to the same
man, and polyandry, the state in which
one woman has two or more husbands.
Polygyny has been practised in many
parts of the world, but the usual situa-
tion is this, that only the powerful and
wealthy are in a position to support a
harem of two or more women. The dif-
ferent wives may live together in one
establishment, or .the individual women
may be granted their own houses or
apartments. In many cases there is a
favorite wife, who, with her children, oc-
cupies a superior position in the house-
hold or harem. This condition is still
more pronounced in the case of concubi-
nage, in which usually only one wife is
regarded as the true consort of the hus-
band, the others occupying inferior po-
sitions little better than those of kept
women. Polygamy was practised very
extensively in the Orient and among
many uncivilized and semibarbarous
peoples in all parts of the world. It is
still very prevalent in Africa. The pol-
yandrous form of polygamy is far less
frequent than polygyny. At the present
time its chief home is> in India and in the
central and southeastern part of Asia,
in the Marquesas Islands, and among cer-
tain tribes of Southern Africa. Where it is
generally accepted, the family relation
is established and traced through the
mother, since it would, in most cases, be
difficult to establish the identity of the
father. Every form of polygamy is al-
most on the same level with the so-called
communal, or group, marriage, that is,
the union of more than one man with
more than one woman, which differs
merely in degree from promiscuous inter-
course.
The fact that polygamy is not in agree-
ment with the original plan and order of
God is apparent even from its early his-
tory; for it was Lamech, a member of
the Cainite division of the human race,
who first took unto him two wives, Adah
and Zillah. Gen. 4, 19. The story of the
patriarchs offers unusual circumstances
and cannot be included outright in the
history of polygamy. In the case of
Abraham, Hagar was a secondary wife,
and that only temporarily. She may be
included in the statement Gen. 25, 6 ; but
her status was that of a house-slave, whose
child or children were to be regarded as
Sarah’s own in case the latter were de-
nied children of her own. Jacob’s case
was also unusual, in that he was de-
ceived by Laban on the night of his wed-
ding, being given Leah instead of Rachel,
for whom he had served the seven years.
His relation to Bilhah and Zilpah was
very much like that of Abraham to
Hagar. When we come to the story of
the kings of Israel and Judah, the mat-
ter, indeed, offers many more difficulties.
David had a number of wives, Michal,
Abigail, Ahinoam, Maacali, Haggith,
Abital, Eglah, and Bathsheba, the sin-
ful motive in the case of the last-named
being clearly brought out in Holy Scrip-
ture. Solomon, as the Bible tells us,
had seven hundred wives, princesses,
and three hundred concubines. 1 Kings
11,3. The custom of polygamy was con-
tinued throughout the period of the
kings, the fact of their having many
wives being stated in some instances.
The advent of the New Testament
era changed conditions for the better.
Christianity had a very decided influence
upon the status of women, and it dis-
couraged polygamy from the start. > The
rule which was laid down from the be-
ginning, when God made one man and
one woman to live together in holy wed-
lock, was emphatically upheld by Jesus
when He referred to the words of Gene-
sis that “they twain shall be one flesh.”
Gen. 2, 24; cp. Matt. 19, 4 — 6; Mark 10,
2—12. The same thought is basic in the
entire New Testament, as in Eph. 6,
22 — 33, the last verse expressly stating:
“Let every one of you in particular so
love his wife even as himself; and the
wife see that she reverence her husband.”
The same is apparent from 1 Thess. 4, 4 :
“That every one of you should know how
Polyglot Bibles
595
Fond, Enoch
to possess his vessel [sing.] in sanctifica-
tion and honor.” The trend of Peter’s
remarks is in the same direction. 1 Pet.
3, 1 — 7. Nor may we overlook the fact
that St. Paul demands of the ministers of
the Church, as the leaders and examples
of their flock, that every one of them
should be, if married at all, “the hus-
band of one wife”; and of the deacons
he demands the same: “husbands of one
wife”; for he realized that it was neces-
sary to take a firm stand against the
corruption and vileness of the heathen
world. 1 Tim. 3, 2. 12.
The situation at the present time, in
the so-called Christian countries, is, in
general, in keeping with the New Testa-
ment teaching, which, in turn, agrees
with the original order of God. Even as
womanhood has in every way been ele-
vated, due to the influence of Christian-
ity, so polygamy, as one phase of the deg-
radation of women, has been eliminated
by law. See Sexual Life.
Polyglot Bibles. The earliest at-
tempt at a polyglot Bible was a pro-
jected work of the celebrated printer
Aldus Manutius; but only one page of
this was published. The first polyglot
Bible was the Biblia Sacra Polyglotta
(Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Latin), pub-
lished in Complutum, Spain, by Cardinal
Francis Ximenes de Cisneros in 1522 at
his own expense, 50,000 ducats. Only
six hundred copies were printed. Other
editions of a polyglot Bible are : the
Antwerp Polyglot , 8 vols., folio, 1509 to
1572, printed at the expense of Philip II,
of Spain, whence also called Biblia
Regia. It contains in addition to the
Complutensian texts, a Chaldee para-
phrase and the Syriac version. The
Paris Polyglot, 10 vols., large folio,
1645. In addition to the contents of the
former works this has a Syriac and
Arabic version of both Testaments to-
gether with the Samaritan Pentateuch.
The London Polyglot, 6 vols., folio, 1657.
More comprehensive than any of the
former. Edited by Brian Walton. The
Leipzig (or Reineccius’s) Polyglot (Bi-
blia Sacra Quadrilinguica) , 3 vols., folio,
1713 — 57. In this edition also Luther’s
German translation is given. The Hei-
delberg (or Bertram’s) Polyglot, 3 vols.,
folio, 1586; the Hamburg (or Wolder’s)
Polyglot, 1596; Bagster’s Polyglot, 1831.
The last-named contains in one volume
the Hebrew text, the Samaritan Penta-
teuch, the Septuagint, the Vulgate, and
the Syriac version, the Greek text of
Mil] in the New Testament, together
with Luther’s German, Diodati’s Ital-
ian, Ostervald’s French, Scio’s Spanish,
and the English Authorized Version of
the Bible. Polyglottenbibel zum prakti-
schen Handge.braueh, edited by Stier and
Theile. It contains the Hebrew, the Sep-
tuagint, the Vulgate, and ,German in the
Old Testament and the Greek, the Vul-
gate, and German in the New Testament.
The Hexaglot Bible, 6 vols., royal 4to,
1876. It contains the Holy Scriptures
of the Old and New Testaments in the
original tongues, together with the Sep-
tuagint, the Syriac (of the New Testa-
ment), the Vulgate, the Authorized
English and German, and the most ap-
proved French versions.
Polynesia (Many Islands ) includes
in ordinary acceptation the multitude of
minor islands scattered over the Pacific
Ocean near the equator. North of the
equator : The Pelew, Ladrones, Caroline,
Marshall, Gilbert, Hawaiian Islands, all
of which belong to Micronesia, except the
last-named. South of the equator are the
Bismarck (New Britain) Archipelago,
the Fiji, the Tonga (or Friendly), the
Samoan, the Solomon, the New Hebrides,
the New Caledonian, the Loyalty, the
Banks, the Society, and the Marquesas
Islands, and other small groups. The
natives are of the Malay race and in
religion animistic. (See Melanesia.)
Missions in Micronesia: American
Board, General Association of General
Baptists, London Missionary Society, So-
cidtd des Missions Evangdliques de Paris.
Statistics : Foreign staff, 22 ; Christian
community, 25,437 ; communicants, 6,898.
Missions in Polynesia: Methodist Mis-
sionary Society of Australia, Seventh-
day Adventists, London Missionary So-
ciety. Statistics : Foreign staff, 85 ;
Christian community, 55,830; communi-
cants, 20,267.
Polytheism. The belief that there are
many gods, a manifestation of heathen-
ism, frequently consisting in deification
of natural forces and phenomena, and
of man (as the anthropomorphism of
classical' and Germanic mythology).
In a wider sense it includes East
Asiatic religions. Buddhism, Hinduism,
Confucianism, Shintoism, etc., as well as
animism (ca. 780,000,000) ; in a narrower
sense, only animism (ca. 123,000,000).
The question whether polytheism is a
stage in the upward development of
religion, from fetishism to monotheism,
or a degeneration of the pure God-given
religion of original man, is answered by
the Bible in the latter sense in Rom. 1.
Pond, Enoch, 1791 — 1882; Congrega-
tionalist; b. in Massachusetts; pastor
at Auburn, Mass. ; orthodox in Unitarian
controversy ; professor, president, of
Bangor Theological Seminary; d. at
Pontoppldan, Brick
593
Pornocracy
Bangor; wrote: The Mather Family;
Lectures on Christian Theology; etc.
Pontoppidan, Erick; b. 1698 at
Aarhus, Jutland; d. 1764; Danish
bishop, tile “Spener of Denmark”; court
preacher and professor extraordinary at
Copenhagen; a prolific writer on pas-
toral and practical subjects. His Ex-
planation of Luther's Catechism, has been
in use for almost two hundred years.
Pope, Alexander, 1688—1744; noted
English poet; only desultory education,
with priestly instruction; his genius
shown very early; poems characterized
for correctness of versification; wrote
no hymns for distinct public use, but
several have been so introduced, among
them : “Rise, Crowned with Light, Im-
perial Salem, Rise.”
Pope (Election, Rites, Dress, Officers).
The Pope is elected by the College of
Cardinals. Nine days are given to the
funeral rites of the dead Pope and to
preparations for the election; on the
tenth day the cardinals enter the con-
clave ( q. v.) to be stringently secluded
from the world until they have made
their choice. This may be either by
acclamation, scrutiny (ballot), or com-
promise (entrusting the election to a
small committee). A majority of two-
thirds is required for election. The suc-
cessful candidate announces what name
he will bear as Pope, is given the fisher-
man’s ring, and robed in the papal vest-
ments, and the cardinals adore him. The
news is proclaimed to the people. If the
newly elected Pope is not already a
bishop, he must be consecrated such.
The ceremony of coronation with the
tiara takes place on a balcony of
St. Peter’s amid great pomp. From that
day a Pope reckons his pontificate.
Popes carry such titles as Pontifex
Maximus (high priest), Vicar of Christ,
Servant of the Servants of God, and are
addressed as Your Holiness and Most
Holy Father. They are adored with
genuflections, and as a special privilege
they permit the faithful to kiss their
feet. In solemn ceremonies they are
carried on a portable chair, preceded by
the papal cross and accompanied by two
large fans of peacock feathers. A Pope’s
ordinary costume resembles that of a
bishop, but is white; he wears low red
shoes. On special occasions his vest-
ments are very elaborate and costly.
His insignia are a straight crozier, the
pallium (q.v.), and the tiara, or triple
crown. The latter, shaped like a beehive
and ornamented with priceless jewels, is
worn only on state occasions. It is an
emblem of princely authority and has
been variously explained as signifying
rule over the Church Militant, Expec-
tant, and Triumphant, or authority in
heaven, earth, and purgatory. The
Pope’s famiglia, or civil court, consists
of a number of cardinals, who live in the
papal palaces (palatine cardinals), do-
mestic prelates, such as the superinten-
dent of the household, the master of the
chamber, the master of the sacred palaces
(a theological adviser) ; various clerical
and lay chamberlains (some paid and
some honorary), secretaries, and other
officials. The Swiss Guard (100 men, in
sixteenth-century uniforms) act as papal
body-guard; there are also gendarmes to
do police duty and two otjier military
companies, the Palatine Guard and the
Noble Guard. For spiritual officials see
Curia; Roman Congregations ; see also
Vatican.
Pope, Primacy of. See Primacy of
Pope.
Popes, Most Prominent. See Alex-
ander VI, Boniface III, Gregory I,
Gregory VII, Gregory IX, Innocent III,
Innocent VIII, John XIII, Julius II,
Leo the Great, Leo X, Pius II, Stephen I,
Sixtus IV, Victor I, Vigilius.
Popular Commentary of the Bible.
By Paul E. Kretzmann, Ph. D., D. D.
Publi shed by Concordia Publishing House,
St. Louis, Mo., 4 volumes, to meet the
demand of members of the Lutheran
Church for an inexpensive and reliable
commentary in the English language.
The Bible-text is printed in heavy type.
The explanatory matter is sufficiently
comprehensive to make the commentary
an excellent reference work also for the
preacher. Valuable excursus and special
articles are given on important doctrines,
e. g., Virgin Birth, Betrothal, Jewish
Synagog, Deity of Jesus, Primacy of
Peter, Sin against the Holy Ghost.
Pornocracy (904 — 63), the control of
the Papacy by depraved women and
its consequent deep moral debasement.
Theodora, the mistress of the powerful
Margrave Adalbert of Tuscany, a well-
born and beautiful, ambitious, and vo-
luptuous Roman, wife of a Roman sena-
tor, as well as her like-minded daughters
Marozia and Theodora, filled for half a
century the papal chair with their para-
mours, sons, and grandsons. Sergius III
(904 — 11), Marozia’s paramour, starts
the disgraceful line. Archbishop John
of Ravenna was made Pope John X
(914 — 28), to be near his mistress Theo-
dora. Later, when he tried to cast her
off, he was cast into prison and smoth-
ered with a pillow by order of Marozia.
John XI was the son of Marozia and
Porphyry
597
Positivism
Pope Sergius III ; Octavianus, grandson
of Marozia, was Pope John XII (956 — 63)
and tlie first Pope to change his name.
He was made Pope when only sixteen
years old. He was an arcli-profligate
and a blasphemer. He would sell any-
thing for money. He made a boy of ten
years a bishop; he consecrated a deacon
in a stable; in hunting and dice-playing
he would invoke the favor of Jupiter and
Venus; in his orgies he would drink the
health of Satan. He was deposed by
Otto I at a synod at Rome, 963, be-
cause of incest, perjury, blasphemy,
murder, etc.
Porphyry, Neoplatonic philosopher;
b. 233 A. D. in Syria; d. ca. 304 in
Rome; disciple of Plotinus in Rome;
ablest expounder of Neoplatonism ( q . v .) ;
wrote polemics against Christianity,
which were destroyed by Theodosius II.
Porst, Johann, 1668 — 1728; studied
at Leipzig; held positions of tutor, later
pastor in Berlin, chaplain to the queen,
and provost of Berlin; strongly addicted
to Pietism, all his literary work breath-
ing its spirit; best known for his prepa-
ration of hymnal Geistliche liebliche
Lieder, some of which are objectionable
on account of their chiliastic tendency or
their subjectivism.
Port Royal, famous Cistercian con-
vent near Paris, established at the be-
ginning of the 13th century; prominent
in the 17th century as the mainstay of
Jansenism ( q . v.) ; abolished in 1709,
the building and church being destroyed
by order of Louis XIV.
Porto Rico. An island possession of
the United States in the West Indies.
Area, 3,435 sq.mi. Population, 1,346,623.
The island belongs to the Greater An-
tilles. Discovered by Columbus in 1493.
Inhabitants: white, 948,749; black,
49,246; inulattoes, 301,816. Dominant
religion, Roman Catholic. Missions by
a number of American churches, among
which United Lutheran Church in
America. Statistics: Foreign staff, 172;
Christian community, 13,384; communi-
cants, 9,387.
Portugal, Catholic Church in. Por-
tugal, reduced to a Roman province
under the name of Lusitania (27 B. C.),
overrun by the West Goths in 419 A. D.,
subjugated with the rest of the peninsula
by the Moslem invaders in 711, an in-
dependent kingdom some four centuries
later, for a time the leading maritime
nation of Europe, in recent years a re-
public (1910), constitutes a part of the
solid block of Roman Catholicism in
Southern Europe. The Reformation
never gained a foothold in the country,
although in 1531 the Inquisition was
established, ostensibly against “the Lu-
theran and other damnable heresies and
errors”; the real purpose, however, was
to squeeze money from the Jews. There
were no Lutherans in Portugal. But
Portugal, like other Catholic countries,
has had its quarrels with the Church,
resulting, as elsewhere, in the restriction
of her powers. Portugal was the first
country in Europe to expel the Jesuit
order (1759). In 1834 all the monas-
teries were suppressed, and the payment
of tithes was abolished. The concordat
of 1859 granted toleration to non-Cath-
olics. The present republican constitu-
tion has separated Church and State
and withdrawn all subsidies for the sup-
port of religious worship. The popula-
tion of Portugal is ca. 6,000,000, of
whom about 5,000 are Protestants.
Positivism, the philosophical system
of Auguste Comte, French philosopher;
1>. 1798 at Montpellier, d. 1857 in Paris,
as laid down in his Cours de Philosophic
Punitive, 1830 — 42, Syst&me de Politique
Positive , 1851 — 54, Catdehisme Positi-
viste, 1852, and called so because it deals
only with “positive” knowledge, i, e.,
knowledge arrived at not by philosoph-
ical theorizing, but by experience and
observation. It assumes three stages
through which human knowledge passes,
theological, metaphysical, positivist.
Human thought had to pass through
the two former to arrive at the last;
but now that the stage of positivism
has come, theology and metaphysics
must be rejected. Positivism does not
look for causes, as do theology and meta-
physics, but only for laws, namely, those
laws which govern the coexistence and
sequence of the phenomena, the ordered
organism of the world. Accordingly, the
world is explained on the basis of nat-
ural sciences, which Comte reduced to
six and classified, beginning with the
most general and proceeding to the more
complex, each succeeding science depend-
ing upon the foregoing, vim., mathematics,
astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology,
sociology, laying special stress on the
last-named, as whose founder he is gen-
erally recognized. In his later years
Comte endeavored to construct a new
positivist “religion” on the basis of this
philosophy, a “Religion of Humanity,”
in which a cult of the human race or
veneration of men of genius takes the
place of worship of God. This religion
( called by Huxley “Catholicism minus
Christianity”) which rejects belief in
God, soul, and immortality and has nine
sacraments, a special priesthood and
ritual, a new calendar with thirteen
Pogtconimliiiioii
598
Prayetf
montlis, each dedicated to a great ben-
efactor of mankind, and 84 festivals,
found adherents for a time in France,
but particularly in England, where a few
Positivist societies are still extant.
Postcommunion. See Worship,
Parts of.
Postlude. A voluntary selected by
the organist with reference to the fes-
tival or occasion, giving him, in addition
to the general prelude, the one oppor-
tunity to let the organ assume an in-
dependent position in church services.
Postmillenarians. See Premillena-
rians.
Powell, Thomas Edward, 1823 to
1901; educated at Oxford; held various
charges in the Established Church; pub-
lished a book of Hymns, Anthems, etc.,
for Public Worship ; wrote: “Bow Down
Thine Ear, Almighty Lord.”
Praetorius, Benjamin, 1630 — 74;
studied theology, probably at Leipzig;
was made poet laureate in 1661; pastor
at Gross-Lissa in Saxony; wrote: “Sei
getreu bis an das Ende.”
Praetorius, Hieronymus, 1600 to
1629; studied under his father and at
Cologne; town cantor at Erfurt; later
organist in Hamburg, succeeding his
father; published Opus Mitsicum Novum
et Perfectum, containing many of his
sacred compositions.
Praetorius, Michael, 1571 — 1621;
little known about his career; Kapell-
meister at Lueneburg; later Kapell-
meister, then also organist to Duke of
Brunswick; published much sacred
music, also for the liturgy (Leiturgodia
Sioniae ) .
Pragmatism. A system of philosophy
which received its name from the Greek
word pragma, (practise) and is chiefly
associated with the names of William
James and John Dewey of America and
with the English philosopher F. C. S.
Schiller. William James himself ex-
plains what is now known as the prag-
matic method as “the attitude of looking
away from first things, principles, cat-
egories, supposed necessities, and of look-
ing towards last things, fruits, conse-
quences, facts.” But the pragmatic
method does not in itself imply par-
ticular results, rather an attitude of
orientation. To a pragmatist, ideas and
beliefs, in themselves but parts of man’s
existence and experience, become true
just in so far as they help us to get into
satisfactory relations with other parts
of our experience. Pragmatism is a
philosophy which is most closely con-
nected with experience. It does not
intend to prejudice any one against
theology, although, as a matter of fact,
discrepancies and collisions are bound
to result. “If theological ideas prove to
have a value for concrete life, they will
he true for pragmatism in the sense of
I icing good for so much. For how much
more they are true will depend entirely
upon their relations to the other truths
that also have to be acknowledged.” In
other words, pragmatism judges theology
entirely from the standpoint of its value
in life. But the great question is
whether its adherents can actually
evaluate theology properly. In prag-
matism the “only test of probable truth
is what works best in the way. of leading
us, what fits every part of life best, and
combines with the collectivity of expe-
rience’s demands, nothing being omitted.
if theological ideas should do this, if the
notion of God, in particular, should
prove to do it, how could pragmatism
possibly deny God’s existence?” The
tendency of pragmatism, in the field of
theological philosophy, is in the direction
of pantheism; for it is said that some
day a total union with one knower, one
origin, and a universe consolidated in
every conceivable way may turn out to
lie the most acceptable hypothesis. It
looks toward monism, but, in the mean
time, still accepts the fact of pluralism.
Pratt, Silas Gamaliel, 1846 — ;
studied in Berlin, chiefly under Kullak
and Kiel, later under Dorn; conductor
and pianist at Chicago, professor of
pianoforte at New York; among his
sacred music: Magdalena’s Lament, a
symphony.
Prayer. Braver, in the narrower
sense, is a request, or petition, for bene-
fits or mercies; in the wider sense, any
communion of the soul with God. It
has been divided into adoration, by
which we express our sense of the good-
ness and greatness of God; confession,
by which we acknowledge our unworthi-
ness; supplication, by which we pray
for pardon, grace, or any blessing we
want; intercession, by which we pray
for others; and thanksgiving, by which
we express our gratitude to God. Pri-
vate prayer is either an ejaculation, a
short wish, or an appeal addressed to
God spontaneously springing from the
mind; or it is secret or “closet” (Matt.
6, 6 ) prayer, as when the Christian com-
munes with God upon entering into any
important engagement, or when calami-
ties threaten. From private prayer,
family prayer (the family altar) and
social prayer, as part of the public wor-
ship, are distinguished. Only that is
true prayer which is made with an
Prayer
599
Prayer
honest soul to the only true God. All
other prayer is idolatry.
There are wliat sometimes seem to be
conflicting prayers. One man is praying
for what he desires, and the granting of
it to him on the part of God would be
doing that very thing against which an-
other man may be praying; and both
the men may be true Christians.
The difficulty here involved will vanish
as soon as the true nature of Christian
prayer is understood. Let us look at
some of the general principles. Our
heavenly Father governs the universe by
laws which His wisdom has established.
These laws are in each case administered
by the personal act of God. He has or-
dained prayer, not as an instrumentality
to control His will, as the ancients be-
lieved with regard to their false gods,
but as His appointed method of holding
communion with the souls of men. When
men approach God, this is not with the
idea or intention of commanding Him as
though He were a powerful slave to do
their bidding, but to submit themselves
to Him as a gracious Sovereign, asking
Him to direct them in all their ways and
all their works. Hen do not come to
God in prayer to instruct Him what to
do, as parents teach their children, but
to present themselves to Him as loving,
obedient children come to a wise and
powerful parent humbly asking for gui-
dance and assistance. If a request is
made of God in any spirit opposed to
this, it is not a proper prayer, for true
prayer is never the demand of a selfish
suppliant, but always the utterance of
the tender trust of a confident child, who,
while submitting to the superior wisdom
of the Father, is confident that the Father
has his best interests at heart. He pre-
sents every prayer to God, with the
understanding that he asks only that
which will most promote His glory and
the best interests of the here and the
hereafter. Every such prayer God an-
swers. We have the highest authority,
the word of our loving Savior Him-
self, for knowing that “every one that
asketli, receiveth.” Matt. 7, 8. He doe's
not always receive the answer to his
prayer just as he desires. That was his
intellectual conception of what might be
best for him. Such an intellectual con-
ception must often he a mistake. If it is
not a heathenish, selfish kind of prayer,
then it was answered, and whatever fol-
lowed the prayer the suppliant must
take as an answer from the infinitely
wise God, bringing to pass that which is
absolutely best for the suppliant. It is
so in all the common affairs of life.
A true Christian carries everything to
God in prayer. “By prayer and suppli-
cation, with thanksgiving, let your re-
quests be made known unto God.” Phil.
4, 0. We cannot reconcile apparently
conflicting prayers as they rise from the
lips of the Christian; but in the mind
of our heavenly Father there is a per-
fect reconciliation, and all Christians
ought to submit to His providence. It
is not only unchristian, but it is absurd,
to lose faith in God because our prayers
are not answered exactly in the shape
devised by our imagination and in the
manner described by the words of our
prayers. When the devout Christians of
France and Germany were praying for
the success of their arms, if they were
sincere and intelligent Christians, the
spirit of their prayer was with God.
He overruled the hostile collision of
great nations for His own honor and
for the best interests of His Church.
Promiscuous prayer is prayer in which
persons unite who do not agree in their
belief as to who is the one and only true
God or disagree fundamentally in their
religious beliefs. Such of necessity is
the prayer indulged in by any civic,
social, or ethical organization which in-
vites to its membership or gatherings
men of every and no religious per-
suasion and, at most, asks for the ac-
knowledgment of one Supreme Being,
a God. The prayers of the lodges are
promiscuous or unionistic for this rea-
son. Joint prayers in public or civic
activities are generally insisted upon by
the Reformed element. This is, in part,
due to the Reformed indifferentism to
doctrine and to its false conception of
the Christian’s relation to the state.
The basic claim of the Reformed Church
is that Christians must labor to have
Christ acknowledged Lord of all and in
all the affairs of men, even by the civil
government, for which reason, also, they
contend that the Christian Law must be
insisted on as the basic standard of
all governments; and for the same rea-
son they deem it ungodly not to have
every meeting of every character and
description opened with prayer. Yet the
New Testament does not bear out the
contention that government is to be
ruled by the Christian Law, or that
Christians shall labor to Christianize the
state, or government. State and Church
must be kept separate. It passes compre-
hension how intelligent and upright men
can suggest a union in prayer by those
disagreeing in their belief as to who is
the God to whom their prayer is directed.
The fact that there is only one God
surely forms no warrant for the assump-
tion that if men but confess a God, their
Prayer in Public Worship
600
Prayer in Public Worship
prayer will also be acceptable to, and
beard by, Him wbo is the Lord of all.
If all prayer, no matter what a man’s
conception and belief of God, were to be
considered true worship, what, then,
would be idolatry?
True prayer, prayer that is to be
pleasing to God and to reach His ear,
requires complete trust in God and ab-
horrence of all that is hateful in His
sight. It follows that a Christian can-
not join in prayer with men whom he
knows to be unregenerate slaves and
lovers of sin and who make a mockery
of the very First Commandment of God’s
holy Law. There is only one rule which
permits the Christian conscience to be
sure of divine approval: Join in prayer
and worship only with those who are
united with us by a common faith and
profession. See also the following ar-
ticle.
Prayer in Public Worship. Prayer
is that form of communion with God by
which a believer, either in inarticulate
or articulate thought or words, presents
some need to God, acknowledges bless-
ings received, or simply seeks to enter
more fully into the fellowship with the
Trinity which is his by faith. Prayer
is thus not identical with the mystical
union (q. v . ), but is the natural and in-
evitable outgrowth of this singular fel-
lowship. — -In a more formal distinction
and as an act of audible and visible wor-
ship, prayer belongs to the sacrificial
part of the Christian cultus, that is, it is
an offer of the believer’s heart and life,
as the inspired writer has it: “Let my
prayer be set forth before Thee as in-
cense and the lifting up of my hands as
the evening sacrifice.” Ps. 141, 2. This
part of public or private worship is
thus distinguished from the so-called
sacramental acts, in which the Word of
God is brought to the worshipers in the
reading of the lessons, in the teaching
and preaching of the Word, and in the
visible form of the Word, that is, in the
Sacraments. See Public Worship.
Every true prayer must have certain
characteristics. It must be addressed to
the true God, this being implied even
when a prayer is made to one of the per-
sons of the Godhead, for it is the Triune
God to whom alone such honor is due,
and He alone is able and willing to hear
the prayers of His children. A true
prayer must be Christocentric, that is,
it must be made in the name of Jesus,
through whom alone we may approach
the throne of grace and expect to be
heard. It must, furthermore, be made
in firm confidence, that is, in true faith.
Every person who asks anything of God
and at the same time has doubt in his
heart offers an insult to the Lord. And,
finally, every true prayer must be made
with the object of furthering the glory of
God. The selfish prayer defeats its own
ends.
There are many kinds and forms of
prayer. In the Old Testament the word
tephillah is used very frequently, chiefly
in the sense of calling upon God, but
also in that of making intercession for
some one. It occurs in the heading of
the following psalms: 17. 86. 90. 102.
142, also in Hab. 3, 1. The word sheelah
is used for prayer in general; the word
todeh is employed for the special prayer
of thanksgiving. But there are many
other divisions and subdivisions of
prayers, as the headings of the various
psalms clearly show. In the New Testa-
ment the classic passage is that of 1 Tim.
2, 1 : “I exhort, therefore, that, first of
all, supplications, prayers, intercessions,
and giving of thanks be made for all
men.” This clearly indicates that the
Christians, the children of God, in ob-
serving the requirements of the Second
Commandment, are required to bring
their needs and their desires to the at-
tention of their heavenly Father, that
they are to be in constant communica-
tion with Him with regard to the sum
total of human misery and with respect
to all the individual and sundry needs
of the various stations of life, that they
are to keep in mind also the needs of
others, and that they must never forget
to offer to the Lord the sacrifice of their
lips.
It is most interesting and instructive
to note that Jesus was in constant com-
munication by- prayer with His heavenly
Father. Not only do we find Him pro-
nouncing the blessing upon the food at
the two great feedings narrated in the
gospels, but His prayers in the Garden
of Getlisemane and on Calvary testify to
the fact that His relation with His God
and Father was of a very intimate kind.
This appears also from the fact that He
repeatedly retired for solitary prayer.
Cp. Mark 1, 35. 45; John 6, 12. It is
proved particularly by the great sacer-
dotal prayer of the Savior on the even-
ing before His death, John 17, and Dy
the incomparable Lord’s Prayer, which,
in but seven petitions, embraces all the
needs of men over against their God.
Matt. 6, 9 — -13 ; Luke 11, 2 — 4.
The Bible clearly expects the believers
to pray, and the reasons are correctly
stated in our Catechism, when it is said
that the incentives to prayer are, first,
God’s command and promise and, sec-
ondly, our own and our neighbor’s needs.
Prayer, Liturgical
601
Prayers for the Dead
“Pray for the peace of Jerusalem.” Ps.
122, 6. “Seek ye the peace of the city
and pray unto the Lord for it.” Jer.
29, 7. “Pray for them that despitefully
use you and persecute you.” Matt. 5, 44;
Luke 6, 28. “Pray to the Father, which
is in secret.” Matt. 6, 6. “Pray the
Lord of the harvest.” Matt. 9, 38. “Pray
that your flight be not in the winter.”
Matt. 24, 20. “Watch and pray that ye
enter not into temptation.” Matt. 26, 41.
“Men ought always to pray.” Luke 18, 1.
“Pray without ceasing.” 1 Thess. 5, 17.
“Brethren, pray for us.” 1 Thess. 5, 25.
“I will that men pray everywhere.”
1 Tim. 2, 8. “Is any afflicted 1 Let him
pray.” Jas. 5, 13. In this connection it
should he noted that two strong argu-
ments in favor of prayer are those of
Rom. 8, 26, with its assurance of the
Spirit’s help when we find that we can-
not pray as we ought, and of Luke 18,
1 — 7, with its encouragement to make
use of the importunity of faith in deal-
ing with the Lord.
we have many excellent examples of
men and women of prayer, both in Scrip-
tures and in history. Thus the example
of Abraham, both in his own home and
in his intercessory prayer for the cities
of Sodom and Gomorrah, has ever been
held up for emulation. Other men of
prayer were Moses, David, Solomon,
Hezelciali, Zacharias, Paul, John, and,
in later history, Chrysostom, Augustine,
some of the saner mystics of the Me-
dieval Age, Luther, Starck, George Muel-
ler of Bristol, Seiss, Walther, and a host
of others concerning whom the records
are silent.
Prayer, Liturgical. The sacrificial
part of public worship, including prin-
cipally the hymns, collects, and the gen-
eral prayer in the morning service, the
entire preface with its prayers and the
Trisagion, as well as the Agnus Dei in
the Communion service, and all the can-
ticles in use, whether in the chief service
or in the minor services. Antiphonal
chanting is commonly considered sacri-
ficial in nature, though these parts
should be considered sacramental if they
include a proclamation of the Word.
For ordinary worship in the Lutheran
Church only set or fixed prayers are
ordinarily permissible, since the prayers
in public worship are the expression of
the entire congregation, and not of any
individual, speaking on the spur of the
moment, however appropriate his prayer
may be considered otherwise. As far as
the attitude during prayer is concerned,
it may be said that the anqient posture
was that of standing with eyes directed
upward and often with outstretched
hands. The practise of kneeling in wor-
ship was developed in the West. In the
Lutheran Church the practise of kneeling
is still observed in many congregations
by having the communicants kneel dur-
ing the confession and the absolution fol-
lowing. In many churches the communi-
cants kneel also when they receive the
Lord’s Supper, the gesture of adoration,
in this case, being directed not to the
elements, but to the Lord, whose body
and blood are received. The prayers for
the dead, as in use in the Roman Church,
have naturally been discontinued in the
Lutheran Church.
Prayer-Meetings. Special stated ser-
vices, common in Reformed circles,
usually held on an evening about the
middle of the week, the chief features
of such meetings being the singing of
evangelistic or hortatory hymns, extem-
poraneous prayers by worshipers called
upon without discrimination for that
purpose, and the relation of religious
experiences by individuals either with or
without special invitation. These meet-
ings are based upon the notion that
prayer is a means of grace, the use of
the Word of God for the purpose of in-
struction being omitted entirely or al-
most so. In this form prayer-meetings
are not Lutheran in character.
Prayers for the Dead. The early
Christians sometimes named the dead,
especially martyrs, in prayer, thanking
God that He had preserved them in the
faith to a blessed end. These prayers
were not intercessory, for the salvation
of those named was considered certain;
they rather served to remind the living
of the mercy of God and to comfort and
strengthen them. Alms were often
brought to the church on such occasions
and distributed to the poor, in memory
of the departed. While these customs
had no warrant in Scripture, they did
not conflict with it. Gradually, however,
as the first purity departed and heathen-
ism crept into the Church, these prac-
tises were corrupted. Prayers were
offered to aid the dead, oblations were
brought to the church for their benefit,
and the doctrine of purgatory established
itself. The supposed needs of the dead
in purgatory, in turn, led to the saying
of masses for them, to the invocation of
the saints in their behalf, and to other
practises found in the Roman Church. — •
Since, according to Scripture, there are
only two places for the dead and every
man’s eternal fate is decided at death,
prayers for the dead are useless. John
3, 18. The Bible contains neither com-
mand, promise, nor example to justify
PreadaMttei
602
Predestination
the practise; so it falls under the con-
demnation of Rev. 22, 18.
Preadamites. The term, signifying
a race of men older than Adam, was first
employed in the title of a book published
in 1655 in Paris by Isaac Peyrerius.
A considerable number of treatises were
written in opposition and others in de-
fense, those who defended the existence
of the Preadamite race basing their mis-
taken argument mainly on Rom. 5,
12 — 14. Adam is presumed to be re-
ferred to as ancestor to the Jews only
while the Gentiles are held to be de-
scended from the Preadamites.
Predestinarian Controversy, 847 to
868. This was a rediscussion of the
stricter and the laxer view of the Augus-
tinian doctrine of predestination. (See
Pelagian Controversy . ) Gottschalk, a
Saxon monk at Fulda, compelled to re-
main monk against his will by the in-
fluence of his superior, Rahanus Maurus,
was a close student of Augustine’s works
and, became an enthusiastic adherent of
his doctrine of absolute predestination.
He accused the greater part of his con-
temporaries as Semi-Pelagians because
they had forgotten this doctrine or cir-
cumvented it. Gottschalk, however, went
farther than Augustinianism, teaching
a twofold predestination, to salvation
and to condemnation (not, however, as
his opponents accused him, unto evil). In
840 and 847 Gottschalk spread his doc-
trine in Italy. He was opposed first
chiefly by Rabanus-Maurus, who, however,
misrepresented his teachings. A synod
of Mainz, 848, excommunicated Gott-
schalk as a heretic, and Hincmar of
Reims, his metropolitan, was instructed
to deal with him. He was again con-
demned by a synod at Quiersy, 849, and,
refusing to recant, was whipped and im-
prisoned for twenty years, until his
death, in the monastery of Hautvilliers.
Remaining true to his convictions, he
was refused Communion and burial in
consecrated ground.
His doctrine did not fare so badly as
himself. His hasty condemnation and
the rather startling fact that two high
church dignitaries condemned Augus-
tine’s doctrine aroused general attention,
and soon a number of notable men en-
tered the lists for Gottschalk. An appeal
of Gottschalk to Pope Nicholas I at first
promised to be successful, but was finally
outmaneuvered by Hincmar. Public
opinion on the question was swung
around to favor Gottschalk chiefly by
Bishop Prudentius of Troyes, by the
learned monk Ratramnus at Corbie, and
by the scholarly abbot Servatus Lupus
at Ferrieres. Hincmar, hard pressed.
now sought the alliance of other men,
among them the learned Scotus Erigena,
whose heretical views, however, brought
increased suspicion on Hincmar. Never-
theless Hincmar succeeded in getting an-
other synod of Quiersy, 853, to adopt
four propositions against the system of
Gottschalk. This synod did not essen-
tially deviate from the Augustinian sys-
tem, but, on the one hand, denied only
a twofold predestination and, on the
other hand, expressly stated that God
wills the salvation of all men, although
not all are saved. But many pertinent
questions were passed over in silence.
By the influence of Archbishop Remigius
of Lyons a synod at Valence, 855, ac-
cepted six theses of strict Augustinian-
ism against the four of the former synod
to vindicate the friends of Gottschalk.
Here a duplex predestination was as-
serted and salvation by Christ restricted
to the baptized members of the Church,
all others being excluded. Hincmar and
Remigius intended to get together on
this matter at a new synod, but the
synod was never held, and the contro-
versy ended with several lengthy books
of Hincmar’s against Gottschalk, leaving
the debated subject as unclear as it had
been before the controversy began. After
seven centuries the divergent opinions
on the mooted subject had fully devel-
oped into the two extremes of Roman
Catholic Semi-Pelagianism and Calvin’s
predestinarianism, between which the
Lutheran Church found the right mean.
For Predestinarian Controversy in the
American Lutheran Church see Ohio
Synod, Missouri Synod.
Predestination. By the decree of
predestination is understood the eternal
act of God (Eph. 1, 4; 2 Thess. 2, 13;
2 Tim. 1,9) by means of which out of
grace (2 Tim. 1, 9; Rom. 11, 5) and
because of the merit of the foreordained
Redeemer of all mankind (Eph. 1, 4;
3, 11), He purposed to lead into eternal
life (Acts 13, 48; Rom. 8, 28. 29) ;
through the means of salvation intended
for all mankind (1 Pet. 1, 2), a certain
number of certain persons (Acts 13, 48;
Matt. 20, 16) and to procure, work, and
promote whatever would pertain to their
final salvation (Eph. 1, 11; 3, 10.-T1).
The English word “predestinate,” or
“foreordain” (Rom. 8, 29. 30), translates
the Greek word proorizein (Acts 4, 28;
1 Cor. 2, 7; Eph. 1, 5. 11. etc.), which
means to determine beforehand. Synony-
mous with this term are the words
proyinoskein (2 Tim. 2, 19; John 10,
14. 15), eklegein (John 15, 16; 1 Cor.
1, 27. 28; Jas. 2, 5), and other synony-
mous terms. The doctrine that God has
Predestination
603
Premonstratensians
from eternity elected a certain number
in Christ Jesus unto salvation, bringing
them to faith in Christ Jesus by the
preaching of the Gospel, is clearly taught
in the above-named passages. The dis-
cussion of these passages has, how-
ever, given rise to a great variety of
divergent views. The Lutheran Church
teaches: “The predestination or eternal
election of God extends only over the
godly, beloved children of God, being a
cause of their salvation, which He also
provides, as well as disposes what be-
longs thereto. Upon this [predestination
of God] our salvation is founded so
firmly that the gates of hell cannot over-
come it. John 10, 28; Matt. 16, 18.
This [predestination of God] is not to
be investigated in the secret counsel of
God, but to be sought in the Word of
God, where it is also revealed. But the
Word of God leads us to Christ, who is
the Book of Life, in whom all are written
and elected that are to be saved in eter-
nity, as it is written Eph. 1, 4 : ‘He hath
chosen us in Him [Christ] before the
foundation of the world.’ . . . Thus far
a Christian should occupy himself [in
meditation] with the article concerning
the eternal election of God as it has been
revealed in God’s Word, which presents
to us Christ as the Book of Life, which
He opens and reveals to us by the preach-
ing of the holy Gospel, as it is written
Bom. 8, 30: ‘Whom He did predestinate,
them He also called.’ In Him we are to
seek the eternal election of the Father,
who has determined in His eternal divine
counsel that He would save no one except
those who know His Son Christ and
truly believe on Him. Other thoughts
are to be [entirely] banished [from the
minds of the godly], as they proceed not
from God, but from the suggestion of the
Evil Foe, whereby he attempts to weaken
or entirely to remove from us the glo-
rious consolation which we have in this
salutary doctrine, namely, that we know
[assuredly] that out of pure grace, with-
out any merit of our own, we have been
elected in Christ to eternal life and that
no one can pluck us out of His hand.”
( Formula, of Concord, Epitome, XI.
Trigl., pp. 833. 835.)
While the Lutheran Church thus up-
holds the doctrine that God has elected
those who shall be saved, it maintains
that grace is universal, that God has not
predestined any to damnation; that the
Gospel is seriously and effectively offered
to all men; that, if any are lost, it is
because of their own fault. Calvinism,
on the other hand, claimed that the
eternal decree of predestination was al-
together arbitrary in God and that “the
rest of mankind God was pleased, accord-
ing to the unsearchable counsel of His
own will, whereby He extendeth or with-
holdeth mercy as He pleaseth for the
glory of His sovereign power over His
creatures, to pass by and to retain them
to dishonor and wrath for their sins, to
the praise of His glorious justice.” (West-
minster Confession of Faith, chap. 3,
§ 7.) Calvinists are divided into two
groups: Supralapsarians (who teach
that God has created some to salvation
and others unto damnation) and Infra-
lapsarians (who maintain that God has
merely permitted man to fall). The
Supralapsarians’ scheme thus makes the
decree of election motivate the decree of
the Fall itself and conceives the decree of
the Fall as a means for carrying out the
decree of the double election, while the
Infralapsarian scheme makes the decree
of election come after the decree to create
and permit to fall. In addition to this,
we have the Arminian scheme, according
to which the decree of redemption pre-
cedes the decree of election, which is
conditioned upon the foreseen faith of
tiie individual, man possessing free will
and having the power to accept grace or
to reject it. The Infralapsarians, then,
teach that God decreed to withhold faith
from the reprobate, to pass them by.
Thus, according to the Calvinistic view,
predestination includes reprobation, God
reprobating the non-elect by His sovereign
act for the manifestation of His own
glory. The non-elect are thus retained
to dishonor and wrath for their sins to
the praise of God’s glory and justice.
( Confession of Faith, chap. 3, secs. 3 — 7.)
In contradistinction to this view Lu-
theran theologians have always main-
tained that Scripture, in spite of all its
emphasis on foreordination, never speaks
of a foreordination to death or of a re-
probation of human beings apart from
their sins. See also Election.
Prelude. The opening strain intro-
ducing a hymn or other musical com-
position, usually not including the main
theme, but played in the same key and
leading up to the chief movement, pre-
paring for its character.
Premillenarians hold that Christ’s
second visible coming precedes the mil-
lennium, i. e., Christ will come again
visibly to establish the millennium be-
fore the end of the world. Postmillena-
rians hold that there will indeed be a
millennium, but Christ will come again
visibly only after the millennium has
come to an end.
Premonstratensians. An order of
canons (<j.v.) regular, founded by Nor-
Frc-Rflffaelftefl
604
Presbyterian Bodies
bert, at I’reniontre, France, in 1120, to
preach and to achieve personal holiness.
Inner decay, the Reformation, and secu-
larization have left its membership small,
but it has numerous tertiaries (q. v.) in
England and America.
Pre-RafEaelites. Members of a
brotherhood of artists, including Dante
Gabriel Rossetti, W. Holman Hunt, John
Millais, Thomas Woolner, and William
Michael Rossetti, whose chief aim was
to return to the truth and earnestness
which distinguished the Italian painters
before Raffael.
Presbyterian Bodies. General state-
ment. As the Lutheran churches repre-
sent the features of the Reformation as
emphasized by Luther, so the Presby-
terian and Reformed churches represent
those emphasized by Calvin. The doc-
trine and ecclesiastical system of Calvin,
developed at Geneva, Switzerland, and
modified somewhat in Holland and in
France, were transferred to Scotland and
became solidified there 1560, largely
under the influence of John Knox. In
order to understand the history of
Scotch Presbyterianism, we must bear in
mind the political, social, and religious
condition prevailing at the time when
Knox became influential. In Scotland
the Reformation had found root at a
very early date, and the efforts to put
down by force the growing spirit of in-
quiry and the return to primitive Chris-
tianity proved utterly ineffectual. The
protomartyr of the Scottish Reformation
was Patrick Hamilton, who was burned
at the stake February 29, 1528. The
martyrdom of George Wishart was
dreadfully avenged by the murder of
Cardinal Beaton. The assassination
caused a certain reaction in favor of
Rome, for the cardinal had been ardently
patriotic. The Romanist party sought
help from France; the Protestants, from
England. The assassins of the cardinal
and many who were not in sympathy
with them were compelled to take refuge
in the castle of St. Andrews, which, after
a protracted siege, surrendered to the at-
tacks of the royal army and of a French
fleet. Among the defenders of St. An-
drews was John Knox, the founder of
the Scotch Presbyterian Church. Hav-
ing toiled as a galley-slave for nineteen
months, Knox was released and became
one of the chaplains of Edward VT. As
such he took part in the preparation of
the English prayer-book of 1552, and be-
came one of the most potent factors in
introducing Reformed principles and doc-
trines. The year 1560 witnessed the con-
solidation, national recognition, and
establishment of the Reformed Church.
In this year the first general assembly
was held, and the Scotch Confession of
Faith and the First Book of Discipline
were issued. The government of the
Church was vested in superintendents,
ministers, doctors, elders, and deacons.
The Lord’s Supper was to be celebrated
four times a year. In towns there was
to be daily service. Marriages were to
be performed “in open face and public
audience of the Kirk.” The Book of
Common Order, often called “John
Knox’s Liturgy,” originally prepared by
the English congregation at Geneva for
its own use, was recommended in 1564
and was generally, though not exclu-
sively, used in public worship for eighty
years. The Reformation in Scotland
took a form different from that of the
Reformation in England, partly because
in England the king and the bishops
were in favor of the Reformation while
in Scotland they were against it. The
Reformation in Scotland was effected by
Presbyterians, and the government of the
Church naturally became Presbyterian.
The present Kirk of Scotland has been
established in its essential features, both
in doctrine and polity, since 1567, when
its presbyterian form of government was
acknowledged by Parliament and it be-
came the state church. The relation of
Church and State caused a number of
divisions. The first formal division
arose in 1688, when the Came'ronians,
dissatisfied with the compromising spirit
of the Church, refused to concur in the
Revolution settlement. The separatists
remained an isolated body until 1876,
when they joined the Free Church. Next
came two secessions, which eventually
coalesced in the United Presbyterian
Church. The first, the Associate Synod,
originated through the deposition in
1733 of Ebenezer Erskine for preaching
a sermon claiming for Christ the head-
ship of the Church and declaring the
“Church the freest society in the world.”
This was aimed especially at an Act of
Assembly (1732), which had placed the
election of ministers in the hands, not
of the congregation, but of the majority
of elders and heritors. In 1747 the body
of seceders had 45 congregations, when
the great “breach” took place on the
question of the lawfulness of taking a
certain burgess oath. This breach led
to complete separation, which was not
healed until 1820, when the United Se-
cession Church was formed. This Church
was distinguished for its foreign mis-
sionary enthusiasm and grew and pros-
pered until the union of 1847. The sec-
ond secession, which later led to the
Presbyterian Bodies
605
Presbyterian Bodies
formation of the United Presbyterian
Church, was the Relief Church, which
originated with Thomas Gillespie, who
stood almost alone until 1761, when a
presbytery was formed “for the relief
of Christians oppressed in their Chris-
tian privileges.” This Church was dis-
tinguished for its liberal spirit. The
union of the Associate Synod and Relief
Churches was accomplished in 1847,
when the United Presbyterian Church
was organized. Latest in origin, but
largest and most influential, came the
Free Church, in 1843. The Free Church
sprang into being on a national scale.
Those who came out of the Established
Church claimed to be the true Church
of Scotland and at once set about mak-
ing its whole organization independent
of the State. The contention of the Free
Church party was that the spiritual
liberties of the Church were being chal-
lenged by the State and that the whole
principle of spiritual independence was
involved. The year 1900 is a historic
date in Scottish history, when, amid
a scene of great enthusiasm, the union
of Free and United Presbyterian
Churches in Scotland was consummated
in Edinburgh, the new body adopting the
name of United Free Church of Scotland.
The doctrinal position of Scottish Pres-
byterianism has never been defined anew
since the Westminster Confession ap-
proved it in 1646. The statement of the
present position of the United Free
Church is contained in the Acts of 1905
regarding the spiritual independence and
of 1900 effecting the Union. With the
exception of minor modifications the
theology of the United Free Church is
the Calvinistic doctrine of the West-
minster Confession. — - Other independent
churches are : The Free Presbyterian
Church of Scotland (1893), the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church, which is
the legitimate descendant and represen-
tative of the Covenanted Church of Scot-
land in its period of greatest purity
(1638 — 1649), and the United Original
Secession Church, which dates from
1733, when Ebenezer Erskine was de-
posed. Presbyterian Church in the
United States : see below.
Presbyterian Church of England. Also
in England the Presbyterian Church,
especially the presbyterial polity, met
with much hostility. As a result
of Queen Elizabeth’s oppression a
considerable number of persons in 1556
had separated themselves from the Es-
tablished Church and maintained reli-
gious services according to the Presby-
terian order. Their sufferings did not
deter others who still remained in the
Church from going still farther and hold-
ing conferences, or ministers’ meetings,
one of which, in London, deputed in 1572
two of its members to visit Wandsworth,
a village near that city, where they for-
mally organized a “Particular Church,”
in accordance with Presbyterian order.
This was the first open formation in
England of a Church different from that
which had been established. Under
Charles I, Laud, who said he regarded
Presbytery as worse than Romanism,
promoted those Star Chamber prosecu-
tions of the Non conformists which have
always been regarded as a stain in En-
glish history. The king’s own conduct
drove the great mass of the Presbyterian
Church into the ranks of the Parliamen-
tarians, while the subsequent alliance of
the Parliament with the Scottish army,
together with the decisions of the West-
minster Assembly in 1647, resulted in the
overthrow of the Episcopal Church and
its replacement in the establishment by
that of the Presbytery. By this As-
sembly the Calvinistic system of doctrine
was expressed in the Westminster Con-
fession and its system of polity in the
Directory of Church Government. The
establishment was now Presbyterian, yet
the Presbyterian polity was accepted
largely only in London and Lancashire.
Cromwell replaced Presbytery by Inde-
pendency. But in 1662, by the Act of
Uniformity, every minister not episco-
pally ordained was obliged to be re-
ordained; adherence to everything in
the Rook of Common Prayer was
made obligatory; obedience to the
bishop and abjuration of the Solemn
League and Covenant, with an addi-
tional oath declaring that it was not
lawful under any circumstances to take
up arms against the king, was insisted
upon. More than 2,000 parish ministers
refused obedience to the Act and on
August 24 resigned their congregations,
walking out of their manses and leav-
ing their pulpits empty. By the Con-
venticle Act these men were forbidden to
preach to their former congregations and
by the Five-mile Act could not live
within five miles of their former par-
ishes. In 1688 came the Revolution, and
under the “Happy Union” arrangement
of 1691 all branches of non-conformity
were consolidated into a single commu-
nity, though' no authority existed to en-
force the Westminster Confession or the
Directory of Church Government. In
order to distinguish between the enemies
of the parties opposing the episcopacy,
the following facts must be borne in
mind. While the Puritans agreed with
the Established Church of England as
Presbyterian Bodies
606
Presbyterian Bodies
regards doctrine and polity, they insisted
upon “purity” with regard to elimination
of every ceremony and rite which they
regarded as remnants of popery. When
the Established Church insisted upon
“conformity,” the Puritans, not willing
to yield, were called “non-conformists.”
The Puritans were strict Calvinists, but
opposed the episcopacy. Those who de-
sired that th,e presbyterial polity of
Geneva be adopted were called Presbyte-
rians; such as rejected the presbyterial
form of government and demanded that
each congregation remain independent
were called “Independents” or “Congre-
gationalists.” From this last party,
later on, the Baptist Church was largely
recruited.- — Not a few of the congrega-
tions had left the parish churches in
1662 and provided themselves with small
chapels for their religious services.
These survived for a time, but later on
they joined the Scotch Presbyterians,
who had been gathered into small con-
gregations in London. By 1772 these
London congregations, 7 in number,
formed themselves into “the Scots Pres-
bytery of London.” This “presbytery,”
while claiming communion with the
Church of Scotland, had no ecclesiastical
connection with it and was really little
more than a “ministers’ meeting.” In
1836 the presbytery changed its title to
that of “The London Presbytery in Com-
munion with the Church of Scotland.”
In 1839 the Scottish Assembly counseled
these members to organize themselves as
“The Presbyterian Synod in England.”
In 1843 came the fateful disruption of the
Scottish Establishment, when the Pres-
byterian Synod in England divided. The
majority cast its lot with the Scottish
Free Church and retained the name of
Presbyterian Synod in England, while
the minority remained in connection with
the Scottish National Church and formed
itself into the “Scottish Presbytery in
London in Connection with the Church
of Scotland.” In 1850 this presbytery,
like the two others that had been formed,
was organized as “The Synod of the
Church of Scotland in England.” The
Free Church “Presbyterian Synod in
England” remained in friendly relations
with the Old Presbyterian and the
United Secession Congregations, so that,
in 1863, the United Presbyterian Church
in Scotland formed its congregations in
England into the English Synod. In
1876 the English Synod united with the
Presbyterian Synod in England, the unit-
ing churches taking the name of “The
Presbyterian Church of England.”
Presbyterian Church in Ireland. At
the time of the Ulster Plantation, under
James I (1603 — 25), Presbyterians gained
a permanent footing in Ireland. The
settlers, most of whom were Scottish
Presbyterians, began to arrive in 1610.
Presbyterian ministers began to come
from Scotland in 1613, and for a time
they were appointed, without reordina-
tion, to vacant churches in the Estab-
lished Church. In 1641 there was a re-
bellion in Ireland, in the course of which
thousands of Protestants were massacred.
In 1642 the Scottish army was sent to
quell the rebellion, each Scottish regi-
ment having a chaplain and a regular
kirk session selected from the officers.
These, on June 10, 1642, at Carrick-
fergus, Ireland, formed the first presby-
tery, consisting of five chaplains and
four elders. Other ministers were sent
over from Scotland, and new presbyteries
were formed. At the time of Cromwell
there was a General Synod, with 80 con-
gregations and 70 ministers. In 1661,
64 ministers were rejected for refusing
to conform to the Established Church,
and many Presbyterians emigrated to
America. King William III authorized
a payment of 1,200 pounds per annum to
the Presbyterian ministers of Ireland in
recognition of the loyal support of Pres-
byterians on his arrival in Ireland in
1690. This was the beginning of the
Regiurn Donum, which subsequently was
increased and continued to be given to
ministers until 1871. Towards the end
of the first half of the 18th century some
of the ministers came under the influence
of Modernism. The Congregation of Se-
ceders was formed in 1741, and in time
there came to be a Secession Synod as
well as a Synod of Ulster. The ministers
of secession congregations also received
a Regiurn Donum from the government.
In 1825 some of the ministers of the
Synod of Ulster were charged with
spreading Arian views; so under the
leadership of Rev. Henry Cooke the
Synod of Ulster declared in favor of the
doctrine of the Trinity. Seventeen min-
isters in 1829 withdrew from the synod
and subsequently formed the Remon-
strant Synod of Ulster. In consequence
of this the two orthodox synods, the
Synod of Ulster and the Secession
Synod, were united in 1840 and formed
the General Assembly of the Presbyte-
rian Church in Ireland. Even before the
Ulster Plantation there were Presbyte-
rians in the south of Ireland. Gradually
increasing in number, the Southern As-
sociation, in 1809, became the Synod of
Munster. In 1840 the orthodox members
of this synod withdrew and formed them-
selves into the Presbytery of Munster,
which ill 1854 joined the General As-
l'reH It > ( erlnn Bodies
607
Presbyterian Bodies
sembly of the Presbyterian Church in
Ireland. - — Besides these synods, another
Presbyterian Church flourished, viz., the
Reformed Presbyterian, or Covenanting,
Church of Ireland, which traces its ori-
gin to the Covenanters of Scotland.
Covenanters who had fled from persecu-
tion in Scotland and had settled in the
northeastern part of the island became
the founders of the Covenanting Church
in Ireland, called the Society People.
The presbytery was organized in 1792
and in 1811 a synod of 12 ministers.
In 1840 a number of congregations and
ministers withdrew on account of a con-
troversy regarding the power of a civil
ruler. Some of these congregations later
joined the Presbyterian Church of Ire-
land. Standards of the Church are the
W estminster Confession and Catechisms,
together with the Testimony, in which
the Church’s distinctive position is clearly
defined. — The Secession Church in Ire-
land. The Secession movement in Scot-
land, spreading to Ireland, established it-
self widely in the north of that country.
The Secession Church in Ireland, at pres-
ent numbering only a few congregations,
is organized under the name of the As-
sociate Synod of Ireland or the Presbyte-
rian Synod of Ireland.
Associate Reformed Presbyterian
Church. (Formerly Associate Reformed
Synod of the South.) In 1782 the Re-
formed Presbytery and the Associate
Presbytery united to form the Associate
Reformed Presbyterian Church. After
the union this body grew in strength
until it included four synods, which were
organized under a general synod. One
of these synods, the Synod of the Caro-
linas, doubtful of the loyalty of the gen-
eral synod to the distinctive principles
of the Scotch churches, withdrew from
the general synod in 1821, becoming, in
1822, an independent body — the Asso-
ciate Reformed Synod of the South.
Later this denomination adopted the
name Associate Reformed Presbyterian
Church, the organization which formerly
carried this name having formed a union
with another body under the name of
United Presbyterian Church of North
America. In doctrine the synod is thor-
oughly Calvinistic, having the same
symbols of faith as the other Reformed
Presbyterian churches. In polity it is
Presbyterian, in close accord with other
similar bodies. Its distinctive feature
is the exclusive use of the psalms in
praise. The home missionary work of
the synod is carried on through its Board
of Home Missions, which founds and fos-
ters churches in Southern cities and
towns. The foreign work is carried on
by the Board of Foreign Missions in
Mexico and India. The Young People’s
Christian Union has about 60 societies,
with a membership of 2,142. Statistics,
1921 : 110 ministers, 132 churches, 16,564
communicants.
Colored Cumberland Presbyterian
Church. After the close of the Civil
War the Negro members of the Cumber-
land Presbyterian Church organized sep-
arate churches and later formed a sepa-
rate ecclesiastical organization. In the
fall of 1869 three presbyteries in Ten-
nessee were set apart. The first synod
was organized in 1871, at Fayetteville,
called the Tennessee Synod, and the first
General Assembly was organized in 1874
at Nashville, Tenn. In doctrine the Col-
ored Cumberland Presbyterian Church
accepts the teachings of the Westminster
Confession of Faith. In polity the Col-
ored Cumberland Presbyterian Church
is in accord with other Presbyterian
bodies. Statistics, 1921 : 430 ministers,
136 churches, 13,077 communicants.
Cumberland Presbyterian Church (be-
fore the union of 1906). As a distinct
organization the Cumberland Presbyte-
rian Church began its career on Feb-
ruary 10, 1810, and ceased to be a dis-
tinct denomination by an act of “union
and reunion” with the Presbyterian
Church in the United States of America
on May 24, 1906. Its origin may he
traced back to the revival of religion
which in 1797 was developed in the
“Cumberland country,” in Southwestern
Kentucky and Tennessee, under the
leadership of the Rev. James McGready.
At the first meeting of the Synod of Ken-
tucky, in 1802; the southwestern portion
of the presbytery of Transylvania, in-
cluding the Cumberland country, was
constituted the Presbytery of Cumber-
land. However, as the revival movement
spread to the various small settlements
in this section, the demand for ministers
became greater than the supply, and the
revival party believed that the emergency
justified them in introducing into the
ministry men who had not had the usual
academic and theological training. A few
of these were inducted into the ministry,
while others were set apart as “ex-
horters.” The antirevival party objected
both to the admission into the ministry
of men without special theological train-
ing and to the permission of some reser-
vation in regard to doctrine. The whole
matter was brought before the Synod of
Kentucky, which in 1805 appointed a
commission to confer with the members
of the Cumberland Presbytery and to
adjudicate on their presbyterial proceed-
ings. The commission which met in De-
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Presbyterian Bodies
cember, 1805, assuming full synodical
power, solemnly prohibited them “from
exhorting, preaching, and administering
ordinances.” Besides this action the Revs.
James McGready and Samuel McAdow
and three others were cited to appear at
the next meeting of the synod. This
synod, which met in 1806, sanctioned the
proceedings of the commission, dissolved
the Presbytery of Cumberland, and at-
tached its members to the Presbytery of
Transylvania.
Since the General Assembly, meeting
in May, 1809, confirmed the action of the
synod, the revival party, including about
thirty churches, at once discussed the
formation of an independent presbytery.
February 4, 1810, an independent pres-
bytery was constituted by the Revs. Finis
Ewing, Samuel King, and Samuel Mc-
Adow, and the name of the dissolved
presbytery, “Cumberland,” was adopted.
The organization grew rapidly and, after
a few years, assumed the name of “The
Cumberland Presbyterian Church.” In
doctrine the Cumberland Presbyterian
Church has combined Arminian features
with the Calvinistic system. In polity
it has been thoroughly Presbyterian.
Statistics, 1921 : 749 ministers, 1,312
churches, 63,924 communicants.
The distinctively Presbyterian Church
in the United States traces its origin
chiefly to Great Britain. Whatever of
English and Welsh Presbyterianism
there was in the Colonies, with the ad-
dition of French Protestant or Huguenot
churches, combined at an early date with
the Scotch and Scotch-Irish elements to
form the Presbyterian Church in the
United States of America, from which
the Cumberland Presbyterian Church
and the Presbyterian Church in the
United States (South) afterward sepa-
rated. The Calvinistic Methodists of
Wales are represented by the Welsh
Calvinistic Methodist Church. The ear-
liest American Presbyterian churches
were established in Virginia, New En-
gland, Maryland, and Delaware and were
chiefly of English origin, their pastors
being Church-of-England ministers hold-
ing Presbyterian views. Between 1642
.and 1649 many of the Virginia Puritans
were driven out of the colony of Massa-
chusetts and found refuge in Maryland
and North Carolina. In 1649 the West-
minster Standards were adopted for doc-
trine at a synod held for the purpose of
establishing the doctrinal position of the
churches. In 1683 the presbytery of
Laggan, Ireland, sent to this country the
Rev. Francis Mackemie, who became the
apostle of American Presbyterianism. In
1706, 7 ministers, representing 22 con-
gregations, met at Philadelphia and or-
ganized a presbytery, the first ecclesias-
tical gathering of an international and
fraternal character in the country. In
1716 the presbytery constituted itself
into a synod with four presbyteries. In
1729 the General Presbyterian Synod of
Philadelphia passed what is called the
Adopting Act, by which it was agreed
that all the ministers of its jurisdiction
should declare their agreement in the
approbation of the Confession of Faith,
with the Larger and the Shorter Cat-
echism of the assembly of divines at
Westminster, “as being, in all essential
and necessary articles, good forms of
sound words and systems of Christian
doctrine.” This may be regarded as con-
nected with the general religious move-
ment that characterized the early part
of the 18th century, and manifested
itself in England in Methodism, and in
New England in the “Great Awakening.”
In the Presbyterian Church in America
it found its expression through Gilbert
Tennent, a pastor in Philadelphia. Hav-
ing become convinced of the necessity of
personal conversion, he began, in 1728,
six years before Jonathan Edward’s
famous sermon, a course of preaching
of the most searching type. This was
the beginning of the powerful religious
awakening in the Presbyterian Church,
which was led by Gilbert Tennent, Wm.
Tennent, Jr., and several coworkers.
They became so severe in their denun-
ciation of “non-converted ministers” as
to arouse bitter opposition. The result
was a division, one party, the “New
Side,” endorsing the revival and insist-
ing that less stress be laid on college
training and more on the evidence that
the candidate was a regenerated man and
called to the ministry by the Holy Ghost;
the other, the “Old Side,” opposing re-
vivals and disposed to insist that none
but graduates of British universities or
New England colleges be accepted as
candidates for the ministry. There was
also a division with regard to the inter-
pretation of the doctrinal standards.
This led to the organization of a new
synod, the Synod of New York. In 1758
the two bodies reunited upon the basis
of the Westminster standards as the
Synod of New York and Philadelphia.
It was during the period of this division,
in 1746, that the New Side established
the College of New Jersey, later Prince-
ton University, for the purpose of secur-
ing an educated ministry. After the two
separated bodies had reunited, John
Witherspoon, from Scotland, was called
and in 1768 was installed as president
and Professor of Divinity. He exercised
Presbyterian Bodies
609
Presbyterian Bodies
powerful influence both in the Presby-
terian Church and throughout the middle
and southern colonies and was one of the
leading persons in the joint movement of
Presbyterians and Congregationalists
(1766 — 75) to secure religious liberty
and resist the scheme of the English
Episcopal Church to establish itself as
the state church of the colonies. After
the War of the American Revolution and
the restoration of peace in 1783 the Pres-
byterian Church gradually recovered
from the evils wrought by the war. In
order to cement the congregations into
a closer union, the Presbyterian Synod
in May, 1788, adopted the Westminster
Confession of Faith , with the Larger and
the Shorter Catechism, also a constitu-
tion, consisting of a form of government
and book of discipline and a directory
for worship. Certain changes, however,
were made in the confessions, the cat-
echisms, and the directory for worship
along the lines of liberty in worship,
freedom in prayer, and, above all, liberty
from control by the state. By the new
form of government the synod was di-
vided into four synods, and these were
made subject to the General Assembly,
as the governing body of the Church.
The first General Assembly met in 1789
in Philadelphia. After the adoption of
the constitution the Church formulated
a plan of union with the Congregational
associations of New England. By this
plan the Congregational ministers were
permitted to serve Presbyterian churches,
and vice versa. The union remained in
force until 1837. During this period
there took place what is known as the
Cumberland Separation, which, in 1810,
resulted in the organization of the Cum-
berland Presbyterian Church. — During
this period, 1790 — 1837, the membership
of the Church had increased from 18,000
to 220,557, and most of the missionary
and benevolent boards were established.
The Foreign Mission work of the Church
had previously been carried on mainly
through the American Board of Commis-
sioners for Foreign Missions, located at
Boston, and much of the Home Mission
work through the American Home Mis-
sionary Society. This was not satisfac-
tory to all, and in 1831 the Synod of
Pittsburgh founded the Western Foreign
Missionary Society as a distinctively de-
nominational agency. The party favor-
ing these agencies and opposing the
united work was known as “Old School”;
that favoring the continuance of the
plan, as the “New School.” However,
also questions of doctrine were involved
in the controversy. Rev. Albert Barnes,
of Philadelphia, who persisted in pro-
Concordta Cyclopedia
claiming liberal views, was tried for
heresy in 1835. In the General Assembly
of 1837 the Old School majority brought
the matters at issue to a head by abro-
gating the plan of union, passing resolu-
tions against the interdenomination so-
cieties, exscinding the synods of Utica,
Geneva, Genesee, and the Western Re-
serve, and establishing the Presbyterian
Board of Foreign Missions. The ex-
scinded synods met at Auburn, N. Y., in
August of the same year and adopted
the Auburn Declaration, setting forth
the views of the New School, appointed
trustees, and elected commissioners to
the Assembly of 1838. At the meeting
of that Assembly the New School com-
missioners protested against the exclu-
sion of the delegates from the four
exscinded synods, organized an assembly
of their own in the presence of the sit-
ting assembly, and then withdrew. For
nearly two decades both branches of the
Church grew steadily, making progress
in the organization of their benevolent
and missionary work. The slavery dis-
cussion, however, caused disruption and
checked the growth. The New School
Assembly of 1853 took strong ground in
opposition to slavery. This resulted in
the withdrawal of a number of Southern
presbyteries, which in 1858 organized
the United Synod of the Presbyterian
Church. In May, 1861, the Old School
Assembly met at Philadelphia, with but
13 commissioners present from the
Southern States. Loyalty to the Federal
Government was expressed hy a decided
majority. In consequence of the “Spring
resolutions,” called thus after Dr. Gar-
dener Spring, of New York, who had
offered them, there was organized at
Augusta, Ga., in December, 1861, the
Presbyterian Church in the Confederate
States of America, which in 1864 was
enlarged hy union with the United
Synods of the Presbyterian Church. In
1865, after the cessation of hostilities,
this denomination assumed the name of
Presbyterian Church in the United
States. During the Civil War steps had
been taken towards the reunion of the
Old School and the New School, and on
November 12, 1869, at Pittsburgh, Pa.,
the reunion was consummated on “the
doctrinal and ecclesiastical basis of our
common standard.” The harmony of the
denomination was seriously threatened
by the controversy (1891 — 94) as to the
sources of authority in religion and the
authority and credibility of the Scrip-
tures, a controversy which, after the
trials of Prof. Charles A. Briggs and
Henry P. Smith, terminated in the adop-
tion, by the General Assembly at Minne-
39
Presbyterian Bodies
610
Presbyterian Bodies
apolis, Minn., in 1899, of a unanimous
deliverance affirming the loyalty of the
Church to its historic views on these
subjects. While the Presbyterian Church
in the United States refused to enter
into a union with their brethren in the
North, fraternal relations were estab-
lished in 1882 and 1883, and ever since
the two bodies have been in close union
and fellowship. Controversies arose in
1889 with regard to the adoption of a
revised and abridged form of the West-
minster Confession. The movement for
its revision came to a successful close in
1903, when a declaratory statement was
adopted ostensibly confessing universal
grace. This year was also noteworthy
because of the beginning of the move-
ment for union with the Cumberland
Presbyterian Church, which was brought
about in 1906, although a minority re-
fused to accept it and retained the old
name and the old constitution. In the
same year a Book of Common Worship
was prepared and approved by the Gen-
eral Assembly for voluntary use. In
1907 the Council of the Reformed
Churches in the United States Holding
the Presbyterian System was organized,
bringing into cooperative relations seven
of the churches of the Presbyterian de-
nomination in the country. In 1917 the
General Assembly established a General
Board of Education, into which are to be
merged the Board of Education located
in Philadelphia and the College Board
located in New York City. The official
publications of the Church are the rec-
ords of the General Presbytery, 1706 to
1716; of the General Synod, 1717 — 88;
and of the General Assembly, 1789 to the
present, each in printed form. They are
the most complete ecclesiastical records
in the United States of America. Both
the minutes of the General Assembly
and the reports of the boards are now
issued annually.
The standards of the Presbyterian
Church in the United States of America
are twofold — the standards of doctrine
and the standards of government, disci-
pline, and worship. These last are con-
tained in documents known as the Form
of Government, the Book of Discipline,
and the Directory for Worship, which,
taken together, form the constitution of
the Church. They were first adopted in
1788, and amendments and additions have
been made from time to time, the Book
of Discipline being entirely reconstructed
1884-5.
Doctrine. Presbyterianism has a doc-
trinal system which has as its fundamen-
tal principles the absolute sovereignty of
God in the universe, the sovereignty of
Christ in heaven, the sovereignty of the
Scriptures in faith and conduct, and the
sovereignty of the individual conscience
in the interpretation of the Word of God
( which virtually eliminates the third
statement ) . The standards of doctrine
of the Presbyterian Church in the United
States of America are the Westminster
Confession of Faith and the Larger and
the Shorter Catechism. They were first
adopted in 1729. In 1788 certain amend-
ments to the Confession and the Larger
Catechism were approved by the General
Synod, giving expression to the American
doctrine of the independence of the Church
and of religious opinion from control by
the State. In 1886 the clause forbidding
marriage to the deceased wife’s sister
was stricken out, and in 1902 certain
alterations were again made, two chap-
ters, “Of the Holy Spirit” and “Of the
Love of God and Missions,” being added.
A declaratory statement was also adopted
setting forth the universality of the Gos-
pel offer of salvation, declaring that sin-
ners are condemned only on the ground
of their sin and affirming that all per-
sons dying in infancy are elect and there-
fore saved. As a whole, these standards
are distinctly Calvinistic. The Sacra-
ments are administered by ministers
only, and ordinarily only ministers and
licentiates are authorized to teach offi-
cially. In accord with the Calvinistic
conception of the Sacraments, these are
not regarded as effectual means of grace,
but only as symbols of grace. Discipline
is defined in the Book of Discipline as
“the exercise of that authority, and the
application of that system of laws, which
the Lord Jesus has appointed in His
Church.” — As in many other churches
of to-day, so also in the Presbyterian
Church, Liberalism and Modernism (ra-
tionalism) have repeatedly striven for
the ascendancy. In general, two dis-
tinct lines of thought may be pointed
out: evangelism, mediating between Lib-
eralism and Conservatism ; and rational-
ism and Liberalism, which have affected
especially the higher schools of learning.
The “Princeton School,” while retaining
Predestinarianism, defends the funda-
mentals of Scripture.
Polity. As a polity the Presbyterian
Church recognizes Christ as the only
Head of the Church and the Source of
all power, and the people of Christ are
entitled, under their Lord, to participa-
tion in the government and acts of the
Church. Ministers are regarded as peers
one of another, and church authority is
positively fostered, not in individuals,
such as bishops or presbyters, but in rep-
resentative courts, including the session,
Presbyterian Bodies
611
Presbyterian Bodies
the presbytery, and the synod, and in
ease of some bodies, especially the larger
ones, in the General Assembly. With re-
gard to the details in the form of govern-
ment two principal factors may be no-
ticed: the ministers as representatives
of Christ and the ruling elders as repre-
sentatives of the people. The two classes
constitute the four judicatories, which
form the administrative system. These
consist in the session, which governs the
congregation ; the presbytery, which gov-
erns a number of congregations within
a limited geographic district; the synod,
which governs the congregations within
a larger geographic district; and the
General Assembly, which is the supreme
judicatory. All these courts are vested
with legislative, executive, and judicial
powers. The church officers include the
pastor, the ruling elders, and the dea-
cons. The ruling elders constitute the
session, with the pastor as presiding of-
ficer. The deacons have charge of the
collections of the church and are respon-
sible to the session. Both elders and dea-
cons are elected by the congregation. The
pastor is elected at a meeting of the
church members, called by the session.
The presbytery is composed of not less
than five ministers, together with an
elder from each of the congregations
within its district. By virtue of his of-
fice every minister is a member of some
presbytery. The presbytery has power to
receive, retain, install, and judge minis-
ters; to supervise the business which is
common to all its congregations; to re-
view session records; to hear and dis-
pose of cases coming before it on com-
plaint or appeal; and to have oversight
of general denominational matters, sub-
ject to the authority of the synod. The
synod is composed of either all the min-
isters in its district, together with an
elder from each congregation, or of an
equal number of ministers and elders
elected by the presbyteries of the synod,
in accord with a basis of representation
duly adopted. The synod has power to
review the records of its presbyteries, to
hear, and dispose of, all complaints and
appeals, to establish new presbyteries, to
supervise within its bounds the adminis-
tration of all denominational matters,
and, in general, to care for its ministers
and churches, subject to the authority
of the General Assembly. The General
Assembly is the highest judicatory of the
Presbyterian Church. It is composed of
equal delegations of commissioners, both
ministers and ruling elders from each
presbytery, every group of 24 ministers
sending one minister and one elder. The
officers of the- General Assembly are
a moderator and stated and permanent
clerks. The moderator serves for one
year and acts as a representative of the
Church during the interim between the
assemblies. The General Assembly de-
cides all controversies respecting doc-
trine and discipline, establishes new syn-
ods, appoints the various boards and
commissions, receives and issues all ap-
peals, etc. Its decisions are final, except
in all cases affecting the constitution of
the Church. The General Assembly meets
annually on the third Thursday in May.
Work. The general activities of the
Church are under the care of the Gen-
eral Assembly, which usually acts through
boards; in some cases, through perma-
nent and special committees. In 1916
the following boards were conducting the
different departments of the Church ac-
tivities: Board of Home Missions, Board
of Education, Board of Foreign Missions,
Board of Publication and Sabbath- school
Work, Board of the Church Erection
Fund, Board of Relief, which in 1912 was
combined with the Ministerial Sustenta-
tion Fund, Board of Missions for Freed-
men, the College Board, the Board of
Temperance, and the Commission of Evan-
gelism. In the United States the Home
Mission work of the Presbyterian Church
is carried on by four boards. Each has
its own specific department and is re-
sponsible to the General Assembly. This
work is supported also by the Woman’s
Board of Home Missions and by a num-
ber of the synods and presbyteries which
conduct within their own bounds a work
very similar to that of the Board of Home
Missions. This board aids feeble churches
in the support of pastors and provides
missionaries and evangelists for new and
destitute regions and for the foreign popu-
lation. It maintains mission - schools
among the Indians, Alaskans, Mormons,
Mexicans, the mountaineers, and the
people of Porto Rico and Cuba. The
Home Mission Board has also of late
years taken over the work of the Church
among the Indian tribes, the Spanish-
speaking peoples, and most of the for-
eign communities. The Board of Publica-
tion and Sabbath-school Work, as far as
it is a mission board, gives attention to
the organization and maintenance of Sun-
day-schools in new fields and to the gen-
eral improvement of Sunday-school work.
The Board of Church Erection assists the
congregations in the erection and com-
pletion of houses of worship and of manses
for pastor s. The Board of Missions for
Freedmen works among the Negro popu-
lation of the whole country. It educates
teachers and preachers and builds school-
houses, academies, colleges, and churches.
Presbyterian Bodies
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Presbyterian Bodies
It also pays the salaries of ministers and
preachers in its mission-field. The ear-
liest organized Foreign Mission work of
the Presbyterian Church was carried on
in connection with the congregational
churches through the American Board of
Foreign Missions, organized in 1810. In
the course of time there grew up a desire
for specific denominational work. In 1833
missionaries were sent by the Western
Foreign Missionary Society, located at
Pittsburgh, Pa., to Calcutta, India. After
the separation between the Old and the
New School, the Old School Mission Board
extended its work into Siam and China,
while the New School continued to act
through the American Board. In 1870
the two branches were reunited, and since
then the Board of Foreign Missions of
the United Church has greatly developed
its work, assisted by seven women’s or-
ganizations auxiliary to the board. The
Home Mission Department has placed
great emphasis upon education and con-
trols such colleges as the Syrian Prot-
estant College at Beirut, Syria, Forman
College at Allahabad, India, and the Can-
ton Christian College in China. Medical
work is carried on in all the countries
occupied, particularly in Asiatic lands. —
The educational interests of the Presby-
terian Church in the United States of
America in this country are under the
care of the Board of Education, located
in Philadelphia, and of the College Board,
with headquarters in New York City. In
1788 special provisions were inserted in
the “form of government,” adopted by the
General Synod, enforcing previous high
standards of ministerial education, and
in 1811 the General Assembly established
the theological seminary at Princeton,
N. J. At present the Church has 13 theo-
logical seminaries, including 2 German
seminaries and 2 for Negroes. In 1883
the General Assembly established a Col-
lege Board to promote Christian educa-
tion of college grade throughout the
country. There are at present 62 insti-
tutions of various grades affiliated with
the board: Biddle University, Elmyra
College, Lafayette College, Lincoln Uni-
versity, New York University, University
of Wooster, Washington and Jefferson
College, Illinois College, and a number
of similar colleges in the West. The
Board of Publication and Sabbath-school
Work, located at Philadelphia, is in close
harmony with the educational work of
other organizations. It has an editorial
department, which prepares lesson helps
and other periodicals and books ; a busi-
ness department, which has charge of the
manufacture and sale of the books and
periodicals and the property of the board ;
and a department of education, which has
the oversight of the various educational
agencies of the local church, including
the Sunday-school and young people’s
work, and in cooperation with the Board
of Home Missions conducts conferences,
institutes, and Bible schools. — For the
general purposes of ministerial relief the
General Assembly began, in 1849, to col-
lect a permanent fund and in 1855 estab-
lished the Board of Relief. In 1912 this
board was merged with the Board of Min-
isterial Sustentation Fund, which had
been organized six years earlier, the new
organization taking the name of Board
of Ministerial Relief and Sustentation. — •
Young people’s work in general is placed
in charge of the Board of Publication and
Sabbath-school work. The missionary in-
terests of the young people’s societies are
met by the Women’s Boards of Foreign
and Home Missions and the Board of
Missions for Freedmen. There are about
8,500 young people’s societies, including
junior and intermediate organizations
connected with the Presbyterian congre-
gations, with a total membership of
250,000. The largest element is the Chris-
tian Endeavor body, the Church itself
having no distinctive young people’s or-
ganization. In 1906 the General As-
sembly authorized the establishment of
an organization of men, known under the
name of Presbyterian Brotherhood, for
the purpose of promoting, assisting, and
federating all forms of organized Chris-
tian activity of men in the congregation.
The name of the organization has been
changed by the General Assembly to the
Assembly’s Permanent Committee on
Men’s Work. This committee cooperates
with the brotherhoods of Andrew and
Philip, men’s Bible classes, and other
men’s societies in Presbyterian churches. —
The permanent Committee on Evangelism
was first established in Philadelphia, in
1901, as a unifying force of the evan-
gelistic effort which has been character-
istic of American Presbyterian churches
for two centuries. — The Church has
a large share in the maintenance of the
Presbyterian Historical Society, with
headquarters in the Witherspoon Build-
ing, Philadelphia, whose object is to
gather and preserve material connected
with the establishment and growth of the
Presbyterian churches. — Since 1916 there
have been no changes made in the con-
stitution of this Church as far as doc-
trine is concerned, and only a few minor
modifications relating to polity. The Gen-
eral Assembly of 1922, however, ordered
very extensive changes in the sphere of
administration. Briefly stated, these
changes, when consummated, will ( 1 ) place
Presbyterian Bodies
613
Presbyterian Bodies
in the office of the General Assembly,
under the direction of the Stated Clerk
as the chief permanent executive officer
of the General Assembly, the work now
carried on by four agencies; (2) estab-
lish four new boards : a Board of Foreign
Missions, a Board of National Missions,
a Board of Christian Education, and
a Board of Ministerial Relief and Sus-
tentation. These four new boards are to
do the work now carried on by thirteen
different agencies. The General Assembly
has also sent down to the presbyteries
for their consideration and action an
overture which, if adopted by a majority
vote, will make such changes in the Form
of Government as will authorize the es-
tablishment of a General Council of
twenty-seven members, which council
will, in general, discharge the duties now
performed by the Executive Commission
of the General Assembly and by the New
Era Movement. — Statistics, 1921 : Pres-
byterian Church in the United States
(Northern) : 9,854 ministers, 9,092
churches, 1,655,534 communicants.
Reformed Presbyterian Church, Gen-
eral Synod. This is one of the two par-
ties which sprang into being from the
division, in 1833, of the Reformed Pres-
byterian Church on the question of the
relation of its members to the Govern-
ment of the United States. The one
party was called Synod of the Reformed
Presbyterian Church (Old Light), which
objected to any participation in public
affairs, and the other party, the Re-
formed Presbyterian Church, General
Synod (New Light), which left the de-
cision with the individual. In doctrine
the General Synod holds, equally with
the Synod, to the Westminster Stand-
ards, to the headship of Christ over
nations, to the doctrine of “public social
covenanting,” to the exclusive use of the
psalms in singing, to restricted commu-
nion in the use of the Sacraments, and
to the principle of “dissent from all im-
moral civil institutions.” Statistics,
1921 : 17 ministers, 18 churches, 3,625
communicants.
Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian
Church of North America. This denomi-
nation had its origin in the Reformed
Presbytery of Scotland, organized in
1743. The first minister of this body
came to America from Scotland in 1752.
A number of followers joined him, and
in 1774 they constituted the Reformed
Presbytery. In 1782 this Presbytery
united with the Associate Presbytery,
organized in 1754, to form the Associate
Reformed Presbyterian Church. Some,
however, were dissatisfied, and in 1798
the Reformed Presbytery was reorgan-
ized. At the meeting of the Presbytery,
held in 1800, it was resolved that no
slaveholders should be retained in their
communion. The Presbytery grew until
in 1809 a synod was constituted. A dif-
ference of opinion as to the practical re-
lation of members to the Government of
the United States finally brought about
a division of the Church in 1833: the
Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian
Church (Old Light), which refused to
allow its members to vote or hold office
under the present constitution of the
United States ; the other, the General
Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian
Church (New Light), which imposed no
such restriction upon its members. The
Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian
Church framed a new covenant, embody-
ing the engagements of the National
Covenant of Scotland and the Solemn
League and Covenant, as far as appli-
cable in this land, and in 1871, in Pitts-
burgh, Pa., the synod for the first time
engaged in the act of covenanting. The
teachings of this body with reference to
doctrine are summarized in the Presby-
terian standards, the Westminster Con-
fession and the Catechisms and the Re-
formed Presbyterian Testimony ; their
teachings with reference to order and
worship are summarized, in substance,
in the Westminster Form of Church
Government and Directory for Worship.
Only members in regular standing are
admitted to the Lord’s Supper. Only
children of church-members are admitted
to the ordinance of Baptism. The met-
rical version of the psalms alone is used
in the service of praise. Connection with
secret societies is prohibited. The church
courts are the session, the presbytery,
and the synod. Its Foreign Mission work
is carried on in Southern China, North-
ern Syria, Asia Minor, and Cyprus. Sta-
tistics, 1921 : 122 ministers, 104 churches,
7,532 communicants.
United Presbyterian Church of North
America. In 1858, in Pittsburgh, a union
was accomplished between the greater
part of the Associate Synod (Secession)
and the Associate Reformed Synod (Se-
cession and Covenanter ) , which formed
the United Presbyterian Church of North
America, which accepts the Westminster
Confession of Faith and the Catechisms
as its doctrinal standards. In polity it
is in accord with other Presbyterian
bodies. Home Mission work is carried
on through the Home Mission, Freed-
men’s Mission and Church Extension
boards. Foreign Mission work is con-
ducted in India, Egypt, and the Sudan
through its Board of Foreign Missions,
located in Philadelphia. Educational
Presbyters
614
Priesthood
work in the United States is represented
hy 8 institutions of higher grade, includ-
ing 2 theological seminaries and 6 col-
leges. The young people’s denomina-
tional organization, known as the Young
People’s Christian Union, in 1916 had
767 societies, with a membership of
24,924. The Woman’s Board works in
close relation with the other boards of
the Church, reporting to the General As-
sembly annually. Statistics, 1921 : 962
ministers, 937 churches, 160,528 members.
Welsh Calvinistic Methodist Church.
Among the Welsh communities in the
United States this denomination was
founded in 1824 at Remsen, N. Y. The
Methodist movement in England, led by
John and Charles Wesley and George
Whitefleld, included various factions;
among them the largest community was
the outcome of a revival in Wales. Find-
ing it impracticable to remain in the
Church of England, these Welsh churches,
in 1811, formed a church-body Calvinis-
tic in theology, Presbyterian in polity,
Methodist in its conception of spiritual
life, and retaining the use of the Welsh
language in its services. Four years
after it was founded in the United
States, a presbytery was organized. The
statement of doctrine is summed up in
forty-four articles, corresponding in gen-
eral to the Westminster Confession of
the Presbyterian Church, and the Thirty-
nine Articles of the Episcopal Church.
The church organization is Presbyterian.
Mission-work is under the care of a gen-
eral missionary society. Its object is to
give financial aid to weak churches, to
provide Gospel services for Welshmen
wherever they are found in the United
States, and to establish churches in
Welsh-speaking communities. In India
two stations are now occupied by six of
their missionaries and sixteen native
helpers. Statistics, 1920: Ministers, 83;
churches, 135; communicants, 13,558.
Presbyters. See Elders.
Prescience, Divine. Prescience is an
attribute of God sometimes called fore-
knowledge. It is difficult to conceive of
God’s prescience because man has no
analogous faculty. We can make certain
inferences about the future, but God
beholds all things as if present. The
prescience of God comprehends all events,
however contingent on human activity
or freedom. It comprehends all tem-
poral events. Ps. 90, 2; Matt. 24, 36.
That God has foreknowledge also of the
acts of man, both good and evil, is the
plain teaching of Scripture. Is. 48, 8.
But knowing all things as they are, God
knows the acts of men as the acts of
rational and responsible beings, who
have a will of their own and act accord-
ing to the counsels of their hearts, Jer.
7, 24; and thus the foreknowledge of
God does not exclude, but rather in-
cludes, the agency of the human will
and the causality of human counsels. —
Again, “God’s foreknowledge of His own
acts, especially of the rulings of His
providence, does not exclude, but in-
cludes, the prayers of His children, which
He in His counsel has answered before
they were uttered, permitting them to
enter as a powerful factor into the gov-
ernment of the universe. Is. 65, 24; Jas.
5, 16 f . ; Ps. 33, 10 ff.” (A.L.Graehner.)
See Prayer.
Presiding Elders (now called Dis-
trict Superintendents), in the Methodist
communion, are elders who are appointed
for limited terms by the bishops to repre-
sent them in the care of the interests of
the Church in particular districts. Their
duty is to visit churches, preside at
quarterly and district conferences, and
supervise traveling and local preachers.
Press, Religious. See Religious
Press.
Preus, Christian Keyser; b. 1852,
d. 1921 ; graduate of Luther College,
Decorah, Iowa, and Concordia Seminary,
St. Louis, Mo.; pastor; professor at
Luther College and its president 1902 to
1921 ; vice-president of Norwegian Synod.
Preus, Herman Amberg; b. in Nor-
way, June 16, 1825; graduate of Chris-
tiania University 1848; emigrated 1851;
one of the organizers of the Norwegian
Synod and its second president; coeditor
of Maanedstidende 1859 — 68; author of
articles and pamphlets; president of
Synodical Conference; proposed Negro
Missions 1877 ; d. July 2, 1894.
Prierias ( Silvester Mazzolini, called
Prierias from his birthplace Prierio) ;
Magister Sacri Palatii (Master of the
Sacred Palace) and professor of theol-
ogy; undertook a refutation of Luther’s
theses in his Dialogus, etc., “a dialog
against the presumptuous conclusions
of Martin Luther.” Luther’s brief and
pointed answer called forth a reply,
from Prierias (1518), which the Re-
former published with the necessary
comment and sent to the author with
the advice to stop writing books and
making himself ridiculous.
Priesthood. In the New Testament
there is no need of a priesthood to offer
sacrifice for sin as did the priesthood of
the Old Testament. Heb. 7, 22 — 28;
10, 9 — 14. Instead, all believers consti-
tute a spiritual priesthood, 1 Pet. 2, 9 ;
Priesthood
615
Priesthood, Universal
Rev. 5, 10, which is to offer itself to God,
Rom. 12, 1 ; Heb. 13, 15, and into whose
charge Christ has given all the rights
and powers of His kingdom, Matt. 18,
17—20; 1 Cor. 3, 21—23. To all be-
lievers belongs the right of selecting and
calling ministers, Acts 1, 15 — 26; 6,2 — 6,
who then are commissioned by God, Acts
13,2.4; 1 Cor. 12, 28, and set aside by
the rite of ordination, Acts 14,23; 6,6,
to act as servants of the Church, 2 Cor.
4, 5, in preaching the Word and admin-
istering the Sacraments, Titus 1, 9;
1 Cor. 4, 1. — Opposed to this Scriptural
position stands the Roman doctrine of
the priesthood. 1 ) Rome teaches that
“there is in the New Testament a visible
and external priesthood” ( Council of
Trent, sess. XXIII, can. 1 ) , whose
“ proper and especial functions” are the
offering of sacrifice in the Mass and the
forgiving and retaining of sins. (Cate-
chismus Romanus, II, 7. 24. ) This ii
brought out clearly at the ordination of
a priest (see Ordination). As the “un-
bloody sacrifice” of the Mass is the
center of Roman worship, so it is also
the foundation and the keystone of the
priesthood. A subordinate place is as-
signed to the preaching of the Word; it
is not even held an essential of the
priestly office. ( Council of Trent, l. c. )
Since the sacrifice of the Mass is purely
a human figment (see Mass), the whole
theory of the Roman priesthood collapses
with it. 2) Rome denies the laity every
right in connection with the ordination
and calling of the clergy. “In the ordi-
nation of bishops, priests, and of the
other orders neither the consent nor vo-
cation nor authority of the people . . .
is required.” (Council of Trent, sess.
XXIII, chap. 4). A curse is pronounced
on any one claiming such rights for the
laity. (Ibid., can. 7.) The bishop in-
quires into the fitness of candidates, de-
cides who shall be ordained, ordains
them, assigns them to churches, trans-
fers them, and deposes them, as he
sees fit. The congregations have nothing
whatever to say in the matter. 3 ) Rome
claims that in ordination an indelible
sign is impressed (see Character Indele-
bilis; Ordination) and that those who
have this sign, therefore the clergy, by
divine right form an order essentially
distinct from those who have not that
sign, the laity. ( Council of Trent, sess.
XIII, can. 4. ) It is asserted that this
clerical order, or hierarchy, is superior
to the laity, is the sole depositary of all
spiritual or sacred authority, and is
therefore vested with the right of ruling
and governing the Church. It decides
all questions relating to doctrine, policy,
and government, while the laity is
frankly declared to be neither compe-
tent nor authorized to speak in the name
of God or the Church in such matters.
Its only function is respectfully to ac-
cept and obey the decisions and orders
of the hierarchy. Not even the property
of the congregation is under the laity’s
control. If laymen are commissioned to
share in the administration of such prop-
erty, this is granted them not as a right
but as a privilege. Even then they can
act only under the control of the ordi-
nary (q. v.), with whom the final de-
cision rests. — There are few doctrines
in which the Roman Church has so ob-
viously turned the plans of God upside
down as in its doctrine of the priesthood.
Christ instituted a ministry of the Word,
which is to preach to men the reconcili-
ation with God accomplished through
His own all-availing, ever-sufficient sacri-
fice, Mark 16,15.20; 1 Cor. 2, 2; Rome
established a priesthood to reconcile men
to God through its own sacrifices in a
man-made ceremony. Christ, the Head,
gave to His Church, the body, consisting
of all believers, all the rights, powers,
and privileges which He conferred (vide
supra) ; Rome vested these rights,
powers, and privileges in her priest-
hood, robbing the laity, the larger part
of the Church, of nearly its whole her-
itage. Christ bade His followers prac-
tise humility, acknowledge one another
as equals, and serve one another, Matt.
20, 25—28 ; 23, 8 ; 1 Pef. 5, 3 ; 2 Cor. 4, 5 ;
Rome denies this equality and demands
that her priesthood be acknowledged and
respected as a superior class, to whom
unquestioning submission and obedience
are due. It is little wonder that in the
hands of a priesthood swollen with the
power usurped from the Church the doc-
trines of the humble Savior have fared
badly; nor is it surprising that this
priesthood, having annexed all power in
the Church, should go farther afield and
stretch out its hands for the power of
the State (see Church and State). (For
obligations of priesthood see Celibacy;
Breviary; for gradations of rank, Hier-
archy; Ordination; Bishops.)
* Priesthood, Universal. The New
Testament recognizes in Christ the Rep-
resentative of the true primeval priest-
hood after the order of Melchizedek
(Heb. 7 and 8) ; but there is nothing
corresponding to the priests of the Old
Covenant in the Christian Church. The
idea which pervades the New Testament
teaching is that of a universal priest-
hood. All true believers are made kings
and priests, Rev. 1, 6; 1 Pet. 2, 9; bring
spiritual sacrifices, Rom. 12, 1 ; and,
Priestley, Joseph
616
Primitive Baptists
having received a true priestly consecra-
tion, may draw near and enter the Holy
of Holies, Heb. 10, 19 — 22. As priests
the Christians possess all the treasures
won for mankind by the suffering of
Christ. They have God, Christ, pardon,
the means of grace, the keys of heaven.
1 Cor. 3, 21. They have the privilege of
free access to God without human medi-
ators. Eph. 2, 14. 18. As priest the
Christian teaches, administers the Sac-
raments, judges doctrine, absolves and
excommunicates, calls ministers and
teachers, etc. The freedom of the local
congregation is inseparably bound up
with the liberty of the individual Chris-
tian. If a congregation or a union of
congregations does missionary work,
trains ministers, and publishes litera-
ture in defense of the truth, it is by
virtue of the universal priesthood. From
it follows also the duty of family
prayers, Christian education, and con-
tinued study of the Holy Scriptures. See
also preceding article.
Priestley, Joseph, English theologian
and famous chemist and physicist;
b. 1733 at Fieldhall, England; d. 1804
at Northumberland, Pa.; became dis-
senting minister; later waged bitter
controversy against all positive Chris-
tian doctrines ; emigrated to America
1794, where he organized several Uni-
tarian congregations.
Primacy of P.ope. The whole fabric
of the Roman Church rests on the doc-
trine of the primacy of Peter and his
successors. The following claims are
made: that Jesus appointed Peter head
of His Church and conferred on him the
primacy, or sovereign authority, over the
other apostles; that Peter was the first
bishop of Rome; and that his successors
in that office are also his successors in
the primacy of the Church. A break in
any one of these links is fatal to the
pretensions of Rome; all three, however,
break under the strain of a careful
examination. There is no record that
Jesus gave Peter such a commission or
conferred any superior privilege on him;
on the contrary, He rejected the idea of
a primacy among the apostles. Matt.
20, 25. 26 ; 23, 8 — 11. The young Church,
after Pentecost, showed no special def-
erence to Peter, had no special title for
him, and did not appeal to him or quote
him as a final judge and arbiter. Gal.
2, 11 clearly shows this. A reading of
Peter’s epistles must convince every can-
did reader that Peter himself pretended
to no such superiority over his fellow-
apostles. — - Whether Peter was ever at
Rome cannot be definitely established.
Many eminent scholars, among them
Ranke and the Romanists De Cormeniu
and Ellendorf, consider it doubtful;,
others, e. g., Lipsius and the Romanist
lawyer Du Moulin, flatly deny that Pe-
ter’s feet ever trod the streets of Rome.
Even if it could be proved that Peter
visited Rome, the evidence would still be
lacking that he was ever its bishop.
And could this be shown and also the
fact that Christ had conferred the pri-
macy on him, it would not follow that
the primacy should pass to others and
that these others should be the bishops
of Rome. — The historical development
of the papacy is briefly sketched under
the article Papacy [q.v.). By virtue of
his pretended primacy the Pope lays
claim to such rights as the following:;
1 ) The right to represent the Roman
Catholic Church before the outside,
world; 2) the right of legislating in all
matters of discipline and doctrine (see
Infallibility) ; 3) the right of super-
vising the Church (regular reports are
made to him from every diocese, and
every bishop must visit him [ad limina
apostolorum ] at stated intervals to give
an account of his work) ; 4) the right
of supreme ecclesiastical administration,
which includes the confirmation, trans-
fer, and removal of bishops, the shaping
of dioceses, the control of religious
orders, the recognition of relics and new
saints ( see Canonization ) , the establish-
ment of feasts, the disposition of re-
served cases [q.v.), the imposition of
church taxes. Thus the Roman Church,
indeed, “accords him [the Pope] the
highest degree of honor and the most
unbounded jurisdiction.” ( Cateohismus
Bomanus, II, 7. 25. ) So unlimited and
all-embracing are his powers that the
Roman Church is only an appendage to
him and that he clearly answers the
description given in 2 Thess. 2, 3. 4.
Primate. See Hierarchy.
Primitive Baptists. With the devel-
opment of organized church life shown
in the formation of benevolent and, par-
ticularly, of missionary societies, of Sun-
day-schools and similar organizations,
during the early part of the 19th cen-
tury, there was developed considerable
opposition to such new ideas. In 1827
the Kehukee Association of North Caro-
lina condemned all “modern, money-
based, so-called benevolent societies” as
contrary to the teaching and practise of
Christ and His apostles and renounced
all fellowship with churches indorsing
such societies. In 1835 the Chemung
Association, comprising churches in New
York and Pennsylvania, declared that
Primitive Colored Baptists
617
Procurator
since a number of associations “had de-
parted from the simplicity of the doc-
trine and tlie practise of the Gospel of
Christ, . . . uniting themselves with the
world and what are falsely called benev-
olent societies, founded upon a money
basis,” and preaching a gospel “differing
from the Gospel of Christ,” it would not
continue in fellowship with them and
urged all Baptists who could not approve
of the new ideas to come out and be sep-
arate from those holding them. This
example was speedily followed by many
other associations, especially in the
South and the Southwest. However, the
various Primitive Baptist associations
never organized as a denomination and
have no state conventions or general
bodies of any kind. Various names,
some derisive, have been applied to
them, such as “Primitive,” “Old School,”
“Regular,” “Anti-Mission,” and “Hard
Shell,” although the term “Primitive”
has been the one most widely used and
accepted. In doctrine the Primitive Bap-
tists are strongly Calvinistic. In polity
they are congregational. Statistics, 1916 :
1,292 ministers, 2,143 churches, 80,311
communicants.
Primitive Colored Baptists accept
as their doctrinal basis the London Con-
fession of Faith adopted in 1689 and re-
stated as the Philadelphia Confession.
They are thoroughly Calvinistic and em-
phasize the five points of Calvinism ( q . v.).
They have a national convention, which
is administrative rather than ecclesiasti-
cal; also a Young People’s and Sunday-
school Congress, which is the national
organization of the Primitive Baptist
Young People’s Volunteer Band and the
Sunday-schools of the various churches.
Statistics, 1916: 600 ministers, 336
churches, 15,144 communicants.
Prince Edward Island. See Canada.
Prior. A monastic official ranking
next below an abbot and acting either as
assistant to an abbot or as superior of
a monastic house which has no abbot.
Priscillianists. A sect of Gnostic-
Manichean tendencies in Spain and Gaul.
Their religious system was dualistie and
emanationistic. They forbade not only
carnal pleasures, but also marriage;
and yet they seem to have indulged
occasionally in impure orgies. Their
leader was a layman, Priscillianus, later
bishop of Avila. A synod at Saragossa,
380, excommunicated them, and Bishop
Ithacius, a man of evil fame, persuaded
Emperor Gratian to banish all Priscil-
lianists. Emperor Maximus was induced
to put them to the torture, and Priscil-
lianus and some others were beheaded at
Treves, 385. This was the first instance
of the death sentence being applied to
heretics. Nevertheless the sect was still
numerous in the second half of the 6th
century.
Prison Gate Mission. This mission
looks after the spiritual care of convicts
and discharged prisoners. See Elizabeth
Fry. The American Prison Association,
incorporated 1871, provides employment
for discharged convicts. The Society for
the Friendless is engaged in prisoners’
aid work and prison reform.
Privilegium Altaris. Certain altars
in Roman churches are called privileged
because a plenary indulgence for one soul
in purgatory is granted with every Mass
said before them. Some priests are simi-
larly privileged, so that they confer a
plenary indulgence with every requiem
Mass which they read at any altar.
Bishops in the United States may declare
one altar in every church privileged.
Privilegium Canonis. The law of
the Roman Church according to which
any one who maliciously injures, strikes,
or slaps any cleric, lay brother, or novice
is excommunicated latae sententiae (see
Excommunication), except in case of
self-defense and the like. To mark the
heinousness of the offense, the culprit
must be avoided by the faithful. If the
injury is slight, the bishop can absolve
from the excommunication, otherwise
only the Pope. The higher the injured
cleric’s rank, the graver the offense.
Probabilism. See Jesuitism.
Processions. Processions, though not
peculiar to the Roman Church, are com-
monly associated with it. The Roman
clergy form a procession when they ap-
proach the altar for Mass and other ser-
vices, and again when they return to the
sacristy. Solemn public processions are
held in certain places on Palm Sunday,
Corpus Christi ( q . v.), and other festivals
or as an expression of thanksgiving, of
penitence, or of honor to a dignitary.
They are also held in times of calamity,
or to plead for rain or fair weather, to
drive away storms, etc. There may be
music, candles, statues of saints, and
relics. Those lowest in rank march
first; those highest in dignity, last.
The greatest magnificence in processions
was reached during the Middle Ages.
Procurator. A person authorized to
manage the affairs of another ; espe-
cially, the procurator fiscal, an official
who represents a diocese in trials and
court proceedings. This refers to the
Roman Church. — The procurator of Ju-
dea, like Pontius Pilate, was a Roman
official under the legate of Syria.
Profession of Faith
618
Prohibited Degrees
Profession of Faith. One of the
authoritative standards of the Roman
Church is the statement drawn up by
Pope Pius IV, in 1564, known as the
Tridentine Confession, or the Creed of
Pius IV. Solemn acceptance of this
creed is required of all Roman clergy-
men, doctors, teachers, heads of univer-
sities and monastic institutions, and of
all converts from Protestantism. It
reads: “I, , with a firm faith be-
lieve and profess every one of the things
contained in that creed which the Holy
Roman Church makes use of, viz. : [then
follows the Nicene Creed]. I most stead-
fastly admit and embrace apostolical and
ecclesiastical traditions, and all other ob-
servances and constitutions of the same
Church. I also admit the Holy Scrip-
tures, according to that sense which our
holy mother the Church has held and
does hold, to which it belongs to judge
of the true sense and interpretation of
the Scriptures; neither will I ever take
and interpret them otherwise than ac-
cording to the unanimous consent of the
Fathers. I also profess that there are
truly and properly seven sacraments of
the new law, instituted by Jesus Christ,
our Lord, and necessary for the salva-
tion of mankind,, though not all for every
one, to wit: Baptism, confirmation, the
Eucharist, penance, extreme unction, holy
orders, and matrimony; and that they
confer grace; and that of these, Bap-
tism, confirmation, and order cannot be
reiterated without sacrilege. I also re-
ceive and admit the received and ap-
proved ceremonies of the Catholic Church,
used in the solemn administration of the
aforesaid sacraments. I embrace and re-
ceive all and every one of the things
which have been defined and declared in
the holy Council of Trent concerning
original sin and justification. I profess,
likewise, that in the Mass there is offered
to God a true, proper, and propitiatory
sacrifice for the living and the dead, and
that in the most holy sacrament of the
Eucharist there is truly, really, and sub-
stantially the body and blood, together
with the soul and divinity of our Lord
Jesus Christ; and that there is made a
change of the whole substance of the
bread into the body and of the whole
substance of the wine into the blood,
which change the Catholic Church calls
transubstantiation. I also confess that
u,.der either kind alone Christ is received
whole and entire and [that under either
kind it is] a true sacrament. I firmly
hold that there is a purgatory, and that
the souls therein detained are helped by
the suffrages of the faithful; likewise,
that the saints reigning with Christ are
to be honored and invocated, and that
they offer up prayers to God for us, and
that their relics are to be had in venera-
tion. I most firmly assert that the
images of Christ, of the mother of God,
and also of other saints ought to be had
and retained and that due honor and
veneration are to be given them. I also
affirm that the power of indulgences was
left by Christ in the Church and that
the use of them is most wholesome to
Christian people. I acknowledge the
holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church
for the mother and mistress of all
churches; and I promise true obedience
to the Bishop of Rome, successor to
St. Peter, prince of the apostles, and
vicar of Jesus Christ.” Then follow
clauses condemning contrary doctrines
and promising adherence to all defini-
tions of the Council of Trent. — In 1877
Pius IX embodied a declaration of ac-
ceptance of the decrees of the Vatican
Council, especially those on papal pri-
macy and infallibility. The doctrine of
the Immaculate Conception was also
added. Pius X, in 1910, appended a re-
pudiation of Modernism.
Profession of Monks and Nuns.
The ceremony by which a novice ( q. v . ) ,
having completed the novitiate, enters a
religious order or congregation. The es-
sential part is the taking of the three
vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience,
the last of which binds the novice to the
rule of the order. There may also be
special vows, e. g., to shun ambition, to
nurse the sick. Profession may be
solemn or simple (see Vows). Solemn
profession is found only in religious
orders properly so called and must be
preceded by at least three years of simple
profession. It is always perpetual. The
property of the professed passes to the
convent or monastery, and he is rendered
incapable of subsequently acquiring or
holding any. Simple profession is some-
times perpetual. When it is temporary,
the professed may, at its expiration, re-
turn to the world. Those bound by
simple profession may retain and acquire
property, but not administer it or dis-
pose of it. Candidates for profession
must be at least sixteen years old.
Prohibited Degrees. Those degrees
of relationship, either of consanguinity
or blood-relationship, that of a common
ancestry or of affinity, that resulting
from marriage, within which marriage
is forbidden, either by a direct prohibi-
tion in the Bible or by a statute enacted
by the government. The general rule is
that one may not marry “flesh of one’s
flesh,” that is, a person within, and up
Prohibition
619
Prohibition
to, tlie second degree of relationship of
either kind. See Marriage.
Prohibition. A word which has gained
a specific meaning in the United States
and elsewhere, to be distinguished from
the temperance, or proper control of ap-
petites, in the matter of food and drink
and all other physical desires as com-
manded in the Bible. Prohibition, in the
United States, means the forbidding, by
legislative enactment, of the manufacture
and sale of alcoholic liquors for use as
beverages. Although the Prohibition
Party of the United States was not form-
ally organized till September, 1869, the
prohibition movement itself began before
the Civil War. The early history of the
movement is shown in the following sum-
mary: The so-called “Maine Law” was
enacted in that State in 1844, which for-
bade the sale of intoxicating drinks' ex-
cept by an agent specially licensed by
local or state authority. Illinois enacted
prohibition in 1855, but repudiated it at
the polls the same year. New York
passed a law in 1854, but it was repealed
in 1856. An effort to make Massachu-
setts bone-dry failed when the State had
tried prohibition for fifteen years, a pro-
hibitory constitutional amendment being
defeated in 1889. Connecticut enacted
the law in 1854, continued it for eighteen
years, and repealed it in 1872. Ohio
enacted prohibition in 1855 and after a
few months repealed it. Maryland passed
a prohibitory act in 1885, but after a few
months it was likewise repealed. New
Hampshire made an early effort to in-
corporate prohibition into its constitu-
tion, but this failed in 1889, only two
counties in the State giving a majority
in favor of the measure. Delaware passed
a prohibitory law in 1855, and after two
years it was repealed. A prohibitory law
was twice passed in Wisconsin and twice
vetoed by the governor as being contrary
to the will of the people. Rhode Island
enacted prohibition in 1853 and after ten
years repealed the law. It adopted con-
stitutional prohibition in 1888, but the
Legislature decided to resubmit the mat-
ter to the people, who repealed the
amendment in 1890. Michigan passed
the law in 1853 and abandoned it in
1875. Indiana and Nebraska, in 1855,
passed prohibitory measures, but neither
of them kept prohibition on its statute
books for any length of time. Indiana
voted on the question again in 1882, and
the proposed constitutional amendment
was defeated. Similarly, Texas voted
down a prohibitory amendment by a ma-
jority of 93,000. An effort was made to
introduce the law in Tennessee in 1887,
but the people, after a long discussion,
resolved not to put it into their consti-
tution. Oregon submitted an amendment
in 1887, but it was defeated. In Novem-
ber, 1888, West Virginia voted down the
amendment by large adverse majorities.
But Kansas introduced prohibition in
1881, keeping it ever since, and Iowa in
1882, later discarding it. In June, 1889,
Pennsylvania voted on a prohibitory
amendment to the state constitution, but
the popular vote was largely adverse.
In other States the situation was largely
the same, popular sentiment being largely
opposed to complete prohibition.
But there were large and powerful or-
ganizations working in the interest of
total abstinence and a wider extent of
total prohibition. Chief among these
were the Anti-Saloon League of America
(q.v.) and the Woman’s Christian Tem-
perance Union (q.v.), both of them fos-
tered largely by Reformed church de-
nominations and by such church-bodies
as have followed political programs. Since
the movement to make entire States dry.
by statute or by constitutional amend-
ment had largely failed, the agitators
turned to the measure known as local-
option, namely, the right of each locality
of a State, such as each township,
county, or city, to determine for itself
whether or not some particular measure
of legislation should be enforced therein,
applied more especially to the question
whether the liquor traffic should be li-
censed or carried on. Since the liquor
interests of the country were often
haughty and domineering in their man-
ner, and since most of the so-called
saloons of the country were breeders of
intemperance and other forms of vice,
the sentiment in many localities changed
in favor of prohibition, and the move-
ment spread with considerable rapidity.
The courts, at first inclined to favor the
manufacturer and purveyor of intoxicat-
ing liquors, gradually sided with the
localities that desired to exclude intoxi-
cating beverages, so that it became in-
creasingly difficult to ship wet goods into
dry territory. Matters once more reached
a stage when state-wide prohibition be-
came more general.
Then came the World War with its
many strange and hectic accompaniments
and consequences. As a war measure
federal prohibition was favored and
finally enacted. The matter was clinched,
for the time being, by the Volstead Act,
which really confirmed the idea of na-
tional prohibition. An amendment to the
Federal Constitution making prohibition
a part of the fundamental law of the
United States was ratified January 16,
1919, going into effect a year later. It
Propaedeutics, Theological
6120 Protestant Episcopal ('ll lire'll
reads: Ҥ 1. After one year from the
ratification of this article [XVIII] the
manufacture, sale, or transportation of
intoxicating liquors within, the importa-
tion therof into, or the exportation
thereof from, the United States and
all territory subject to the jurisdiction
thereof for beverage purposes is hereby
prohibited. § 2. The Congress and the
several States shall have concurrent
power to enforce this article by appro-
priate legislation. § 3. This article shall
be inoperative unless it shall have been
ratified as an amendment to the Consti-
tution by the Legislatures of the several
States, as provided in the Constitution,
within seven years from the date of the
submission hereof to the States by the
Congress.”
The attitude of Christians with regard
to the prohibition amendment (with its
exceptions in favor of sacramental wine)
is clearly laid down in the Fourth Com-
mandment. The one exception made in
Scripture (Acts 5,29) cannot be urged in
favor of disobedience. While the amend-
ment and the laws supporting it are on
our statute books, Christians will obey
the laws in spirit and in letter. At the
same time it is the privilege of citizens
in a republic to differ in opinion from
those who have passed the laws in ques-
tion and to take such steps as the Con-
stitution and the laws permit to make
changes in the statutes. Let such move-
ments, however, always go forward with-
out even the appearance of evil, lest the
enemies take occasion to blaspheme the
cause of the Church.
Propaedeutics, Theological. The en-
tire body of rules and principles pertain-
ing to the study of theology as a whole,
including encyclopedia, methodology, bib-
liography, and related subjects.
Propaganda, Congregation of the,
Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (the
Congregation for the Propagation of the
Faith), commonly called simply The
Propaganda, is a permanent commission
of cardinals charged by the Pope with
the management and direction of the
entire mission-work of the Roman Cath-
olic Church. It was established by
Gregory XV in 1622, comprising at the
time thirteen cardinals with some sub-
ordinate officials. At present the num-
ber is much higher. The field of the
Propaganda is the world, as far as it is
not officially Roman Catholic. Only
those territories which are hierarchically
constituted are exempt from its juris-
diction. A new mission is placed under
the direction of a prefect (not a bishop)
and is called an apostolic prefecture. As
the work advances, the prefecture is
raised to the dignity of an apostolic
vicariate, with an acting bishop at its
head as the vicar of the Pope (who is
the actual bishop). Finally, if condi-
tions warrant, the vicariate, in turn, is
superseded by the diocese under the con-
trol of a missionary bishop, who holds
the same rank as ordinary bishops, with
the exception that he is subject to the
Propaganda. Organized on the principle
of authority and provided with ample
means for exercising it, the Propaganda
is in full control of a smoothly running
missionary machine.
Propagation of the Gospel. See So-
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel.
Propitiation. The Greek equivalent
is also translated “mercy-seat,” Heb. 9, 5,
and is itself equivalent to a Hebrew word
meaning a covering, properly the cover,
or lid, of the Ark of the Covenant, where
Jehovah communed with the representa-
tive of His people. Ex. 25 and 37. On
the lid of the sacred Ark the high priest
once a year sprinkled the blood of sacri-
fice in order to make propitiation for the
sins of the people. All of this furniture
and action was typical. Christ is the
propitiatory Sacrifice for the sins of the
world. His blood covers our guilt, and
we obtain the benefits of this propitia-
tion by putting our confidence in His
atoning blood. It is true that God re-
quires no outside motive to induce Him
to pity the sinner. In this sense nothing
is needed to render Him propitious. But
He has Himself determined the manner
in which mercy can be obtained for the
sinner. The change which takes place in
the individual sinner’s status is that
brought about by the application of
Christ’s merits to the individual through
faith, particularly of Christ’s sufferings
and death. See A tonement, Reconcilia-
tion, Faith, Conversion.
Propria ( Liturgical ). The two chief
parts of the Roman missal, the first
being the Proper of the Masses of the
Season (Proprium Missarum de Tem-
pore), giving the services for each day
from the First Sunday in Advent to
Holy Saturday, as well as the Ordinary
of the Mass, the Canon Missae, and the
prefaces for the entire year; the second,
the Proper of the Masses of the Saints
(Proprium Missarum de Sanctis), with
the services for saints’ days and other
important mystery festivals.
Protestant Episcopal Church. This
denomination as a separate organization
dates back to the year 1789, when it
secured Episcopal independence of the
Church of England, and the Rev. Wil-
Protestant Elptseopal Church 621 Protestant l'p iseopal Church
liam White, of Pennsylvania, and the Rev.
Samuel Provoost, of New York, were or-
dained bishops of the Episcopal Church
in America. — Permanent worship on this
side of the Atlantic was begun in 1607,
when the Rev. Robert Hunt celebrated
the Eucharist for the first time at James-
town, in the Virginia Colony. Church-
work, however, was attended with many
difficulties. This resulted in unfortunate
conditions, which the Bishop of London
tried to remedy by sending the Rev.
James Blair as missionary to the colo-
nies. He accomplished much, securing
pastors for many churches and obtain-
ing, in 1693, a charter for William and
Mary College, which had been founded
at Williamsburg, Va. The harsh tone
prevalent in the Church of England
manifested itself also in Virginia after
the colony had passed under the imme-
diate control of the crown; and rigid
laws in regard to Puritans and Quakers
were enforced. In New England the
same methods were employed by the
Puritans, who applied to the Anglicans
the same proscriptions from which they
themselves had fled. Accordingly, in
New England, only isolated attempts at
church organization could be made. In
.1698 an Episcopal church was established
at Newport, R. I., and in the same year
Trinity Church, New York City, was
dedicated. In Maryland the growth of
the Church was equally slow. However,
the arrival, in 1700, of the Rev. Thomas
Bray, the commissary of the Bishop of
London, gave it new life. Under his
leadership the Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel was organized in Eng-
land, and it was largely owing to the in-
fluence of this society that the Episcopal
Church in America was established on
a firm foundation. This society, in 1702,
sent a delegation to visit the churches
in America. Through the work of the
delegation the number of churches was
greatly increased, and a better grade of
ministers was secured for them. Thus
this mission was the beginning of a new
era in the history of the Episcopal
Church of America. One of the men
whose influence was largely felt in the
early colonial Church was Dean Berkeley,
later Bishop of Cloyne in Ireland, who
came to Newport, R. I., in January, 1729,
with the purpose of founding a univer-
sity in the colonies. This purpose re-
mained unaccomplished since the finan-
cial support which had been promised
was not given him. However, Dean
Berkeley became one of the earliest and
most munificent benefactors of Yale Col-
lege and after his return to Europe aided
largely in forming the charters and in
directing the course of King’s College at
New York, now Columbia University,
and of the academy and college of
Philadelphia, now the University of
Pennsylvania. As a result of the Revo-
lutionary War the Anglican churches
in America lost their organization. The
first move towards an organization was
made in 1782 by the Rev. Wm. White,
of Philadelphia, who published anony-
mously a pamphlet entitled, The Case of
the Episcopal Churches in the United
States Considered. In this he urged
that, without waiting for a bishop, the
churches should unite in some form of
association and common government, and
he outlined a plan which embodied most
of the essential characteristics of the
diocesan and general conventions as
adopted later. Even before this time the
Maryland Legislature had, in 1779,
passed an act committing to certain
vestries as trustees the property of the
parishes, but also prohibiting general
assessments. The following year a con-
ference was called, and a petition was
sent to the Legislature, asking that the
vestries be empowered to use the money
obtained from pew rents and other
sources for parish purposes. Since it
was essential that the organization
should have a title, the name Protes-
tant Episcopal Church was used. This
name was formally approved by a con-
ference at Annapolis in 1783 and was
definitely adopted by the General Con-
vention of 1789. When it became evi-
dent that the Episcopal churches of the
different States were organizing inde-
pendently, a movement to constitute an
Episcopal Church for the whole United
States was inaugurated largely by the
initiative of Dr. William White at an in-
formal meeting at New Brunswick, N. J.,
in May, 1784. Three States- — New York,
New Jersey, and Pennsylvania — were
represented. Correspondence with other
States resulted in a convention in New
York in October of the same year, at-
tended by delegates from eight States.
In September, 1785, a convention was
held at Philadelphia; seven of the thir-
teen States were represented. New Eng-
land was not represented at all, and
there were numerous protests from many
quarters against the proposed plan of
organization. In spite of this the con-
vention adopted the principles recom-
mended in the previous year and drew
up a constitution and a liturgy under
the general oversight of Drs. Wm. Smith
and Wm. White. As the matter of or-
ganization progressed, there was a gen-
eral desire to be connected with the
Church of England. Accordingly, an ap-
Protestant Episcopal Church 622 Protestant Episcopal Chnrch
peal was made to the archbishop and
bishops of the Church of England, and
having obtained favorable replies, Drs.
White and Provoost went to England,
where they were consecrated in February,
1787. As Dr. Seabury had already been
consecrated bishop by the nonjuring Scot-
tish bishops in 1784, there were now
three bishops. This number was essen-
tial to the constitution of the House of
Bishops. But subsequently Dr. James
Madison was elected Bishop of Virginia
and consecrated in England, so that any
objection to the Scottish office was ob-
viated. In 1789 Bishop Seabury joined
the other bishops. Two houses were now
constituted in the General Convention,
and the constitution and the Book of
Common Prayer were adopted. For
twenty years and more the Church had
to combat various hostile influences,
since it was widely distrusted, being
regarded as an English institution. The
loss of the Methodist element, in con-
sequence of the Revival movement, de-
prived it of some strength, and growth
was slow. A change came about in the
second decade of the 19th century, when
new bishops were elected and consecrated
and sent to the newly settled sections in
the West. In 1821 the Domestic and
Foreign Missionary Society was organ-
ized, and work was begun both in the
foreign field and in the remoter regions
of the States. As in England, so also
in America, two parties, or rather ten-
dencies, developed in the course of time,
styled, for convenience’ sake, evangelical
and High Church. The High Church
party emphasized the Church as a com-
prehensive, ecclesiastical authoritative
unity, and the evangelical party, while
not denying the authority of the Church,
emphasized the spiritual freedom of the
individual. The former emphasized the
catholic character of the Church, as the
heir of all the Christian ages and a por-
tion of the one Apostolic Church of
Christ, and sought to bring all dissent-
ing Christian bodies within the one fold;
while the latter, although welcoming
them into the fold, was willing to coop-
erate with them as non-conforming Chris-
tian bodies, as far as possible. Ca. 1845
Dr. W. Muhlenberg, one of the most re-
markable men in the history of the
Church, came into prominence. He
founded the system of church-schools,
organized the first free church of any
importance in New York City, intro-
duced the male choir, sisterhoods, and
the fresh-air movements. In a memorial
drawn up by him, signed by a number
of prominent clergymen and addressed to
the College of Bishops, he raised the
question whether the church with “her
fixed and invariable modes of worship
and her traditional customs and usages”
was competent for the great and catholic
work before it. In reply to this query
the memorial suggested that “a wider
door might be opened for admission into
the Gospel ministry of all men who could
not bring themselves to conform in all
particulars to our prescriptions and cus-
toms, yet are sound in the faith.” This
memorial prepared the way for the is-
suance of the famous Lambeth Quadri-
lateral on Church Unity in 1888 and for
the movement in favor of the revision
of the Book of Common Prayer, com-
pleted in 1892. • — The outbreak of the
Civil War caused a temporary division
in the Church, in consequence of which
the Protestant Episcopal Church in the
Federal States was organized. However,
at the close of the war the breach was
immediately healed. After the war the
old controversy between the evangelical
and High Church parties was renewed,
and in 1873 some of the extreme evan-
gelicals, under the leadership of Bishop
George D. Cummins, of Kentucky, with-
drew, organizing the Reformed Episcopal
Church. In 1886 the Brotherhood of
St. Andrew was organized for the pur-
pose of fostering more active mission-
work. For the work of social service and
community welfare central, provincial,
and diocesan boards and commissions
have been formed from one end of the
country to the other. During the past
two decades a joint commission has been
appointed for the purpose of considering
questions touching faith and order in
which all Christian communions through-
out the world should be asked to unite.
This commission invited representatives
of a considerable number of churches, in-
cluding the Roman Catholic Church and
the Eastern orthodox churches, to join
them, and an advisory committee was
formed, which had several meetings and
was planning for a world conference
when the World War began, which inter-
rupted the plans.
Doctrine. Whereas the Church of En-
gland emphatically acknowledged the
three doctrinal symbols of the Church,
the Apostles’, Nicene, and Athanasian
creeds, the adoption of these confessions
had caused more or less disturbance in
the Protestant Episcopal Church. When
the liturgy for the American Episcopal
Church was prepared at the convention
of 1785, the Nicene and Athanasian
creeds, including the words of the Apos-
tles’ Creed “descended into hell” were
discarded. Since the English archbishop
insisted upon the acceptation of the ecu-
Protestant Episcopal Church 623
Protestant Episcopal Church
men ical symbols, the General Convention
of 1786 restored the Nieene Creed and
left it optional with the individual con-
gregation whether or not to retain the
words of the Apostles’ Creed “descended
into hell.” The Athanasian Creed, one of
the symbols of the Anglican Church, was
unanimously rejected by the convention
of 1789, chiefly because of its damnatory
clauses. The Thirty-nine Articles of the
Church of England, with the exception
of the twenty-first, which relates to the
authority of the General Council, and
with some modifications of the eighth,
thirty -fifth, and thirty -sixth articles,
were accepted by the convention of 1801
as a general statement of doctrine, and
they are appended to the prayer-book.
Adherence to them as a creed, however,
is not generally required, either for con-
firmation or ordination, although this
rests with the bishop. The Episcopal
Church, while expecting of all its mem-
bers loyalty to the doctrine, discipline,
and worship of the one holy Apostolic
Church in all essentials, on the other
hand, from its own standpoint, allows
great liberty in non-essentials. While the
fundamental principles of the Church,
based upon the Scriptures as the ultimate
rule of faith, have been maintained when-
ever a question demanding a decision has
arisen, a strong latitudinarian tendency
has characterized the Protestant Episco-
pal Church since its organization, and
this has given place largely to rational-
ism and Modernism. For the unity of
Christendom and also as a basis of gen-
eral confession the following articles,
known as the Lambeth Articles, were
formulated in England in 1888, which
may be regarded as the general doctrinal
standards of the Protestant Episcopal
Church: a) the Holy Scriptures of the
Old and New Testament, as “containing
all things necessary to salvation” and
as being the rule and standard of faith ;
b) the Apostles’ Creed as the baptismal
symbol and the Nieene Creed as a suffi-
cient statement of the Christian faith;
c) the two Sacraments ordained by
Christ Himself, — Baptism and the Sup-
per of the Lord, — ministered with un-
failing use of Christ’s words of institu-
tion and of the elements ordained by
Him; d) the historic episcopate, locally
adapted in its methods of administra-
tions to the varying needs of people and
nations called of God into the unity of
His Church, In the baptism of children
either immersion or pouring is allowed.
Participation in the Sacrament of the
Lord’s Supper is limited to those who
have been confirmed, although the cus-
tom is growing of regarding all baptized
persons as virtually members of the
Church and as such permitted to par-
take of the Holy Supper if they so desire.
Polity. The system of ecclesiastical
government includes the parish, or con-
gregation, the diocese, the province, and
the General Convention. A congregation,
when organized, is "required, in its con-
stitution, or plan, or articles of organi-
zation, to recognize and accede to the
constitution, canons, doctrine, discipline,
and the worship of the Church and to
agree to submit to, and obey, such direc-
tions as may be from time to time re-
ceived from the bishop in charge and
council of advice.” Oflicers of the parish
are the rector, who must be a priest;
wardens, usually two in number, repre-
senting the body of the parish and usu-
ally having charge of the records, the
collection of alms, and the repairs of
the church; and vestrymen, who are the
trustees and hold the property for the
corporation. The direction of spiritual
affairs is exclusively in the hands of the
rector. The government of the diocese is
vested in the bishop and the diocesan
convention, the latter consisting of all
the ordained clergy and of at least one
lay delegate from each parish or congre-
gation. This convention meets annually,
and election of delegates to it is governed
by the specific canons of each diocese.
Sections of States and territories not or-
ganized into dioceses are established by
the House of Bishops and the General
Convention as missionary districts. The
dioceses and missionary districts are as-
sembled into eight provinces to procure
unity and cooperation in dealing with
regional interests, especially in the fields
of missions, religious education, social
service, and judicial proceedings. The
General Convention, the highest ecclesi-
astical authority in the Church, consists
of two houses, the House of Bishops and
the House of Deputies. The House of
Bishops includes every bishop having
jurisdiction, every bishop coadjutor, and
every bishop who, by reason of advanced
age or bodily infirmity, has resigned his
jurisdiction. The House of Deputies is
composed of delegates elected from the
dioceses, including for each diocese not
more than four presbyters canonically
resident in the diocese and not more
than four laymen, communicants of the
Church, resident in the diocese. The two
houses sit and deliberate separately. The
General Convention meets every three
years, usually on the first Wednesday in
October. In the House of Bishops the
senior bishop in the order of consecra-
tion, having jurisdiction within the
United States, is the presiding bishop.
Protestant Episcopal Church
624 Protestant Episcopal Chnrch
Next to him stands the bishop next in
seniority by consecration. Three orders
are recognized in the ministry — bishops,
priests, and deacons. A bishop must be
consecrated by not less than three bishops.
He is the administrative head and spir-
itual leader of his diocese, presiding over
the diocesan convention, ordaining dea-
cons and priests, instituting rectors, etc.
In case of the inability of a bishop to
perform all the duties of his office, a
bishop coadjutor or a suffragan bishop
may be elected. The election of the rec-
tor is according to diocesan law, and
notice of the election is sent to the eccle-
siastical authority of the diocese. Lay
readers and deaconesses are appointed by
the bishop or ecclesiastical authority of
a diocese or missionary district to assist
in public services or in the care of the
poor and sick, and in religious training.
The support of the rector and the general
expenditures of each local church are in
the care of the vestry, and the salary of
the bishop is fixed by the diocesan con-
vention, and the amount is apportioned
among the churches of his diocese. The
missionary bishops draw their salaries
from the treasury of the Domestic and
Foreign Missionary Society.
Work. The missionary activities of
the Church are conducted through the
Domestic and Foreign Missionary So-
ciety, established in 1820. The Board of
Missions, for the purpose of discharging
the corporate duties of the society, is
composed of 48 elective members. Auxil-
iary to the Board of Missions are the fol-
lowing: The Woman’s Auxiliary, with
organized branches in 92 dioceses and
districts within the United States, the
Sunday-school Auxiliary, and the Amer-
ican Church Missionary Society. Mis-
sion-work was done in 1916, as report on
Domestic Missions shows, for the white
population, for the Indians, the Negro
communities, the Swedes, the Japanese
in California, and the deaf-mutes in the
South and West. The Domestic Mission
department also covers the work in Ha-
waii, the Philippines, Porto Rico, Pan-
ama, the Canal Zone, and Alaska. The
total contributions amounted to $853,452.
In addition to this work, nearly all of
the 68 dioceses more or less carry on
mission-work within their jurisdiction,
which demands the labors of over 1,000
missionaries. In addition to this general
mission-work is that of the American
Church Building Fund Commission, cre-
ated in 1880. The Foreign Mission work
of the Church is being carried on in Af-
rica, China, Japan, Haiti, Brazil, Cuba,
and Mexico. The educational work in this
field is represented by 346 schools, includ-
ing 4 theological schools and 43 colleges
and academies, with 12,343 students and
pupils. The philanthropic work is repre-
sented by 14 hospitals and dispensaries,
which care for 177,326 patients, and
6 asylums and orphanages with 280 in-
mates. Among the educational schools
supported by the Foreign Mission depart-
ment, St.John’s College at Shanghai and
St. Paul’s College at Tokyo are especially
to be noted. — The educational work of
the Protestant Episcopal Church is varied
in character. There are fourteen institu-
tions for theological instruction, one of
which, the General Theological Seminary
at New York City, is under the care of
the General Convention. Others, such
'as the Theological Seminary of Virginia,
the Berkeley Divinity School, Middle-
town, Conn., the Episcopal Theological
School, Cambridge, Mass., and the Theo-
logical Department of the University of
the South, are connected with the respec-
tive dioceses in which they are located.
There are three distinctively church col-
leges — the University of the South,
Kenyon College, and St. Stephen’s Col-
lege. There are four institutions which
are classed as non -sectarian, but whiah
have some churchly character — Colum-
bia University, Hobart College, Trinity
College, and Lehigh University, with a
total of 17,419 students. In addition,
there are a large number of academic in-
stitutions, many of which are not directly
under the control of the Church. Among
the organizations for men and boys are
the Brotherhood of St. Andrew, the
Knights of St. Paul, and the Knights of
St. John, the Lay Readers’ League, and
the Boy Scouts; for girls and women:
the Daughters of the King, the Girls’
Friendly Society, the Order of the Camp-
fire, 17 Sisterhoods, and the Order of
Deaconesses. The number of young
people’s societies reported was 997, with
37,237 members. Other organizations
are : The American Church Sunday-
school Institute, Evangelical Education
Society, Social Service Commission,
Church Association for the Advancement
of the Interests of Labor, Church Mis-
sion to Deaf-mutes, Church Society for
Promoting Christianity among the Jews,
Society for the Promotion of Evangelical
Knowledge, and the Church Temperance
Society. Orders of distinctively religious
types are: Order of Christian Helpers,
Order of the Sisters of Bethany, Order
of the Holy Cross, Society of the Mission
Priests of St. John the Evangelist, and
many others. — There are several finan-
cial organizations, such as the Church
Pension Fund, the Retiring Fund So-
ciety, the Clergymen’s Mutual Insurance
Protestant For. Mis., Hist, of 625
Psalms as Hymns
League, and the Church Endowment So-
ciety, formed for the purpose of securing
endowments for the episcopate, cathe-
drals, parishes, churches, asylums, hos-
pitals, and all enterprises of a religious
or charitable character. Statistics, 1921 :
5,801 ministers, 7,955 churches, 1,092,805
communicants. Missionaries in the do-
mestic and foreign fields: 1920, 80;
1921, 72; 1922, 51.
Protestant Foreign Missions, His-
tory of. See Missions.
Protestantism. The term is derived
from the Protestation submitted by the
Evangelical party at the Diet of Spires,
in 1529. The Lutheran states in this
Protestation declared their readiness to
obey the emperor and the diet in all
“dutiful and possible matters,” not, how-
ever, any order considered by them re-
pugnant to God and His holy Word, to
their soul’s salvation, and to their good
conscience. The essential principles in-
volved in their agreement were, first, the
authority of Scripture, to be explained
by itself; secondly, freedom of con-
science. Protestantism, then, is essen-
tially the doctrine of religious liberty,
but a liberty on the basis of obedience
to God and His holy Word. Regarding
faith and works it is in complete oppo-
sition to Romanism. Rome says: Where
good works are, there are faith and jus-
tification; Protestantism says: Where
faith is, there are justification and good
works. Accordingly, there has been, on
the basis of the Aristotelian distinction
of matter and form, the distinction of
the material and the formal principle of
the Reformation. The material principle
is justification by faith in Christ; the
formal principle, the authority of the
Scriptures as the rule of faith. The
whole character of Protestantism is fa-
vorable to civil and religious freedom,
to the rights of the individual, and to
the development of those inventive capac-
ities which have given rise to the achieve-
ments which are summed up in the word
civilization. The spirit of Protestantism
favors universal education, since every
Christian is required to read the Scrip-
tures and to take part in the government
of the Church. Liberty of thought and
freedom of speech and of the press, these
foundations of modern life, are all in-
volved in the emphasis placed by Prot-
estantism upon the freedom and respon-
sibility of the individual.
Protestants. See Spires, Diet, 1529,
and preceding article.
Protonotarius Apostolicus. A mem-
ber of the highest college of prelates in
the Roman Curia, whose duty it is to
Concordia CvcloDedia
register records of unusual importance,
such as papal acts, canonization pro-
ceedings, and the like.
Provincial Letters. See Pascal.
Providence. The activity of divine
wisdom and power exercised in the pres-
ervation and government of the world,
for the ends which God proposes to ac-
complish. As preservation, divine provi-
dence keeps all things in being, with
their several faculties and enables them
to act according to their respective na-
tures. Heb. 1,3. As government, divine
providence directs all things to the ends
which He proposed to Himself in their
creation. This government is 1 ) imme-
diate, as in the control of the universe
through the forces of nature, such as
gravitation, electricity, etc. 2) It is also
mediate, by the laws which regulate the
processes of plant and animal life, and
by governing the lives of individuals, of
the state, and of human society. See
(led, Prescience, Election.
Provident Associations ( Armen-
pflr.ge) . These are voluntary organiza-
tions for the relief of destitute individ-
uals and families. Their final purpose,
however, is not simply to provide food
and clothing, but to investigate the causes
of poverty (unemployment, drunkenness,
illness, bad home conditions, etc.) aDd
apply such remedial agencies as may be
at their disposal. Provident associations
advise citizens not to give indiscrim-
inately to beggars and to the needy, but
to contribute toward the relief of poverty
through organized agencies.
Prudentius, Aurelius Clemens.
Hymn-writer of the early fifth century
(d, between 410 and 424), very prom-
inent and prolific; received good edu-
cation, practised law, and held important
political positions; retired to private
life in his fifty-seventh year and devoted
himself to sacred poetry; published a
number of prose works, in part of con-
troversial character; among his hymns:
Nox et Tenehrae et Nubila; Corde Nat us
ex Parentis; lam Moesta Quiesce Querela.
Psalms as Hymns. Many of the
hymns contained in the Book of Psalms
were written expressly for use in public
worship, as their superscriptions and ded-
ications show. The regular psalms for
the week’s services were: Pas. 24, 48, 82,
94, 81, 93, and 92; those of the Festival
of Trumpets, Pss. 81 and 29 ; at the
Passover the great Hallel, Pss. 113 — 118;
and the other great festivals had similar
provisions. The so-called Psalms of De-
grees, Pss. 120—134, were probably
chanted by the pilgrims on their way
to Jerusalem for one of the large fes-
40
Psalms, Mnsical
626
Psendo-Isldorian Decretals
tivals. In the Christian Church the
hymns of the Psalter were in use from
the beginning, the practise often being
to take them over in their entirety, with-
out any attempt at metrical paraphrase.
Some of the Reformed denominations
were formerly very insistent upon the
use of psalms only in public worship;
but the custom of using metrical versions
has gradually made headway.
Psalms, Musical (Psalmentoene ) .
Psalmody occupies an intermediate posi-
tion between liturgical recitative and
the elaborated singing of the chorus or
of the congregation (between accentus
and concert tus ) ■ There are eight psalm-
tones, corresponding to the eight divi-
sions of the octave in ancient music,
augmented, in the course of time, by a
ninth or foreign tone, usually treated
as a separate tone, the usual tone, in the
Lutheran Church, for the Magnificat and
the Aaronic benediction. Each psalm-
tone is characterized, first, by the tone
to be followed in the intonation of the
psalm -text, always the dominant of the
given key; secondly, by the melodic
caesura, which ends the first half of the
verse. The conclusion of the psalm-tone
does not determine the church-tone to
which it belongs. The ferial form of
psalm-tone is used during the week and
on ordinary Sundays, the festal form on
festivals, especially the high festivals,
and in the chanting of the Magnificat
and the Benedictus.
Psalter, English. The use of the
customary metrical hymns, even if para-
phrased from the psalms, being frowned
upon by some Reformed denominations,
especially in Great Britain, the' result
was that the psalms themselves were
often rendered into a form of English
verse, even in hexameter and in blank
verse. One of the first complete versions
after thp Reformation was that by Crow-
ley, in common meter, set to harmonized
chant in 154(1. Ten years later permis-
sion to use psalms publicly in worship
was granted, and partial and complete
versions became very numerous in En-
gland and Scotland. The Puritans of
New England lost no time in making
versions for use in public worship, the
first book published by them in America
being the so-called New England (or Bay)
Psalter, characterized by its rigorous
literalism. It appeared in 1640, the
same year in which steps were taken in
England to issue more correct versions
of the English Psalter. In 1696 there
appeared A New Version of the Psalms
of David, Fitted to the Tunes Used in
Churches, by N. Tate and N. Brady. The
work, of course, is of unequal merit, but
there are examples of very sweet and
simple verse, with true poetical fire. In
the last two centuries, versions of psalms
by Addison, Watts, Dwight, Montgomery,
Lyte, Keble, and others appeared, in
which some specimens were of very high
merit and have been very widely ac-
cepted. The psalms may be expected to
inspire many more poets to express the
thoughts of God in the deepest, tenderest,
and most intense form.
Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals. A col-
lection of ecclesiastical laws made either
in Franconia or Rome ca. 850, contain-
ing, besides many genuine decretals, also
many forged ones. An earlier, but honest
collection had been made in Spain and
erroneously attributed to Bishop Isidore
of Seville. This Frankish fraud also
went out under that respected name.
Pseudo-Isidore begins with the fifty
Canones Apostolici; then follow fifty-,
nine forged decretals, which are assigned
to the thirty oldest Popes, from Clement
to Melcliiades (d. 314). The second part
embraces, besides the purported original
document of the Donation of Constan-
tino, genuine synodal decrees, falsified
apparently only in one passage. The
third part, again, contains decretals of
Sylvester, the successor of Melchiades,
down to Gregory II (d. 731), of which
thirty-five are not genuine. The non-
genuine decretals are for the most part
not altogether forgeries, hut are rather
based upon the literature of theology and
canon law then existing, amplified or
altered, and wrought up to serve the
purposes of the compiler or compilers.
The fraudulent nature of the collection
cannot be doubted. Earlier collections
begin with the decretals of Siricius, 384.
Here we have such from the very first
bishops of Rome of which nothing was
over heard before. Purporting to be
written by Roman bishops of the first
century, they are yet couched in Fran-
conian Latin of the 8tli and 9th cen-
turies, and they represent state and
church affairs after the Franconian pat-
tern of the early Middle Ages and quote
Scripture from post-Jeromean transla-
tions. In them the Roman Bishop Victor
(ca. 200) is made to write to the Alex-
andrian Bishop Theophilus (ca, 400)
concerning the celebration of Easter, etc.
The forgery was made to strengthen
the new conception of the Church which
had come into vogue. It stressed, on the
one hand, the independence of the Church
from the State and the exalted and in-
violate nature of the spiritual priestly
power. On the other hand, it sought to
limit the power of the metropolitans by
Pseudo-Igiflorian Decretals
627
Psychology
constantly claiming that they were sub-
ordinate to the patriarchs and the Pope,
and it was untiring in the praises of the
Roman Church above all others, which
exalted position was claimed to be due,
not to later arrangements, but to Christ’s
own direction, and therefore it was nec-
essary that the last control of all church
affairs, and especially the last word in
all affairs of the bishops, whether they
appealed or not, should be with the
Roman Church, with the Tope as the
supreme bishop of the entire Church. It
was, in fine, a fraud intended to authorize
the arrogated power of an inviolate
priest-caste, especially of the bishops,
and, chief of all, of the Pope. In the
non-critieal age in which they originated
they were readily accepted as genuine
and quoted right and left. Even such
as refused to submit to their directions
nevertheless did not doubt their genuine-
ness. The Magdeburg Centuriators were
the first conclusively to prove them spu-
rious. The Jesuit Turrianus tried to
vindicate them; but the Reformed theo-
logian David Blondel refuted him so
thoroughly that even in the Roman Cath-
olic Church their non-genuineness has
since been admitted.
The so-called Donatio Constantini rests
chiefly upon the authority of this fraud-
ulent collection of decretals, and it, too,
is evidently spurious. In the first part
of it, the so-called Confessio, Constantine
makes a confession of his faith and re-
lates in detail in what wonderful way he
was converted to Christianity by Pope
Sylvester and cured of leprosy. In the
second part, the so-called Donatio, he
confers upon the chair of Peter, with
recognition of its absolute primacy over
all patriarchates of the empire, imperial
power, rank, honor, and insignia, as well
as all privileges and claims of imperial
senators upon its clergy. In order that
the possessor of this gift might be able
at all time to maintain the dignity of
his position, he gives him the Iiateran
Palace, transfers to him independent do-
minion over “the city of Rome and all
the provinces, towns, and commonwealths
of Italy, as well as of the Occident”
(i.e., the whole West Roman Empire).
He removes his own imperial residence
to Byzantium, “because it is not just
that the emperor should have temporal
power at the same place where the chief
seat of the priests and the head of the
Christian religion has been established
by the heavenly Emperor.” This was
something never heard of before. Pope
Hadrian I had indeed mentioned to
Charlemagne, in 788, a donation of Con-
stantine augmented by other princes;
however, that did not include the whole
of the Western Empire, but only Italy,
or rather, a part of Italy, the patrimo-
nium Petri; nor did it give the Pope
sovereign territorial authority. But this
bold forgery intended to show that it
was legitimate for the Pope to lord it
over the princes and that these should
receive their dominion from his hand.
Psychoanalysis. Originally conceived
as a new and unique approach to the
study of mental disorders, such as hys-
teria, morbid fear, aversions, and sup-
pressed desires, the term is now rather
to be applied to a peculiar aberration
from the science of psychology, one of
the chief exponents of the behavioristic
cult being Doctor Sigmund Freud, of
Vienna. Psychoanalysis, as the name
tends to show, is an attempt to analyze
the psyche, or soul, of man, chiefly on
the basis of reflex actions or behavior
under given conditions. Psychoanalysis,
as now applied in the field of sociology
and religious pedagogy, is predominantly
naturalistic, mechanistic, and evolution-
istic, and its theory of complexes, espe-
cially that of the sex complex, which
practically dominates the new pseudo-
science, is partly inadequate and partly
repulsive. Psychoanalysis is made up
largely of negations, ruling out a self-
conscious soul, or ego, which is able to
modify human choice ; it rules out, there-
fore, the conception of the conduct-con-
trolling self and of man’s responsibilty
for his acts; it has led to the funda-
mentally erroneous method of thinking
that when you have explained the sup-
posed origin of a thing, you have ex-
plained the thing in its entirety. Psy-
choanalysis leads to a denial of the be-
lief in the Bible, in the redemptive work
of Jesus Christ, and in the entire revela-
tion which we know as Christianity.
Psychology. The science of mental
processes, which may be classified as in-
tellectual, emotional, and volitional. The
intellectual processes show us how we
learn and think. Knowledge of these
processes is eminently useful to a
teacher, whose methods of teaching must
adjust themselves to the method of learn-
ing; to teach children successfully, he
must know how they learn. While in-
struction engages the intellectual facul-
ties and imparts knowledge, education
aims to develop the whole man and
therefore draws also the emotional and
volitional processes into its sphere of
influence. By supplying forceful domi-
nant ideas, which continue to arouse
sufficiently strong feelings and emotions,
so as to influence the will and thus to
PsychopannychisBl
628
Public School
result in a definite behavior and line
of action, education molds character.
Christian education must fill the mind
with the knowledge of God’s Word,
which is able to quicken the heart unto
faith in Christ and to renew the will
unto a joyful obedience to God.
Psychopanny chism. See Soul-Sleep.
Public School. A term applied in the
United States to the institutions main-
tained at public expense for the formal
education of children. They are also
called free schools, because no tuition is
charged. The idea of organizing schools
where rich and poor may obtain efficient
free instruction did not take firm root
in the minds of the people until the early
part of the 19th century. Although
also the earliest settlers were not un-
mindful of their duty with respect to
the education of the young, the schools
in colonial times were usually pay-
schools under church control and gave
much attention to religious instruction.
After the Revolution the spirit of free-
dom in religious matters became domi-
nant; hence religious instruction was
eliminated, as the schools by and by
came under state control. The four de-
cades following the Revolution form the
transitional period; local autonomy
gradually gave way to centralization
and state supervision ; religious schools
became secular, the process varying, of
course, with local conditions. Horace
Mann (q. v.) may properly be called the
father of the free school system as it
exists to-day. While the control as well
as the support of the education of the
people has been left practically in the
hands of the individual state govern-
ments, the Federal Government has from
the beginning done much by means of
land grants to aid the States in the
establishment of school systems. The
funds for the support of the public
school are chiefly derived from school
lands, interest on permanent school
funds, and taxation. Each of the States
maintains a system of public free
schools, including elementary, or gram-
ma]’, schools, high schools, and, in thirty-
nine cases, also universities. For the
elementary school three systems of con-
trol exist. The district system is that
according to which the control of each
school is left in the hands of a board
elected by the people of the district in
which it is located. Under the township
system all schools within a township are
placed under one board. According to
the county system the schools of an en-
tire county are under the control of a
county board or commission. With the
development of more elaborate school
systems and the increased interest of the
state in the education of its citizens, the
supervision of the state became more
prominent. Besides city and county
school boards and superintendents we
now have state school boards and state
school superintendents. Also the Federal
Government has a Commissioner of Edu-
cation. The present tendency seems to
bo still more to unify and centralize the
whole educational system of the country.
Formerly teachers in the elementary
schools were selected by the district or
county board at their discretion; now
certificates which testify as to the pro-
fessional qualifications of the applicant
are universally required. A great weak-
ness of the teaching personnel in the
public schools is the woeful lack of male
teachers, of men who make teaching
their life-work, and the frequent chang-
ing of teachers. The ideal course of
study in the primary school, as outlined
by the Committee of Fifteen in 1894,
includes reading, writing, spelling, com-
position, arithmetic, geography, simple
lessons in natural science, history, music,
drawing, with physical culture and man-
ual training. The course for the gram-
mar school includes, besides these, gram-
mar, algebra, United States history.
During the World War the teaching of
any foreign language in the grades was
forbidden in many States, but early in
1922 the study of German was again
introduced into the Chicago schools. In
1923 the laws prohibiting the teaching
of German were declared unconstitu-
tional by the Supreme Court. The
course of study in the high schools is
usually arranged with a view to present-
ing to the pupil one of the four groups
of studies, any one of which he is at
liberty to choose, these being the clas-
sical, the literary, the scientific, and the
business course. While certain subjects
are required, the student may choose any
of the elective subjects. Each course is
usually limited to four subjects. Laws
for compulsory school attendance during
the years from about eight to fourteen
exist in most of the States, and truant
officers are appointed to enforce these
laws. At present, forces are at work to
compel all children to attend none other
than the public school, the “American
melting-pot,” therefore seeking to sup-
press every private and parochial school.
But while the state may demand that
its future citizens be properly schooled
to become full-fledged, loyal Americans,
it is folly to assume that this is possible
only in the schools of the state. The
Lutheran Christian day-schools teach
Public School
Puhiic School
629
loyalty to our Government and love of
country as a religious duty and train
the children to become God-fearing, law-
abiding citizens. With their taxes Chris-
tians help to support the state school
system without making use of it for
their children; the state therefore
should protect these parents in their in-
alienable and constitutional right if they
provide for their children a Christian
schooling and education according to the
dictates of their conscience. The state,
being a secular institution, can consis-
tently maintain only a secular, i. e., non-
religious, school, and whatever these
schools may accomplish in secular in-
struction, in education they are sadly
deficient, inasmuch as they do not teach
religion. Some educators, therefore, are
alarmed at the results of the non-relig-
ious education of the public school.
Realizing that education without re-
ligion must prove a dismal failure, they
hope to remedy matters by advocating
Bible-reading, religious and ethical in-
struction in the public schools. But
while the state may have a legitimate
interest in the secular instruction and
education of its future citizens, it has
absolutely no right to teach any form of
religion, this being a right and duty of
parents and churches; and because of
the many different religious denomina-
tions, against none of whose adherents
our Government may discriminate by
teaching this or that set of religious doc-
trines, it is impossible for the public
school to teach a definite form of re-
ligion. If the state still were to do so,
this would be tantamount to the estab-
lishment of religion, forbidden in the
Federal Constitution, and it would also
have to require a religious test or exami-
nation of the public school teacher,
which is likewise prohibited. In most of
the schools of the United States religious
instruction is forbidden by the state, a
provision held by the Supreme Court of
Wisconsin in 1890 to include the reading
of the Bible. Every loyal American
citizen, no matter what his religious per-
suasion, must set himself squarely
against every attempt at introducing
religious instruction into the curricu-
lum of the public school. This applies
also to Bible-reading. The Bible is
essentially a religious book, the revela-
tion of God to man, and therefore can-
not be a text-book in the secular public
school; and to treat it merely as a piece
of literature would be a profanation, as
teachers might feel called upon to criti-
cize the Bible as to form and content,
thus counteracting its religious and edu-
cative influence. No laws have been
passed by any State Legislature speci-
fically excluding the Bible by name from
use in the public schools. But there are
two general lines of policy in state legis-
lation. One forbids the use of any book
in the public schools calculated to favor
the religious tenets of any particular
religious sect, leaving it to the courts to
determine in any given ease whether or.
not a book is sectarian. The other for-
bids the use of sectarian books, but
leaves the way open for the use of the
Bible, either declaring that it should not
be considered a sectarian book, or leav-
ing its use to the option of the individual
communities, excusing those from being
present when it is read who for con-
science’ sake object to it. The consti-
tutional provisions of the several States
are less specific than those of the laws.
However, all state constitutions guaran-
tee religious freedom; 11 forbid sec-
tarian instruction in the public schools;
28 forbid the appropriation of public
money for religious schools. So the ques-
tion as to whether the Bible shall be
used or excluded from the public schools
becomes largely a question for the courts
to determine on constitutional grounds.
These court decisions are numerous and
conflicting. In general, it may be said
that in some States it is permissible to
read the Bible at the opening or closing
exercises, those being excused who object
to this. Other court decisions prohibit
its use. However, ethical, moral, educa-
tion is desirable, yea, necessary for every
child. Ethics would teach us what is
right, what is wrong, what is good, what
is evil, in the conduct of man. Ethical
education not merely inculcates moral
rules and precepts, but would also so in-
fluence children that from the right
motive they will eschew evil and do what
is good. This can best be accomplished
by a thorough religious education based
on the Bible; for besides its chief pur-
pose, to make us wise unto salvation
through faith in Christ Jesus, it is
“profitable for instruction,” training,
educating, “in righteousness, that the
man of God may be perfect, throughly
furnished unto all good works.” 2 Tim.
3, 16. 17. Such religious instruction be-
ing barred from the public schools, they
are deprived of the most effective means
of, and method for, giving the pupils a
moral or ethical education. Public
schools are fully at a loss what to do.
In their ethical efforts they may appeal
to the Natural Law written in the heart
of man; they may point to customs pre-
vailing in the community, hold up the
lives and achievements of great men as
patterns to emulate; they may show the
Publication Houses
630
Publicity
beauty of a righteous and chaste life, etc.
But, after all, this does not go deep
enough; the child does not learn that
behind all these moral precepts there
stands a divine authority; it does not
learn that from love of God it should
lead a morally good life and that faith
in Christ is the source of such love and
life. All ethical precepts not backed by
divine authority will he swept away
when selfish interests come into play;
morals become a matter of expediency,
not of conscience. Ethical education
without religion must of necessity be
shallow and will hardly stand the cru-
cial test of life. Ethical education must
be religious; a truly ethical education
must be Christian. Because of the lack
of a religious basis the results of the
prevailing moral or ethical education are
far from gratifying; hence the demand
for religious instruction in the public
schools. But the principle of a secular
school controlled by a secular state and
the difficulty in determining which re-
ligious system should he taught, make
this impossible. The solution is the
Christian day-school.
Publication Houses. Church organ-
izations have their publication houses
and many their own printing-plants.
The following are Lutheran publication
houses: Concordia Publishing House,
St. Louis (Missouri Synod); Northwest-
ern Publishing House, Milwaukee (Wis-
consin Synod) ; Lutheran Book Concern,
Columbus, 0. (Ohio Synod); Wartburg
Publishing House, Chicago (Iowa Synod) ;
United Lutheran Publication House,
Philadelphia (United Lutheran Church);
Augustana Book Concern, Bock Island,
111. (Augustana Synod) ; Augsburg
Publishing House, Minneapolis (Nor-
wegian Lutheran Church) ; Lutheran
Synod Book Company, Minneapolis (Nor-
wegian Synod) ; Lutheran Free Church
Book Concern, Minneapolis (Lutheran
Free Church ) ; Finnish Lutheran Book
Concern, Hancock, Mich. ( Suomi Synod ) .
The following are the principal publica-
tion houses of other denominations,
either owned by the respective church-
bodies or supplying churches with litera-
ture: American Baptist Publication So-
ciety, Kansas City, Mo.; American Bible
Society, New York City; American Sun-
day-school Union, Philadelphia; Amer-
ican Tract Society, New York City;
Bible Institute Colportage Association,
Chicago; Central Publishing House,
Cleveland; Christian Alliance Publish-
ing Co., New York City; Cooperative
Literature Committee, Baltimore; Eden
Publishing House, St. Louis (Evangelical
Synod ) ; German Baptist Publication
Society, Cleveland ; Heidelberg Press,
Philadelphia; Lamar & Barton, Nash-
ville, Tenn. (M. E. Church South);
Methodist Book Concern, New York
City; National Christian Association,
Chicago ( lodge literature ) ; Presbyterian
Board of Publication, Philadelphia;
Standard Publishing Co., Cincinnati
( Christian ) ; United Brethren Publish-
ing House, Dayton, O.
Publicity. Bringing to the attention
of the public or the world at large the
doctrines of the Bible and the Church
and its work is called church publicity.
In His Word the Lord has expressly
commanded it and made it the Church’s
business. Like unto a crier in the wil-
derness of this world Moses of old said :
“Give ear, 0 ye heavens, and I will
speak ; and hear, O earth, the words of
my mouth. My doctrine shall drop as
the rain, my speech shall distil as the
dew, as the small rain upon the tender
herb, and as the showers upon the grass,
because I will publish the name of the
Lord. Ascribe ye greatness unto our
God.” Deut. 32, 1 — 3. Of the word
spoken by the Lord against Babylon it
was said : “Declare ye among the na-
tions and publish and set up a standard ;
publish, and conceal not.” Jer. 50, 2.
The psalmist said: “The Lord gave the
Word; great was the company of those
that published it.” Ps. 68, 11. See also
Is. 52, 7 f. In the New Testament the
Lord says: “Go ye into all the world
and preach the Gospel to every creature.”
Mark 16, 15. To all such as have re-
ceived the Holy Ghost the Lord says:
“Ye shall be witnesses unto Me both in
Jerusalem and in all Judea and in Sama-
ria and unto the uttermost part of the
earth.” Acts 1, 8. The Lord’s chosen
generation is to “show forth the praises
of Him who has called them out of dark-
ness into His marvelous light.” 1 Pet.
2, !l. Why this should be done, Paul
tells us: “For the Scripture saith, Who-
soever believeth on Him shall not be
ashamed. For there is no difference be-
tween the Jew and the Greek; for the
same Lord over all is rich unto all that
call upon Him. For whosoever shall call
upon the name of the Lord shall be
saved. How, then, shall they call on
Him in whom they have not believed?
And how shall they believe in Him of
whom they have not heard? And how
shall they hear without a preacher?
And how shall they preach except they
be sent?” Rom. 10, 11 — 15. In spite of
the fact that the apostles were forbidden
to preach Christ, their very enemies said
that they had filled Jerusalem with their
doctrine. Acts 5, 28. The faith of the
Purcell, Henry
631
Puritans
church of Rome was spoken of through-
out the whole world. Rom. 1, 8. On- the
Day of Pentecost the Gospel was preached
in many languages to many people. Acts
2, I — II. Paul undertook three exten-
sive missionary journeys for the purpose
of preaching to the world Christ Cru-
cified. Christians should use every legit-
imate opportunity and means to preach
Christ to the world and thus to publish
the glad tidings of salvation to all men.
This can be done by means of personal
individual testimony, by sending out
missionaries, by using printers’ ink
(church-papers, books, tracts, daily
press, magazines, placing Lutheran books
in public libraries, broadcasting, etc.).
See much related subjects as Radio, Ad-
vertising, Amerioan Lutheran Publicity
Bureau.
Purcell, Henry, 1658 — 95; chorister
and student at the Chapel Royal; in 1682
organist of the Chapel Royal; 1693 com-
poser-in-ordinary to the king. His church
music shows him to have been original
and a master of form.
Purgatory. The Oatechismus Roma-
nus treats of purgatory very briefly. It
says (I, 6. 3 ) : “Besides [hell] there is
a fire of purification, where the souls of
the pious, after having been tortured for
a set time, are purified, so that the entry
into the eternal fatherland, into which
nothing impure enters, can be opened to
them.” The Council of Trent decrees
“that there is a purgatory and that the
souls there detained are helped by the
suffrages of the faithful, but principally
by the acceptable sacrifice of the altar”
(the Mass). (Sess. XXV.) It requires
that “the more difficult and subtle ques-
tions ... be excluded from popular dis-
courses before the uneducated multitude.
In like manner such things as are un-
certain, or which labor under an appear-
ance of error, let them not allow to be
made public and treated of.” (Ibid.) The
doctrine is briefly this: Those who die
in a state of grace, but have not fully
absolved, in this life, the temporal pun-
ishments remaining after absolution,
must suffer for them after death in the
fires of purgatory before they can go to
heaven. The length of suffering depends
on the amount of unexpiated sin. The
time can, however, be shortened through
the assistance of thf living (by prayers,
masses, indulgences). When it is con-
sidered that a large portion of Roman
doctrine is colored by the conception of
purgatory, the basis of this doctrine be-
comes of surpassing importance. Ro-
manists have referred to such passages
as Matt. 5, 26; 1 Cor. 3, 13 — 15; but Ad-
dis and Arnold’s Catholic Dictionary
(p. 704) frankly admits: “We doubt if
they [the Scriptures] contain an explicit
and direct reference to it.” That is quite
true. The Bible knows no purgatory,
and the doctrine has not grown from the
inspired Word, but seeped into the Church,
in early times, from the speculations of
Plato and other heathen and from Jewish
superstitions. 2 Macc. 12, 42 — 46. From
small beginnings it grew into a cancer
that poisoned the life-blood of the Church
and brought forth numerous morbid ex-
crescences. It led to a denial of the all-
sufficient satisfaction of Christ and to
the substitution of man-invented works
as a means of satisfying the justice of
God. (See Indulgences.) Many of the
popular notions regarding purgatory cur-
rent among Romanists are not so much
based on direct teaching of the Church
as on purported visions and revelations.
Puritans. A name given to a certain
line of dissenters from the Established
Church of England, originally known as
Non-conformists. The Reformation in
England developed along three lines : An-
glicanism, Puritanism, and Separatism.
The Puritans held to a National Church,
but called for a thoroughgoing reforma-
tion, which would provide an educated,
spiritual - minded ministry, and which
should recognize the right of the mem-
bers to a voice in the selection of their
ministers, the management of the local
church, and the adoption of its creed,
or confession. They believed, however,
that they should remain within the
Church to secure its reformation. The
Puritan controversy commenced as early
as 1550, when Bishop Hooper, appointed
to the See of Gloucester, refused to be
consecrated in the papal vestments, then
in use, and to take the papal oath. The
name Puritan, however, was first given,
perhaps in contempt, to those clergymen
and others in the reign of Queen Eliza-
beth who desired a simpler and what
they considered a purer form of worship
than the state church afforded. The Act
of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity
pressed heavily upon the Puritans, who
had scruples respecting the conformity
required of .them in vestments and forms.
In spite of the repressive measures
adopted by the government, which im-
posed upon the Puritans intense suffer-
ing, they remained strong. Persecutions
continued, and in 1625 many were obliged
to leave the kingdom. During the decade
from 1630 to 1640 multitudes, ministers
and laymen, were driven to Holland and
America. In 1640 Puritanism was brought
to an end in England, when tlie Puritans
split into two parties, Independents and
Presbyterians. — In America the great
Pusey, Edward Bouverie
632
Pythias, Knights of
majority of Puritans settled in Massa-
chusetts Bay Colony. The differences be-
tween the Separatists and the Puritans
were emphasized in England, but after
their arrival in America the many points
on which they agreed became evident;
little by little they united, and finally
the essential elements of both Separatism
and Puritanism were combined in Con-
gregationalism.
Pusey, Edward Bouverie, 1800 — 82;
Tractarian; b. at Pusey, Berkshire; as
Fellow in Oriel, Oxford, intimate with
Keble and Newman; studied in Ger-
many; professor (Hebrew) and canon at
Oxford; made it task of his life to re-
form Anglican Church and unite England
with Rome; took part in Oxford Move-
ment, becoming its head after Newman’s
defection to Catholicism; composed seven
of Tracts for Times ; expressed Romaniz-
ing views on efficacy of Eucharist; was
suspended from preaching 1843 — 6; inde-
fatigable student; d. near Oxford; wrote
Eirenicon, etc. ; editor-in-chief of Library
of the Fathers. Remark attributed to
Pius IX: “Pusey rang in the Roman
Church in England, but failed to follow
the sound of the bell himself.”
Puseyism. The name given to the
tenets of the Oxford School (see Trac-
tarianism ) , of which the Rev. Edward
Bouverie Pusey, D. D. (q. v.) , was a prom-
inent member. This movement was char-
acterized by the struggle for the recog-
nition of Anglo-Catholic doctrine and
liturgy in the Established Church. In
1843 Dr. Pusey, in a sermon, stated views
which were contrary to the Anglican
conception of the Sacrament since the
Reformation and which closely ap-
proached the Roman Catholic idea of
the real presence. Since that time the
movement was called Puseyism.
Pye, Henry John, 1825 — 1903; edu-
cated at Cambridge; rector at Clifton-
Campville; joined Roman Church in 1868;
compiled book of hymns, in which “In
His Temple Now Behold Him.”
Pythian Sisterhood. A secret society
for women, organized by women relatives
of the Knights of Pythias at Concord,
N. H., in 1886 and spread over the whole
country. It admits only women relatives
of the Knights of Pythias. Its ostensible
objects are “to give moral and material
aid to members, educate them socially
and intellectually, and assist them in
sickness and distress.” The order has
a ritual, which “teaches toleration in re-
ligion and obedience to law” and is said
to “inspire purity of thought, peace, and
good will.”
Pythias, Knights of, of North and
South America, Europe, Asia, and
Africa. The Negro imitation of the
Knights of Pythias of the World; not
acknowledged by the latter. It was es-
tablished at Richmond, Ya., in 1869 and
has a large membership.
Pythias, Knights of, of the World.
History. The First Grand Lodge, or Grand
Domain, of the Knights of Pythias was
founded at Washington, D. C., in 1864 by
Justus H. Rathbone, a Freemason and
member of the Improved Order of Red
Men. All the founders were Government
clerks. Within six months from the for-
mation of the mother lodge the order had
ceased to exist, with the exception of one
branch, Franklin Lodge No. 2, Washing-
ton, D. C., which started another lodge
and resuscitated the Grand Lodge. The
lodge now prospered satisfactorily, and
in the next year the District of Columbia
Grand Lodge issued charters for the
Grand Lodges of Maryland and New Jer-
sey. In 1877 an Endowment Rank was
established and a Uniform Rank some-
what later. This was “additional ma-
chinery with which to carry out the pur-
poses of the order.” In spite of the great
friendship which the order professes,
there has occurred much and bitter wran-
gling over questions of authority. It is
managed largely by politicians, many of
whom are high-degree Masons. The head-
quarters of the lodge were in Chicago
until 1909, when they were transferred
to Indianapolis, where they are now lo-
cated in the Indiana Pythian Building.
In 1892, owing to the fact that some of
the “secrets” had been sold, “a new rit-
ual” was adopted, which, however, was
new only in name. — Character. The
ceremonials of the Knights of Pythias
are founded on the ancient story of Damon
and Pythias. Like Freemasonry, the or-
der confers three ranks, or degrees: the
first that of “Page”; the second, or Ar-
morial rank, that of “Esquire”; the third,
or Chivalric rank, that of “Knight.” The
colors of the regalia are blue, yellow, and
red, respectively. In the initiation cere-
monies there are some silly “tests of
knighthood.” The obligation of the third
degree reads in part: “I solemnly promise
that I will never reveal the password,
grip, signs, or any other secret or mys-
tery of this rank ; . . that I will always,
to the extent of my ability, relieve a worthy
knight in distress, endeavor to warn him
of any danger which I may know to
threaten him or his family, and to aid
him whenever and wherever I may be
convinced that he is in need; . . . that
I will never, by any act of mine, volun-
tarily disturb the domestic relations of
Pyx
633
Radio
a brother knight, but protect the peace
and purity of his household as I would
my own; . . . that I will obey the orders
of this lodge. ... To the faithful obser-
vance of this obligation I pledge my sacred
word of honor. So help me God, and may
He keep me steadfast!” The Knights of
Pythias have their ritual as well as their
chaplain. — Membership. 3,933 subordi-
nate sections ; 908,454 members, of whom
85,537 belong to the insurance branch. —
Pyx. A small silver box kept in the
tabernacle (q.v.) in Roman churches to
contain the consecrated wafers, or hosts.
Q
Quakers. See Friends, Society of.
Quartodeciman Controversy. A dis-
cussion of the Ante-Nicean period con-
cerning the date of the Easter celebra-
tion, one part maintaining that it ought
to be celebrated on the 14th of Nisan
( hence the name ) , that being the date of
the Jewish Passover and, according to
many, also the date of Christ’s resurrec-
tion. The quarrel was intensified by
a false understanding of John 18, 28.
The matter was finally settled by the
Council of Nicea (325), which fixed the
first Sunday after the first full moon
after the beginning of spring as the day
for the celebration of Easter.
Quatember. A popular abbreviation
of quatuor tem.pora, the designation of
the four principal seasons of fasting in
the Roman Church, fixed by Urban II in
1095 as being the weeks in which fasting
should be practised not only on Fridays,
but also on Wednesdays (and Satur-
days) ; they are the weeks following Ash
Wednesday, Pentecost, the Festival of
the Elevation of the Cross (Septem-
ber 14), and the day of St. Lucia (De-
cember 13). The corresponding English
name is Ember Days (q.v.).
Quebec. See Canada.
Quenstedt, Johann Andreas; b. at
Quedlinburg 1617, d. 1685; nephew of
Johann Gerhard; studied at Helmstedt
and at Wittenberg, where he became pro-
fessor, first of geography, logic, and
metaphysics, and in 1660 full professor
of theology, occupying after Calov’s
death first place in the faculty. Though
educated as a student under Calixt, he
afterward, at Wittenberg, refuted the
syncretistic tendencies of the former.
Quenstedt has been called the “Book-
keeper of Lutheran orthodoxy.” His
most noted work is Theologia Didactico-
Polemica sive Systema Theologicum, a
standard of Lutheran orthodoxy, its defi-
nitions and theses based upon J. F.
Koenig. Quenstedt was noted for his
quiet, mild, and irenic disposition.
Quietism. A form of mysticism which
declares that spiritual exaltation is
reached by self-abnegation and by with-
drawing the soul from all outward activ-
ities, thereby fixing it in passive religious
contemplation; found in Spain with
Michael Molinos (1627 — 96) and his fol-
lowers and in France with Madame
Guyon (1648 — 1717), who caused a con-
troversy between Bossuet and Fenelon
(qq. v.) . See also Mysticism.
Quirsfeld, Johann, 1642 — 86; b. at
Dresden; at time of his death diaconus
at Pirna; wrote; “0 Tod, was willst
du schrecken ?”
Quadrivium. See Liberal Arts.
R
Badbertus, Paschasius, French ab-
bot; b. ea. 786, d. ca. 865; distinguished
writer of the age of Charles the Great;
studied at Corbie; distinguished for
learning and piety; was instructor, later
abbot, at Corbie; his views on the
Eucharist prepared the way for the doc-
trine of transubstantiation (see Lord’s
Supper ) ; he was opposed by Rhabanus
Maurus (q.v.) and others. See also
Eucharistic Controversy.
Badio. One of the most wonderful
means which the Lord has given to the
Church for the spreading of the Gospel
is that recent discovery and invention
which is known as the radio telephone.
By means of it thousands can be reached
who never go to church. The Church
ought to use the radio as a missionary
agency. The radio dare not take the
place of the pastor and the Christian
congregation and its services. That
would not be a right use, but an abuse.
For church-members the broadcasting of
sermons and religious programs serves
the same purpose served by church-
papers, sermon books, tracts, and the
like, namely, of increasing spiritual
knowledge, imparting information about
the Church and its work, and in this
way increasing love for Christ and His
Church. People living in mission-charges
jlaffaei, Simti
634
Rasmussen, Peter Andreas
vvhi cli have services regularly, hut very
seldom, as well as shut-ins and the sick,
who are prevented from attending church
services, are by means of the radio given
an opportunity frequently to hear ser-
mons and religious services. If rightly
used, broadcasting by means of the radio
is a great blessing to the Church.
Raffael Santi, 1483 — 1520; among
the greatest Italian painters; noted for
charm and nobility of drawing, for unit
composition, for moderate characteriza-
tion, and for rich coloring, under the
influence of classicism, but combining
with it an almost ethereal romanticism;
his madonnas with much womanly charm,
especially the Sistine Madonna, now at
Dresden; his “Burial of Christ” full of
motion and contrast; in his later years
paintings for the Camera della segnatura
of the Pope (in the Vatican) ; also the
“Liberation of Peter” and several large
altar-paintings; the canons of his art
continued by his many pupils.
Raikes, Robert; b. at Gloucester,
England, 1735; d. 1811; editor and
printer of the Gloucester Journal; was
much interested in social and philan-
thropic questions, especially in prison
reform; saw the chief cause of degrada-
tion in the neglect of adequate training
of children. In 1780 he engaged a woman
to take charge of a Sunday-school for
depraved and vicious children. Accounts
of the work in his Journal attracted
much attention. Though Raikes is not
the founder and “father” of the Sunday-
school, he became its first great propa-
gandist and promoter. See Sunday-
school.
Railroad Trainmen, Brotherhood
of. An important fraternal society,
originally known as Brotherhood of Rail-
road Brakemen, established in 1883 at
Oneonta, N. Y. It is “a voluntary asso-
ciation without capital stock, organized
and carried on solely for the mutual
benefit of its members and their ben-
eficiaries, and not for profit.” Purpose:
“To unite the railroad trainmen and pro-
mote their general welfare and advance
their interests, social, moral, and intel-
lectual, as also to protect their families
by the exercise of a systematic benevo-
lence.” Character. Its constitution says:
“All things pertaining to the Brother-
hood, the mode of procedure to gain
admission to this or a sister lodge, ex-
cept by application for membership,
secret work, and all business of the
lodge, shall be kept inviolate, and any
member who shall reveal any of the
secrets of this lodge, shall, upon con-
viction thereof, be expelled, suspended,
or reprimanded, as the lodge may deter-
mine.” The order thus calls itself a
lodge and stresses its “secret work.”
There are 954 subordinate lodges, with
a benefit membership of 158,351 and a
social membership of 11,425.
Rambach, Johann Jakob, 1693 to
1735; studied at Halle; was interested
by Michaelis in the study of the Old
Testament and assisted him in the prepa-
ration of his Hebrew Bible; 1719 at
Jena, under Franz Buddeus; in 1727,
after Francke’s death, his successor as
ordinary professor, also preacher at the
Schulkirche, being popular in both fields;
in 1731 superintendent and first pro-
fessor at Giessen, later also director of
the Paedagogium; a voluminous writer,
known for the thoroughness of his re-
search work; wrote: “Gesetz und Evan-
gelium sind beide Gottesgaben” ; “Ieh
bin getauft auf deinen Namen”; “Mein
Schoepfer, steli mir bei.”
Ramsay, Sir William Mitchell;
1851 — ; Scottish classical scholar and
church historian; b. at Glasgow; pro-
fessor at Oxford and Aberdeen; traveled
extensively in Asiatic Turkey in the
course of his researches in the history
of early Christianity; lectured at Bal-
timore, etc.; knighted; wrote: The
Church in the Roman Empire; St. Paul
the Traveler and the Roman Citizen; etc.
Ramus, Petrus (Pierre de la Ramie),
French philosopher; b. 1515 near Sois-
sons; d. 1572 in Paris; vigorous oppo-
nent of Aristotelian scholastic philos-
ophy; converted to Calvinism by Beza;
fled from Paris to Germany and Switzer-
land; returned 1571 and perished in
Massacre of St. Bartholomew.
Rappists, or Harmonists, followers of
Georg Rapp, b. 1757 in Wurttemberg,
d. 1847. In 1805 he founded a commu-
nistic community at Harmony, Butler
Co., Pa.; emigrated to Indiana 1814,
founding New Harmony; returned to
Pennsylvania 1824, founding Economy,
near Pittsburgh, where the community
flourished and grew wealthy, but, because
it had adopted celibacy in 1807, grad-
ually died out, the movement ending
1903.
Raskolniki. See Russian Sects.
Rasmussen, Peter Andreas; b. in
Norway 1829, d. 1898; came to America
1850; teacher; attended the Practical
Seminary, Fort Wayne, 1853 — 4; pastor,
editor, publisher, author ; member of
Eielsen Synod, Norwegian Synod, of the
church organization known as “Anti-
Missouri,” and United Norwegian Lu-
theran Church.
Rathbone Sisters of the World 635
Reconciliation
Rathbone Sisters of the World.
A secret sisterhood, consisting mainly of
wives, mothers, sisters, widows, and
daughters of the Knights of Pythias;
also called Pythian Sisters of the World,
before 1894. According to the Cyclope-
dia of Fraternities they are “an auxil-
iary, but unofficial branch of Pythian-
ism” and “organized similarly to the
Daughters of Rebekah.” The order has
branches, called “temples,” in nearly all
States of the Union and in Canada and
is governed by a “Supreme Temple.” Its
religious character resembles that of the
Knights of Pythias.
Rathmann, Hermann; b. 1585, d. 1628
as pastor in Danzig. In a controversy
with his colleague Corvinus on the effi-
cacy of the words of Scripture he as-
serted that they had not in themselves
the power to convert.
Ratisbon Conference, sometimes er-
roneously called Interim, at Regensburg,
in April, 1541, between Gropper, Pflug,
and Eck on the one side, and Melanch-
thon, Bucer, and Pistorius on the other.
Here was the nearest approach to a re-
union between the Lutherans and the
Papists. And yet, despite the earnest
efforts of Contarini and Karl, the con-
ference came to naught. The Papists,
with growing concern, viewed the spread
of Lutheranism and mistrusted their
Kaiser more than did the Lutherans, and
the political difficulties kept Karl from
taking harsh measures against the Lu-
therans. In great disgust Karl left on
July 29, saying he would now, like all
the rest, work only for his own interests.
Ratramnus. See Eucharistic and Pre-
destinarian Controversies.
“Rauhes Haus.” See Wichern.
Raumer, Karl Georg von; b. at
Woerlitz 1783, d. 1865; German min-
eralogist and historian (history of edu-
cation). Studied mineralogy and geology
at Paris, but influenced by Fichte and
the work of Pestalozzi, he turned to edu-
cation. In 1823 he became teacher and
later principal of a private school at
Nuremberg, where he also founded an
institution for delinquent boys. In 1827
he reentered the public service ; was
appointed professor of mineralogy in
the University of Erlangen. History of
Education from the Revival of Classical
Learning Down to Our Time.
Realism, practical, as opposed to
idealism, is the attitude to take things
as they really are in life and to make
the best of them. The realist deals with
facts and is seldom swayed by high
ideals; he seeks less to improve the
world than to make use of it. Philosoph-
ical Realism is the theory that general
abstract ideas have real existence, in-
dependent of individual objects. Thus
the idea of a circle exists apart from
round things (Nominalism, Idealism).
Psychological Realism teaches that things
have real existence, independent of our
conscious experience. The tree I see
exists not merely in my consciousness,
as a concept of my mind, but there really
is a tree in the yard. Common sense is
realistic as it assumes that objects we
perceive really exist. Still, in hallucina-
tions we see things which are not real.
In literature, Realism as opposed to
romanticism and idealism, pictures life,
not as it should be, but as it is, setting
forth details of life, based upon obser-
vation of social and physiological phe-
nomena.
Realsehule, a secondary school of
Germany, which offers a six-year course
in modern subjects, as distinguished from
the Gymnasium, which emphasizes clas-
sical studies. In 1859 it was organized
as a school for general culture rather
than for vocational training. The Real-
gymnasium offers a nine-year course in
science, mathematics, drawing, two mod-
ern languages, and Latin.
Rechlin, F. ; b. on the island of
Ruegen; graduate of Addison; teacher
at Davenport, Iowa, Albany, N. Y.,
Trinity, Cleveland; 1893 professor at
teachers’ seminary of Lutheran Missouri
Synod at Addison (River Forest) ;
d. December 9, 1915.
Recluses. Hermits immured in their
cells (or caves; even tombs), as a spe-
cial service to God. Some were monas-
tics, their cells being near monasteries
and churches ; others, especially lay
persons, dwelt in isolation, in forest or
wilderness. They were admired and fed
by the ignorant populace, among whom
they enjoyed an odor of special sanctity
and often a reputation of miraculous
powers. Some of them were evidently
demented. There were recluses as late
as the 17tli century.
Recollects. One of the reform par-
ties within the Franciscan order named
after the “recollection houses” founded
by them to give opportunity for prayer
and penance. Their separate existence
ceased in 1897.
Reconciliation. The act of making
those friends again who were at vari-
ance, or restoring to favor those who had
fallen under displeasure. The enmity
between God and the world has been
removed by the death of Christ, and
this gift is appropriated by the sinner
through faith. Acts 10, 43; 2 Cor.
Rector
636
Redemption
5, 19; Eph. 2, 16. Man is spoken of as
becoming reconciled to God, but never
as reconciling himself to God. Christ
reconciles both Jews and Gentiles to
God “by His cross.” Peace is made
between God and man, not in the first
instance, by subduing the enmity of
man’s heart, but by removing the enmity
of “the Law,” “Christ having abolished
in His flesh the enmity, even the Law of
Commandments.” The reconciliation of
man with God, which has been prepared
for all men by the atonement of Christ,
becomes effective in the individual when
he, by the power of the Spirit in the
Word, accepts the meritorious sacrifice
of Christ through “faith in His blood.”
Cp. 2 Cor. 5, 18. 19. See also Atonement .
Rector. An academic title, given in
some countries to the chief executive
officer of a university and to principals
of Catholic colleges and seminaries the
world over. In the Anglican Church it
is the ecclesiastical title of a clergyman
who has charge of a parish and full
possession of all consequent rights and
privileges. In the Protestant Episcopal
Church in America the title is also used,
though the legal status of the rector dif-
fers from that of the Anglican rector.
Recusant. A term applied to those
who refused to acknowledge the king’s
supremacy or refused or neglected to at-
tend church and worship after the man-
ner and customs of the Anglican Church.
This term differs from Nonconformist in
that it includes also recusants in the
Roman Catholic Church.
Red Cross. Organized as the Amer-
ican Association of the Red Cross in
1881 by special efforts of Miss Clara
Barton, who was its first president. In
1905 the name was changed to National
Red Cross, the President of the United
States becoming its president and the
War Department its auditor. The cor-
ner-stone to a memorial building in
Washington was laid in 1915, and the
building became the national headquar-
ters in 1917. The Red Cross not only
cares for wounded and sick soldiers dur-
ing the time of a war, but also provides
so-called disaster relief in times of peace.
During the recent World War, both be-
fore America entered it and after, the
Red Cross, by its trained nurses and by
providing hospital supplies, contributed
much toward the alleviation of suffering.
Before the United States entered the war,
the Red Cross sent relief supplies to
Europe to the amount of $1,500,000, of
which $350,000 were sent to Germany
and Austria. When the United States
entered the war, the Red Cross member-
ship rose from 500,000 to over 16,000,000;
the collections amounted to $400,000,000.
Red Men, Improved Order of. This
order claims to be “the oldest secret so-
ciety of purely American origin in exist-
ence,” the claim resting on the fact that
it is a continuation of the Sons of Lib-
erty, formed before the American Revo-
lution, and of the secret societies which
sprang from it. It was established in
Baltimore, in 1834. It is a secret society
with many objectionable features. Its
government is modeled on the lines of
Odd-Fellowship, and it “has cut its cloth
after Masonic patterns.” Its ceremonies,
nomenclature, and legends aim at con-
serving the history, customs, and virtues
of the Indians. The local organizations
are called “tribes.” There are three de-
grees, the Adoption Degree, the Warrior’s
Degree, and the Chief’s Degree, these de-
grees “illustrating the religious cere-
monies of these primitive men, they
being firm believers in the Great Spirit
and their beautiful legends showing un-
bounded faith in the future life and the
immortality of the soul.” Besides these
degrees there are the Chieftain’s League
(described as the Uniformed Rank) and
the Degree of Pocahontas, to which also
such as have obtained the Chief’s Degree
are eligible. Indians are not eligible.
The oath of initiation, called the War-
rior’s Pledge, is a combination of drivel
and blasphemy. It reads in part:
“I , in the name of the Great Spirit
and the brothers here assembled, within
the Totemic Bond, do pledge my honor,
that I will keep secret from the sons
not properly qualified to receive the
same, all matters that may be revealed
to me, concerning the degrees of our
order, nor will I improperly use any
sign, grip, password, token, ceremony, or
other matter; . . . that I will recognize
all signs properly given me by a brother
and will, to the extent of my ability and
means, relieve the distress of a deserv-
ing brother, appeal having been made to
me to do so. By example and precept
I will endeavor to advance the precepts
and principles as promulgated by the
legally constituted authorities. 8 o help
me the Great Spirit and keep me stead-
fast in this, the Warrior’s Pledge!” Sta-
tistics: 4,442 lodges, 515,311 members.
Redemption. To “redeem,” literally,
means to “buy back.” Redeem as well
as redemption are used both in the clas-
sical Greek writers and in the New Tes-
tament for the act of setting free a
captive by paying a ransom, or redemp-
tion price. In Christian theology the
terms stand for our recovery from sin
Redemptorists
637
Reformation, The
and death by the obedience and sacrifice
of Christ, who on this account is called
the Redeemer. Rom. 3, 24; Gal. 3, 13;
Eph. 1, 7; 1 Pet. 1, 181; 1 Cor. 6, 19 1;
Matt. 20, 28; 1 Tim. 2, 6; Is. 59, 20;
Job 19, 25. The subjects in the case are
sinful men; they are under guilt, under
the curse of the Law, the servants of sin,
under the power and dominion of the
devil, liable to the death of the body and
to eternal punishment. To the whole of
this class the redemption applies itself.
There is a deliverance from sin, its mas-
tership, and all evils that follow trans-
gression. Yet it was not a gratuitous
deliverance; the ransom, the redemption
price, was exacted and paid. The pre-
cious blood of Christ was given for cap-
tive and condemned men. According to
Eph. 1, 7 — 10 the Gospel of Christ and
the redemption in Him, whereby we are
made abundantly wise unto salvation,
is a manifestation of the mystery of the
divine will, the revelation of a divine
decree, which but for that revelation
would have remained hidden in the heart
of God, who, according to His good plea-
sure, which He has purposed in Himself,
executed His counsel in the fulness of
time. Gal. 4, 4. 5. The singling out
of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Judah, and
David as ancestors of the promised
Messiah, the setting apart of His pecu-
liar people, and the wondrous ways by
which He led that people through the
centuries before the fulness of time were
preparatory measures to the great series
of events extending from the Annuncia-
tion to the death and burial of Christ
and the completion of His work, upon
which the seal of divine authority was
stamped by the glorious resurrection of
the Savior of mankind.
Redemptorists. An order of mis-
sionary priests, founded by Alplionsus
Liguori at Scala, Italy, in 1732, mainly
to “preach the Word of God to the poor.”
In addition to the three usual vows its
members promise to refuse all ecclesias-
tical dignities outside of the order and
to persevere in the order till death. The
Redemptorists, in spite of some funda-
mental distinctions, closely resemble the
Jesuits in purpose and methods and have
repeatedly taken their place when the
latter were expelled from a country. In
the United States (423 priests in 1921)
the order does both parish- and mission-
work. It has convents in most large
cities, serves chiefly German and Bohe-
mian congregations, and makes a spe-
cialty of preaching-missions.
Redpath, Henry Adeney, 1848 to
1908; Anglican; Biblical scholar ; b. and
d. at Sydenham; priest 1874; rector;
lecturer at Oxford; completed Hatch’s
Concordance to the Septuagint (Oxford,
3 vols.) ; etc.
Reed, Andrew; b. 1788, d. 1862; an
English philanthropist of renown; one
of the most successful and popular
preachers (Congregationalist) of his day;
founded Hackney Grammar School, Lon-
don Orphan Asylum, Infant Orphan
Asylum at Wanstead, the Asylum for
Fatherless Children at Reedham, the
Idiot Asylum at Earlswood (with a
branch at Colchester), and the Hospital
for Incurables ; established schools for
children and founded the first penny-
bank for savings; refused remuneration
for his services, contributed a large part
of his yearly income to charity, and lived
in a simple way; visited the United
States in 1835; wrote many works on
practical theology and was the author
of many hymns, among which “Holy
Ghost, with Light Divine.”
Reed, Luther Dotterer, 1873 — ;
studied at Franklin and Marshall Col-
lege and at Lutheran Theological Sem-
inary, Philadelphia; also at Leipzig;
pastor at Allegheny and at Jeannette,
Pa.; librarian of Krauth Memorial
Library; afterwards also professor of
liturgies at Lutheran Seminary, Mount
Airy ; wrote a number of books and many
articles on liturgies and hymnology.
Reformation, The: Its Nature and
Principles. Many individuals and whole
councils tried to reform the corrupt
Church, but failed. In 1517 the Lateran
Council asked for “a universal reforma-
tion, and thorough, from the head to the
feet.” But Leo X triumphed over all
opposition. The Church was called “the
born hand-maid of the Pope”; and Doel-
linger writes: “The last hopes of a refor-
mation were carried to the grave”; and
Cardinal Bellarmine said: “Religion was
almost dead”; Geiler: “Since Pope,
kaiser, king, and bishop will not reform,
God will send one that must do it.”
What the whole world could not do in
ages, Luther, by the grace of God, did
alone ; and he did it by one stroke of the
ax laid to the root. He did it by his
principle of Christian liberty, rooted in
the threefold office of Christ. Christ is
my Priest, and I am justified before God
by faith in the atoning blood shed for
me, and so all “good works,” and saints,
and relics, and purgatory are rendered
useless. Christ is my Prophet, teaching
me in the Bible, the power of God unto
salvation, and so the teachings of tra-
ditions and the Fathers and councils are
useless. Christ is my King, and I follow
the clear and simple meaning of His Word
Reformation, The
638
Reformed Bodies
and reject the interpretation of councils
and kaisers, of Popes and professors, of
fathers and friars. My conscience is
bound in God’s Word. Here I stand;
1 cannot do otherwise; God help me!
Amen. These principles, wrapped up in
justification by faith, produced the refor-
mation in Luther and the Reformation
by Luther, the reformation of the Church
and, as a result, the reformation of all
things. This liberty is not license, not
anarchy, not fanaticism, not rationalism,
but liberty in Christ, obedience to Christ.
“If the Son shall make you free, ye shall
be free indeed.” “Ye shall know the
truth, and the truth shall make you
free.”
The Spread of the Reformation. “The
Word of God grew and multiplied,” and
fire and sword could not suppress it. Hein-
rich Voss and Johann van den Esschen
were the first Lutheran martyrs, burned
at Brussels July 1, 1523, and George Buch-
fuehrer at Budapest; in 1524 Kaspar
Tauber was burned at Vienna, Septem-
ber 17, and Heinrich Moller von Zuetphen
at Meldorf, December 10; George Car-
pentarius at Munich, Leonard Kaiser at
Passau, and John Hueglin, in 1527, at
Constance; Adolf Klavenbach and Peter
Flysteden at Cologne in 1529. And there
were general persecutions and sanguinary
wars. Countless numbers died for the
Gospel in various European countries.
But the Word of God grew and multi-
plied. (For its spread in Germany see
Germany.) In 1519 it came to Sweden,
thence to Finland and Lapland, 1520 to
Denmark, thence to Norway and Iceland,
ca. 1521 to Livonia, Courland, and Es-
thonia, 1525 to Prussia — the Lutheran
countries. By 1550 the Protestants in
Austria outnumbered the Catholics ten
to one. (This statement, most probably
is an exaggeration, but is made by Cath-
olic writers.) The Lutheran Reforma-
tion bade fair to win over all Bohemia
and Moravia (since 1522), Hungary and
Transylvania (1521), and Poland (also
from the very beginning) ; but Calvin-
ism interfered, and brutal force, together
with the wiles of the Jesuits, did the
rest. Calvinism also supplanted Lu-
theranism in the Palatinate and other
parts of Germany. As early as 1521
Luther’s teachings were spreading in
France, and the Netherlands, in 1523,
gave the Lutheran Church her first mar-
tyrs; but Calvinism soon obtained dom-
inating influence within the Protestant-
ism of these countries. England had in
the beginning turned her eyes towards
Lutheranism, and in Scotland Patrick
Hamilton died, 1528, for the Lutheran
faith; but iu these realms the Reformed
churches established themselves. In Italy
and Spain the Reformation was quickly
suppressed by the Inquisition and kin-
dred forces and in parts of Southern
and Western Germany supplanted by the
old error. Its later gains were made in
the heathen world and in the New World.
See the various countries, Lutheran
Church, Counter-reformation.
Reformed Bodies. This name orig-
inally meant all the churches which
separated from the Church of Rome af
the time of the Reformation. In a nar-
rower sense the word is used to designate
those Protestant churches in which the
Calvinistic doctrines and church polity
prevail in contradistinction to the Lu-
theran Church. These churches owe their
origin to the work of Zwingli in Switzer-
land, although the influence of Calvin
proved more powerful than that of
Zwingli, giving cohesion to doctrine
and firmness to polity. The Reformed
churches are very generally known on
the continent of Europe as the Calvin-
istic churches. One principal distinc-
tion of all the Reformed churches is
their doctrine of the Sacrament of the
Lord’s Supper, characterized by the re-
jection, not only of transubstantiation,
but also of the real presence of Christ
in the Sacrament as set forth by Luther.
On this point mainly the controversy
between the Lutherans and the Reformed
was carried on for a long time. The
Reformed churches also reject the use
of images and of ceremonies, which the
Lutherans retain. Among the Reformed
churches are those of England and
Scotland (although different in polity,
the one maintaining the episcopal form
of church government, the other the
presbyterial ) , the Protestant Church of
France, the Reformed Church of Holland
(and the Netherlands) ; among German
Reformed churches the once flourishing
Protestant Church of Poland, etc., be-
sides many Reformed organizations in
America. — In doctrine the Reformed
churches are generally Calvinistic. Their
Heidelberg Catechism does not emphasize
the decree of predestination as does the
Westminster Confession. The polity is
in the main Presbyterian, differing from
that of the Presbyterian churches only
in the names of the church offices and
some minor details. They have a con-
sistory instead of a session, a classis
instead of a presbytery, and a general
synod instead of the general assembly.
The Reformed bodies in America are di-
vided into four groups : Reformed Church
in America; the Reformed Church in the
United States; the Christian Reformed
Church; the Hungarian Reformed
Reformed Bodies
639
Reformed Bodies
Church in America. The first Reformed
Church in New Amsterdam was organ-
ized by the Dutch in 1628, and for a
considerable time the Hollanders were
practically limited to that neighborhood.
Somewhat later a German colony, driven
from the Palatinate by the ruthless per-
secution of Louis XIV, settled in upper
New York and Pennsylvania; and as
it grew, it spread westward. Another
Dutch immigration, which established
its headquarters in Michigan, identified
itself with the New York branch, but
afterwards the minor part formed its
own ecclesiastical organization, the New
York branch, known at first as the Re-
formed Dutch Church, and later adopted
the name Reformed Church in America.
Similarly the German Reformed Church
became the Reformed Church in the
United States. The third body is now
known as the Christian Reformed
Church, while the fourth is called the
Hungarian (Magyar) Reformed Church.
Besides these there are also a number
of churches called Netherlands Dutch
Church, or True Reformed Dutch Church,
which have no general ecclesiastical or-
ganization.
Reformed Church in Holland. The Re-
formed Church of the Netherlands was
an outgrowth of the Zwinglian Ref-
ormation of the 16th century, as the Re-
formed churches in America have been.
In Holland the labors of the “reformers
before the Reformation,” Wessel, Ganse-
voort, and Rudolf Agricola, prepared the
way for the conflicts of civil and religious
liberty which later on took place in the
Low Countries. Gansevoort was ah emi-
nent teacher at Heidelberg, Louvain,
Paris, Rome, and at last head of the
celebrated school in his native city of
Groningen, where he died in 1489. Agric-
ola was professor in the University at
Heidelberg and was noted for his class-
ical and scientific attainments, especially
for his skill in the use of the Greek New
Testament. The work of these two men
prepared the way for the civil and re-
ligious conflict which followed under
Charles V and his son, Philip II of Spain.
However, especially after Martin Luther
had proclaimed the great doctrines of the
Scriptures which shook the world, evan-
gelical truth struck its roots deep down
into the hearts of the people. Though
the Evangelicals were violently perse-
cuted by the papists, confessors and mar-
tyrs for Christ were never wanting for
the persecutions of the government and
the Inquisition. Because of their mani-
fold afflictions the Evangelicals in Hol-
land called their churches “the churches
of the Netherlands under the cross.” For
many years they worshiped privately in
scattered little assemblies, until they
finally crystallized into a regular ecclesi-
astical organization. Nor could the ban
of the empire or the curse of Rome keep
clown the rising spirit of these heroic be-
lievers in Christ. The hymns of Beza
and Clement Marot, which have been
translated from the French, rang out the
pious enthusiasm of the multitudes, who
were stirred by the eloquence of their
preachers. In 1563 the Synod of Ant-
werp was held, which adopted the Belgic
Confession and laid the foundations of
the Church, to which subsequent synods
only gave more permanent shape. Her
scholars and theologians, her schools and
universities, her zeal and martyr spirit,
gave the Reformed Church of Holland
the leading position among the sister
churches of the continent, while her re-
ligious liberty made her a refuge for the
persecuted of other lands; the Walden ses,
Huguenots, Scotch Covenanters, and the
English Puritans found a welcome at her
altars. It was in Holland also that John
Robinson and his followers, who later
became the voyagers of the Mayflower,
found a refuge for eleven years, and this
explains the large influence which the
Reformed Church of Holland has exer-
cised not only over its direct adherents
who emigrated to America, but also over
other American churches of the Reformed
type.
Reformed Church, Christian. This
denomination traces its origin to a small
body which in 1835 severed its connec-
tion with the Reformed Church of Hol-
land because of differences in doctrine
and polity. In 1846 — -7 the colony from
Holland settled in Michigan, while others
moved to Iowa. Practically all joined
the Dutch Reformed Church in 1849.
April 8, 1857, a number of the members
and two of the ministers of the Michigan
congregations, believing that various
things in the doctrine and discipline of
the Church which they had joined were
opposed to their prosperity and enjoy-
ment, withdrew and in May, 1857, ef-
fected a separate organization at a con-
vention in Holland, Mich. Two years
later the name of Holland Reformed
Church was adopted as a denominational
title. But in 1861 it was changed to
True Dutch Reformed Church. In 1880
the name Holland Christian Reformed
Church in America was chosen, but in
1890 the word “Holland” was dropped,
and in 1904 the words “in America” were
eliminated, so that the official title to-
day is Christian Reformed Church. In
1864 Rev. D. J. Van der Werp, an earnest
preacher and a talented writer, came
Reformed Bodies
640
Reformed Bodies
from the Netherlands to settle as pastor
of the church at Graafscliap, Allegan
County, Mich. Within a few years he
succeeded in organizing a number of con- .
gregations of his denomination in Wis-
consin, Iowa, and Illinois, as well as in
Michigan. He also began to train young
men for the ministry and laid the foun-
dation of the present theological school,
Calvin College, which 1876 was formally
opened in Grand Rapids. In 1868 he
began the publication of a biweekly
paper, De Wachter ( The Watchman)
and through this medium was able to
extend the influence of the movement in
many directions. The energetic and
manifold work of this pastor was largely
instrumental in establishing the Church
on a firm basis. In 1882 the denomina-
tion was strengthened considerably by
the accession of a half dozen churches,
which, with their pastors, had left the
Reformed churches because of the refusal
of the General Synod to condemn Free-
masonry and to discipline communicant
members who were members of that
lodge. A further considerable increase
came in 1890, when the Classis of
Hackensack united with the denomina-
tion. In their early history the language
of the churches was almost exclusively
Dutch, but after the “Americanization
Movement” in Michigan the denomina-
tion was strengthened by the formation
of English-speaking churches. At present
the use of English is increasing rapidly
in all the churches. In Iowa there are
about one dozen German churches, which
in 1916 opened the Christian Reformed
College at Grundy Center, Iowa. — Doc-
trine and Polity. The creeds of the
Christian Reformed Church are the
Belgic Confession of Faith, the Heidel-
berg Catechism, and the Canons of Dort.
As its constitution the Church adopted
the 86 articles of church government
(the church order), approved by the
National Synod of Dort in 1619, in so
far as they were suited to American
civil conditions. These articles provide
for a strictly Presbyterian order of
polity. — Work. The activities of the
Church include work among the Indians
(in Mexico), under the supervision of
the Board of Heathen Missions, ap-
pointed by the synod, with headquarters
at Grand Rapids, Mich.; work among
the Mormons at Ogden, Utah; among
the Jews at Paterson, N. J. ; among the
Dutch sailors and Dutch immigrants at
Hoboken, N. J., and on Ellis Island;
and general mission-work, carried on by
the different classes and a joint com-
mittee of the synod. In addition to the
Sunday-schools the various congregations
have week-day classes for training the
children and young people by means of
a graded system of catechisms. The de-
nomination has 227 young people’s so-
cieties, with 6,464 members. The official
organs of the Church are: The Banner,
published at Grand Rapids, Mich. (En-
glish); De Wachter, published in Hol-
land, Mich. (Dutch) ; Der Reformierte'
Bote, published at Wellsburg, Iowa (Ger-
man). — Statistics, 1921: 196 ministers,
247 churches, 43,902 communicants.
Reformed Church in America. The Re-
formed Church in America was founded
by emigrants from Holland, who formed
the colony of the New Netherlands un-
der the authority of the States-General
and under the auspices of the Dutch East
India Company. With Governor Minuit,
in 1626, came two krank-besoeckers, or
sieken-troosters, that is, comforters of
the sick, namely, Jansen Krol and Jan
Huyek. The first minister, Jonas Mi-
chaelius, graduate of the University of
Leyden and afterwards a missionary in
San Salvador and Guinea, arrived in
1628, and a church was organized with
at least 50 communicants, consisting
both of Walloons and Dutch. The first
church-building was erected in New Am-
sterdam in 1633, and in 1642 this wooden
structure was replaced by a stone church.
The applications of Dutch Lutherans,
Quakers, and Anabaptists, however, were
not received very cordially, and an ordi-
nance was issued “forbidding all un-
authorized conventicles and the preach-
ing of unqualified persons.” Although
finally this ordinance met with disap-
proval in Holland, it shows that the
East India Company was slow to grant
for New Netherland the toleration en-
joyed across the Atlantic and that, as in
other early colonies, the idea of religious
liberty was not maintained. When the
British took possession of New Amster-
dam in 1664, there were thirteen Dutch
churches, served by six ministers. Under
the terms of surrender the Dutch re-
tained their own form of worship and
the use of the stone church within the
fort, though they were obliged to sup-
port the Anglican Church. The Dutch
Reformed Church thus became merely a
“tolerated” Church, and not until the year
1777, one year after the Declaration of
Independence, did the State of New York
grant to all of its citizens full religious
liberty. During the Revolutionary War
the Dutch Reformed Churches suffered
severely, since the battles were largely
fought on their territory. However, with
peace and civil liberty also ecclesiastical
autonomy .came to all the denominations.
This gradually led to the perfection of
Reformed Bodies
641
Reformed Bodies
the organization, which was fully ac-
complished in 1792. Since essentially no
changes in the constitutions and stand-
ards of doctrines have been made, the
organization of 1792 practically repre-
sents the present ecclesiastical govern-
ment of the Reformed churches in Amer-
ica. For a long time the retention of
the Dutch language in the church ser-
vices resulted in a failure of the Church
to attain greater numerical strength.
However, ca. 1800 the Dutch language
ceased generally to be the language of
worship, and in 1867 the word “Dutch”
was eliminated from the title of the
Church, and the present title, Reformed
Church in America, was adopted. In
consequence of a considerable immigra-
tion from Holland in the middle of the
19th century, the greater part of which
has settled in Michigan and other sec-
tions of the West, many congregations
have been founded there, and a few in
the East, in which the Dutch language
is used again. The earliest efforts of the
Church towards general extension on
Home Mission lines were begun in 1786,
when the congregation at Saratoga peti-
tioned the synod for a minister, and a
committee was appointed to devise some
plan of preaching the Gospel in localities
which were without churches and minis-
ters. This was followed by similar ap-
plications from Dutch families in Penn-
sylvania, Kentucky, and a number of
churches in Canada. For many years
the Classis of Albany acted as agent of
the synod in looking after such localities
in the North. Subsequently the churches
in Canada were transferred to the Pres-
byterians. In 1804 the first legacy for
missions was left by Sarah de Peyster.
In 1806 the General Synod assumed the
management of all missionary opera-
tions, and it continued to send out itin-
erants. In 1822 several private individ-
uals formed a missionary society of the
Reformed Dutch Church, which was soon
adopted by the synod. A similar organi-
zation was started at Albany in 1828,
and in 1831 the Board of Domestic Mis-
sions was organized. From that time on
the movement became more aggressive.
In 1837 churches were organized in Illi-
nois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. With the
development of Dutch immigration in the
West the demand for missionary labor
increased, and the Board was reorganized
in 1849. In 1854 the plan of a church-
building fund to aid the needy churches
was proposed. The Foreign Mission in-
terests of the Church were of early ori-
gin, since some of the early Dutch minis-
ters engaged also in work for the Indians.
In ( 1796 the New York Missionary So-
Concordia Cyclopedia
eiety was formed by members of the
Presbyterian, Reformed Dutch, and Bap-
tist churches. This was succeeded in
1816 by the United Missionary Society,
which in 1826 was merged with the
American Board. However, in 1832 a
plan was adopted by which the Reformed
Church in America, retaining its general
connection with that board, conducted its
own mission, developing work in India,
China, Japan, and later in Arabia. In
close connection with these missionary
activities was the interest in educational
institutions which was manifested in
1766 in securing a charter for a college.
Under a revision of this charter four
years later the name given to the in-
stitution was Queen’s College; but this
was changed in 1825 to Rutgers College.
This institution is located at New Bruns-
wick, N. J. There is also a theological
seminary at New Brunswick, dating back
to 1784. This institution was the first
distinctively theological seminary organ-
ized in America. Union College devel-
oped out of the Schenectady Academy,
founded in 1785, and Hope College, at
Holland, Mich., out of Holland Acad-
emy, the offspring of a parochial school
started in 1850. — Doctrine. The Re-
formed Church in America accepts as its
doctrinal symbols the Apostles’, the Ni-
cene, and the Atlxanasian creeds, the Bel-
gic Confession, the canons of the Synod
of Dort, and the Heidelberg Catechism,
and is a distinctively Calvinistic body.
As in all Calvinistic churches, the Sac-
raments are not regarded as means of
grace, but as symbols and signs of grace.
All baptized persons are considered mem-
bers of the Church, are under its care,
and are subject to its government and
discipline. — - Polity. The polity of the
Reformed Church is Presbyterian, the
government of the local church being
under the control of the consistory, which
is composed of the minister, the elders,
and the deacons, who are elected by mem-
bers of the church over eighteen years of
age. The minister and elders have par-
ticular care of the spiritual interests of
the churches, while the deacons have
charge of the collection of alms and the
relief of the poor and distressed. The
classis, which has immediate supervision
of the churches and the ministry, con-
sists of all the ministers within a cer-
tain district and an elder from each con-
sistory within that district, collegiate
churches being entitled to an elder for
each worshiping assembly. The classes
of a certain district are combined in a
particular synod, composed of four min-
isters and four elders from every classis
within its bounds. The synod acts as an
41
Reformed Bodies
642
Reformed Bodies
intermediate court in certain cases of
doctrine and polity and exercises special
supervision of church activities within
its borders. The highest court of the
Church is the General Synod, consisting
of ministers and elders from each classis,
nominated by the classes to the particu-
lar synods, which have power to appoint
them as delegates to the General Synod.
Classes meet semiannually, in spring and
fall; the particular synods, annually in
May; the General Synod, annually in
June. — Work. The Home Mission work
of the Reformed Church in America is
carried on largely through the Board of
Domestic Missions, which aids weak
churches and founds new churches of the
denomination throughout the country,
assists them in the erection of church -
buildings by grant or loan, organizes
Sunday-schools, and employs missiona-
ries- in evangelistic work. Auxiliary to
the Board of Domestic Missions is the
Woman’s Executive Committee, which
raises funds for the general work of the
board. — The educational work of the
Church in this country is conducted by
various colleges and theological semi-
naries under the direction of the General
Synod. Altogether the Reformed Church
in America maintains 2 theological semi-
naries, 2 colleges, and 3 academies. The
Board of Publication conducts a general
publishing and book business. General
Bible and evangelistic literary work is
conducted through the American Bible
Society and the American Tract Society,
which are recognized by the General
Synod as authorized to receive contribu-
tions from the churches. The Church
has 727 Endeavor societies, with 17,815
members; besides these there are socie-
ties of King’s Daughters, Brotherhoods
of Andrew and Philip, crusader posts,
mission-bands, and many miscellaneous
societies. — Statistics, 1921: 771 minis-
ters, 733 churches, 135,634 communicants.
Reformed Church in the United States.
This denomination, which for many years
was known as the German Reformed
Church, traces its origin chiefly to the
German, Swiss, and French people who
settled in America early in the 18th cen-
tury; hence it includes among its founders
Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin, of Swit-
zerland. During the 17th century the
immigration from Switzerland and the
Palatinate was small. In 1683, Pasto-
rius, with a small company of followers,
came to Pennsylvania at the invitation
of William Penn, where he founded th»
village of Germantown. It was not until
1709, however, that these immigrants
came in large numbers. About that time
more than 30,000 immigrants from the
Palatinate found their way to England,
where they encamped near London, clam-
oring for transportation. Many of these
were brought to America, where they es-
tablished settlements in the South, in
New York, and in Pennsylvania. Among
the ministers who proved energetic and
useful workers were John Frederick
Hager, who arrived in New York in 1709;
John Philip Boehm, George Michael
Weiss, and John B. Rieger. John Philip
Boehm was ordained by the Dutch Re-
formed ministers of New York with the
consent of the Classis of Amsterdam,
which, prevailed upon by the ecclesias-
tical authorities of the Palatinate, com-
missioned as missionary evangelist Mi-
chael Schlatter, who arrived in August,
1746, and after a conference with the
pastors who were already in the churches
organized a coetus, or synod, in 1747. In
1751 Schlatter made a visit to Europe
and returned the next year with six min-
isters and a sum of money, estimated at
$60,000, collected by the people of Hol-
land for the benefit of the churches in
Pennsylvania. This assistance, however,
was so conditioned upon subordination
to the Classis of Amsterdam as to cause
a great deal of friction, which manifested
itself in the development of two distinct
parties in the coetus, which differed in
their views on polity and, in a general
way, resembled the “Old Side” and “New
Side” in the Presbyterian Church. The
former emphasized doctrinal regularity,
while the latter was more in accord with
the liberalistic developments of the times.
One of the prominent leaders of the “New
Side” churches was Philip William Otter-
bein, who was later identified with the
organization of the United Brethren in
Christ. In the latter part of the 18th
century, owing largely to the feeling of
independence, the German Reformed con-
gregations became more and more dis-
satisfied with the conditions of their
connection with the Amsterdam Classis,
and finally it was decided to act inde-
pendently of the classis and to organize
their own synod. The first synod of the
German Reformed Church met at Lan-
caster, Pa., April 27, 1793, reporting 178
congregations and 15,000 communicants.
The most important congregations were
at Philadelphia, Lancaster, and German-
town, Pa., and at Frederick, Md. LTpon
the development of the Protestant Epis-
copal Church some churches joined this
body, while others joined the United
Brethren. In the so-called revival period
two opposing tendencies were developed,
the liberal and the conservative, the for-
mer aiming at the preservation of the
faith and the latter laying greater stress
Reformed Bodies
643 Reformed Episcopal Church
on fellowship. Another complication arose
from the fact that the younger element
preferred the use of the English lan-
guage, while the older element clung to
tlie German. In order to meet the diffi-
culty of securing trained ministers,
a theological seminary was founded ; but
during the discussions which followed
a number of churches withdrew and in
1822 formed the Synod of the Free Ger-
man Reformed Congregations of Penn-
sylvania, later known as the German
Reformed Synod of Pennsylvania and Ad-
jacent States. These churches returned
in 1837, and eventually the discussion
resulted in the establishment of a theo-
logical seminary at Mercersburg, Pa. For
many years the Mercersburg controversy
occasioned much confusion and gave rise
to two distinct parties, which violently
opposed each other. The leaders in this
controversy were J. W. Nevin and Philip
Schaff, who took issue with the high Cal-
vinistic principle of free will, reproduced
tiie anti-Zwinglian and anti -Lutheran
conception of John Calvin on the nature
of the Sacraments, which they regarded
not as mere empty forms, but as signifi-
cant signs and seals of God’s covenant
with us, inveighed against extempora-
neous public prayer, and defended a re-
vival in a modernized form of the litur-
gical church service of the Reformation.
In 1878 the General Synod appointed
a Peace Commission, which met in 1879
and proposed articles of agreement. The
report of this commission was unani-
mously accepted in 1881, which ended the
controversy, although it did not elimi-
nate the different points and tendencies.
In 1844 a convention was called in which
the Dutch Reformed Church and the two
German Reformed synods were repre-
sented. This convention, although purely
advisory, prepared the way for a later
union. Meanwhile the Western congre-
gations had established their own educa-
tional institutions, one of which, Heidel-
berg College, at Tiffin, 0., was founded in
1850. In 1840, as the Church developed
its general activities, the synod founded
a printing establishment at Chambers-
burg, Pa., which, during the Civil War,
was removed to Philadelphia. In 1863
the Reformed Church celebrated the
three-hundredth anniversary of the adop-
tion of the Heidelberg Catechism by unit-
ing the two synods in a General Synod.
With the organization of the General
Synod began the rapid extension of the
work of Home Missions. As the work in
the West assumed unexpected propor-
tions, separate district synods and spe-
cific classes were organized, the latest
being the Hungarian Classis, which was
to meet the seeds of the Reformed Hun-
garian churches. In 1869 the General
Synod eliminated the word “German”
and adopted as its official name the Re-
formed Church in the United States, in
contradistinction to the Reformed Church
in America. The Reformed Church in the
United States is especially represented
in Pennsylvania. Both in doctrine and
polity the Reformed Church in the United
States is in hearty accord with the other
Reformed and Presbyterian churches. The
Heidelberg Catechism is in universal use
in the churches and is the main standard
of doctrine. — The mission -work is under
the supervision of boards appointed by,
and reporting to, the General Synod. In
1916 the Board of Home Missions re-
ported a total of 201 workers in the
principal States of the United States,
reaching Germans, English, French, Hun-
garians, Japanese, Italians, Jews, and
Bohemians. The Foreign Mission Board
of the General Synod carries on work in
Japan and China. The Church has 12
colleges, or institutions of high grade.
It supports also 5 orphanages with 456
inmates. The number of young people’s
societies reported in 1916 was 861, with
a membership of 38,339. — Statistics,
1921 : 1,255 ministers, 1,736 churches,
331,369 communicants.
Reformed Episcopal Church. This
denomination owes its origin to Bishop
George David Cummins, of Kentucky, a
former member of the Protestant Epis-
copal Church and a representative of the
evangelical element in that Church,
which was strongly opposed to High
Church, or ritualistic, tendencies. For
some time he had been much disturbed
by the decidedly ritualistic tendencies
of his Church and by the loss of true
catholicity, and he now felt the criti-
cisms uttered against him as new evi-
dence of these tendencies. In conse-
quence of this he withdrew on Novem-
ber 10, 1873. A number of other clergy-
men of his faith shared his opinions, and
on a call from him 7 clergymen and
20 laymen met in New York City on
December 2 and organized the Reformed
Episcopal Church. — In doctrine the Re-
formed Episcopal Church accepts the
evangelical doctrines as set forth in the
Thirty-nine Articles of the Protestant
Episcopal Church, the Nicene Creed, and
the Apostles’ Creed, with the omission of
the words, “descended into hell.” It re-
jects the doctrine that the presence of
Christ in the Lord’s Supper is a presence
in the elements of bread and wine and that
regeneration is wrought by and through
Baptism. Instead of the words “priest”
and “altar” the terms “ministers” and
“Lord’s Table” are substituted, — The
Reformers before Reformation 044
Relics
polity agrees with that of the Protestant
Episcopal Church. For public worship
the Church accepts the Book of Common
Prayer as revised by the General Con-
vention of the Protestant Episcopal
Church in 1785; but it holds that no
liturgy should be imperative and re-
serves full liberty to alter, abridge, en-
large, and amend the same as may seem
best, provided “that the substance of
the faith be kept entire.” — The Board
of Home Missions cares for the weak
parishes in the organization, conducts
work among the Negroes in the South,
and provides part of the salaries of mis-
sionary bishops. The Board of Foreign
Missions carries on work in India. The
educational work in the United States is
confined to the theological seminary in
Philadelphia, with 9 students. The de-
nomination has 90 Christian Endeavor
societies, with 2,250 members. — Statis-
tics, 1921: 106 ministers, 87 churches,
11,217 communicants.
Reformers before the Reformation.
This name is often given to men who, in
some measure, found the truth of Scrip-
tures and defended it against the pre-
vailing errors, such as Petrus Waldus,
John Wyclif, Johann Huss, Hieronymus
of Prag! Johann of Wesel, Hieronymus
Savonarola, Johann Wessel, and others
(qq.v.)
Regalia Petri. “The various rights
and high prerogatives which, according
to Romanists, belong to the Pope as a
kind of universal sovereign and king of
kings.” The term “regalia” is also ap-
plied to certain ecclesiastical privileges
regarding which various sovereigns
clashed with the Roman See. See In-
vestiture.
Regeneration. See Conversion.
Regular Baptists. Under this name
are included a number of associations of
Baptists who claim to represent the
original English Baptists before the dis-
tinction between Calvinistic (or Particu-
lar) and Arminian (or General) became
prominent. They are distinguished from
the Primitive Baptists, who represent
the extreme of Calvinism, and from the
General, Free-will, and other Baptists,
who incline to the Arminian doctrine,
being in general sympathy with the
United Baptists, Duck River, and kin-
dred associations of Baptists. In doc-
trine they are in essential agreement
with the United Baptists, holding that
God gives no command without giving
the individual corresponding ability to
comply with it; that all for whom
Christ died may comply with the re-
quirements ancj conditions necessary tp
eternal salvation; that, therefore, since
Christ tasted death for every man and
all men are commanded to repent, the
eternal salvation of all men is possible,
since even those who are lost might have
complied with the Gospel command and
been saved. The Regular Baptists do
not use the confessions adopted by other
Baptists, such as the London Confession )
the Philadelphia Confession, and the NciH
Hampshire Confession, but each associa-
tion has its own confessions, which differ
slightly from one another, though agreed
ing in the main points. They are strict
as to admission to the Lord’s Supper,
practise close communion, and for thp
most part observe the ceremony of foot-
washing. In polity they are distinctly
congregational. Statistics, 1921: 997
ministers, 755 churches, 49,184 commu-
nicants.
Regular Clergy. See Secular Clergy.
Reimann, Georg, 1570—1615; b. at:
Loobschuetz, Prussia; at time of his
death professor of rhetoric at Koenigs-;
berg; wrote: “Wir singen all’ mit Freu-
denschall” ; “Aus Lieb’ laesst Gott der
Christenheit.”
Reinhard, Franz Volkxnar; b. 1753;
d. 1812 as chief court preacher at Dres-
den; belonged to the Supranaturalistic
school of theology, which held the neces-
sity of revelation against rationalism;
very popular preacher; more conserva-
tive in later life.
Reinke, A.; b. September 29, 1841,
at Winsen, Hanover; graduate of Con-
cordia Seminary, St. Louis, 1864; pastor
in Blue Island, 111., and of Bethlehem,
Chicago ; founded the Deaf-mute Mission
of the Missouri Synod; main founder of
the Old Folks’ Home in Arlington
Heights; member of Board for Deaf-
mute Missions; d. November 18, 1899.
Relics. The Roman Catholic position
on relics is given as follows by the Coun-
cil of Trent (sess. XXV, De Invoc.) :
“The holy bodies of holy martyrs and of
others now living with Christ . . . are
to be venerated by the faithful; through
which [bodies] many benefits are be-
stowed by God on men, so that they who
affirm that veneration and honor are
not due to the relics of saints or that
these and other sacred monuments are
uselessly honored by the faithful and
that the places dedicated to the memo-
ries of the saints are in vain visited with
the view of obtaining their aid, are
wholly to be condemned.” This unscrip-
tural and superstitious veneration of
relies is one of the most striking con-
tributions of the semipaganism that in-
vaded the Church ip the fourth century.
Relic*
645
Religions Iiiberty
Both the Old and the New Testament
instil respect for the mortal remains of
the godly dead, but they know only one
way of showing this respect — decent
burial. So the early Christians honored
the remains of the martyrs, risking their
own lives to give them a Christian
burial. They assembled at the tombs of
the martyrs to keep alive their memory,
to exhort one another to like faithful-
ness, and to praise God, who had kept
the martyrs steadfast to the end. In the
fourth century this respect and honor
turned to a worship of relics, which
assumed increasingly fantastic forms.
Relics came to be regarded as having in-
herent supernatural properties. Churches
were built over the tombs of martyrs;
the graves of others were rifled, so that
unprovided churches might deposit the
relics under their altars or permit the
faithful to touch and kiss them. A defi-
nite traffic in relics developed; and when
the visible store proved inadequate,
dreams, visions, and apparitions disclosed
new supplies of astonishing variety,
ranging from the feathers of angels to
some hairs of the beard of Noah, the son
of Lamech. Such objects commanded
staggering sums; and, indeed, had they
possessed only a portion of the miracu-
lous virtues ascribed to them, they would
have been cheap at any price. Prayer
and worship in their presence were sup-
posed to carry uncommon sanctity and
virtue in the eyes of God. They were
held to have the power of healing dis-
orders of body and mind, of defending
against the wiles of the devil, of giving
peculiar sanction to oaths, and of bring-
ing about miraculous happenings. Since
the division of a relic was claimed to
leave its efficacy unimpaired, fragments
of relics were worn as charms or amulets.
Above all, the veneration shown to relics
was accounted a meritorious work, pleas-
ing to God, and rewarded by Him with
temporal and eternal benefits. Nor are
these the superstitions of a past age.
They are teachings and practises current
in the Roman Church to-day, and if, for
reasons of expediency, they are kept in
the background in enlightened countries,
they come to the front all the more
frankly in Pope-ridden lands. Even now
no Roman church is dedicated without
having relics in its altar. The chapter
on fraudulent and duplicate relics cannot
be opened here, diverting as it is. The
unblushing frankness of the Catholic En-
cyclopedia is refreshing. It admits (see
Belies) that “many of the more ancient
relics duly exhibited for veneration in
the great sanctuaries of Christendom or
even at Rome itself must now be pro-
nounced to be either certainly spurious
or open to grave suspicion.” Yet it calls
those “presumptuous” who blame the
Church for continuing to dupe the people,
because, forsooth — the fraud is so old.
That is bad enough. But far more
serious is the fact that by the cult of
relics, as by so many other practises of
the Roman Church which have neither
command nor promise in Scripture, men
are drawn away from the living God, in
whom alone there is help. Instead, they
are taught to put trust in men, living
men and dead men, — even in the bones
and ashes of men.
Relief Work. This is work done by
the Church for the relief of people visited
by such calamities as fire, flood, tornado,
pestilence, and the like. Some churches
have a special fund out of which such
relief can be granted as soon as needed.
See Benevolence.
Religion, Philosophy of. Since phi-
losophy aims to find the ultimate prin-
ciples underlying all phenomena and
their relation to one another, philosophy
of religion is the science which investi-
gates the essence, content, significance,
and value of religion, the psychological
laws underlying it, the reasons for its
varied historical manifestations, and its
relation to the nature of man and his
position in the universe and to all other
experiences of the human soul.
Religion, Science of. The science
which, based on the evolutionary hypoth-
esis, aims to investigate the psycholog-
ical, physiological, and ethnological bases
of religion, the primitive popular ideas
which underlie all historical religions,
and the alleged development of religion
from that of primitive man upward. As
it aims to present a history of the devel-
opment of the forms of religious think-
ing and concerns itself especially also
with the genesis of Christianity, which it
regards, not as an absolute religion, but
merely as a stage in an evolutionary
process, it is opposed to the Biblical con-
ception of revealed religion.
Religious Education Association.
Its purpose is to promote religious edu-
cation in the homes and in the churches.
It is largely under Unitarian influence
and has advocated plans which favor
the mixture of Church and State, such
as community schools. Its center is
Chicago University.
Religious Liberty. Religious liberty
is the freedom of religious profession and
worship. It is based upon the assump-
tion that conscience must be permitted
to act without constraint or hindrance.
Religions Liberty
646
Religions Press
Conscience acknowledges the laws of God
and human responsibility. Hence no hu-
man government has a right to hinder
any form of religion or to support any
to the injury of others. This implies
that all churches and persons are equal
before the law in the matter of protec-
tion or restraint. This separation of
spiritual and civil affairs is emphatically
taught by Jesus Christ in John 18, 36 f.
See Church and State.
In the United States the government
acknowledges religious liberty as an ab-
solute personal right. Church and State
as such are entirely divorced. All de-
nominations are equal and free in the
eye of the law. The Constitution of the
United States provides that “no religious
test shall ever be required as a qualifica-
tion to any office or public trust under
the United States”; and “Congress shall
make no law respecting an establishment
of religion or prohibiting the free exer-
cise thereof.” How far these limitations
of the powers of Congress affect the legis-
lation of individual States was a mooted
question until the Nebraska Language
Case and the Oregon School Case were
decided by the Supreme Court of the
United States. During and after the
World War a number of States passed
laws prohibiting the use of foreign lan-
guages in all graded schools, public, pri-
vate, and parochial. Among these were
Iowa, Nebraska, and Ohio. No attempt
was made to deny that the legislation
was aimed particularly at the use in
such schools of the German language.
In 1923 various cases growing out of
this legislation were appealed to the Su-
preme Court. The Iowa case was brought
by August Bartels, a teacher in St. John’s
Evangelical Lutheran Parochial School
at Maxfield, those from Nebraska, by the
Nebraska District of the Evangelical Lu-
theran Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and
Other States, by Dietrich Siefken and
John Siedlik of Platte County and by
Robert T. Meyer, who was a teacher
in Zion Parochial School in Hamilton
County, and those from Ohio by Emil
Pohl, teacher, and H. H. Bohning, trustee
of St. John’s Evangelical Congregational
School at Garfield Heights. In all these
cases the state courts had sustained the
validity of the law.
The statutes were held invalid by the
Supreme Court. The “Nebraska” deci-
sion is one of the most important ever
handed down by the Supreme Court of
the United States, inasmuch as it not
only permitted the teaching of foreign
languages in private schools and thus
vindicated the rights of parents to de-
termine the education of their children,
but gave guarantees of religious liberty
which the American people had never be-
fore possessed. It has been noted that
the Constitution only prohibits Congress
from restricting religious freedom; it
says nothing of the obligations of the
individual States under this clause, and
the question has often been debated
whether the States are under the same
restrictions in this respect as Congress.
This question was now settled. The de-
cision declared these various language
laws as in direct opposition to the Four-
teenth Amendment of the Federal Con-
stitution, which declares: “No State
shall deprive any person of life, liberty,
or property without due process of law.”
The opinion said that the liberty thus
guaranteed “without doubt denotes not
only freedom from bodily restraint, but
also the right of the individual to con-
tract, to engage in any one of the com-
mon occupations of life, to acquire use-
ful knowledge, to marry, establish a
home, and bring up children,” — note the
following, — “to worship God according
to the dictates of his own conscience,
and, generally, to enjoy those privileges
long recognized by common law as es-
sential to the orderly pursuit of happi-
ness by free man.” By this clause was
added the keystone to the American doc-
trine of religious freedom. The decision
was quoted by the Supreme Court when
in 1925 it declared unconstitutional the
Oregon Law, which compelled all chil-
dren under sixteen years to attend the
public schools. That decision said : “Un-
der the doctrine of Meyer vs. Nebraska,
262 U. S. 390, we think it entirely plain
that the Act of 1922 unreasonably inter-
feres with the liberty of parents and
guardians to direct the upbringing and
education of children under their control.
As often heretofore pointed out, rights
guaranteed by the Constitution may not
be abridged by legislation which has no
reasonable relation to some purpose
within the competency of the State.”
Religious Press. One of the most
powerful factors in the dissemination of
Scriptural and sectarian doctrine and
for propaganda in favor of doctrinal and
ethical tenets. Practically every church-
body has one or more religious period-
icals, their importance being so great as
to cause many organizations to subsidize
undertakings of this nature. — The most
important periodicals of the larger
church-bodies are the following: Lu-
theran: United Lutheran Church: The
Lutheran, American Lutheran Survey,
Lutheran Church Review, Lutheran
Quarterly; Joint Synod of Ohio: Lu-
theran Standard, Lutherische Kirchen-
Religious Press
647 '
Renaissance
zeitung, Pastor’s Monthly; Iowa Synod:
Lutheran Herald, Kirchenblatt, Kirch-
liche Zeitschrift ; Buffalo Synod: Wa-
chende Kirche; Augustana Synod:
Augustana, Lutheran Companion; Nor-
wegian Lutheran Church: Lutheran
Church Herald, Lutheraneren, Teologisk
Tidskrift; Lutheran Free Church: Lu-
theran Free Church Messenger; United
Danish Church : Dansk Luthersk Kirke-
blad; Danish Church: Kirkelig Samler;
Missouri Synod : Der Lutheraner, Lu-
theran Witness, Lehre und Wehre, Theo-
logical Monthly, Homiletic Magazine ;
Joint Wisconsin Synod: Northwestern
Lutheran, Ev.-Luth. Qemeindeblatt, The-
ologische Quartalschrift ; Norwegian
Synod: Evangelisk Luthersk Tidende
and Lutheran Sentinel; Free Church in
Europe : Freikirche, Schrift und Be-
kenntnis; Seventh-day Adventist: Ad-
vent Review and Sabbath Herald, Watch-
man; Old Roman Catholic Church:
Ex Oriente Lux; Northehn Baptist
Convention : The Baptist, Missions;
Southern Baptist Convention: Bap-
tist Review and Expositor, Southwestern
Journal of Theology; Congregational
Churches : Congregationalist, Mission-
ary Herald, Pacific, American Mission-
ary; Disciples of Christ: The Chris-
tian Century and many state papers;
Greek Orthodox Church : . Church
Herald; Evangelical Church (General
Conference) : The Evangelical Messenger,
Evangelisches Magazin, Der Christliche
Botschafter; Evangelical Synod of
North America : Der Friedensbote,
Evangelical Herald, Magazin fuer Theo-
logie und Kirche, Theological Monthly;
Society of Friends (Orthodox Quakers) :
The American Friend, Messenger of
Peace; Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints (Mormons) : Im-
provement Era, Deseret News; Mennon-
ite Church: Gospel Herald, Christian
Monitor; General Conference of Men-
nonites of North America : MennOnite,
Christlicher Bundesbote; Methodist
Episcopal Church: Methodist Revieiv,
the various state or district Christian
or Methodist Advocates, Der Christliche
Apologete; Methodist Protestant
Church: Methodist Protestant, Method-
ist Recorder; Free Methodist Church
of North America: Free Methodist,
Light and Life Evangel; Moravian
Church : The Moravian, The Moravian
Missionary; Pentecostal Holiness
Church : Pentecostal Holiness Advocate;
Presbyterian Church in the United
States of America: The Presbyterian
Magazine, Presbyterian Advance, The
Presbyterian, Continent ; Presbyterian
Church in the United States (South) :
Christian Observer, Presbyterian Stand-
ard; United Presbyterian Church:
United Presbyterian, Christian Union Her-
ald; Protestant Episcopal Church :
Churchman, Living Church; Keformed
Episcopal Church : Episcopal Recorder;
Reformed Church in America: The
Christian Intelligencer; Reformed
Church in the United States: Re-
formed Church Messenger, Christian
World, Reformed Church Review; Chris-
tian Reformed Church in North
America: The Banner; Roman Cath-
olic Church : Ecclesiastical Review,
Catholic World, America, The American
Catholic Quarterly ; The Salvation
Army: War Cry; Schwenkfelders : The
Schwenkfeldian ; Unitarian Churches:
Christian Register, Unitarian Word and
Work; United Brethren: Religious
Telescope, Christian Conservator ; Uni-
versalist Churches : Universalist
Leader, Universalist Herald. — There are
many excellent theological and scientific
linguistic periodicals in many of the
foreign countries, but it would go beyond
the scope of this work to list them, since
this would necessarily demand also a
careful characterization of each one.
Rembrandt, van Ryn, Paul Har-
mens, 1607 (or 16) — 1669; Dutch
painter living in Leyden and Amster-
dam; became famous through his por-
trait of his mother, after which he con-
tinued as a celebrity; master of effects
of light and shade in both paintings and
etchings, but did not cultivate ideal
beauty; among his most noted pictures:
“The Sacrifice of Abraham” ; “The
Woman Taken in Adultery”; “The De-
scent from the Cross.”
Remensnyder, J. B. ; theologian and
author; b. 1865 in Virginia, pastor of
St. James's, New York, 1880 — 1924;
president of General Synod 1911; wrote:
Lutheran Manual; What the World
Owes Luther; etc.; d. 1926.
Remonstrants. See Holland; Armin-
ianism.
Renaissance. Literally “rebirth,” a
movement of the later Middle Ages,
which began with the revival of learning
along the lines of the ancient languages
and Oriental culture, caused the age of
Humanism in Italy, France, England,
Germany, and Spain, gave a new impetus
to the various forms of art along ancient
classical lines (particulaly painting,
sculpture, and architecture ) , and was
a powerful factor in preparing the way
for the Reformation, chiefly by arousing
men’s minds and by causing Greek and
Hebrew to be studied extensively in
Western Europe. — In ecclesiastical art,
Henan, Joseph Ernest
648
Resurrection of the Body
that period which brought about a de-
cided modification in classical forms, the
final strange result being the later de-
velopment of fantastic forms for solid
construction, resulting in the Baroque
and Rococo. See Humanism.
Benan, Joseph Ernest; French Ori-
entalist and author; b. 1823 at Treguier,
Brittany; d. 1892 in Paris; prepared
for priesthood, but renounced orders and
studied Semitic philology; professor at
College de France, 1862. His notorious
Vie de J6 sits, first volume of Originea du
Ohristimisme, appeared 1863. His Jesus
is ambitious, vain, sensuous, half-con-
seiously deceiving himself and the people.
Suspended from college same year, but
reinstated 1871. Member of Academy,
1879. Other works: Les Aputres, Saint
Paul, L’Antechrist, Histoire du Peuple
d’Israel.
Eenata (or Renee 1511 — 75; Duch-
ess of Ferrara, distinguished alike for
piety and learning; patron of the Refor-
mation; temporarily imprisoned by her
husband and threatened with banishment
by her own son; went to France and
died a Huguenot.
Beni, Guido, 1575 — 1642; Italian
painter of the Bolognese School; refined
and ideal style, modified by his own
personality; master of coloring; besides
his “Aurora” a fine “Ecce Homo” and
a “Crucifixion.”
Bepentance. The change of the mind
from a rebellious state to one of har-
mony with the will of God, from trusting
in human merit to trusting in the merit
of Christ. It embraces contrition, con-
sciousness and conviction of sin, accom-
panied by sorrow for it, and mainly
faith, and is followed by renunciation of
the former walks and habits of life and
sanctification. Repentance implies a
total change of heart and life, its author
being God Himself. Jer. 31, 18 f.; Acts
26, 29; 5, 31. The means of repentance
is the Word, of God. See Conversion,
Faith, Sanctification.
Requiem. A Mass for the dead or for
the repose of the souls of the faithful,
the principal part of the Roman Catholic
burial service, usually very closely con-
nected with, and preceding, the inter-
ment. The basis of the requiem is that
of every other Mass, but the Hallelujah,
the Gloria, and the Creed are omitted,
and Agnus Dei, Dona eis requiem, is sub-
stituted for Miserere nobis and Dona
nobis pacem; instead of the closing lie,
missa est, the officiating priest pro-
nounces the Requiescant in pace. After
the censing and aspersion the absolution
and benediction are pronounced upon the
dpad body. A feature of the requiem is
the substitution of the sequence and
tract Dies irae for the Gradual, with
the exception of the original first three
verses. This hymn, with its wealth of
varying emotions and wonderful imagery,
has challenged the inventive genius of
composers, the result being that a great
many modern requiems have this hymn
for their central point.
Rescue Homes (Houses of Correc-
tion). These are institutions established
and maintained by the state or by a
church-body to which wayward boys and
girls are committed for correction. Also
called Industrial Homes.
Reservations of the Eucharist. The
practise of keeping, for various purposes,
portions of the elements consecrated in
Holy Communion. In early times the
deacons carried the Sacrament to the
sick and others who could not be present
at the celebration. Later, superstitious
practises arose: Wafers were buried
with the dead, seated in altars, or car-
ried by travelers as protective charms;
important documents were signed with
a pen dipped in consecrated wine. The
doctrine of transubstantiation introduced
other abuses, such as the festival of
Corpus Christi (q. v.) and the practise
of exposing the host for adoration or of
keeping* it in a tabernacle (q.v.) above
the altar, that the faithful might visit
it and pray before it.
Reserved Cases. The power to ab-
solve from certain particularly grave ( ? )
sins is reserved by bishops and Popes to
themselves. Since, therefore, ordinary
priests have not been given jurisdiction
(see Absolution ) in such cases, their ab-
solution, even if given, is declared “of no
weight whatever,” “not merely in ex-
ternal polity, but also in God’s sight.”
( Council of Trent, sess. XIV, ch. 7. ) At
the point of death, reservations are
waived, and any priest may absolve from
any sin. This practise, for which there
is no Scripture warrant, evidently serves
to emphasize the claim that the Pope
is the source of the absolving power. See
also Excommunication.
Besponsory. Either a psalm (entire
or in sections), sung or chanted between
readings, or the response of the people
in an antiphonal section of the liturgy,
as in the second part of a versicle.
Restoration of Israel. See Chiliasm.
Resurrection of the Body. The act
of bringing back to life the human body
after it has been forsaken by the soul;
particularly, the raising of the dead by
Jesus Christ on the Last Day. The re-
union of the soul hereafter with the body
Resurrection of the Body
649
Resurrection of the Body
whioh it had occupied in the present
world is an essential and distinctive
point in the creed of Christendom. Every-
where Christ is represented as He who
will raise the dead, this being the last
work to be undertaken by Him for the
salvation of man. John 11,25; 1 Cor. 15,
22. 23. This event is to take place not
lief ore the end of the world, or the gen-
eral Judgment. 1 Thess. 4, 15. The resur-
rection is to be universal. 2 Cor. 5, 10;
Rev, 20, 12. But though all will rise,
they will not rise in the same condition.
As in this life there are two distinct
classes of men, believers and unbelievers,
so in the resurrection there will be two
corresponding classes of men; they that
have done good shall come forth unto
the resurrection of life; they that have
done evil, unto the resurrection of dam-
nation. John 5,29; Dan. 12, 2. Of those
who fall asleep in Jesus the apostle says:
“It is sown a natural body, and it is
raised a spiritual body.” 1 Cor. 15, 44.
This spiritual body will be a real, ma-
terial body. Paul says that Christ shall
change our vile body that it may be
fashioned like unto His glorious body.
Phil. 3, 21. But of His glorious body
Christ says : “A spirit hath not flesh
and bones, as ye see Me have.” Luke
24, 39. The human body as now consti-
tuted would be capable neither of the
bliss and glory of heaven nor of the
everlasting torments of hell. In the
resurrection of the dead, God will pro-
vide, for the righteous as well as for the
wicked, such bodies as will be adapted to
their future state. In like manner the
bodies of those who shall live to witness
Christ’s coming and the resurrection of
the dead will be changed. 1 Cor. 15, 51. 52.
There is no such thing as a germ of im-
mortality and resurrection in the mortal
body, which might be developed into new-
ness of life. Resurrection is a raising
up of what has been laid low in death.
As Jesus will not need the powers
and laws of nature for the performance
of His work of divine omnipotence, so
He will not be hindered by any created
cause in calling forth from the dust of
the earth all those mortal bodies which
have descended from a body once formed
out of the dust of the earth.
The resurrection body will be the same
body that we possess now. Job 19, 25 — 27 .
It will be our own body in unbroken iden-
tity. “God giveth it a body as it hath
pleased Him, and to every seed his own
body.” V. 38. This reference to the law
according to which every seed sown pro-
duces after its kind is meaningless here if
it is not intended to assure us that the
body of the burial will have, in the body
of the resurrection, a true and legitimate
successorship, recognizable and unmis-
takable, so that each of the saints, when
the trump will sound and the dead come
forth, will know his body as his own,
belonging to him by reason of a past
possession. This position is further em-
phasized and supported and, indeed,
made incontrovertible by the very mean-
ing of the word resurrection. How can
a body be said to have risen again which
never was buried? The thing that is
sown is the thing that is raised. If the
continuity is broken and the sameness
wholly lost, so that the body raised is
a new and totally different body, with
nothing to identify it with the body of
the burial, then it is a creation, not a
resurrection. — - Another Scriptural cer-
tainty given us by the apostle is, that
though the body is material, this is no
bar to marvelous changes and great
glory. There are bodies terrestrial and
celestial. There is one glory of the sun,
another of the moon, another of the
stars. For one star differs from another
in glory. “So also is the resurrection of
the dead.” Vv. 40 — 42. We need not,
therefore, stagger at the idea of the
materiality of the resurrection body, as
if it involved grossness and earthliness.
It may remain material and yet take on
a beauty and a glory and a capacity fit-
ting it for splendid uses in the changed
conditions of the heavenly world.
The resurrection body will have certain
distinct characteristics in positive con-
trast to those which mark the body con-
signed to the earth. “It is sown in cor-
ruption; it is raised in incorruption.”
V. 42. The body in this life is in process
of decay. The doom of death is on it.
But it will be raised in incorruption,
with nothing in it or of it upon which
disease and corruption may fasten — a
body of undecaying parts and powers,
its mortality swallowed up of life. “It
is sown in dishonor; it is raised in
glory.” V. 43. Death makes spoil of its
beauty and delivers it over to loathsome-
ness and putrefaction; but it will be
raised in glory. Just what the glory
will be we may not know. But Paul
elsewhere tells us that the Lord Jesus
Christ “shall change our vil% body that
it may be fashioned like unto His glo-
rious body.” Phil. 3, 21. “It is sown
in weakness; it is raised in power.”
1 Cor. 15,43. This is the third contrast.
Here the body tires of effort and needs
frequent rest. At death it is utterly
powerless. But it will be raised in
power, that is to say, free from the pos-
sibility of decrepitude, graced with the
vigor of immortal youth, and aglow with
Ren, J. M.
650
Revenue, Church
the freshness of eternal morning. — “It
is sown a natural body; it is raised
a spiritual body,” v. 44; not a spirit
body, but a body without infirmity, not
subject to death, immortal like the spirit,
fitted for the spirit home; but still a
body, a true, material body. Thus will
be the bodies of the believers in the
resurrection life.
Reu, J. M. ; noted theologian of the
Iowa Synod; b. 1809 in Bavaria, edu-
cated at Oettingen and Neuendettelsau ;
came to America 1889, pastor at Rock
Falls, 111., 1890 — 99 ; professor of theology
at Dubuque Seminary since 1899. Since
1905 he is also editor of the Kircklicke
Zeitschrift. Author of Old Testament
Pericopes , Catechetics, Katechismusaus-
legung, Homiletics, and, especially, of
Quellen zur Geschichte des kirchlichen
Unterrichts, at which he has been work-
ing since 1904 and for which the Uni-
versity of Erlangen conferred on him the
title of Dr. Theol. He is a contributor to
Archiv faer Reformationsgesehichte and
Zeitschrift fuer Geschichte der Erziehung
und des Unterrichtswesens in Deutsch-
land. He also wrote: Life of Luther for
Young People, Thirty-five Years of Lu-
ther Research, and a number of catechet-
ical and pedagogical works.
Reubke. A family of musicians, the
father, Adolf, organ-builder at Hausnein-
dorf, 1805 — 75; his sons, Emil, succes-
sor of his father, 1830 — 85, Julius, fine
pianist, 1834—58, and Otto, music
teacher in Halle and composer of organ
music, 1842 — .
Reuchlin, Johannes, German Hu-
manist; b. near Stuttgart 1455, d. 1522;
studied at Freiburg, later at Paris and
at Basel, where he specialized in Greek ;
studied jurisprudence at Orleans and Poi-
tiers ; counselor of Count Eberhard im
Bart; court judge in Stuttgart; studied
Hebrew and did special research work;
published a grammar, De Rudimentis
Hebraeicis [Of the Rudiments of He-
brew ) , and other writings of a similar
nature ; became involved in a contro-
versy with the Jews, the matter, after
some years, being twice decided in his
favor, the judgment being reversed by
the Pope wlien he believed Reuchlin to
be in sympathy with Luther. Reuchlin
took an active interest in the Humanist
movement, also by publishing their Cla-
rorum Yirorum Epistolae (Letters of
Well-known Men ) and Epistolae Obscu-
rorum Yirorum (Letters of Obscure Men).
During the last years of his life he was
professor of Greek and Hebrew at Ingol-
stadt and then at Tuebingen. He was
a granduncle of Melanchthon, whom he
recommended for the chair of Greek at
Wittenberg.
Reusner, Adam, 1490 — 1575; studied
at Wittenberg; private secretary of
Georg Frundsberg, later adherent of
Seliwenkfeld; wrote: “In dich hab’ ich
gehoffet, Herr.”
Reuter, Friedrich Otto, 1863 — 1924;
studied at Braeunsdorf and Waldenburg,
Saxony ; held several positions as teacher
and cantor in Germany ; called to Win-
nipeg in 1905, to Chicago in 1906; pro-
fessor of music at the Teachers’ Sem-
inary, New Ulm, Minn., since 1908;
prolific writer of church music along
classical lines.
Revelation. A direct communication
of truth before unknown from God to
men. Revelation is not to be confused
with inspiration. Revelation was that
operation of the Holy Spirit by which
truths before unknown were communi-
cated to men; inspiration implied more
than this — it included also that opera-
tion of the Holy Spirit by which the
prophets and apostles were excited to
write truths for the instruction of others
and were guarded from all error in do-
ing it. Every part of the Bible is given
by inspiration, though not every part
was the result of immediate revelation.
Much of it is the record of eye-witnesses.
— In a narrower sense, revelation is used
to express the manifestation of Jesus
both to Jews and Gentiles as Savior of
the world, Luke 2, 32, and particularly
the manifestation of divine glory at the
Last Judgment. Rom. 8, 19.
Revenue, Church. The Church should
derive its revenue, or income, from its
members. It would be a disgrace if the
Church would ask those who despise the
Christian religion to support it. Chris-
tians should support the Church and
thereby prove the sincerity of their love.
2 Cor. 8, 8. Each denomination should
support its own work. A Lutheran can-
not, for instance, consistently give finan-
cial support to the Roman Catholic
Church. When money is offered to the
Church by such as are not its members,
the Church may receive it, unless it be
known that the money is given from a
sordid motive. When collecting moneys
from its own members, churches should
be careful to use only legitimate means.
The Bible enjoins Christians to support
the Church by their free-will offerings,
which should be given as the fruit of
faith and in accordance with the ability
of the individual Christian, Ex. 35, 5;
1 Chron. 29, 5; 1 Cor. 18, 2; 2 Cor. 8, 12.
See such related subjects as Finances,
Tithing, Collections, Contributions,
Hevegg, Imre
851 Rhenish Missionary Society
Revesz, Imre, 1826 — 81; Hungarian
Reformed; native of Debreczen; pastor
there from 1856; stubbornly resisted
Austrian invasions of rights of Hunga-
rian Protestants ; wrote Basal Prin-
ciples of Protestant Church Organiza-
tion, and other works, in Hungarian.
Revival of Learning. See Renais-
sance.
Revivals. The phrase “revivals of
religion” is commonly employed to indi-
cate renewed interest in religious sub-
jects or, more generally, a period of re-
ligious awakening, the word “revival”
being derived from the Latin revivo, to
live again. In its best sense it may be
applied to the work of Christ and the
apostles, to the Reformation of the 16th
century, etc. However, frequently the
word is applied to excitements which can
hardly be called religious because they
do not truly revive the real spiritual
life of the soul by the preaching of the
Word of God, but consist in bare enthu-
siastic outbursts of emotion, brought on
by various means. Generally the term
revival is confined to a certain increase
of spiritual activity within the Protes-
tant churches of the English-speaking
peoples. There were revivals in Scotland
at Stewarton, 1625 — 30, at Strotts, 1630,
and at Combuslang Kilsyth, 1742. The
enterprises of Wesley and of Whitefield
in England, from 1738 onward, were
thoroughly revivalistic. In 1734 there
were revivals at Northampton, Mass.,
and throughout New England in 1740 to
1741, the Rev. Jonathan Edwards being
the chief instrument in their production.
From the close of the Great Awakening,
as the revival just mentioned was called,
there were no general revivals in Amer-
ica until ca. 1800, when Dwight and
especially Lyman Beecher began their
remarkable work. At the same time re-
vivals broke out in Kentucky, which
spread to Pennsylvania and Ohio and
were attended by violent physical phe-
nomena called the “jerks.” Other re-
vivals that have become well known were
those aroused by Asahel Nettleton in
Massachusetts, New York, and in the
South, by Charles Grandison Finney in
New York, by Dwight Lyman Moody,
who was followed by Benjamin Fay
Mills in 1886, Reuben Archer Torrey,
especially since 1893, and J. Wilbur
Chapman, the foremost of the three. In
1911 Chapman returned from an evan-
gelistic journey around the world, dur-
ing which he visited eleven countries
and spoke in sixteen cities in Australia,
China, Japan, and England. More recent
revivalists are Campbell Morgan and
“Gipsy” Smith. The great revival
in America in 1857 spread to Ulster
in 1859 and to Scotland and parts of
England in 1864. Of especial note is the
Welsh revival of 1904 — 6, which is known
as the Great Welsh Revival. During
that time it is estimated that 100,000
professed conversions took place. Be-
sides these, other revivals have from time
to time occurred, and nearly all denomi-
nations have aimed at their production.
The means adopted are prayer for the
Holy Spirit, meetings continued night
after night, even to a late hour, stirring
addresses, chiefly by revivalist laymen,
and “after -meetings” to deal with those
impressed. Ultimately it is found that
some of those apparently converted have
been steadfast, very many have fallen
back, while spiritual apathy proportioned
to the previous excitement temporarily
prevails. Thorough religious instruction,
attended by sanity and wise management
of church-work, has at present largely
taken the place of the old-type revival
excitement.
Rhabanus Maurus. A prominent
churchman of the time of Charles the
Great; b. ca. 776 or 784, d. 856; edu-
cated at Fulda, member of the Benedic-
tine order; was ordained priest; became
abbot at Fulda, later archbishop of
Mainz; a leading authority on the Bible,
on later ecclesiastical literature, and on
canon law; wrote commentaries cover-
ing most of the books of the Bible, also
two books of homilies and various books
on doctrine and ecclesiastical discipline.
See Predestinarian Controversy.
Rhaw (Rhua) , Georg, 1488 — 1548;
cantor of the Thomasschule, Leipzig, till
1520; established music-printing busi-
ness at Wittenberg in 1524; published
second Lutheran Choralbuch, 1544.
Rhegius (Rieger), Urbanus; b. 1489;
popular preacher at Augsburg ; sided
with Luther against Rome; after hesi-
tating, he sided with Luther against
Zwingli. When Charles V prohibited
preaching in 1530, Rhegius left, met Lu-
ther at Coburg, and became a good Lu-
theran reformer in Lueneburg. He op-
posed the Anabaptists and took part in
the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 and the
Hagenau convention. D. 1541, sincerely
mourned by Luther.
Rhenish Missionary Society (Rhei-
nische Missionsgesellsohaft zu Barmen).
Organized at Elberfeld, 1799; founded
the Bergische Bible Society and the Tract
Society of the Wuppertal. In 1819 a
similar society, which cooperated with the
Basel Missionary Institute, was formed
at Barmen. The two were merged into
Rlienias, C. T. E.
652
Rietschel, Christian Georg:
the Rhenish Mission Society, with offices
at Barmen, in 1828. Missionaries were
sent to South Africa (1829), Borneo
(1834), Sumatra (1826), Nias (1863),
China (1846), New Guinea (1887). The
tendency of the society is unionistic.
The World War did not affect its work
very seriously. The New Guinea field
has been given over to the American Lu-
theran Iowa Synod. Fields : China, Bor-
neo, Sumatra, Nias, Southwest Africa,
New Guinea.
Rhenius, C. T. E. ; b. November 5,
1790 at Graudenz, West Prussia, d. June
5, 1838, in India; educated in Jaenicke’s
Institute for Missions, Berlin; commis-
sioned as missionary to India by the
Church Missionary Society, England,
1814, going first to Tranquebar, then to
Madura; translated parts of the Bible;
engaged in extensive missionary opera-
tions; removed to Palamcottah, 1820;
severed connection with C. M. S., 1835,
for reasons of conscience. Urged to re-
turn to his former people, lie organized
the German Evangelical Mission. His
work was eminently successful.
Richard of St. Victor, French Augus-
tinian monk of 12th century; d. 1173;
pupil of Hugo of St. Victor at Paris;
prominent figure in the struggle of
Thomas a Becket ( q. v. ) with Henry II
of England; his theology strangely tinged
with mysticism, by which he hoped to
save it from atrophy; much of his ex-
pository work along allegorical lines.
Richard, J. W., 1843—1909; edu-
cated at Roanoke, Va., College, and
Gettysburg, Pa,, College; professor at
Carthage College, Carthage, 111., 1873;
Wittenberg Seminary, Springfield, 0.,
1885; Gettysburg, 1889; editor of Lu-
ther cvti Quarterly, 1898 — 1909. In his
Confessional History of the Lutheran
Church he distinguishes between “the
form and substance” of the Confessions
and brands Article II of the Formula of
Concord as Calvihistic. Disciple of
Schleiermacher.
Richelieu, Cardinal Armand Jean
Duplessis, 1585 — 1642; French eccle-
siastic, chief minister and virtual ruler
of France during the last eighteen years
of his life; wily diplomat, sagacious
statesman, ruthless warrior-priest; his
policy, in brief : The exaltation of the
French monarchy to a dominant position
in Europe. To this end he supported
the Protestants in the Thirty Years’ War
against the power of Hapsburg, while at
home he crushed the power of the Hugue-
nots as a political party in the interest
of monarchical absolutism.
Richter, Aemilius Ludwig, 1808 to
1864; an authority on Protestant church
polity; wrote: Die evangelischen Kir-
chenordnungen des 16. Jahrhunderts.
Richter, Christian Friedrich, 1676
to 1711; studied at Halle; inspector of
the Paedagogium ; later physician to all
the Franckean institutions; very im-
portant hymn-writer of the Pietists;
wrote : “Es glaenzet der Christen in-
wendiges Leben.”
Richter, F., president of Iowa Synod
1904 — 26; b. 1852 in Saxony; educated
at Erlangen, Leipzig, and St. Sebald,
Iowa; pastor at Mendota, 111., and pro-
fessor at the seminary 1876 — 94; presi-
dent of Clinton College 1894 — 1902;
then became editor of the Kirchenblatt.
At the 50th anniversary of the Iowa
Synod he was elected its (third) presi-
dent.
Richter, Julius; b. February 19,
1802 in Germany; pastor at Proettlein,
1887—90, at Schwanebeck 1896—1912;
lecturer on missions at Berlin University
since 1913; president of the Branden-
burg Missionary Conference 1908; well-
known voluminous writer on missions.
Richter, J. H. ; b. December 11, 1799,
at Belleben, Germany; d. April 5, 1847.
Inspector of Rhenisch Mission seminary.
Richter, Ludwig, 1803 — 84; German
painter; very sympathetic, popular
touch; appeal to a wide audience, espe-
cially by means of his woodcut series
and cycles, among them “The Lord’s
Prayer,” on the most beautiful spiritual
songs; among his etchings: “Christmas
Night”; “Psalm 65”; “House Blessing.”
Ridley, Nicholas, ca. 1500 — 55; mar-
tyr bishop; espoused Protestantism
ca. 1536; bishop of Rochester, later of
London; influential under Edward VI;
supported Jane Grey; suffered martyr-
dom with Latimer at Oxford.
Riedel, Carl, 1827 — 88; silk-dyer;
turned to music in 1848; organized
Riedel-Verein, a mixed chorus, which did
excellent work ; president of several
large music societies; his collections
(coauthor with Schoeberlein ) of ancient
songs and carols show the hand of the
master.
Rieger, Georg Konrad; b. 1687,
d. 1743 as first preacher of Hospital-
kirche at Stuttgart, Wurttemberg;
a most gifted preacher of the Wurttem-
berg Pietistic school; wrote: Herzpostille.
Rietschel, Christian Georg, 1842 to
1914; studied at Erlangen, Berlin, and
Leipzig; held various positions as pas-
tor, especially at Ruedigsdorf, Witten-
berg, and Leipzig; later professor of
Bletschel, Ernst Friedr. Aug;. 653
Hitachi, Albrecht
practical theology at Leipzig; greatly
interested in liturgies and church music ;
wrote: Die Aufgabe der Orgel im Gottes-
dienst; Der evangelische Gottesdienst,
Lelirbuch der Liturgik, etc.
Rietschel, Ernst Friedrich August,
1804 — 01; German sculptor, studied at
Dresden and under Rauch in Berlin,
later at Rome; elected to professorship
of sculpture at Dresden; produced many
works imbued with much religious feel-
ing, with an appealing realism; among
his works: a life-sized Pieta, executed
for the king of Prussia, and the monu-
ment of Luther at Worms, completed by
his pupils.
Riggenbach, Christoph Johannes;
b. 1818 at Basel, d. there 1890; Reformed
theologian; 1851 professor at Basel; at
iirst radical in theology, later more mod-
erate; collaborator on Lange’s Commen-
tary ; liymnologist.
Riggenbach, Eduard; professor at
Basel; prominent exegete; assisted in
Zuhn’s Commentary of the New Testa-
ment (Epistle to the Hebrews).
Rig-Veda. See Veda.
Rinck, Johann Christian Heinrich,
1770 — 1840 ; studied chiefly under Kittel
in Erfurt; held several positions as
organist, also at court, made frequent
successful concert tours; his Orgelschule
and Vhoralbuecher well known.
Rinckart, Martin, 1586—1049; stud-
ied in Latin school of his home town,
Hilenburg, then at University of Leip-
zig; Cantor , then Diakonus at Eisleben;
later pastor at Erdeborn and Lyttichen-
dorf ; finally Archidiaconus at Eilenburg,
where he passed through the horrors of
the Thirty Years’ War; a voluminous
writer, also of poetry; wrote: “Nun
danket alle Gott.”
Ring (Marriage) . Used of old as
a symbol of faithfulness. The ring, pre-
ferably gold, which was always associ-
ated with enduring fidelity and worth,
is properly used by both bride and groom
as a wedding-pledge, preferably at the
time of betrothal, but certainly in one
form of the marriage ceremony (ex-
changing rings ; “with this ring I thee
endow” ) . To confine the ring to the
bride alone is to hint at a double stand-
ard, which would be at absolute variance
with the standpoint of the Bible.
Ringeltaube, Wilhelm Tobias, born
1770 at Scheidelwitz, Silesia; educated
at Halle ; sent to India under the
auspices of the London Missionary So-
ciety, 1804; landed at Tranquebar, De-
cember 5, 1804; called to Travancore by
the Christian Vedamaniekam, 1800, and
became founder of Protestant missions
in that native state, introducing Lu-
theran Catechism and doctrine; labored
with much success until 1816, when he
departed for Ceylon, via Madras. His
end is shrouded in mystery.
Ringwaldt, Bartholomaeus, 1532 to
1599; ordained as pastor in 1557; held
the office in two parishes before settling
as pastor at Langenfeld, Brandenburg,
where he spent the greater part of his
life; popular poet, staunch Lutheran,
fearless in denunciation of sinful condi-
tions; wrote: “Herr Jesu Christ, du
hoeclistes Gut”; “Es ist gewisslich an
der Zeit.”
Rippon, John, 1751 — 1830; educated
at Baptist College, Bristol; pastor in
London from 1773 till his death; one of
the most popular and influential men of
his denomination; wrote: “The Day has
Dawned, Jehovah Comes.”
Rist, Johann, 1607 — 67; studied at
Rinteln and Rostock; lived at Hamburg,
later pastor at Wedel; endured much,
during Thirty Years’ War, from famine,
plundering, and pestilence, but led a
happy and patriarchal life at Wedel;
earnest pastor and true patriot; takes
high rank as hymn-writer — noble, clas-
sical style, objective Christian charac-
ter; wrote, among others: “Auf, auf, ihr
Reichsgenossen” ; “Du Lebensfuerst, Herr
Jesu Christ”; “Jesu, der du meine
Seele”; “Werde munter, mein Gemuete.”
Ritschl, Albrecht; b. 1822, d. 1889
as professor at Goettingen; studied at
Bonn, Halle, Heidelberg, and Tuebingen
(Baur); first, professor at Bonn; 1864
at Goettingen; 1874 also eonsistorial
councilor. Originally a pupil of Nitsch,
Tholuck, Julius Mueller, and Rothe, then
a Hegelian and a pupil of the Tuebingen
School of Baur. Since 1857 he became
more and more the founder of a school
of his own, influenced by Kant, Schleier-
macher, and Lotze. Ritschl claimed to
be evangelical, even Lutheran, and to
preach Christ. But actually he under-
mined Biblical Lutheranism everywhere,
founding his theology not on the infal-
lible, inspired, and revealed Word of
God, but on the consciousness of the be-
liever as presented to us especially in
the New Testament writings, which, in
turn, the theologian makes his own by
actual experience of the power of Christ
working in His Church. Religion, ac-
cording to Ritschl, is the faith in high
spiritual powers, which elevate man to
a higher sphere. Christ is called God,
though His preexistence before the world
is denied. There is no original sin. Sin
is mistrust in God, and its true punish-
Rivet Brethren
654
Rohr, Heinrich K. G. von
ment is the feeling of guilt; God looks
upon it as ignorance. There is no wrath
of God over sin and no vicarious atone-
ment of Christ. God is Love, and as
soon as man realizes this, he is redeemed
and justified. From this follows the new
life of love towards God, faith, prayer,
humility, and patience. This Ritschlian
School has representatives in many of
the German universities and is, in fact,
what in this country was called “German
theology,” — a subversion of Christian-
ity. Ritsclil’s main work is Die Christ-
liche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und
Versoehnung.
River Brethren. See Brethren (River).
Robbia, Luca della (and the Robbia
family), ca. 1400 — 82; Italian sculptor;
celebrated as the artist of one of the
bronzes for the sacristy of the cathedral
at Florence. His work in enameled terra
cotta, known as “della Robbia” work, was
continued by members of his family, espe-
cially his nephew Andrea and his grand-
nephew Giovanni; work shows great
charm and grace.
Robertson, Archibald Thomas,
1863 — ; b. n. Chatham, Va. ; professor
of New Testament interpretation at Bap-
tist Seminary, Louisville, since 1888.
Monumental Grammar of the Greek New
Testament (3d ed. 1919), etc.
Robertus, Galliae Rex, 970 — 1031;
surnamed Le Devot on account of his
piety and simplicity of character; fame
as hymn-writer not well established, al-
though the sequence “Veni, Sancte Spiri-
tus” (“Come, Holy Spirit”) is attributed
to him.
Robinson, Charles Seymour, 1829 to
1899; educated at William College and
Union Seminary; Presbyterian pastor in
various charges; very successful as edi-
tor of hymn-books; among his hymns:
“Savior, I Follow On.”
Robinson, Edward, 1794 — 1863; Bib-
lical scholar; b. at Southington, Conn.;
professor at Andover Seminary and
Union Seminary; twice in the Orient;
d. in New York City; translated Butt-
mann’s Greek Grammar, Winer’s Gram-
mar of New Testament Greek, Gesenius’s
Hebrew Lexicon, etc.; established Bib-
liotheca Sacra 1843; wrote important
works on Palestine, etc.
Robinson, John, ea. 1576 — 1625;
minister of the Pilgrim Fathers; b. in
Lincolnshire; ordained; officer of Sepa-
ratists at Scrooby; pastor in Amster-
dam (1608) and Leyden (with Brewster
as ruling elder, 1609 ; d. there) ; author.
Rochet. A white linen vestment, dec-
orated with lace or embroidery, distinc-
tive of Roman prelates. It resembles the
surplice, but has tight sleeves and reaches
only to the knees. Bishops wear it at
confirmation.
Rocky Mountain Synod. See United
Lutheran Church.
Rodigast, Samuel, 1649 — 1708; stud-
ied at Jena, where he was appointed ad-
junct of the philosophical faculty in
1676; eonrector of the Gray Friars’
Gymnasium in Berlin 1680; later rec-
tor, holding this position till his death;
wrote poems in the style of Gerhard t, his
best hymn being that written for a sick
friend in Jena: “Was Gott tut, das ist
wohlgetan.”
Roebbelen, Karl August Wilhelm;
b. 1817 at Alfeld, Hanover; studied at
Goettingen; in 1846 he accompanied
11 Loehean missioners to Fort Wayne,
where he assisted Sihler at the newly
founded Practical Seminary; held pas-
torates at Liverpool, O., and Franken-
muth, Mich.; due to a grave malady,
he resigned in 1857, returning to Ger-
many. An eloquent preacher and schol-
arly, pious man, his early death (1866)
was greatly deplored.
Roehr, Johann Friedrich; b. 1777,
d. 1848; violent defender of rationalism;
chief court preacher, supreme councilor,
and general superintendent at Weimar.
Rogation Days. The three days be-
fore Ascension Day, which have been kept
since ancient days as days of prayer and
supplication. They are still observed by
many Protestants and by the Roman
Church. In the latter a procession is
held, and the Litany of the Saints is
chanted on each day. A similar cere-
mony takes place on April 25 (St. Mark's
Day).
Rogers, John; Lutheran through
Tyndale; in 1537 prepared the whole
Bible with notes; published, under the
name of Thomas Matthew, the first En-
glish Lutheran commentary on the Bible,
having “the character of a Lutheran
manifesto; . . . chiefly remarkable for
the excessive Lutheranism of its annota-
tions,” says Hoare. He was the first
martyr under Bloody Mary, February 4,
1555, his wife and children cheering him
to remain faithful till death. “He has
been burned alive for being a Lutheran.”
Rohr, Heinrich K. G. von; b. 1797,
d. 1874; captain in the Prussian army;
resigned as a protest against the “Union”;
organized Grabau’s emigration; farmer
at Freistadt, Wis.; taught school, stud-
ied, and took a parish 1843; separated
from Grabau with a group 1866, whose
president he remained until death.
Rohr, Philipn Andreas von
655 Roman Cath. Chnrch, Hist. of
Rohr, Philipp Andreas von; son of
preceding; b. February 13, 1843, at Buf-
falo; graduate of Buffalo Synod Semi-
nary 1863; pastor at Toledo; 1866 to
1908 pastor at -Winona, Minn., which
parish grew to be the largest in Minne-
sota; joined Wisconsin Synod 1877; its
president from 1889 until his death, De-
cember 22, 1908. Left Buffalo Synod
1866 to form separate body, which, as
its last president, he dissolved peace-
fully, 1875. Forceful, practical, endowed
with sound judgment and keen and ready
understanding, he is largely responsible
for the development of the synod and its
missions and institutions during his
term of office.
Rohrlack, August; b. 1835 in Prus-
sia; sent to America by Loehe; served
as missionary in Wisconsin and later be-
came pastor at Reedsburg; served many
years as Secretary of the Missouri Synod ;
d. 1909.
Roman Catholic Church, History
of, since the Reformation. The his-
tory of the Roman Catholic Church since
the Reformation is a many-sided subject.
It is, first of all, a long and bitter con-
flict between Romanism and Protestant-
ism, a conflict waged on both sides, at
times with great bitterness, though
with this important distinction, that in
the case of the Protestants such methods
violated one of the principles for which
the Reformation contended, namely, the
sacred rights of conscience, while in the
other the use of force had the sanction
of Catholic tradition, which has never
been revoked. At the threshold of our
period the outstanding fact is that after
various futile attempts at reconciliation
the Roman Catholic Church put forth all
her energies to stem the tide of the
Reformation. To this end it was neces-
sary, first of all, to standardize Catholic
theology as it had been developed by the
medieval theologians. This was done at
the famous Council of Trent (convened
with interruptions from 1645 to 1563),
which threw a brazen wall around Cath-
olic dogma. The distinctive doctrines of
the Reformation, notably that of justifi-
cation by faith alone, were declared
anathema, and the gulf between Prot-
estantism and Romanism became fixed
and impassable. The council also intro-
duced some wholesome disciplinary re-
forms concerning the traffic in indul-
gences, the morals of the clergy, the
monastic orders, etc., the Reformation
thus proving itself a blessing to the
Church which attacked and condemned it.
Doctrine and discipline settled at Trent,
the Church was ready for vigorous action
against all heretics. Two mighty engines
were soon in action, the one the Inquisi-
tion which “convinced” the gainsayers
with the gallows and the galleys, the
rack and the fagot; the other, the
newly founded order of the Jesuits, a
powerful organization, instinct with one
spirit, obedient to one will, listening at
the doors of every cabinet in Europe,
shaping the policies of kings, largely
controlling education, and, above all,
sticking at no means, however damnable,
to accomplish its end — and that end the
extinction of Protestantism and the exal-
tation of the papacy. In Italy the In-
quisition, already established by Paul III
in 1542, carried on its work with such
relentless severity that by the end of the
century every trace of Protestantism had
vanished. Venice alone witnessed some
three thousand heresy trials, with smaller
numbers in other cities. Persecution
was accompanied by a crusade against
all heretical literature, the first index of
prohibited books being published in 1559.
In Spain the mild light of the Reforma-
tion faded away in about two decades
l>efore the lurid glare of the auto da fd.
In France the Reformed Church (Hugue-
nots) had to live in the face of a perse-
cution so severe and a legislation so
repressive that it is without parallel in
the annals of any civilized country. . . .
The Inquisition was a more pitiless
foe than heathenism could have bred.
( Cambridge Modern History .) A book
dedicated to Henry III in 1581 places the
number of those who had fallen within
the few preceding years for their religion
at 200,000. The Edict of Nantes issued
by Henry IV in 1598 granted the Hugue-
nots, numbering at that time about
1,250,000 souls, full liberty of private
conscience, with restrictions, however, as
to liberty of public worship. Pope Clem-
ent VIII, a worthy successor of Greg-
ory XIII, who glorified the Massacre of
St. Bartholomew’s Day, denounced the
edict in unmeasured terms “as the most
accursed thing that can be imagined,
whereby liberty of conscience is granted
to everybody, which is the worst thing
in the world.” When Henry IV fell by
the assassin’s knife (1610), Paul V saw
in the tragic fate of the king the aveng-
ing finger of God. The publication of
the edict was followed by a period of
remarkable growth and development of
French Protestantism, which numbered
among its adherents some of the most
useful, intelligent, and patriotic eitizens
of France. The supreme folly and big-
otry of Louis XIV (1643—1715) inaugu-
rated a “reign of terror” for his Prot-
estant subjects. Louis, the embodiment
Roman Cat It. Church) Hist, of 656
Roman Cath. Church, Hist, of
of absolutism, galled by the thought that
any of his subjects should hold religious
convictions at variance with those of
their monarch and instigated by his
Jesuit advisers, in 1685 declared the “per-
petual and irrevocable” (so Henry IV
had called it) Edict of Nantes revoked.
The savage character of the Edict of
Revocation will appear from a few of
its provisions. “It pleases us,” says the
king, “that all the temples of the said
R. P. R. [Reformed Pretended Religion]
situated within our kingdom . . . shall
be immediately destroyed.” “We com-
mand all ministers of said R. P. R. who
will not be converted to the Catholic,
Apostolic, and Roman Religion to leave
our kingdom within fifteen days after
the publication of our present edict.”
“We forbid private schools for the in-
struction of the children of said R. P. R.”
Under penalty of a heavy fine “all chil-
dren of persons of the said R. P. R. shall
for the future be baptized by the parish
priest” and “educated in the Catholic,
Roman, and Apostolic religion.” “We
make very express and repeated prohibi-
tions to all our subjects of the said
R. P. R. from departing . . . from our
said kingdom,” etc., etc. Despite this
latter prohibition the publication of the
edict was followed by an exodus of from
three hundred thousand to one million
Huguenots, who on peril of their lives
quit the land of their birth and found
homes in England, Denmark, Holland,
Sweden, and Germany, the Elector of
Brandenburg receiving twenty thousand
refugees and declaring that he would sell
his silver plate rather than see them
suffer want. This act of the fatuous
French king was hailed with delight by
nearly all the dignitaries of the Catholic
Church, including Pope Innocent XI,
who celebrated the event with a Te
Deum. ; but it was unanimously con-
demned by the voice of Protestant
Europe. Nor did the Edict of Revocation
achieve its purpose. In spite of repres-
sive legislation the Huguenots, half of
whom remained in the country, continued
their worship in secret as the so-called
“Church of the Desert,” adopting the
fitting device : Flagror, non consumor
(“I burn, but am not consumed”). On
the other hand, the age of Louis XIV
with the religious tyranny, the profli-
gacy, hypocrisy, and Jesuitical morals
of the court prepared the soil for the
abundant crop of French infidelity and
radicalism, which led to the temporary
abolition of Roman Catholicism, and in-
deed of all religion, during the French
Revolution. Voltaire, the leading spokes-
man of the new thought, gave out the
slogan : Ecrasez Vinfame { “Crush the
wretch”), by which he meant the Roman
Catholic Church as a tyrannical, intol-
erant, and persecuting institution. At
the same time he rendered signal service
to the cause of freedom by his fearless
advocacy of religious toleration, which
gave the death-blow to persecution in
France. In 1787 the ill fated Louis XVI
issued the Edict of Versailles, which
gave to non-Catholies full civil rights.
The Constituent Assembly in 1789 con-
fiscated all the property of the Church
and in the following year decreed the
Civil Constitution of the clergy, that is,
it nationalized the Church by making
the priests the salaried officers of the
state. It also declared that religious
freedom was one of man’s inalienable
rights. These measures were, of course,
condemned by the Pope, who forbade the
clergy to take the oath of conformity to
the Civil Constitution. As a result the
French clergy was split into two fac-
tions, and religious chaos and anarchy
ensued. In 1793 the atheistic party of
the revolutionists took summary mea-
sures in dealing with the religious situ-
ation l>y abolishing not only Roman
Catholicism, but Christianity itself. All
the churches in Paris were closed, sacred
images torn down, the symbol of the
cross replaced by that of “the Holy
Guillotine,” and to crown all, a famous
actress, representing the “Goddess of
Reason,” received the homage of the
atheists in the Cathedral of Notre Dame.
This wild orgy of religious nihilism was
soon followed by the theatrical mum-
meries attending the inauguration of a
new cult, that of the “worship of the
Supreme Being.” This was sponsored
by the dictator Robespierre, who declared
that “if there were no God, men would
have to invent one,” and therefore,
though abolishing Christianity as an old
superstition, he wished to retain a bald
deism and the belief in the immortality
of the soul as the religious foundation
of the new order. A few months after
the spectacular ceremonies of the “Fes-
tival of the Supreme Being” the head
of Robespierre fell under the guillotine.
Thus did the Revolution officially an-
nihilate the Gallican Church. Needless
to say, however, a reaction -set in. The
Directory (1795 — 9) had permitted Chris-
tian worship, and though it, too, exacted
the “civic oath” from the priests, many
thousands of the clergy who had emi-
grated, returned to their parishes and
swore allegiance to the state. Meanwhile
a new power appeared on the scene- — -
Napoleon Bonaparte. One of the objects
of his Italian campaign was to chastise
Roman Cath. Church, Ilist. of
657 Roman Cath. Church, Hist, of
the Pope for Ilia inflexible hostility to
the French republic. Napoleon entered
Home and quickly compelled Pius VI,
who later died in a French prison, to
sign the humiliating Peace of Tolentino.
On his return from Egypt, Napoleon
calmly pushed aside the futile Directory
and proceeded to the business of reor-
ganizing the government and laying
plans for universal sovereignty. Wiser
than a Robespierre and other revolu-
tionary fanatics, he realized the impor-
tance of reaching a modus vivendi (an
understanding) with the papacy. Ac-
cordingly he entered into negotiations
with Pius VII and concluded with him
a solemn treaty, called a concordat, hy
which the affairs of the French Church
were adjusted. The Concordat provided:
The Catholic religion is recognized as the
religion of the majority of the French
people; all church property remains in
the hands of the secular government ;
the government pledges itself to support
the clergy; the state appoints the
bishops, while the Pope confirms the ap-
pointments; the bishops nominate the
priests, the validity of the nomination
to be approved by the government. While
thus the Church was apparently placed
almost wholly under state control, the
papacy, possessing the right to confirm
(or reject) the state’s nominees for the
office of bishop, was the real gainer in
the transaction. The Napoleonic system,
with some later modifications, remained
in force until 1905. In the year previous
the French president Loubet paid an
official visit to the king of Italy at Rome.
Pope Pius X regarded this as an affront
to his dignity, for the papacy has never
become reconciled to the seizure of the
papal states in 1870, which it considers
an act of ruthless usurpation. Pius,
accordingly, sent a note of complaint to
the French government, whereupon the
latter, by a majority of 386 against 111
votes, declared “that the attitude of the
Vatican rendered necessary the separa-
tion of Church and State” (December 9,
1 905 ) . The majority of the French
clergy were willing to accept the new law,
but the Vatican pronounced against it.
In language worthy of a Hildebrand,
Pius X fulminated his condemnation of
tlffi separation law in the encyclical
Vchementer nos, which, among other
things, declares that the measure is op-
posed to “the divine institution, the
essential principles, and the liberties of
the Church” and that “it is a grave
offense against the dignity of the Apos-
tolic See and Our own person, and
against the episcopal and clerical orders
and the Catholics of France.” The re-
Concordia Cyclopedia
fusal of the clergy to conform to the new
system has resulted in the rather anom-
alous situation that at present the Cath-
olic Church of France is continuing its
services in churches to which it is not
legally entitled, a state of affairs which
can hardly be permanent.
In Germany the history of the Roman
Catholic Church since the Reformation
presents, particularly in its earlier
stages, a determined onslaught against
the principles of freedom so heroically
championed by Luther. The Roman
Catholic Emperor Charles V put Luther
and his followers under the ban and en-
deavored to cheek the Reformation move-
ment with the edge of the sword. His
defeat by the Elector Maurice of Saxony
was followed by the Peace of Augsburg
(1555). This was a compromise which
invested the territorial princes with the
authority to determine the religion of
their subjects (cuius regio, eius religio),
thus placing Lutherans and Catholics on
a basis of equality before the law. The
territorial system, an advantage at first
for the cause of the Reformation, even-
tually proved highly detrimental. In-
stigated by the Jesuits, who worked with
marked success from various centers
(Ingolstadt, Vienna, Cologne, Prague),
the Catholic princes exerted severe pres-
sure upon their Protestant subjects by
excluding them from civil offices, expell-
ing evangelical preachers, compelling ob-
durate Protestants to leave their terri-
tory, and requiring all officers to swear
by the Tridentine Confession. In Bo-
hemia the Letter of Majesty, wrung from
the reluctant hands of Rudolf II in 1609
and granting the inhabitants freedom of
choice between Romanism and Lutheran-
ism, was flagrantly disregarded by Mat-
thias (1612 — 19) and torn to pieces by
Ferdinand II (1619—37). The Thirty
Years’ War (1618 — 48), with its fright-
ful sacrifice of life and property, was the
bursting of the terrific storm which had
long been darkening the heavens. When,
after long years of bloody strife, the
Peace of Westphalia (1648) was con-
cluded, the sun of a new era rose on the
devastated fields of Germany. That
famous treaty guaranteed the liberties
of Protestantism, both Lutheran and
Calvinistic, and, as the Roman Catholic
Lord Acton says, became “the basis of
public law and political order of modern
Europe.” It is the first public document
of our period to use the word toleration
in settling religious dissension. It placed
Romanism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism
(minor sects are expressly excluded) on
the same legal basis and thus created an
era in modern history. The Catholic
42
Roman Cath. Church, Hist, of 658 Roman Oath. Church, Hist, of
party had failed to exterminate Prot-
estantism and to reestablish its waning
authority in the land of Luther. As
might be expected, Pope Innocent X, “by
the fulness of his power, utterly con-
demned, rejected, declared invalid, unjust,
and iniquitous,” etc., the enlightened
principles of freedom enunciated by the
treaty. But papal bulls had lost their
effect. A generation later the Elector
Frederick William of Brandenburg wel-
comed twenty thousand Huguenot ref-
ugees within his dominions, while Fred-
erick the Great declared that in his
kingdom “everybody can he saved accord-
ing to his own fashion.” True, this was
only the tolerant policy of a progressive
monarch, who still had the control of
religious affairs in his hands. Full re-
ligious liberty as a fundamental and
inalienable right of the individual sub-
sequently became a law of the German
Empire. What is still wanted is the
complete separation of Church and State,
which is the natural corollary of re-
ligious liberty. What the present Ger-
man Republic will do in matters of
religion remains to be seen. — In Aus-
tria, where the Reformation was nearly
extinguished by the Jesuitical Counter-
Reformation, Protestant principles ulti-
mately prevailed. In 1781 Emperor Jo-
seph II issued an edict of toleration,
while the Constitution of 1808 grants
freedom of conscience. It might he
mentioned that Hungary, which toward
the end of the 16th century numbered
two thousand Protestant churches, had
only one hundred and five at the time of
the emperor’s edict. Catholic reaction
also attained a full measure of success
in Bohemia, Silesia, Livonia (though
checked here by Gustavus Adolphus),
Carniola, and elsewhere.
Passing on now to a survey of Roman
Catholicism in England, we note that
its history took an entirely different
course from what it did on the Conti-
nent. In France the Roman Catholic
Church always remained in a dominant
position. In Germany her ambitions to
regain her lost supremacy were indeed
decisively curbed by the Thirty Years’
War; but the treaty which ended that
struggle guaranteed her a legal place in
the sun. In England, on the contrary,
her position until comparatively recent
times was, apart from periods of insolent
triumphs, one of subjection, degradation,
civil disability, even outlawry. As late
as the middle of the 18th century an
English court decided that the existence
of Roman Catholics within the realm
was made possible only by the lax en-
forcement of the law. Even John Locke,
the philosopher of English toleration,
excluded the Catholics from the free
exercise of religion on the ground that
they were a menace to the state. To
explain the English attitude, it is only
necessary to bear in mind a few facts,
such as the horrors of the persecution
under Queen Mary, the attempted sub-
jugation of England by Philip II of
Spain, the numerous popish conspiracies
against the life of Queen Elizabeth, the
Gunpowder Plot of Guy Fawkes, and the
Romish doctrine of the authority of
the Popes over civil rulers. These facts
will not justify, but, as remarked, they
will explain, the severe laws enacted
against the Catholics by Queen Elizabeth
and her successors. Another factor work-
ing in the same direction was the convic-
tion of the English rulers that the safety
and stability of their government de-
pended in large measure on absolute re-
ligious uniformity. Hence the penal
legislation against all dissenters, whether
Puritan or Roman Catholic. We now
proceed to give a brief outline of events.
The Reformation, it has been said, “en-
tered England by a side door,” when
Henry VIII (1509 — 47) broke with the
Pope and nationalized the English
Church. The Supremacy Act of 1534
declared that Henry was “on earth the
Supreme Head of the Church of En-
gland.” In other words, England was
to remain Catholic without the Pope.
Henry burned, beheaded, or hanged both
Protestant and Roman Catholic dis-
senters, the one for denying transubstan-
tiation, the other for denying the royal
supremacy in religious affairs. It must
be said, however, that Henry’s quarrel
with the papacy saved the Protestants
from the keener edge of persecution.
Under Edward VI (1547 — 53) Prot-
estantism, amid much civil disorder and
bloodshed, was established by law. The
Act of Uniformity (1549) prescribed the
use of the Book of Common Prayer, com-
piled by Archbishop Cranmer, while the
Forty-two Articles of Religion (later re-
duced to thirty-nine) provided a Prot-
estant confession of faith. To enforce
these changes, a new code of ecclesias-
tical law was drawn up, which, though
milder than the Roman Catholic canon
law in shrinking from the death penalty,
was formidable enough. The accession
of Queen Mary (1553 — 58) was the
signal for a vigorous Catholic reaction.
Resolved to restore Catholicism, the
queen opened up negotiations with Rome,
and an obsequious Parliament “decided
by a formal vote to return to the obe-
dience of the Papal See, receiving on
their knees the absolution, which freed
Roman Cath. Church, Hist, of 659 Roman Cn t h . Church, Hiat. of
the realm from the guilt incurred by its
schism and heresy,” Rome rejoiced that
the prodigal had returned to his father’s
house. Three hundred Protestants fell
victims to the intolerant bigotry of
Queen Mary; but every heretic who was
burned produced at least a hundred
more. The work of Mary was undone
by her sister Queen Elizabeth (1558 to
1*103 ) , who, with little religious convic-
tion of her own, favored Protestantism
for two reasons : first, she was deter-
mined to uphold the royal supremacy
against all papal interference; secondly,
all the Catholics of her realm who re-
mained loyal to the Pope denied her
right to the crown, especially since
Paul V, in 1570, had excommunicated
and deposed her as a heretic. The Act
of Supremacy of 1559 declared the queen
to be the “Supreme Governor” of the
English Church. The Uniformity Act of
the same year prohibited, on penalty of
imprisonment, even death in case of re-
peated offenses, the use of any but the
Anglican liturgy, besides enforcing
church attendance by the imposition of
a fine. It is estimated that about two
hundred Catholic priests and Jesuits
suffered death during the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, but, as Green says, “if Eliza-
beth was a persecutor, she was the first
English ruler who felt the charge of per-
secution to be a stigma on her rule.”
“She rested her system of repression on
purely political grounds.” In 1582 the
Jesuits were banished from the country
on pain of death, though many remained
and continued their work in secret. Con-
stant plottings on the part of the Cath-
olics to place Mary Queen of Scots on
the English throne determined Elizabeth
to order her cousin to the block (1587).
This was followed by a gigantic effort on
the part of Philip II of Spain, whose
bigotry was equaled only by his thirst
for power, to avenge the death of Mary
and to strike a decisive blow at Prot-
estantism. The “Invincible Armada,”
consisting of seven hundred ships, set
sail from Lisbon with the papal blessing
in 1588, but — “God blew with His winds,
and they were scattered.” This signal
rebuff destroyed forever the hopes of
regaining England for. Catholicism and
of rolling back the tide of the Reforma-
tion. James I (1003 — 25), the inflexible
advocate of the divine right of kings,
persecuted all dissenters, Puritan and
Catholic. The latter, who questioned his
right to the crown, he sought at first to
conciliate by relaxing the penal laws
against them. This indulgence was fol-
lowed at once by an increase of avowed
Catholics, to the great alarm of Par-
liament, which confirmed the statutes of
Elizabeth. The king, to vindicate him-
self from the suspicion of undue lenience
toward Iris Catholic subjects, rigorously'
executed the anti-Catholic statutes, de-
nying Catholics even the right to educate
their children in their own faith. Cath-
olic disappointment and resentment took
concrete form in an attempt to blow up
the House of Parliament on the day the
king was to open the session (Novem-
ber 5, 1605), the ultimate aim being to
rally the English Catholics to open re-
volt and establish a Catholic government.
This Gunpowder Plot failed, and the con-
spirators, Robert Catesby, Guy Fawkes,
and others, were executed. Henceforth
the Catholics were practically deprived
of the protection of the law and were
subject to terrible oppression. Under
Charles I (1(125 — 49), whose wife was
a Roman Catholic and whose ecclesias-
tical adviser was Archbishop Laud, a
man of Catholic leanings, the laws
against the Catholics were rarely en-
forced. The short-lived dominance of
Puritanism during the Commonwealth
(1649 — 60) was followed by the reestab-
lishment of Episcopal worship and the
enactment of more laws against dis-
senters. It would carry us beyond the
scope of this article to give the details
of this legislation. Suffice it to say that
it is repugnant to every sense of human-
ity and justice and condemned thousands
to languish and die in filthy English
prisons or drove them for refuge beyond
the borders of the country. One such
enactment must be specifically mentioned
as being directed against the Roman
Catholics, with whom we are now con-
cerned. The secret treaty of Charles II
( 1660 — 85 ) with Louis XIV of France
for the restoration of Catholicism in
England led the English Parliament to
the passage of the Test Act, which re-
quired all persons holding office under
the crown, civil or military, to declare
against transubstantiation and to receive
the Sacrament within three months after
admittance to office. A similar measure,
the Disabling Act of 1678, excluded all
Catholics from sitting in the English
Parliament and required of all members
a declaration against the sacrifice of the
Mass and the invocation of saints.
James II (1685 — 88), the last of the
Stuarts, had openly joined the Roman
Catholic Church in 1669. Like all the
Stuarts, who learned and forgot nothing,
he proceeded in the business of govern-
ment on the theory that he was the
State — and the Church. Nevertheless
he took the oath on the constitution and
promised “to preserve this [English]
Roman Catli. Churoh, Hist, of 660
Roman Catli. Churcli, Hist, of
government, both in Church and State,
as it is now established.” After taking
this oath, he treated all the laws against
the papists as null and void, received
a papal nuncio at court, sent an agent
to Rome to promote the restoration of
Catholicism, and forbade the English
clergy to preach against “the king’s re-
ligion.” Deaf to all counsels of modera-
tion, he was determined “to lose all or
to win all.” And he lost all. “To his
policy,” says Macaulay, “the English
Roman Catholics owed three years of
lawless and insolent triumph and a hun-
dred and forty years of subjection and
degradation.” The English nation de-
posed him and gave the crown to his
son-in-law, William of Orange, who had
been reared a Protestant. The spirit of
the new king showed itself in the Act of
Toleration of 1(189, which is a mile-stone
in the progress of religious liberty in
England. Officially the document is
called “An Act for Exempting Their
Majesties’ [William and Mary] Prot-
estant Subjects Dissenting from the
Church of England from the Penalties
of Certain Laws.” That is to say, the
ban was finally lifted from non-Catholic
dissenters, Catholics being excluded.
Nay, in 1700 Parliament passed an act
which offered a reward of a hundred
pounds for the discovery of any Romish
priest performing the offices of his
Church, incapacitated every Roman
Catholic from inheriting or purchasing
land, etc., etc. The Catholics of Ireland
fared even worse than those of England.
More than a century was to elapse before
public opinion in England was ready to
grant civil and religious franchise to the
downtrodden Catholics of the kingdom.
The Catholic Emancipation Act was
passed in 1829.
Besides its conflict with Protestantism
the Roman Catholic Church has had no
little trouble within its own camp. As
a protest against Jesuitism the move-
ment begun by Cornelius Jansen, bishop
of Ypres, and ably supported by the
learning and genius of many of the
noblest minds of France, among them
Blaise Pascal, the historian Tillemont,
and the poet Racine, agitated the Gal-
lican Church for over a century, and it
required the combined powers of king
and Pope to hold it in check (see Jan-
senism ) . Also in matters of ecclesias-
tical polity the French clergy caused the
papacy no little concern. From the days
of the Tridentine Council, but especially
since the end of the 16th century, the
French bishops, actuated by national
pride and by a desire for personal in-
dependence in the management of their
affairs, maintained an unfriendly atti-
tude toward the claims of papal absolut-
ism and autocracy. These sentiments
took definite form in four propositions,
published in 1682, which declared the ab-
solute sovereignty of secular princes in
temporal affairs and conceded only a lim-
ited primacy of the Pope in spiritual
matters, all papal deliverances depending
for their validity on the ratification of
a general council. In other words, an
ecumenical council is the highest court
of appeal. These propositions were con-
demned by several Popes as null and
void, and Louis XIV, who in occasional
moments felt some concern for his soul,
practically retracted them, though there
was no formal revocation. It remained
for Napoleon I, who, to realize his am-
bition of absolute control of Church and
State, endeavored to use the papacy as
his willing tool, unwittingly to drive the
French bishops into the arms of Rome.
Since the days of Napoleon, as Harnack
says, the French have been the mainstay
of Ultramontanism (see Oallicanism) .
A movement in Germany, akin to Gal-
licanism, is associated with the name
Ilonthcim, who in 1763 published his
work on the reunion of Christendom and
the legitimate power of the papacy. In
discussing the latter, he advocated the
episcopal theory of church government
and declared the papacy guilty of usur-
pation in the course of its history. The
book was declared “pestilential” by the
Pope in 1764 and placed on the index.
Its author was compelled to recant. But
this failed to check Febronianism, as the
movement is called. In 1769 the arch-
bishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier,
who, being at the same time secular
princes, favored Febronianism, drew up
a series of thirty articles in the form of
complaints against the Roman Curia and
defended episcopacy. These they sub-
mitted to the Emperor Joseph II, who,
however, declined to favor the peti-
tioners. Equally unsuccessful was the
attempt to sever connections with Rome
in 1786. In that year the above-men-
tioned dignitaries assembled at Ems and
in a series of twenty-three articles laid
down their grievances against the pa-
pacy. The aim was to establish a Ger-
man Catholic National Church, com-
pletely independent of papal jurisdiction.
But the German bishops found it more
to their liking to obey the Pope in dis-
tant Rome than to accept the rule of the
archbishops at their own gates. The
secular princes also opposed the plan,
and the whole movement came to naught.
Nevertheless, as Harnack says, “since
the days of the Council of Constance the
Homan Oath. Church, Hist, of 331 Homan Cath. Church, Hist, of
sovereignty of the bishops and the in-
significance of tlie Pope have never been
more boldly asserted than by the German
bishops at Ems a hundred years ago.”
What promised to become a more serious
menace to the papal power were the re-
forms of Joseph II of Austria. We have
already referred to his Edict of Tolera-
tion published in 1781. This was only
part of a wider plan of reform designed
to sever the Catholic Church of Austria
from Rome and make it immediately
dependent on the state. To this end all
ecclesiastic intercourse with Rome was
made strictly subject to state control,
and all the institutions of the Church,
as far as they did not serve the cause of
education, were abolished. Of two thou-
sand monasteries six hundred went down
before these measures. The protest of
the bishops and the Pope, even a per-
sonal visit of the latter, proved unavail-
ing against the impetuous zeal of the em-
peror. In tlie end, however, these reforms
also turned out to he a bursting bubble.
Undertaken in hot haste and unsup-
ported by public sentiment, they were
followed by an inevitable reaction at the
emperor's death (1790). At the Con-
gress of Vienna (1815) Freiherr von
Wessenberg warmly advocated the estab-
lishment of the Catholic Church of Ger-
many under a German primate; but in
the war of conflicting opinions regarding
the constitution of the proposed Church
tlie plan failed. Rome has always suc-
ceeded in overcoming the antipapal ten-
dencies within her own pale. Indeed,
the Vatican Council (q.v.) put the cap-
stone on the hierarchical pyramid.
Rome has not been so successful in
holding her power in the secular sphere.
The modern state, acknowledging no
sovereignty save its own will, has risen
over the protest of the Roman Catholic
Church, and that even in countries where
the Church’s spiritual authority is un-
challenged. As early as 160G the Doge
of Venice defied the interdict of Paul V
by threatening with death any one who
paid any attention to it. In 1870 the
national tendencies toward a united
Italy swept away the Papal States as
a separate political unit and deprived
the Pope of the last remnant of political
power. Similarly, Spain and Portugal
have, since the first half of the last
century, resented papal interference in
rheir politics. The same is true of
France, Austria, and Belgium. This
modern trend toward the separation of
Church and State has been met with the
unqualified hostility of the papacy. It
was condemned by Pope Pius IX in the
syllabus of 1864, while Leo XIII, in the
encyclical Liber tas Praestantissimum Na-
turae Donum, of 1888 calls the separation
of Church and State a “pernicious
maxim” ( perniciosa sententia), thus
implicitly condemning the American
Constitution. On the other hand, the
removal of anti-Catholic barriers by
Protestant governments during the 19th
century has opened the door to renewed
Catholic activity in Protestant countries.
Thus the Church is endeavoring to re-
build the waste places even in Norway,
Sweden, and Denmark, where Catholi-
cism had become almost extinct. Holland
proclaimed toleration in 1848. The
Jesuits returned, and shortly after the
hierarchy was reestablished. In England
the hierarchy had been extinct since
1585; it was restored in 1858, in Scot-
land in 1878. The revival of English
Catholicism was strengthened by the
strongly Romanizing Oxford, or Tracta-
rian, Movement under the leadership of
Newman and Pusey, which carried hun-
dreds of the Anglican clergy and thou-
sands of the laity back into the folds
of Rome.
If the Roman Catholic Church has lost
her political power, she has fastened her
hold all the more securely on the indi-
vidual conscience. By a striking coinci-
dence the total extinction of her tem-
poral power and the acme of her spiritual
authority fell in the same year, 1870,
when the dogma of papal infallibility
was promulgated. Since then the author-
ity of the Church resides in a single
individual, the Pope at Rome. According
to Roman Catholic doctrine the Pope is
the vicegerent of God on earth, the su-
preme judge in matters of faith and
morals, the sole guide and director of
the consciences of men. How did this
astounding consummation come about?
The papacy was moving toward this goal
through its entire history, though it
remained for a modern Pope to “put
across” the claim of infallibility as a
dogma of the Church. Various causes
conspired toward this end. In the first
place, the turn of political affairs in the
early 19th century favored papalism.
When Napoleon concluded his Concordat
with Pius VII in 1802, his aim was to
establish a national Church completely
under his own control, but what he
actually did was to deliver the Gallican
Church into the hands of the Pope.
True, the Concordat provided that the
appointment of bishops should belong to
the state, but the Pope was granted the
authority to institute the appointees.
Thus the real head of the French epis-
copate was not the emperor, but the
Pope. Napoleon hdd been clearly out-
Roman Oath. Church, Hist, of
662 Roman Cath. Church, Hl»t. of
witted in the transaction, and lie soon
realized this, when Pius VII refused to
institute some of the episcopal nominees.
As has been said, “Pius VII established
in France for the first time a hierarchy
of which the Pope was the ruling chief.”
The diplomacy of Pius was ably sup-
ported by such writers as the Savoyard
de Maistre, who advocated as the one
and only panacea for the ills of society
absolute submission to the Papal See.
Needless to say that the Jesuits were
active in the same cause. Also in Ger-
many the danger of episcopalian! (Febro-
nianism) passed away when in 1803 the
three powerful ecclesiastics, the arch-
bishops of Trier, Mainz, and Cologne,
were shorn of their temporal power and
reduced to mere officials of the state.
But the real builders of the modern
papacy are the Jesuits. Their labors in
the field of ecclesiastical history, in dog-
matic and moral theology, all looked
toward the dogma of papal infallibility
as the logical and necessary result. They
undermined all authorities in order to
erect a single one at Rome. They im-
paired the authority of the Scriptures by
filing away at the doctrine of inspiration
almost to the vanishing point. They
overthrew the accepted notion of tradi-
tion by insisting that that is true tradi-
tion what the Church (i.e., the Pope)
in any period of its history has decreed,
thus making it possible for Pius IX to
declare: “I am the tradition.” They
ignored the witness of history, impugned
the authority of the Fathers, discovered
innumerable heresies in the most ven-
erated teachers of the Church, declared
the acts of councils (as far as they did
not favor papal pretensions) pure for-
gery — and amid the shifting quicksand
of falsification and error one solid, im-
movable rock, the chair of St. Peter, and
in this Babel of conflicting voices one
clear, steady tone, witnessing to the in-
fallibility of the successor of St. Peter.
In its struggle against Jansenism, which
was a vigorous protest against the moral
laxity of the Jesuit confessional, Jesuit-
ism was compelled to train its guns
against the authority of St. Augustine.
This “last enemy,” with his stern doc-
trine of sin and human depravity, was
an offense to the order, and he had to go.
Liguori (1699 — 1787), the champion of
probabilism (q. v.), Liguori, the saint
(1829), the doctor of the Church (1871),
has usurped the place of St. Augustine
in modern Catholicism. And Liguori de-
clared that the individual conscience can
find no peace except in the absolute
authority of the confessor and that the
latter must apply the divine Law accord-
ing to the principles of probabilism. In
view of these developments the dogma of
papal infallibility would appear to be
a very natural result. When all author-
ities are torn down, the authority of
bishops, the authority of councils, the
authority of tradition, the authority
even of conscience and of the Scriptures,
then a new authority must arise in a
Church that is built on authority. Nor
could this destructive process have been
carried on so successfully, had not the
new authority been all along in contem-
plation and ready to replace the old
when conditions were ripe for the change.
In the history of the papacy the fulness
of time had come when the obstacles
that stood in the way of its ambition
were removed. It only remained that
the Bishop of Rome be solemnly declared
the universal bishop, the incarnate tra-
dition, the absolute confessor, the living
oracle of truth, the infallible teacher of
faith and morals, the representative of
God on earth. All this happened with
some dissenting voices — soon all but
drowned in the general clamor of ap-
proval — in 1870. — As an aftermath of
this new dogma we may at this point
mention the so-called Kulturkampf,
which for two decades embroiled the
Prussian government with the Church
of Rome. The conflict was brought about
by the attitude of Prussia in supporting
“some teachers in state-aided Catholic
schools whom the bishops wanted to dis-
miss because of their anti-infallibilist
opinions.” During the quarrel that en-
sued the “May Laws” were passed,
which were an attempt, on the part of
the state, to control the education, dis-
cipline, appointment, and excommunica-
tion of the clergy, in other words, to
deprive the Roman Catholic Church of
practically all liberty. Fines, imprison-
ment, deposition, coercion, availed noth-
ing against the clerical opposition en-
countered by this drastic legislation.
Conditions became intolerable, there
being in Prussia, when the conflict was
at its height, no less than 1,400 Roman
Catholic churches without a spiritual
head. Nor was there any improvement
in the situation during the pontificate
of Pius IX, whose inflexible obstinacy
precluded any amicable adjustment of
difficulties. His successor, however,
Leo XIII, pursued a wiser and more
conciliatory policy. He immediately
opened up long negotiations with Bis-
marck with the result that the obnoxious
“May Laws” were virtually repealed.
Vatican diplomacy had scored a victory,
and Bismarck, who at the outset had
proudly declared, “We shall not go to
Roman Oath. Church, 111st. of 663
Romanes, George John
Canossa,” went at least half the distance,
if not a little farther. — In more recent
times the papacy has had some trouble
with the wayward children of its own
household. The movement known as
“Modernism,” a term invented by the
Jesuits of Rome to denote various liberal
trends of theological thought at variance
with Catholic belief, drew from Pius X,
in 1907, a furious fulmination in the en-
cyclical Pascendi Dominici Gregis against
what he termed “the synthesis of all
heresies.” And to safeguard the Church
and the papal authority still more effec-
tively, he sent out a circular letter to
the Catholic clergy of Europe and Amer-
ica requiring all priests to take the anti-
Modernist oath, the beginning and con-
clusion of which is as follows: “I accept
everything which has been defined by the
unerring magisterium of the Church . . .
founded on Peter, the prince of the apos-
tolic hierarchy. ... So I promise, so
I swear.” In France, as a result of this,
about fifteen hundred Catholic priests
have rejected the papacy, while numer-
ous others took the oath under protest,
declaring that, while giving formal out-
ward assent, they reserved the right of
entertaining their own personal convic-
tions. That is to say, they debauched
their conscience for the sake of peace.
Among the representatives of Modernism
are men who hold extremely radical
views, such as Loisy, the leader of
French Modernism, as well as those who
stand on more conservative ground.
Loisy’s critical position is subversive not
only of Roman Catholicism, but also of
Protestantism, indeed of Christianity it-
self. Father Tyrell, in England, attacked
Medievalism and Ultramontanism, re-
fused to recant, and was buried in un-
eonsecrated ground. In Italy, too, Mod-
ernism has many defenders, among them
some of the most eminent scholars, such
as Prof. Giovanni Luzzi, of Florence,
who protests against the Medieval eccle-
siasticism of the Vatican. Scherr,
Sclinitzer (Hat Jesus das Papsttum ge-
stiftet?), Koch, and others in Germany
raised their voices against the religious
tyranny of Rome, and many of the clergy
simply refused to take the anti-Mod-
ernist oath. The entire movement shows
that the yoke of papal absolutism is
galling the necks of many of Rome's
most gifted sons.
Statistics, According to the latest
available sources the Roman Catholic
population of the world is 294,583,000, dis-
tributed as follows : Europe, 1 83,7 60,000 ;
Asia, 5,500,000; Africa, 2,500,000;
Oceania, 8,200,000; North America,
50,000,000; South America, 44,623,000.
Roman Catholic Foreign Missions
in India. See Missions, Foreign Cath-
olic.
Roman Congregations. The most
important organizations of the Roman
Curia, which transact most of the papal
business. The membership consists of
cardinals, who alone have votes, but
most of the detailed work is done by
expert subordinates. The decisions of
the Congregations are final and are rated
as decisions of the Pope himself. There
are now (1921) thirteen congregations.
I ) The Congregation of the Holy Office,
or Inquisition, of which the Pope him-
self is prefect, deals with all questions
of doctrine, with the repression of her-
esy, and with indulgences. One of its
departments examines and condemns
books that are considered dangerous (see
Index of Prohibited Books). 2) The
Congregation of the Consistory (Pope
also prefect) prepares the business to
be laid before the consistory (q. v.) and
governs the dioceses not under Propa-
ganda (see 7 below). 3) The Congre-
gation for the Oriental Church has
charge of all matters pertaining to re-
lations with the Eastern Church. 4 ) The
Congregation of the Sacraments deals
with matters relating to matrimony,
ordination, and the other “sacraments.”
5) The Congregation of the Council has
supervision of the secular clergy and the
laity and of the observance of ecclesias-
tical law (fasting, tithes, etc.). 6) The
Congregation of Religious Orders looks
after all that pertains to religious orders
and organizations. 7) The Congregation
of Propaganda regulates ecclesiastical af-
fairs in so-called “missionary” countries.
8 ) The Congregation of - Rites has juris-
diction over rites, ceremonies, causes of
beatification and canonization, and relics.
9) The Congregation of Ceremonies di-
rects the ceremonial of the papal court.
10) The Congregation of Extraordinary
Ecclesiastical Affairs, whose head is the
Secretary of State, has no fixed scope.
I I ) the Congregation of Seminaries and
Universities supervises the curriculum
at Roman Catholic institutions of learn-
ing. There are besides, 12) the Congre-
gation of Loreto (to care for the shrine
at that place), and 13) the Congregation
of the Fabric of St. Peter’s (for main-
tenance and repairs ) .
Romanes, George John, English
biologist; b. 1848 at Kingston, Can.;
d. 1894 at Oxford; very active in scien-
tific circles in England; ardent sup-
porter of Darwinism ; held atheistic
views, but changed to theistic beliefs
in late years.
Romanism since Reformation 664
Rouse, Francis
Romanism since the Reformation.
See Roman Catholic Church, History of.
Ronsdorf Sect. See Ellerians.
Rosary. A mode of prayer used in
the Roman Church in connection with
a string of 165 beads, 150 smaller beads
being divided into 15 groups of 10 (de-
cades) by the insertion of 15 larger
heads. The rosary is begun by making
the sign of the cross and reciting the
Creed, the Lord’s Prayer once, Ave
Maria ( q. v. ) three times, and the Glo-
ria once, while holding the small cross
attached to the string. For each small
bead an Ave Maria is said; for each
larger one, the Lord’s Prayer. During
the recital of each decade a “mystery”
is to be contemplated, there being five
joyful mysteries (the Annunciation, Vis-
itation, Birth of Jesus, Presentation, and
Finding of Jesus in the Temple), five
sorrowful mysteries (Agony at Gethsem-
ane, Scourging, Crowning with Thorns,
Carrying the Cross, Crucifixion), and
five glorious mysteries (Resurrection,
Ascension, Descent of the Holy Ghost,
Assumption of Mary, Coronation of
Mary ) . Rosaries are blessed by Popes,
bishops, etc., and then convey indul-
gences. Members of confraternities of
the roBary recite the rosary at least once
a week; “living rosaries” (15 members)
divide the decades for daily recitation.
The idea of counting prayers was prob-
ably introduced by the early monks.
The fact that Buddhists and Mohamme-
dans have contrivances resembling the
rosary makes Matt. 6, 7 apply all the
more strikingly.
Roscellinus, Johannes. A false
teacher of the last part of the 11th and
the first decades of the 12th Century;
d. some time after 1120; chiefly known
for his doctrine of tritheism, of three
separate, self-existent beings instead of
a trinity of persons in the divine es-
sence, although he tried to avoid heresy
by speaking of a union of the persons
in power and will. He was opposed
especially by Abelard in his book De
Trinitate (“Of the Trinity”).
Rosenius, Karl Olof; b. 1816,
d. 1868; Lutheran lay -preacher and
revivalist in Sweden; preached the Gos-
pel of the grace of God unceasingly, but
did not sufficiently distinguish between
objective and subjective justification
and stressed the “life within” more than
the objective means of grace. His writ-
ings, originally appearing in the Pietist ,
were and are widely read. See Born-
holmers.
Rosicrucians. Members of a myth-
ical society, said to have been founded in
the 15th century by Christian Rosenkreuz
and kept secret until the 17th century.
The first notice of this society appeared
in Pama Fraternitatis des loeblichen
Ordens des Rosenkreuzcs, 1614, now re-
garded as fiction, the work of Johann
Val. Andreae, a Lutheran theologian,
whose motives in writing this satire
were to combat alchemy, astrology, and
Roman Catholicism. However, the pub-
lication was exploited by many inter-
ested in alchemy who claimed member-
ship in the order and formed branches
in various parts of Europe, which existed
to the middle of the 18th century.
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 1828 — 82;
British painter and poet; chief guiding
spirit in the Pre-Raffaelite movement;
influential in bringing about a revival
of Gothic art in England. .
Rota Romana. See Curia, Roman.
Rothe, Johann Andreas, 1688 to
1758; studied at Leipzig; Zinzendorf’s
pastor in Berthelsdorf ; later pastor at
Herinsdorf and finally at Thommendorf;
wrote: “Ich babe nun den Grand ge-
funden.”
Rothe, Richard; b. 1799, d. 1867;
mediating theologian and defender of
Union; holding, at bottom, Schleier-
macher’s principles; joined the Prole -
stamtenverein, an organization “for evan-
gelical freedom,” with strong liberal
tendencies, denying the binding power
of the Lutheran Confessions; an orig-
inal thinker and prolific writer; pro-
fessor at Wittenberg, Heidelberg, Bonn,
Heidelberg.
Roumania. A country of Southeastern
Europe, enlarged, since the World War,
to include Transylvania, the Bukovina,
and Bessarabia, with a population of al-
most 18,000,000, the inhabitants for the
most part descendants of the ancient Ro-
man Moesians and Dacians, the great
majority of whom are members of the
Orthodox Greek Church, which is the
state church, although the other churches
are permitted to exist. The Russian sect
of the Lipovanians numbers about 150,000
and the Roman Catholics somewhat more.
Evangelical Christians, especially those
of the Lutheran confession, are much
scattered, except in Bessarabia, while
Methodists, Anglicans, and Presbyterians
are also represented. Jews and Arme-
nians together number about 300,000.
See also Creek Church.
Rouse, Francis, 1579 — 1659; edu-
cated at Oxford; adopted the legal
profession; held various political ap-
pointments; published numerous works;
among his hymns : “The Lord’s My
Shepherd, I’ll Not Want.”
Rousseau, Jean Jacques
665 Royal Neighbors of Anlerlca
Rousseau, Jean Jacques, influential
French author; b. 1712 at Geneva; ap-
prenticed to engraver, then lackey, music
teacher, clerk, tutor, private secretary,
playwright, composer; lived mainly in
France until exiled because of his Emile;
fled to Russia and England; returned
to Paris; d. 1778 at Ermenonville. His
three great works are based on the prin-
ciple that man is good by nature and
that modern forms of society, being un-
natural, cause evil. In La Nouvelle
Heloise, an emotional love-story, passion
disregards barriers of “man-made” mo-
rality. Contrat social teaches that all
men are born free and that sovereignty
is vested in the people. Emile (called
by Goethe das Naturevcmgelium der Er-
ziehung) claims to show that if a child
is kept from error and vice and its in-
herently good nature developed, it can by
itself attain to art, morality, and sense
of God. While Rousseau antagonized
some real abuses and stimulated some re-
formers constructively ( e . g., Pestalozzi),
his influence on the whole has been det-
rimental, as he denied original sin and
asserted that man has good moral im-
pulses by nature. Not only did his
theories bear fruit in the excesses of the
French Revolution, but as apostle of
naturalism his influence continues to the
present day. His autobiography, Con-
fessions.
Royal Arcanum. History. This order
was founded in 1877 and incorporated
under the laws of the State of Massachu-
setts as Supreme Council of the Royal
Arcanum (Royal Secret). In order to
enable members to increase their insur-
ance within the ranks of the order, the
Royal Arcanum Additional Benefit Asso-
ciation was incorporated in 1890 under
the laws of New Jersey. Later this name
was changed to Loyal Association. - —
Character. The Royal Arcanum is one
of the largest fraternal beneficiary so-
cieties in the United States. Its motto
is “Mercy, Virtue, and Charity,” which
is “mystically referred to in a manner
known only to members.” In his book
The Church and Secret Societies Father
Rosen proves from the ritual, of the
Royal Arcanum that the order is a reli-
gious sect. The “obligation,” which is
printed as part of the application for
membership which a candidate must sign
before his initiation (see The Code of
Constitution and Laws of the Royal Ar-
canum), reads in its essential parts:
“In the presence of Almighty God and
these witnesses I do, of my own free
will and accord, most solemnly promise
that I will strictly comply with all laws,
rules, and usages of this fraternity estab-
lished by the Supreme Council of the
Royal Arcanum. I will hold allegiance
to said Supreme Council and be loyal
thereto, as the supreme authority of the
entire order. I will obey all orders ema-
nating from the Supreme or Grand Coun-
cils or from the Subordinate Council of
which I am a member, so long as they do
not conflict with any civil or religious
liberty. I will not defraud or wrong any
department of this order or any: member
thereof, or suffer it to be done by others
if in my power to prevent. I will never
introduce anything of a political or sec-
tarian character at any meeting of, or in
any way bring reproach upon, this order.
I will keep forever secret all that may
transpire during my initiation and will
never improperly communicate to any
person any of the words, signs, or tokens ;
and should I be expelled or leave the
order, I will consider this obligation as
binding out of it as it is in it. . . . I will
answer all proper signs of the fraternity
and use all proper means to protect a
brother from defamation. And should I
violate this my solemn promise, I hereby
consent to be expelled from this frater-
nity; and may God aid me to keep and
perform all these obligations!” The ap-
plication blank states that no one will be
rJfeived who does not believe in a Su-
preme Being. Mongolians, whether of
pure or mixed blood, are ineligible.
{Christian Cynosure, Vol. L, No. 1, p. 0.)
— Membership : 1,322 lodges with 120,847
benefit and 25 social members in the
United States and Canada. Men only
are admitted. Office of the Supreme
Council, Boston, Mass.
Royal League. The Royal League is
an offspring of the Royal Arcanum,
founded in Chicago, in 1883, by members
of the latter society for the purpose of
modifying the methods of cooperative
life insurance used by the Royal Arca-
num. Otherwise there is very little dif-
ference between the two orders. The
Royal League, very much as the Royal
Arcanum, makes a feature of sociability,
reading of papers, debates, and other
entertainments. It has a female auxil-
iary known as Ladies of the Royal
League. The order maintains the Fel-
lowship Sanatorium of the Royal League
at Black Mountain, N. C. Membership :
184 lodges, with 21,843 benefit and 142
social members, which are found mainly
in the Middle West. Headquarters:
Supreme Council, Chicago, III.
Royal Neighbors of America. This
lodge is the female auxiliary of the
Modern Woodmen of America. It was
incorporated on March 21, 1895, and ad-
knbens, Peter I*uul
866
Russell, Arthur Toaer
mits as members also men who belong to
the M. W. A. To secure beneficiary mem-
bership, the candidate must first be a
social member of the Royal Neighbors of
America in good standing. — Character.
While the order is a secret beneficiary
society, it stresses the religious develop-
ment of its members. At the meetings
prayers are said, and hymns are sung.
The order has an elaborate ritual, an
altar of worship, a religious test, and
chaplains (Worthy Chancellor) ; the
Scriptures are read and divine blessings
invoked at its meetings, and it demands
“faith” as a basic principle of the or-
ganization. According to the burial rite
every member is saved after death,
whether believing in Jesus Christ or not.
(For ritual see National Christian Asso-
ciation, Chicago, 111. ) The “obligation”
demanded at the initiation reads: “I do,
upon my most sacred honor, promise that
I will not reveal nor communicate this
work to any one, except to one whom I
know to be a member of this society.
I also promise and affirm that I will not
knowingly wrong any one whom I know
to be a member of this Camp ; and I will
not propose for membership any one
whom I believe to be of bad repute; and
I will sacredly guard all passwords,
signs, grips, or unwritten work entruwed
to me. I do in the presence of Almighty
God promise that if I am adopted as a
member, ... I will, in addition to that
which I have already promised, obey the
laws, rules, regulations, and requirements
of this society faithfully and conscien-
tiously and will forever hold its interests
as sacred as those of my own household,
cheerfully performing my duties as a
Neighbor. All this I do solemnly prom-
ise.” Since 1921 male juveniles at the
age of seventeen are admitted without be-
coming members of the Modern Woodmen
of America for the maximum amount of
a juvenile certificate, which is $500.
Present status : 7,367 lodges, with 404,278
benefit and 69,284 social members in
practically every State of the Union
except Louisiana, Massachusetts, South
Carolina, and Vermont. Headquarters:
Rock Island, 111.
Rubens, Peter Paul, greatest of
Flemish painters, 1577 — -1640; did much
portrait work; a master of technique,
both in modeling and drawing, but
strongly sensual; among his paintings:
“The Crucifixion of Christ.”
Rudelbach, Andreas Gottlob; b. 1792
at Copenhagen, d. 1862 at Slagelse, Den-
mark; heroic defender of sound Luther-
anism; received his education in his
native city; in 1829 accepted a call to
Glauchau, Saxony, where, as pastor and
superintendent, he exerted great and
beneficial influence in promoting uncom-
promising Lutheranism, founding and
editing, with Guericke, the Zeitschrift
fuer die gesamte lutherische Theologie
und Kirche. In 1845 the gross unionism
of the state church forced him to resign
his pastorate, and he returned to Den-
mark as pastor at Slagelse. Rudelbach
was a man of profound learning and
deep spirituality and a decided opponent
of the Union. Among his many writings
the most important is perhaps Reforma-
tion, Luthertum und Union.
Ruflnus, Tyrannius, Latin church-
writer; b. in Northern Italy ca. 345;
d. in Sicily ca. 410; friend of Jerome;
of a strong ascetic tendency; settled on
Mount Olivet to minister to pilgrims;
made presbyter; translated many works
of the earlier Church, also church his-
tory of Eusebius, which he continued;
in later life in controversy with Jerome.
Rubland, C. P. Th. ; b. April 26,
1836, at Grohnde, Hanover; studied at
Loccum ; graduated from Concordia Sem-
inary (Practical Dept.) ; pastor in Osh-
kosh (1859), in Wolcottsville and Buf-
falo, in Pleasant Ridge, 111.; in 1872 he
accepted a call to the churches in Dres-
den and Niederplanitz, Saxony, which
had left the state church for the sake of
confessional Lutheranism. His and Pastor
Brunn’s testimony bore much fruit, and
in 1876 the Saxon Free Church was or-
ganized, Rubland being elected president.
On a visit to this country he lost his
life in an accident June 3, 1879.
Rule of Faith (Regula Fidei). See
Apostles’ Creed.
Runkel, G. ; originally affiliated with
the Buffalo Synod, he joined Missouri in
1867, ministering to churches at Aurora,
Ind., and Los Angeles, Cal.; at his death
president of the California and Nevada
District; d. 1905.
Ruopp, Johann Friedrich; b. at
Strassburg; at the time of his death,
1708, adjunct of the theological faculty
in Halle; wrote: “Erneure inieh, o ew’-
ges Licht.”
Ruperti, Hans Heinrich Justus
Philipp; b. 1833 near Stade, Hanover;
d. as Superintendent-General of Holstein
1899; 1873 — 6 pastor of St. Matthew’s,
New York; conservative Lutheran theo-
logian.
Rupprecht, F. See Roster at end of
book.
Russell, Arthur Tozer, 1806 — 74;
studied at Cambridge; held a number of
positions as curate and vicar, the last
Rnssellisin
667
Rnsselliain
near Brighton; wrote several books on
liymnology; among his hymns: “O God
of Life, Whose Power Benign.”
Russellism. A strange religious per-
version, deriving its name from a Millen-
nial Dawn fanatic by the name of Charles
Taze Russell. Born in Allegheny, Pa.,
February 16, 1852, he was privately edu-
cated and, for a while, belonged to the
Congregationalists. He made an inde-
pendent study of the Bible and of other
religious books, the result of his medita-
tions being a series of books under the
collective title of The- Millennial Dawn
(The Divine Plan of the Ages; The Time
Is at Hand; The Kingdom Come; The
Day of Vengeance; The At-one-ment be-
tween God and Man; The New Creation).
Like many another false prophet, Rus-
sell became estranged from his wife, who
was granted a divorce. He tried in va-
rious ways to cheat her out of the ali-
mony granted her by the court. At one
time he was involved in a swindling
scheme with so-called “Miracle Wheat,”
which was sold to farmers for sixty dol-
lars a bushel, with the promise that it
would yield fifteen times the crop of or-
dinary wheat. He had studied neither
Hebrew nor Greek and yet posed as a
scholar in expounding the Bible on the
basis of the original tongues. His title
of “pastor” is nothing but a newspaper
degree, as he was never anything but a
writing, lecturing, and traveling propa-
gandist of and for his cult, known as The
International Bible Students’ Associa-
tion. He and his followers have been
trying, with fanatical zeal, to spread the
false tenets which grew under the in-
defatigable hand of their leader.
The following is a summary of the
false doctrines of Russellism: The in-
visible advent of Christ, for the opening
of the “millennial dawn,” was placed in
1874. In 1914, after a “hidden presence”
of forty years, Christ’s “open manifesta-
tion” was predicted. But 1914 came and
went, and there was no visible revelation,
so that the deluded followers of the cult
were at last driven into a corner and
had to admit: “We did expect the reign
of Christ from 1914 onward to be visible.
We have been disappointed.” Russell’s
false teaching was exposed. — Another
false doctrine is that concerning the
resurrection of the dead; for Russell
stated that the first resurrection of all
saints took place in 1878. All the faith-
ful, from John the Baptist back to Abra-
ham, were raised from their graves in
1878, and all the faithful who have died
since that date were in the moment of
death changed into spirit beings and are
with Christ in the Kingdom of Glory.
Some of these were exalted to a divine,
others to an angelic nature, the former
sitting with Christ in thrones, the latter
standing before the throne. All who died
without ever having believed in Christ or
without having had an opportunity to
hear the saving Gospel were to be raised
from 1914 onward. The wicked who once
believed, but then forgot God, will never
be raised, but. were annihilated in the
moment of death. All who live to see
1925 will never die, but will gradually
be restored to human perfection. These
statements have already judged them-
selves. — The Russellites deny the im-
mortality of the soul, saying that “God
did not give man a soul separate and
distinct from man.” “Man is only a
little higher creature than an animal.”
The word “soul,” to them, means only a
living, breathing creature. And they
say, concerning death: “What, then,
dies? Russellites answer: It is the soul
that dies.” — - With such anti-Biblical
statements as the basis of their belief, it
is not surprising that the Russellites re-
ject the doctrine of hell and eternal pun-
ishment for the wicked. They say: “The
only rational people who believe in hell
are such as do not use their brains on
the subject. The Old and the New Tes-
tament know nothing about hell. Hell
always means second death, or annihila-
tion.” They do not realize that their de-
nial of death involves the denial of the
redemption through Christ. — The Rus-
sellites deny the Trinity. Russell says:
“Verily, if it were not for the fact that
this trinitarian nonsense was drilled into
us from earliest infancy and the fact
that it is soberly taught in theological
seminaries by gray-haired professors, . . .
nobody would give it a moment’s con-
sideration. ... It is unscriptural as it
is unreasonable.” Naturally the Russel-
lites deny the deity of Christ and of the
Holy Ghost. To Russell, Jesus was noth-
ing but a perfect man, who died as such.
“It was His flesh. His life as a man, His
humanity, that was sacrificed for our re-
demption.” We know from the Bible
that, if Jesus was a mere man, the world
was never redeemed. Logically, Russell
teaches no redemption at all, but makes
every man his own savior. Russell’s
whole doctrine of redemption simply
guarantees to man a certain kind of res-
urrection and a second chance or trial
during the Millennium. His whole sys-
tem is a perversion, which leads to hope-
lessness and damnation. To summarize,
Russellism holds the following false
tenets: It denies the doctrine of the
Trinity; it denies that Jesus Christ was
God before His incarnation; it teaclies
Ruxxla
668
Rnania
that Christ was only a created spirit;
it says that Christ’s nature of humanity
was annihilated on the cross; it states
that the body in which He died may have
been dissolved into gas; it asserts that
all the unrighteous and wicked dead will
be given a second chance, that those who
do not want to live forever will have the
privilege of being asphyxiated in the lake
of fire, and that the finally impenitent
are extinguished here and annihilated
hereafter. All these wrong doctrines are
overthrown by the simple facts of the
Lutheran Catechism, as taken from the
Bible. (See Monson, The Difference.)
Russia. The story of how the Gospel
came to Russia is similar to that of the
conversion of the Franks at the time of
Chlodwig; for the Eastern Slavs ac-
cepted Christianity in a body when their
Prince Vladimir was baptized. The foun-
dation of the Russian Empire had been
laid by the Norman or Varangian Rurik
in 862. A century later Olga, a princess
of his house, was baptized while on a
visit to Constantinople. After personally
studying the representations of Moham-
medans, Jews, and missionaries of the
Latin and Greek churches, Olga’s grand-
son Vladimir sent envoys to other lands
to report to him on the different reli-
gions. Constantinople and Justinian’s
Church of St. Sophia made such a deep
impression on the envoys that they re-
ported to the king in favor of Olga’s re-
ligion. Married to Anna, sister of the
Emperor Basil, Vladimir and his twelve
sons were baptized at Kieff in 988, the
idol Peroun was sunk in the Dnieper,
and the whole population immersed them-
selves in its waters, while Greek priests
read the baptismal service from the
banks. The books of Cyrillus and Me-
thodius (qq.v.) were read in their own
tongue. Thus arose, in full stature, the
Church of Russia, soon to become the
strongest representative of the Greek
Orthodox Church. Vladimir and his suc-
cessors sought to make provision for
schools and the training of the clergy,
a certain degree of culture being in evi-
dence in their ranks at that time; but
conditions were unfavorable for a true
religious awakening, and the masses were
openly pagan and utterly ignorant. The
Mongol invasion was a blow to the
Church, weak as it was in true spiritual
life, and the fact that natives became re-
ligious leaders shortly after was not con-
ducive to a strengthening of religious
consciousness. Gennadius, Patriarch Qf
Constantinople during the middle of the
16th century, granted the Russian Church
the right to choose and consecrate its
own metropolitans. This resulted in de-
livering the Church to the power of the
grand dukes, Ivan the Terrible dominat-
ing affairs with wilful caprice. Moscow
became a third Rome, and the Church be-
came a powerful agency in the country,
with four archdioceses and seven dioceses.
Monasteries multiplied, and the wealth
of the Church grew to amazing propor-
tions. In 1589 Job was consecrated in-
dependent Patriarch of Russia, as one of
the four of the Orthodox Greek Church.
But the Russian clergy, on the whole, re-
mained ignorant, even the bishops being
included in this category, so that Protes-
tant travelers in the land reported that
Christianity was practically non-existent.
It was not till the 17th century that the
influence of Western learning made it-
self felt in Russia, the college at Kieff,
founded by Petrus Mogilas in 1631, being
a center of learning for over a century.
For a while the movement known as the
Enlightenment was on the verge of enter-
ing Russia, but during the latter part of
the reign of Alexander I a reaction set
in, and during the greater part of the
19th century the more conservative church
leaders were in power, with the theolog-
ical seminaries in Petrograd, Moscow,
Kieff, and Kazan as the centers of learn-
ing and influence. Up to the time of the es-
tablishment of the Soviet Republic (1922)
the Orthodox Greek Church was, the state
church of Russia, almost 100,000,000 of
the inhabitants being, at least nominally,
members of this body. The reign of ter-
ror following the Bolshevist regime in
Russia overthrew the Church as a ruling
factor and, in most cases, produced chaos.
It would be difficult to overemphasize the
blasphemous manner in which sacred
things were regarded and the diabolical
methods with which they were treated.
The Church seems to exist at the present
time only on a plane of sufferance, with
millions of former adherents openly blas-
pheming everything that is holy. — Of
other churches that have entered the
great domain of Russia the Roman Cath-
olic Church was fairly strong in Russian
Poland, now once more a part of an in-
dependent country. Their total number
is now said to be less than a million souls.
The Lutherans were particularly strong
in the former Baltic provinces of Russia
and in the northwestern part of the em-
pire, as well as in the German colonies
along the Volga. Before the World War
they numbered some two and a half mil-
lion souls ; at present their number is
placed at 1,500,000. The Allgemeine Lu-
therische Synode established a seminary
at Petrograd (Leningrad) in 1925, with
eight professors and thirty students. The
Lutheran Church of Western Russia was
Russian Bible Society
669
Sabbath
subjected to a severe persecution by the
Bolsheviki, scores of pastors being mar-
tyred and much church property being
destroyed. The Reformed churches of
Russia enjoyed a measure of freedom be-
fore the World War, hut their total
number was well under a hundred thou-
sand. — - A feature of church life in Rus-
sia is the sectarianism found throughout
the country, these sectarians being known
under the collective name Raskolniki.
As a result of this characteristic a num-
ber of sects came into existence, among
them the Popovshchina (priestly), who
confessed to retaining the orthodox Trin-
ity of the Godhead while retaining the
priests of the state church or their suc-
cessors; the Bezpopovshchina (priest-
less), who, instead of ordained priests
had only elders and readers, who ex-
pounded the Scriptures, heard confes-
sion, and baptized; the Khlysty (flagel-
lants), with very outspoken fantastic
views and given to orgies of ecstasy; the
Skoptzi (self-castrators) , with perverted
views concerning sex in religion; the
Molokani (milk-drinkers) and the Dou-
kliohors (q. v . ), who reject the Sacra-
ments and often are given to wild ex-
travagances tending to immoral customs ;
and the Stundists (keepers of special
hours), who are antiritualists and hold
many fanciful notions concerning im-
mediate inspiration of their adherents.
Russian Bible Society. Authorized
by an imperial ukase, 1813. The Greek,
tho Roman Catholic, the Lutheran, the
Reformed, and the Armenian churches
were represented in this society in or-
der to spread the Bible in the entire
Russian Empire. Opposition was aroused
on the part of the Russian clergy, which
in 1826 led to the suppression of the so-
ciety by the Emperor Nicholas. In its
place a Protestant Russian Bible Society
was organized at St. Petersburg, which
had to restrict its operations to the Prot-
estant population.
Russian sects are divided into two
groups. 1. The Raskolniki (“schismat-
ics”), who dissent from the hierarchy
and ritual of the Orthodox Church, but
not from its dogma. Their origin dates
back to the revision of the liturgy in
the 17th century, which they opposed.
There are two branches, the Popovtsy,
who have priests, and the Bezpopovtsy,
who do not. 2. Those who dissent also
from the dogma. These sects arose
mainly through foreign influence and
number more than 200. The more im-
portant are the mystic Khlysty, who are
anti-Trinitarian, and the Skoptsy, who
practise castration, the rationalistic Dou-
khobors (q. v.) and Molokani, and the
numerous pietistic-evangelical Stundists,
who arose through Baptist influence ca.
1 804. Russian sects have at all times
l>een persecuted more or less by the Rus-
sian Church and were not given complete
religious freedom until the revolution of
1917. Their adherents have been vari-
ously estimated up to 20 million. See
also Russia.
Rutilius, Martin, 1550—1618; stud-
ied at Wittenberg and Jena; held charges
at Teutleben and Weimar; the hymn
usually ascribed to him: “Ach Gott und
Herr, wie gross und schwer.”
Rygh, George Alfred Taylor; b. 1800
in Chicago; graduate of Norwegian Lu-
ther College and Capital University;
pastor; professor at Luther College
1883, Wittenberg Academy 1889 — 90,
and North Dakota University; principal
of Mount Horeb (Wis. ) Academy; pro-
fessor at St. Olaf College; editor of
United Lutheran ; coeditor of American
Lutheran Survey ; author and translator.
s
Sabatier, Louis Auguste, 1839 to
1901; French Protestant; b. at Vallon;
professor of Reformed dogmatics at
Strassburg 1868; expelled 1873 because
of his animosity to German regime;
professor of dogmatics (1877) in newly
founded Protestant theological faculty
of the Sorbonne; dean of the theological
faculty 1895; conservative at first, ab-
solutely liberal at last; d. in Paris.
Sabbath. There is much confusion,
and there are a great many wrong
notions which war against the spirit of
the Gospel dispensation current among
people concerning the “Christian Sab-
bath.” Not only do the Seventh-day
Adventists and kindred church-bodies
urge a strictly legal observance of the
Sabbath-day, but the Sabbatarian view
is proposed for enactment into civil law
by such organizations as the Sunday
Observance Association, the Sabbath As-
sociation, etc.
What, then, is the Scriptural teaching
regarding the Sabbath? — Certainly, it
is a wrong notion to think that the
Sabbath-day was established in Paradise.
“On the seventh day God ended His work
which He had made, and He rested on
the seventh day from all His work which
Sabbath
670
Sabbath
He had made. And God blessed the
seventh day and sanctified it, because
that in it He had rested from all His
work which God created and made.”
Gen. 2, 2. 3. But there is not the
slightest intimation in this that God
commanded Adam and Eve to observe
the seventh day as a day of rest. We
are only told what God did, but not
what man. is to do. And so we nowhere
read that Adam and Eve or Noah, or
Abraham, or Isaac, or Jacob, or any of
the other Patriarchs ever observed the
seventh day as the Sabbath. Yet when
God published His Law from Sinai, the
Sabbath was a well-known institution.
The Israelites knew nothing of the Sab-
bath-day when they left Egypt, for when
God gave them manna from heaven, none
of it would keep longer than one day, but
on the sixth day a double portion was
given. They were surprised at this, and
they asked Moses what it meant. Moses
told them, and the next day was the Sab-
bath of the Lord. And we are told : “The
people rested on the seventh day.” Ex.
16, 30. Clearly, this was the time when
the Sabbath-day of the Old Testament
was instituted. God gave the Israelites
very strict laws, which should guide
them in the proper observance of the
day. Cessation from work was not the
important feature of the Old Testament
Sabbath. It was only a means to an
end. The real purpose of the Sabbath is
expressed in the words of the Decalog:
“Remember the Sabbath-day to keep it
holy; ... for in six days the Lord made
heaven and earth, the sea and all that
in them is, and rested on the seventh
day; wherefore the Lord blessed the
Sabbath-day and hallowed it.” Ex. 20,
8. 11. The Sabbath-day was a memorial
of God’s love and kindness which He
manifested in the work of Creation, and
it was to incite the Israelites to give
thanks and praise unto God. Again,
Dent. 5, 15: “Remember that thou wast
a servant in the land of Egypt and that
the Lord, thy God, brought thee out
thence through a mighty hand and by
a stretched-out arm ; therefore, the Lord,
thy God, commanded thee to keep the
Sabbath-day.”
It is evident that this Sabbath-day of
the Jews is not a law binding on Chris-
tians. The very fact that nobody to-day,
not the Seventh-day Adventists nor even
Jews, observes the Sabbath-day as God
had commanded that it should be ob-
served in the Old Testament goes far to
show that some universal change in this
matter must have taken place. And so
it has. The Sabbath law was part of
th? Ceremonial Law of the Jews and not
part of the Moral Law, which concerns
all men and which for all times sets
down what is right and wrong in the
sight of God. — At least at one time
Jesus did not only overlook, but even de-
fended, a breach, by His apostles, of the
Sabbath commandment. That incident
is recorded in Mark 2, 23 — 28. There is
no doubt that according to the Pharisaic
understanding the plucking of ears of
grain on the Sabbath-day was breaking
the Law, that is, that part of the com-
mandment which said, “Thou shalt not
do any work” on that day, Ex. 20, 10.
Therefore the Lord overlooks the act;
and when the remonstrance is made by
the Pharisees, He defends the disciples
by three distinct arguments: first, by
what David did (1 Sam. 21, 1 — 0) in eat-
ing the show-bread, consequently in
breaking a Ceremonial Law; secondly,
by announcing the general and incon-
trovertible principle: “The Sabbath was
made for man, and not man for the Sab-
bath”; and thirdly, in drawing the con-
elusion: “So the Son of Man is Lord
also of the Sabbath.” When our Lord
compares these two “trespasses,” He has
conclusively shown that as far as that
part of the commandment about a spe-
cific day is concerned, it is of a cere-
monial and transient character, which
in itself should lie respected as long as
that Ceremonial Law is in .force, but
may as readily be omitted when the
law should be abolished. If the Sabbath
was “made for man,” on account of man’s
needs and for his benefit, then, the con-
ditions being changed, the law will
change. And this very thing is about
to happen. For, as indicated in the
third argument, the Son of Man has the
power to abolish even the Sabbath.
God had given the Jews certain laws
Which did not concern any one else; for
example, the laws governing Circumci-
sion, the Passover, the Day of Atone-
ment, the sacrifice of lambs, etc. The
purpose of these laws was partly to be
a heavy burden on the children of Israel
and so tend to keep awake in them the
desire for a Messiah, who would redeem
them from the curse of the Law. Then,
again, these laws were to be a prototype
of the work and the sacrifice of the
Messiah. Now the Messiah has come,
and hence all these ceremonies of the
Old Testament have served their purpose
and are revoked. The Lord Jesus ex-
pressly places the Sabbath law in the
same class with the laws concerning
sacrifices, as does Paul when he writes:
“Let no man, therefore, judge you in
meat or in drink or in respect of an
holy-day py of the pew moon, pr of the
Sabbath
67 i Sabbatarianiani
Sabbath-days; whicli are a shadow of
things to come, but the body is of
Christ.” Col. 2, 16. 17.
It is asserted that, though the cere-
monial part of the Sabbath law has be-
come antiquated, the moral obligation
to observe one of seven days as a day of
rest remains and that Sunday, the first
day of the week, is this divinely ap-
pointed New Testament Sabbath. How-
ever, neither Scripture nor the ancient
Fathers placed the first day of the week
instead of the Old Testament Sabbath,
liut the fact that the early Christians
chose Sunday as a day of public worship
is no proof that the Church Universal
is in duty bound to do the same, so long
as there is no divine command which re-
quires this. The Scriptures, however,
not only say nothing of such a command,
but we rather read: “Let no man judge
you in respect of an holy-day.” So, then,
there can be no divine command which
requires the observance of any particular
day. And when the Galatians obligated
themselves to observe certain days,
St. Paul expresses fear that they have
lost faith, that they have lost the char-
acter of New Testament Christians, Gal.
4, 10. 11; 5,4.
There can be no doubt, then, that there
is in the New Testament no divinely ap-
pointed day of rest or worship. Why,
then, do we observe Sunday? It is man’s
duty to worship, to honor, to praise his
Maker. In the New Testament the law
fixing particular days has been revoked,
and only the command to worship God
remains. Neither can man worship God
as he pleases, but God has told us how
to worship Him. His Word shall be
preached. The Sacraments are to be
administered. Public prayer and praise
shall be in vogue. If this is to be done,
it is evident that a certain time and
place must be fixed for public worship.
While in the Old Testament God pre-
scribed time and place of public worship,
He has in the New Testament left these
details entirely to the discretion and the
choice of His people. And so from the
early times of the apostles the Chris-
tians have chosen Sunday, the day of
Christ’s resurrection, as the day which
they would use for public worship.
The Augsburg Confession discusses the
Sabbath and Sunday in Article XXVIII
under the general topic of Ecclesiastical
Power. The Lutheran confessors say
(Concordia Triglot, pp. 91. 92, §§ 55 — 66) :
“It is proper that the churches should
keep such ordinances for the sake of love
and tranquillity, so far that one do not
offend another, that all things be done in
the churches in order and without con-
fusion, 1 Cor. 14, 40; cp. Phil. 2, 14;
but so that consciences be not burdened
to think that they are neoessary to sal-
vation, or to judge that they sin when
they break them without offense to
others; as no one will say that a woman
sins who goes out in public with her
head uncovered, provided only that no
offense be given. Of this kind is the
observance of the Lord’s Day, Easter, Pen-
tecost, and like holy-days and rites. For
those who judge that by the authority of
the Churcli the observance of the Lord’s
Day instead of the Sabbath-day was or-
dained as a thing necessary do greatly
err. Scripture has abrogated the Sab-
bath-day; for it teaches that, since the
Gospel has been revealed, all the cere-
monies of Moses can be omitted. And
yet, because it was necessary to appoint
a certain day, that tire people might
know when they ought to come together,
it appears that the Church designated
the Lord’s Day for this purpose; and
tli is day seems to have been chosen all
tire more for this additional reason, that
men might have an example of Christian
liberty and might know that the keeping
neither of the Sabbath nor of any other
day is necessary. There are monstrous
disputations concerning the changing of,
the law, the ceremonies of the new law,
the changing of the Sabbath-day, which
all have sprung from the false belief
that there must needs be in the Church
a service like to the Levitical and that
Christ had given commission to the
apostles and bishops to devise new cere-
monies as necessary to salvation. These
errors crept into the Church when the
righteousness of faith was not taught
clearly enough. Some dispute that the
keeping of the Lord’s Day is not indeed
of divine right, but in a manner so.
They prescribe concerning holy-days how
far ,it is lawful to work. What else are
such disputations than snares of con-
sciences? For although they endeavor
to modify the traditions, yet the mitiga-
tion can never be perceived as long as
the opinion remains that they are nec-
essary, which must needs remain where
the righteousness of faith and Christian
liberty are not known. The apostles
commanded, Acts 15, 20, to abstain from
blood. Who does now observe it? And
yet they that do it not sin not; for not
even the apostles themselves wanted to
burden consciences with such bondage;
but they forbade it for a time, to avoid
offense. For in this decree we must per-
petually consider what the aim of the
Gospel is.”
Sabbatarianism. This term denotes
the tenets of the Sabbatarians. In a
Snbelliniiimn
Sue ra mojitH, the
6?a
special sense it denotes all those who
hold that the Christian Sabbath should
be kept on the seventh-day (Saturday),
especially the Adventists, Seventh-day
Baptists, and some scattered commu-
nistic societies. In a wider sense the
term also signifies those who hold that
the Lord’s Day should be observed among
Christians exactly in the same manner
as the Jews were enjoined to keep the
Sabbath, or those who entertain rigid
views regarding Sabbath observation.
Thus in the Presbyterian Shorter Cate-
chism we read: “The Sabbath is to he
sanctified by holy rest all that day, even
from such worldly employments and rec-
reations as are lawful on other days, and
spending the whole time in public and
private exercise of God’s worship, except
so much as should be taken up in the
works of necessity and mercy.” In the
17tli century the recurrence of the Puri-
tanical Sabbath interpretation led to a
controversy regarding the manner in
which Sunday should be kept. This
arose out of the publication of King
James’s Book of Sports, published in
1018. A controversy was carried on be-
tween the High Churchmen, who were
generally in favor of the king’s views,
and the Puritans, who were strongly
opposed to them.
Sabellianism. See Monarchianism.
Sabianism. The religion of the Sa-
bians, an ancient Mesopotamian sect,
which consisted mainly in the worship
of sun, moon, and stars.
Sacer, Gottfried Wilhelm, 1635 to
1699; studied law at Jena; was in
military service; later practised law
and held political positions, last at Wol-
fenbiittel; wrote: “0 dass ich koennte
Traenen g’nug vergiessen”; “Gott faeb-
ret auf gen Himmel.”
Sachs, Hans, 1494 — 1576; famous
German shoemaker and poet; one of the
first singers of the Reformation in Ger-
many; lived all his life in Nuremberg,
except during his wanderings as jour-
neyman; many of his poetical works
pertain to the daily life of the German
burghers, bringing home truths in a
homely fashion ; he wrote few poems
which may fittingly be called hymns;
one of his most celebrated poems: “Die
Wittenberger Nachtigall” (meaning Lu-
ther ) .
Sacramentals. In the terminology
of the Roman Church certain rites and
actions, admittedly of ecclesiastical in-
stitution, but having some outward re-
semblance to Sacraments. Such are
prayer (especially the Lord’s Prayer)
and alms, when said or given in the
name of the Church or in a consecrated
place; confession; the blessing of
bishops and abbots; holy water {q.v.),
blessed candles, medals, etc. The pious
use of sacramentals is supposed to remit
venial sins.
Sacraments, The. The Sacraments
are sacred acts of divine institution, by
which, wherever they are properly per-
formed by the prescribed use of the pre-
scribed external elements in conjunction
with the divine words of institution,
God, being, in a manner peculiar to each
Sacrament, present with the word and
elements, earnestly offers to all who par-
take of such Sacraments forgiveness of
sins, life, and salvation and operates
toward the acceptance of such blessings
or toward greater assurance of their
possession. This definition, though not
found in Scripture in the same terms, is
Scriptural inasmuch as it states the
marks common to two peculiar institu-
tions described in Holy Writ which in
the Christian Church are designated as
Sacraments, Baptism and the Lord’s
Supper. As these institutions are not
termed Sacraments in the Holy Scrip-
tures, there is no cogent necessity of
restricting the term to these institu-
tions. Any sacred rite or performance
or institution, e. g., the act of absolution,
tlie administration of an oath, the rite
of confirmation or ordination, might he
called a sacrament. But when the Lu-
theran Church maintains that there are
but two Sacraments and shapes its defi-
nition as above, we mean that the Scrip-
tures know of but these two institutions
admitting of this definition taken from
Baptism and the Lord’s Supper as insti-
tutions intended for the Church of the
New Testament, and that, whatever else
may be called a sacrament, is not of the
same nature as these institutions to
which we apply and restrict this term
in theology. The proper performance of
these sacred acts, in order that they
may be sacramental acts, requires the
prescribed use of prescribed external ele-
ments in conjunction with the words of
institution. These elements — water in
Baptism, bread and wine in the Eucha-
rist — are essential to the respective
Sacrament and so is their prescribed use.
In Baptism and in the Lord’s Supper,
when these Sacraments are administered,
the divine Author of these institutions
is, in a peculiar way, present in and
with the word and elements in their
sacramental use. The spiritual blessing
dispensed in the Sacraments is the ben-
efit of Christ’s redemption, forgiveness
of sins, the salvation which Christ, the
Mediator, has merited for all mankind.
Sacrament*, Roman Catholic 673
Sacraments, Roman Catholic
And this appropriation of such benefits
to the individual sinner is all the more
apparent as, in the Sacraments, God
takes each candidate for Baptism and
each communicant, separately and indi-
vidually assuring him, to whose body the
sacramental water is applied, or him
who eats and drinks his Savior’s body
and blood, that his sins are forgiven
unto him. And here, again, the full
pardon thus freely and unconditionally
offered and extended to the sinner can
be, and often is, rejected, its acceptance
refused. T he Sac rament is not a charm,
a magic lotion or potion, but a means of
grace: — Being but another form of the
GSspel, it, too, is the power of God unto
sa IvJCTioh to every one that believeth.
(A. CTVraebner.)
Sacraments, Bomau Catholic. The
Catechismus Romanus (II, 1 . 0 ) defines
Sacraments as follows : “The Sacra-
ments of the New Law are signs insti-
tuted by God, not invented by men, of
which we believe with certainty that
they contain in themselves the power to
effect whatever sacred thing they de-
clare.” The “sacred thing” which they
declare and effect is said to be “the grace
of God, which makes us holy and pro-
vides us with capacity for all divine
virtues.” (Ibid., 7.) It is further
taught that every Sacrament requires a
material element in conjunction with
words (10. 11). The Roman Church
asserts that seven observances satisfy
these conditions and that therefore the
number of Sacraments in the New Testa-
ment is seven. This number was fixed
in comparatively recent times. Till late
in the Middle Ages theological writers
assigned numbers varying from two to
thirty. Bernard of Clairvaux named ten
sacraments. Gradually the number
seven established itself in favor; but it
was authoritatively sanctioned only at
the Council of Florence, in 1439. The
Council of Trent ( sess. VII, can. 1 ) binds
the Roman Church to seven sacraments
in these words: “If any one saith that
the sacraments of the New Law were not
all instituted by Jesus Christ, our Lord,
or that they are more or less than seven,
to wit, Baptism, Confirmation, the Eu-
charist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Or-
der [ordination], and Matrimony; or
even, that any one of these seven is not
truly and properly a sacrament: let him
be accursed.” The bold assertion that
these seven “sacraments” rest on the in-
stitution of Christ, cannot look to the
Bible for verification. No refinement of
exegesis can extract from the story of
Pentecost a sacrament of confirmation
or show a sacrament of extreme unction
Concordia CvclODedia
established in Jas. 5. Even the voice of
tradition fails. The Romanist is reduced
to what, after all, is his real and only
refuge, namely, to the fact that the
Church has so decreed. Hence the .Cath-
olic Encyclopedia must content itself
with claiming that for some sacraments
Jesus “determined only in a general way
that there should be an external cere-
mony, by which special graces were to be
conferred, leaving to the apostles or to
the Church the power to determine what-
ever He had not determined, e. g., to pre-
scribe the matter and form of the sacra-
ments of Confirmation and Holy Orders.”
No Seripture-pasBages are offered in
which Jesus leaves to the apostles or to
the Church this remarkable power of
determining what He has not deter-
mined. — Among its sacraments the Ro-
man Church names three as being more
necessary than the others: Baptism,
Penance, and Holy Orders. The Eucha-
rist is said to be the most sacred and
glorious of the sacraments. Three sacra-
ments — Baptism, Confirmation, and
Holy Orders — are never repeated be-
cause they are supposed to impress an
indelible mark on the recipient (see
Character Indelebilis) . Baptism pre-
pares for the reception of the other sac-
raments, which can be 'conferred only on
the baptized. Confirmation and Holy
Orders are administered only by bishops,
while only those who have received holy
orders can validly administer the other
sacraments (excepting Baptism in ease
of necessity ) . The validity of a sacra-
ment is not made dependent on the per-
sonal worthiness of the officiating priest ;
though the priest be a hypocrite, the
sacrament is valid if properly admin-
istered. But the comfort contained in
this assurance is limited by the peculiar
doctrine of “priestly intention,” a doc-
trine of which the Scripture knows noth-
ing and which was unheard of till the
idle speculations of the scholastics gave
birth to it. According to this doctrine
the priest must have the intention of
doing, in the sacrament, what the Church
does, that is, he must intend to admin-
ister the rites which he is conducting,
as a sacrament; if he lacks this inten-
tion or has another intention, the sacra-
ment is not valid. “If any one saith
that, in ministers, when they effect and
confer the sacraments, there is not re-
quired the intention at least of doing
what the Church does : let him be ac-
cursed.” ( Council of Trent, sess. VII,
can. 11.) Roman writers vie with each
other in minimizing the likelihood that
even a bad priest would act without
intention ; but the fact remains that by
Sacred Heart
674
St. Elisabeth
this doctrine they undermine the cer-
tainty of grace in the Sacraments and
make the mental attitude of the priest
an essential factor in their efficacy.
Oddly enough, the Roman Church, under
the same doctrine of intention, admits
the validity of Protestant baptism and
therefore does not rebaptize Protestant
converts. In the doctrine of the Sacra-
ments, as elsewhere, the insistence of the
Roman Church on works as against faith
is manifested, for it denies that the
grace of God which is- offered in the
Sacraments is appropriated through
faith alone and teaches instead that this
grace is conferred by the performance
of the sacramental act on all those who
merely place no obstacle in its way. See
Opus Operatum ; see also Baptism , , Ro-
man Catholic Doctrine of; Confirma-
tion; Lord’s Supper; Matrimony ; Or-
dination; Penance; Priesthood ; Unction,
Extreme.
Sacred Heart (nuns). A congrega-
tion which aims to spread devotion to
the physical heart of Jesus by practising
spirituality and doing works of mercy.
Sacred Heart of Jesus, Devotion to.
The devotion paid in the Roman Church
to the physical heart of Jesus. A French
nun, Margaret Mary Alacoque, claimed
that on June 16, 1675, Jesus, in a vision,
declared to her that special devotion
should be offered to His sacred heart.
Rome was long unfavorable to the devo-
tion, but the Jesuits pushed it vigor-
ously, confraternities practising it multi-
plied, and step by step Rome yielded to
the increasing pressure, first conceding
the devotion and then a festival. The
devotion steadily increased its hold on
the Roman Church. Groups, congrega-
tions, and states consecrated themselves
to the Sacred Heart. In 1875 this con-
secration took place throughout the Cath-
olic world; on June 11, 1899, Leo XIII,
as the “great act” of his pontificate, con-
secrated all mankind to the Sacred Heart.
The object of the devotion is lucidly ( ?)
defined by the Catholic Encyclopedia as
“a devotion to the love of Jesus Christ
in so far as this love is recalled and sym-
bolically represented to us by His heart
of flesh.” The most important confrater-
nity of the devotion is the League of the
Sacred Heart, or Apostleship of Prayer,
with more than 50,000 branches (1895)
and over twenty million members. — The
devotion to the Immaculate Heart of
Mary is analogous.
Sacristan. A person having charge of
the sacristy and its contents (vestments,
etc. ) . This office, more responsible than
that of sexton, was formerly held by cler-
ics, but is now usually filled by laymen.
Saeculum Obscurum. A designation
very commonly applied to the tenth cen-
tury of the Christian era, on account of
the practically total absence of theolog-
ical productions, the similar retrogres-
sion in the domain of all other divisions
of knowledge, and the demoralization and
increasing worldliness of the clergy.
St. Andrew. See Brotherhood of
St. Andrew.
St. Bartholomew, Massacre of. The
name given to the slaughter of the Hu-
guenots in Paris on the 24th of August
(St. Bartholomew’s Day), 1572. The
number of victims is variously estimated,
ranging from 1,000 to 10,000 in Paris
and from 10,000 to 100,000 in the rest
of the country. At the ringing of bells
in the early dawn the murderers fell
upon the hapless Huguenots, and for that
day and the next an indiscriminate
slaughter went on. Similar bloody
tragedies were enacted in other towns
throughout the country. The massacre
was the postlude to the festivities at-
tending the marriage of Margaret of
Valois, the sister of the French king
Charles IX, to Henry of Navarre, the
head of the Huguenot party. This union
was designed to end the religious strife
and restore peace to the distracted king-
dom. At the invitation of Charles the Hu-
guenots came in large numbers to Paris
to attend the wedding of their chief, duly
celebrated on August 18. On August 22
Coligny, the intellectual leader of the
Huguenots and one of the noblest char-
acters of the age, was wounded by a shot
from a window. The attempted assassi-
nation was the work of Catherine de
Medicf, the mother of Charles, who felt
herself supplanted in the regard and con-
fidence of her son by the great Huguenot.
Charles visited his wounded adviser and
swore vengeance against the perpetrators
of the crime. On the 23d of August,
Catherine held a council with her con-
federates; the weak and impulsive king
was made to believe that a sinister plot,
headed by Coligny, was on foot against
him. On the following day the butchery
began. It would seem, therefore, that the
massacre was not the culmination of a
previously laid plan, but a “bloodthirsty
improvisation” of Catherine and her
associates designed to deflect her son’s
vengeance for the bullet aimed at Co-
ligny. Whatever may be the actual facts,
the atrocious crime raised a cry of hor-
ror everywhere — except in Rome and
Madrid. Gregory XIII struck a medal
to commemorate the deed, and Philip II
is said to have laughed aloud for the
first time in his life.
St. Elisabeth. See Elisabeth, St.
Saint Gall
675
SaintH, Worship of
Saint Gall (Sankt Gallen), capital of
the canton Saint Gall and an important
manufacturing center of Switzerland. In
613 St. Gallus, an Irish monk, settled
here; 720 a Benedictine monastery was
organized, which became the most famous
seat of learning in Europe during the
ninth and tenth centuries. Ekkehard,
author of Historia Waltharii, and Notker
Labeo, who translated the Psalms into
German, labored here.
St. John, Frank B. Circumstances of
life not known; hymn “I Do Not Come
because My Soul” ascribed to him in
M. W. Stryker’s Church Song, 1889, with
the. date 1878.
Saint-Maur, Congregation of. See
Maur, Saint, Congregation of.
St. Victore, Adam de. Prominent
hymn-writer of the 12th century (died
1192); very prolific; most of the sea-
sons of the church-year having been sup-
plied with sequences by him, among
which Quem Pastores Laudavere (“Whom
the Shepherds Praised with Gladness”).
Saints’ Days, Homan Catholic. The
Roman Church, in addition to the feasts
of the church-year, such as Christmas,
Epiphany, and Easter, observes numerous
saints’ days, i. e., days assigned in its
calendar to the memory and veneration
of particular saints. Every new saint,
as he is canonized, is allotted his day.
Most of these days are observed only in
the Mass and the office (see Breviary)
of the day, and no general obligation re-
garding them rests on the laity. Others
are “feasts of obligation,” on which all
are bound to hear Mass and abstain from
servile work. During the Middle Ages,
and even later, the great number of feasts
of obligation was a serious nuisance,
which kept the poor from earning a live-
lihood and encouraged others in laziness.
In some places the workless days of the
year, including Sundays, reached and
even exceeded a hundred. This .condition
no longer obtains, though there are still
large variations in different countries.
In the United States there are only six
days of obligation that may fall in the
week; Christmas, New Year, Ascension,
Assumption, All Saints, and Immaculate
Conception. The Council of Baltimore,
in 1852, would even have reduced the
number to four, had not the Pope de-
murred. Among the saints’ days may be
mentioned the feasts of; 1. Mary: Na-
tivity (Sept. 8), Annunciation (March 25),
Assumption (Aug. 15), Immaculate Con-
ception (Dec. 8) , Presentation (Nov. 21),
Visitation (July 2), Rosary (Aug. 5).
2. Apostles and Evangelists: Peter and
Paul (June 29) ; Peter’s Chains (Aug. 1) ;
Peter’s Chair (Jan. 18 and Feb. 22) ;
Andrew (Nov. 30) ; Luke (Oct. 18) ; James
the Great (July 25) ; James the Less
and Philip (May 1); John (Dec. 27) ;
Simon and Jude (Oct. 28) ; Mark
(Apr. 25). 3. Others: Mary Magdalene
(July 22); Cecilia (Nov. 22); Joseph
(March 19) ; Anne, Mary’s mother
(July 26) ; Joachim, Mary’s father
(March 22) ; John the Baptist — Nativ-
ity (June 24) ; Stephen (Dec. 26); All
Saints (Nov. 1) ; All Souls (Nov. 2) ;
Guardian Angels ( Oct. 2 ) .
Saints, Worship of. This form of
idolatry, which is practised in the Ro-
man Catholic and the Eastern Churches,
is lineally descended from the heathen
cults that were uprooted by Christianity.
Unsound tendencies appeared as early as
the third century, but the real develop-
ment of saint-worship came after Chris-
tianity had been fully established. The
masses which then flooded the Church
were not thoroughly Christianized, but
retained various heathen concepts and
customs, which, in course of time, estab-
lished themselves in the Church in more
or less modified forms. The claim of
some writers that the gods, demigods,
and hefoes of heathen mythology were
deliberately replaced by Christian equiv-
alents may lack foundation, but the par-
allels between heathen cults and the
adoration of saints are numerous and
striking. Gradually the reverence which
the early Church had shown to the
memory of the martyrs and to their
tombs was perverted into an adoration
of these martyrs. On the supposition
that they and other saints had special in-
fluence with God because of their merits
and that in some way they received in-
formation of the needs of the faithful on
earth and interceded for them with God,
it was held very profitable to ask their
intercession and to conciliate their favor
by calling on them and giving them
honor. In time these ideas became gen-
eral, overrode all opposition, were adopted
by church councils, and became a prolific
source of other superstitions and hea-
thenish usages. The saints practically
developed into minor deities, to whom
prayers and oblations were offered for
aid. Each nation, city, profession, and
trade was assigned its tutelary saint,
and each individual had a guardian saint.
One saint protected against hail, another
against fire, a third against poison.
St. Apollonia cured toothache, St. Otilia
eye-trouble ; St. Gallo looked after geese,
St. Bulogius after horses, and St. An-
thony after pigs. All this the Roman
Church accepted expressly or tacitly and
so accepts it to this day. The Council
Saints, Worship of
676
Salvation Army
of Trent enjoins on the ministers of
Rome that “they especially instruct the
faithful diligently concerning the inter-
cession and invocation of saints,” “teach-
ing them that the saints, who reign to-
gether with Christ, offer up their own
prayers to God for men; that it is good
and useful suppliantly to invoke them
and to have recourse to their prayers,
aid, and help, for obtaining benefits from
God, through His Son, Jesus Christ, our
Lord.” (Sess. XXV.) The Catechismus
Romanns (111,2.12) says: “Will they
[the saints], if prayed to, not gain the
forgiveness of sins for us and procure for
us the grace of God ?” Thus Rome makes
the saints intercessors and mediators be-
tween God and men, in the face of such
passages as 1 Tim. 2, 5 ; 1 John 2, 1 ;
Heb. 4, 14 — 16; 7, 25. It robs Christ of
His honor to confer it on creatures; it
does this, however much it may insist
that He is the one, or chief, Mediator;
for it does not accept Him as the sole
Mediator. Again, Rome commits idola-
try in addressing prayers to any but
God. It cannot escape this charge by
making a distinction between latria
(q.v.), offered to God, and dulia, offered
to creatures. Even if the distinction
were observed by the average Romanist,
there would remain the fact that the
Scripture contains not a single command,
not a single promise, and not a single
example on which such invocations can
be founded, but demands, on the con-
trary, that prayer be addressed to God
alone; e. g., Ps. 50, 15; Matt. 4, 10. The
invocation of saints, therefore, is not
only superfluous and useless (Is. 63, 16;
Job 14, 21), but sinful and wrong. It is
evident, also, that a popular saint would
require something approaching omnipres-
ence and omniscience. — Roman writers
frequently try to gloss over the facts in
this matter. Cardinal Gibbons writes:
“There are expressions addressed to the
saints in some popular books of devo-
tion, which, to critical readers, may seem
extravagant.” (Faith of Our Fathers ,
p. 148.) He excuses such expressions as
enthusiastic hyperboles of affection. This
excuse will certainly not be urged regard-
ing the prayers in the Roman Breviary.
Two such prayers are therefore offered
here, each bearing a papal indulgence of
100 days. The following prayer, sanc-
tioned by Leo XIII, is to be used by
priests before saying mass in honor of a
saint: “0 Saint X., behold, I, a miserable
sinner, trusting in your merits, offer now
the most sacred Sacrament of the Body
and Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ for
your honor and glory. I pray you
humbly and devotedly to intercede for
me to-day that I may be able to offer so
great a sacrifice worthily and acceptably,
that I may be able, with you and all His
elect, to praise Him eternally and to
reign with Him, who lives and reigns
forever. Amen.” After Mass the priest
may say the following prayer, approved
by Pius IX: “Guardian of virgins, holy
Father Joseph, to whose faithful care
Innocence itself, Christ Jesus and Mary,
virgin of virgins, has been committed :
I beseech and implore you by both these
dearest pledges, Jesus and Mary, that
you will make me, preserved from all un-
cleanness, always serve Jesus and Mary
most chastely, with an unspotted mind,
a pure heart, and a chaste body. Amen.”
While the first of these prayers is an ap-
peal for intercession, it will be noted
that the second is much more: a direct
appeal to St. Joseph to grant spiritual
gifts — and that is plain, undisguised
idolatry.
Salesian Nuns. See Visitation Runs.
Salesians. A society of Roman priests,
founded 1859, having for its chief pur-
pose the teaching and training of neg-
lected boys. Support is furnished chiefly
by the society’s tertiaries, called “co-
operators.”
Salig, Christian August; h. 1692,
d. 1738 as rector at Wolfenbuettel;
wrote history of the Augsburg Confes-
sion and of the Reformation; pietistic,
yet very valuable.
Salvador. See Central America.
Salvation. See Absolution, Atone-
ment, Christ, Conversion, Election, Faith,
Gospel, Grace, Means of, Incarnation,
Propitiation, Redemption.
Salvation Army. The Salvation
Army owes its origin to William Booth,
a minister of the English body known
as the New Connection Methodists.
From his earliest preaching, which began
when he was sixteen years of age, he
was deeply impressed with the fact that
an important percentage of the crowds
which fill the towns and cities of England
lay outside the influence of the Christian
churches. In an effort to reach these
people, he inaugurated a series of open-
air meetings in London, the first of
which was held July 5, 1865. As the
attendance increased, the meetings were
held in a tent and afterwards in a
theater. Evangelists were soon sent out
in different directions to preach and
teach. At first General Booth, with
whom his wife, Mrs. Catherine Booth,
was always intimately associated, re-
garded the army as primarily supple-
mentary to the churches. However, as
it enlarged, it developed into a distinc-
Salvation Army
677 Salzburgers, Banishment of
tive movement, with a people of its own.
Although the movement was English in
origin, it rapidly extended into other
countries. Converts from England, find-
ing homes in the United States, Canada,
and other lands, began working accord-
ing to the methods of the army and
followed their efforts by urging the gen-
eral to send them trained leaders from
the International Headquarters in Lon-
don. The first country thus entered was
France, in 1880, followed by the United
States in 1881. — Doctrine. The Salva-
tion Army has no formal creed and gives
little attention to the discussion of doc-
trinal differences. However, in general,
it is strongly Arminian (Methodistic)
rather than Calvinistie. It does not lay
stress upon the Sacraments of Baptism
and the Lord’s Supper, regarding them
as unessential. Admission to its mem-
bership is not founded upon any accep-
tance of creed, but is based upon the
most solemn pledges to Christian and
humane conduct. This includes total
abstinence from intoxicating liquors and
all harmful drugs. These pledges are
known as the “Articles of War” and
must be signed by every soldier. The
form of worship is elastic, and no pre-
scribed regulation is given for the con-
duct of services. These services include
open-air meetings, a characteristic being
the preaching of women, salvation meet-
ings for the conversion of the impenitent,
holiness meetings for the deepening of
the spiritual life among the soldiers and
adherents, junior meetings, and Sunday-
schools for the conversion and training
of children. — Polity. The actual gov-
ernment of the army is practically auto-
cratic, though the commanding officer is
assisted in decisions by officers of every
grade and rank. The officers are com-
missioned to pass through training-
schools or give other evidence of abilities
sufficient to qualify them for their work.
Educational tests are not emphasized,
although mental qualifications are taken
into consideration, and the applicant is
urged to improve himself mentally, so-
cially, and religiously. The International
Headquarters of the Army are in Lon-
don, but each country has its own or-
ganization, under the direction of the
commander, who is assisted by a respon-
sible officer for provinces. — Work. The
work carried on by the Army is divided
into two important branches, called, re-
spectively, field and social work. The
field work includes the societies or corps
organizations, for religious meetings
which aim at the conversion of sections
of the community not reached by the
Church, especially the vicious and crim-
inal classes. The social department in-
cludes, in the United States, 25 rescue
homes for straying women, 121 indus-
trial homes for stranded and unemployed
men, 80 night shelters and hotels for
men and women of the street, as well as
general relief work by all the officers
engaged in field work. The income of
the society is derived chiefly from con-
tributions and from the sales of the
War Cry. The property in the United
States, held in the name of the Salvation
Army, incorporated under the laws of
the State of New York, is valued at
$7,013,255. — In a strict sense, no For-
eign Mission work is conducted by the
Salvation Army in the United States,
although it encourages the work of the
Army in missionary countries by con-
tributing men and money annually. Un-
der the general auspices of the Inter-
national Headquarters in London work
is carried on in 62 countries and colonies
under the direction of 23,088 commis-
sioned officers and assistants, who receive
the gratuitous help of 64,527 local offi-
cers and 29,023 bandsmen, with the
added services of soldiers and adherents.
This work includes distinctively mis-
sionary efforts in South Africa, India,
Korea, Java, China, etc. The Army also
conducts Sunday-schools and has corps
cadet brigades, formed for the benefit of
young people who look forward to officer-
ship in the Army. In 1916, in this
country, the corps cadet training for
future leadership numbered 1,883. The
young people’s legion has also been or-
ganized along the lines of the Christian
Endeavor and other young people’s so-
cieties. — Statistics, 1921 : Salvation
Army, U. S. A.: 3,728 officers, 1,117 or-
ganizations, and 108,033 communicants.
Salzburgers, Banishment of. The
history of Protestantism in the Austrian
crownland of Salzburg (ruled by an
archbishop) is largely a history of op-
pression and persecution, culminating at
various points in the expulsion of the
Protestants. Introduced at an early
period, the doctrines of Luther, in the
face of repressive measures, made such
progress that in 1588 Archbishop Die-
trich, after a personal consultation with
the Pope, gave the Protestants the choice
cither to return to the Church of Borne
or to leave the country, the latter alter-
native including forfeiture of property.
Numerous exiles found an asylum in
Austria, Swabia, and elsewhere. These
were followed by others 1613 — 15. Prot-
estantism was. thought to be extermi-
nated, but it lived in secret, even among
many who had outwardly returned to
Catholicism, and nurtured itself on Lu-
Samoa
678
Sandwich Inlanda
theran books, carefully hidden from
Catholic eyes. But the Jesuits sniffed
out the heresy. Schaitberger, the leader
of the Protestants, showed by a written
confession that he and his associates
were Lutherans and as such entitled to
legal recognition under the provisions
of the Treaty of Westphalia (1648).
But this did not alter the intolerant
course of the reigning archbishop. In
the midst of winter (1685) a decree of
banishment was issued, and groups of
exiles, torn from their children, to say
nothing of the loss of their property,
wandered over the snow-clad mountains
to Ulm, Augsburg, and other cities. The
last edict of banishment was issued in
1731 on the pretext that the Protestants
were fomenting sedition and rebellion.
William T of Prussia received 20,000
fugitives, while a small number found
refuge in the Colony of Georgia, in the
New World.
Samoa, or the Samoan Islands, for-
merly called the Navigator Islands, a
group of islands in the South Pacific
Ocean, belonging, until 1814, in part to
the United States of America and in
part to Germany. The latter, since the
World War, were taken over by Great
Britain, being mandated to New Zealand,
and are called Western Samoa. Area,
1,700 sq. mi. Population, ca, 50,000, of
Polynesian stock. John Williams, the
Apostle of the South Seas, sent out by
the London Missionary Society, worked
in Samoa. In 1830 he left behind 8 Ta-
hitian teachers. The Wesleyan Method-
ist Missionary Society followed in 1835.
The islands are now rated as Christian.
The men trained in the L. M. S. school
at Manua have done mission-work in the
neighboring islands, going as far as the
Gilbert Islands. French Roman Catholic
missionaries came in 1845.
Sanchez, Thomas, 1550 — 1610; Span-
ish Jesuit; author of De Matrimonio,
a work which, because of its shameless
discussion of sexual immorality, belongs
among the most notorious products of
Jesuit casuistry.
Sanctus. See Chants; Worship.
Sanctification, in the general sense
of its meaning, is the operation of the
Holy Spirit in man which follows upon
justification by faith and is conditioned
by it. Justification is also a work of the
Holy Spirit, but it necessarily precedes
sanctification. Luther states in his
Small Catechism : “He [the Holy Spirit]
has sanctified me in the true faith”;
“that is,” as our explanation adds, “He
has by faith renewed my heart and
gives me power to struggle against, and
overcome, Satan, the world, and the flesh
and to walk in godliness and good
works.” — As opposed to this doctrine,
Roman Catholics maintain that while
the saving grace of God is operative in
sanctification, the process neither fol-
lows logically upon Roman Catholic jus-
tification nor essentially differs from it.
In accordance with the medieval and
modern Roman Catholic doctrine of jus-
tification, it is sanctification which
effects justification. Grace obliterates sin
in man and endues him with supernat-
ural righteousness and holiness through
justification. Sanctification, therefore,
considered as sanctifying grace, is the
cause of justification, and the effects of
sanctification form the content of justi-
fication, through which redemption from
sin, as won by Christ, is imparted to
man. — Rationalism has perverted the
whole conception, since it understood
sanctification to be the inner disposition
which is to make man pleasing to God.
Consequently the Rationalists laid stress
upon sanctification in the sense of man’s
efforts for his own moral perfection. —
In the Reformed Church and theology,
sanctification comes into the doctrine of
perseverance. Man is justified, indeed,
freely by grace; hut the justified must
perform good works, which he is enabled
to do by a second act of grace, insep-
arably connected with justification. This
is regeneration, which sanctifies him.
By this regeneration, or sanctification,
however, man does not attain full per-
fection. His whole consolation rests
upon the fact of justification. Sancti-
fication is necessary for the elect and
justified in order to preserve the grace
of their justification, and thus it follows
justification with an inner divine neces-
sity.
Sanday, William, 1843 — 1918; Angli-
can; b. at Holme Pierrepont, Notting-
ham; priest 1869; professor of exegesis
at Exeter ; divinity professor and canon of
Christ Church, Oxford. Authorship and
Historical Character of the Fourth Gos-
pel, 1872; contributions to Ellicott’s
Handy Commentary, 1878; joint editor
of Variorum Bible, 1880; Examination
of Harnack’s “What Is Christianity f”
1901, etc.
Sandt, G. W. ; b. 1854; educated at
Philadelphia (Mount Airy Lutheran
Seminary) ; connected with the Lu-
theran since 1896 and its editor-in-chief
since 1907 ; author of American Lu-
theran Union and Church Unity and of
a life of Dr. T. E. Schmauck.
Sandwich Islands. See Hawaiian
Islands.
Sankliya Philosophy
679
Savonarola, Jerome
Sankhya Philosophy. See Brah-
manism.
Sansovino, Andrea, a Tuscan sculp-
tor and architect, 1460 — 1529; appointed
by Pope Julius II to build the tombs of
Cardinals Rovere and Sforza; among
his other works: “Baptism of Christ”;
“Madonna and Cliilcj.”
Santo Domingo, or the Dominican
Republic, a republic occupying the east-
ern section of the island of San Domingo,
or Haiti, in the West Indies. The Re-
public of Haiti occupies the western por-
tion of the island. Area, 19,325 sq. mi.
Population in 1921, 897,405, chiefly of
mixed Spanish, African, and Indian de-
scent with only a few whites. San Do-
mingo, the capital ( founded in 1495 ) ,
has a population of some 27,000. Roman
Catholicism is the state religion, but
other faiths are tolerated. Missions by
the Board for Christian Work in Santo
Domingo, Free Methodist Church, Prot-
estant Episcopal Church, Christian Mis-
sions in Many Lands, Moravians, Wes-
leyan Methodist Missionary Society.
Statistics: Foreign staff, 41 ; Protestant
community, 3,965; communicants, 1,067.
Sapper, Karl P. W. ; b. 1833; studied
at Hermannsburg and was sent to Amer-
ica by Pastor Louis Harms 1866; pastor
at Carondelet (St. Louis), Mo., and
Bloomington, 111.; d. 1911; member of
the Board for Colored Missions.
Sarawak. See Malaya , British.
Sarcophagus (in art). A stone coffin
or chestlike tomb, bearing elaborate carv-
ings and inscriptions. Many sarcophagi
have been preserved from the early
period of the Church, and the sculpture-
work on them is as elaborate as that of
the paintings in the catacombs, pictures
from both the Old and the New Testa-
ment being used freely; some fine speci-
mens in Ravenna and in the Lateran
Museum.
Sarpi, Paolo, 1552—1623; Italian
monk and historian; stern foe of the
papacy and the Jesuits; championed the
cause of the Republic of Venice in its
quarrel with Paul V. Sarpi’s history of
the Council of Trent is strongly anti-
papal. Sarpi has been called a semi-
Protestant. He was suspected of heresy
by the Inquisition. “I wear a mask,”
says he, “but only of necessity, because
without it no one can live in Italy.”
Sartorius, Ernst Wilhelm Chris-
tian; b. 1797, d. 1859; confessional
Lutheran theologian; educated at Goet-
tingen; professor at Marburg and Dor-
pat; 1835 till his end superintendent-
general at Koenigsberg.
Saskatchewan. See Canada.
Satan. See Devil.
Saubert, Johann, 1638 — 88; b. at
Nuremberg; at time of his death pro-
fessor of theology and superintendent at
Altdorf ; published the Nuernbergisches
Cesangbuch (Nuremberg Hymnal) in
1677; wrote: “Es donnert sehr, o lieber
Gott.”
Saupert, A.; b. 1822; sent over by
Pastor Loehe; directed by Professor
Winkler, of Columbus, 0., to Evansville,
Ind., 1845; pastor there to his death,
1893; joined Missouri Synod 1848;
founded all the older congregations in
Evansville and vicinity.
Saurln, Jacques, 1677 — 1730; great-
est French Protestant pulpit orator;
b. at Nimes; pastor in London, The
Hague ( d. there ) . Discourses upon the
More Memorable Events in the Bible ;
Sermons.
Savonarola, Jerome, 1452 — 98; a Do-
minican Monk; an Italian reformer of
considerable note, very properly put in
line with Wyclif, Hus, and Jerome of
Prague. His success, however, was only
temporary, chiefly because of his confus-
ing Church and State. He had attained
to a purer knowledge of the saving truth
through diligent study of Augustine and
Holy Writ and, since 1489, came into the
light as an eloquent, passionate, even
recklessly bold preacher of repentance at
Florence. Though he scathingly rebuked
the sins of the rulers of his time, not
even sparing the Pope, and of the people
and insisted on clean living, yet he did
not hold that men could be saved by
their own works or by indulgences, but
that the grace of God, through Christ
Jesus, was the only means to this end
and that really good works could be ex-
pected only where the heart had been
regenerated by faith. But Savonarola
also set himself up as a divinely inspired
prophet and believed himself chosen to
reform, not only the Church, but also the
State. In many instances his predic-
tions, both political and such as per-
tained to the private life of individuals,
proved to be true. He became the idol
of the people of Florence and vicinity,
who now began to put into practise not
only his moral and religious, but also
his political ideals of a democratic the-
ocracy. The Pope’s attempt to dissuade
him from his reformatory endeavors by
the offer of the red hat was futile. He
preferred the red hat of martyrdom.
Meanwhile political affairs grew unfavor-
able for him and thwarted some of his
predictions. There also ensued a famine,
Savoy Declaration
680
Saxon Free Clinreh
which pressed heavily upon the people.
Popular favor began to waver, the nobles
and the libertine youth had long been
filled with rage against him, and now,
in 1497, the papal ban was hurled at
him, and the interdict was pronounced
over the city. A fanatical mob took him
prisoner, his bitterest enemies became his
judges, and they condemned him to be
hanged and burned at the stake as a
demagog and heretic. He died (May 23,
1498) in pious submission to, and cheer-
ful trust in. Him who died for him. His
chief work, Trionfo della Croce (Triumph
of the Cross), is an able apology of Chris-
tianity. Luther republished an exposi-
tion of the 51st Psalm, written by Savo-
narola in prison, because he considered
it an example of evangelical doctrine and
Christian piety.
Savoy Declaration. The Westminster
Confession (1646) and the Savoy Decla-
ration (1658) are generally accepted by
the Congregational churches as their
creed, although “no Congregational church
is obliged to accept any creed or declara-
tion of faith.” The Savoy Declaration
differs little from the Westminster Con-
fession, except that it discards its Pres-
byterianism in polity and denies the
authority of magistrates to interfere
with ecclesiastical liberty. Some of its
distinctive features are as follows: It
founds the authority of Scriptures upon
internal evidence and the testimony of
the Holy Spirit alone, emphasizes pre-
destination and limited redemption, and
urges the Puritan view of the Sabbath.
Saxon Confession is Melanchthon’s
Repetition of the Augsburg Confession,
which he prepared to present to the
Council of Trent in 1551, for which
neither the Augsburg Confession itself
nor Luther’s Smalcald Articles seemed
suitable in the circumstances just at that
time. Though he had to consider the
changed times, Melanchthon had no in-
tentions of altering the teaching of the
confession. It was never read at the
Council, for Maurice of Saxony turned
on the Kaiser, and the Council scattered.
Saxons, Conversion of. See Conver-
sion of the Franks, Saxons, and other
Germanic Nations.
Saxony. Lutheran Free Church of
Saxony and Other States. The spirit
of indifference and unionism, which, in
1817 and later, had brought about the
“Union” in Prussia between the Lutheran
and Reformed churches, had also pro-
duced in the other Lutheran state
churches a practical union between truth
and error. Notorious unbelievers were
not merely retained in office, but were
advanced to the most important posi-
tions, while faithful preachers of the
Gospel were frequently frowned upon and
in some instances forced out of office.
The forming of free churches, standing
on the confessional basis, offered the only
escape from this intolerable condition.
Thus the Saxon Free Church came into
existence. This body was organized by
Lutherans in Saxony and Hesse-Nassau.
In 1846 Pastor F. Brunn, with 28 fami-
lies, withdrew from the state church on
account of the “Union” and formed the
independent congregation at Steeden.
(See lirunn.) In 1853 Pastor Hein with-
drew and became pastor of two other
“free” congregations. Pastor Brunn,
through the study of the Bible and of
Luther, of the Lutheran dogmaticians
and Walther, had learned to know and
love true Lutheranism and labored in-
cessantly to spread it at home and
abroad. — In Dresden, Saxony, an asso-
ciation of awakened Lutheran laymen was
formed about the middle of the 19th cen-
tury, which had for its object the study
and spread of Lutheranism. They held
private devotional meetings, in which
they read the Bible, Luther’s writings,
the Lutheran Confessions, Brunn’s Kv.-
Luth. Kirche und Mission; and through
Dr. C. F. W. Walther, in 1860, these men,
both at Dresden and Zwickau, became ear-
nest readers of the Lutheraner and even
of Lehre und Wehre. By these means and
through their connection with Pastor
Brunn they became well grounded in the
teachings of the Lutheran Church, so
that, when in 1868 the abolition of the
confessional oath was agitated in Saxony,
to be replaced by a vaguely worded vow,
they vigorously protested to the church
authorities. When, in 1871, the change
went into effect, they, for conscience’ sake,
withdrew from the state church as being
no longer truly Lutheran and formed in-
dependent congregations. A number of
the clergy had joined in the protest, but
not one of them had the courage to cast
his lot with these faithful Lutheran lay-
men. Pastors Brunn and Hein were un-
able, because of distance and stress of
work, to minister to their fellow-confes-
sors. From the Breslau Synod they dif-
fered in the doctrine of the Church and
the ministerial office. Dr. Walther, to
whom they applied, recommended Pastor
Ruhland, of Pleasant Ridge, 111., to them,
who was known to them by his forty
theses on the state churches. In 1872
he was installed as pastor of Trinity
Church of Dresden and St. J ohn’s Church
of Planitz. In 1873 Dresden called Pas-
tor E. Lenk, and Pastor Ruhland re-
mained in Planitz till 1879. (See Ruh-
Saxon. Free Church
681
Scapular
land.) — In August, 1876, a preliminary
meeting was held for the purpose of or-
ganizing a synod. The draft of a consti-
tution was laid before the congregations
for approval, those in Nassau and five in
Saxony, and on November 6, 1876, the
Synod of the Ev. Luth. Free Church of
Saxony and Other States was organized.
Pastor Ruhland was the first president.
At the first annual meeting at Planitz,
in 1877, 9 pastors (among them Lie. G.
Stoeckhardt and 0. Willkomm, later pres-
ident), 1 teacher, and 6 lay delegates
were present. The Free Church, with its
official organ Die Ev.-Luth. Freikirche
(H. J. Naumann in Dresden, publisher),
bravely fought the battle of true Lu-
theranism and despite much opposition
and many obstacles has had a steady and
healthy growth. A number of pastors and
congregations from the state churches
joined it in the course of time. In 1892
its membership was: 12 congregations,
12 pastors, and ca. 3,000 souls, in 130
localities in Saxony, Nassau, the Grand-
duchy of Hessen, Rhenish Prussia, Hano-
ver, and Pomerania. In 1908 the Her-
manns bargee Freikirche, 7 pastors with
their congregations, merged with the
Saxon synod, which to-day comprises 130
congregations and preaching-stations in
450 localities, 37 pastors, 8,875 souls,
2,009 voting members, 1,938 pupils in
the day-schools, in Saxony, Thuringia,
Prussia (3 pastors in Berlin), Hessen,
Baden, Wurttemberg (Stuttgart), Bava-
ria, Hamburg, Bremen, and in Memel
and Denmark. Th. Nickel, D. D., presi-
dent; P. H. Petersen, vice-president; H.
Stallmann, secretary; Mr. P. Heylandt,
treasurer. In 1922 a seminary was estab-
lished in Berlin-Zehlendorf, which obvi-
ated the necessity of sending students
to America. Since the revolution of
1918 the growth of the Free Church has
been more rapid. A number of pastors
of the Volkskirche have joined or are
preparing to join it, and its services are
being attended by ever-increasing num-
bers. “There is no large city where we
could not be represented if we had the
men.” — In 1855 Pastor N. P. Grunnet
withdrew, for the same confessional rea-
sons, from the state church of Denmark
and organized the Ev. Luth. Free Church
in Denmark. His preaching attracted
thousands. He was later assisted by his
son, who had studied theology at the
seminary of the Missouri Synod. The
results of employing lay preachers prov-
ing disastrous in the extreme, the Mis-
souri Synod sent over two pastors who,
after Pastor Grunnet’s death, took charge
of the remnants of his flock. In 1911
the Danish Free Church united with the
Saxon Synod. At present one pastor
(from Missouri), stationed at Copen-
hagen, has charge of the nine stations ;
he publishes the Luthersk Vidnesbyrd
( Lutheran Witness). — • The congregation
in Muehlhausen, Alsace, formerly belonged
to the Saxon Free Church. Since the
World War the Ev. Luth. Free Church
of Alsace-Lorraine was formed. It con-
sists of four pastors, who, besides serving
their charges, also minister to small
flocks in Switzerland. Official organ, Der
Etsaessische Lutheraner. See Missouri
Synod’s Foreign Connections.
Saybrook Platform. One of the
platforms of Congregationalism adopted
in 1705 in Connecticut, which was for-
mally abrogated in 1784, although it
remained in more or less active use for
many years longer. The framers of this
platform accepted the Westminster and
Savoy confessions with respect to doc-
trine, but not as to church government,
Sayce, Archibald Henry, 1846 — ;
Anglican, Orientalist; b. at Shirehamp-
ton; priest 1871; professor of Assyriol-
ogy, Oxford, 1891 ; member of Old Testa-
ment Revision Company. Monuments of
the Hittites ; Higher Criticism and the
Verdict of the Monuments; etc.
Scaliger, Joseph Justus, 1540 to
1609; illustrious French classical
scholar; b. at Agen, France; joined
Reformed Church 1562; professor at
Geneva 1572; Leyden 1593; founder of
modern chronology; d. at Leyden. De
Emendations Temporum, etc.
Scapular. Two little pieces of woolen
cloth, joined by cords, worn under the
clothing by devout Roman Catholics, one
segment on the breast, the other on the
shoulders. Scapulars were introduced
by the Carmelites, to whose general,
Simon Stock (d. 1265), the Virgin Mary
is said to have handed a scapular with
the promise, “No one dying in this
scapular will suffer eternal burning.”
Pope John XXII (1316—34), in his
Sabbatine Bull, relates that Mary ap-
peared to him and informed him that
she goes to purgatory every Saturday to
free those who wear the scapular. Some
Romanists accept this bull as genuine,
others reject it. Scapulars must be
properly blessed and worn constantly to
be effective. There are now about a
score of different kinds, and as many of
these as desired may be worn, one over
the other. Since the wearing of numer-
ous pieces of wool is very irksome in
summer, the papal provision of 1910 is
much to be admired, according to which
a medal may be worn instead of a scapu-
lar or any number of scapulars. It
Scarlatti, Alessandro
682
Schaller, Johannes
should be carefully noted, however, that
this scapular medal must be separately
blessed for each scapular represented,
and also that when a scapular or medal
is found, stolen, sold (except commer-
cially) , or given away, it is just so much
wool or metal, the blessing having de-
parted.
Scarlatti, Alessandro, 1659 — 1725;
no record of early life; maestro in sev-
eral cities, last of the royal chapel in
Naples; taught also in several conserva-
tories; among his sacred music eight
oratorios and more than 200 masses.
Scepticism. See Skepticism.
Sehade, Johann Kaspar, 1666 — 98;
studied at Leipzig and Wittenberg; Dia-
conus at Berlin, with Spener as Probst ;
earnest and faithful pastor; wrote:
“Meine Seel’, ermuntre dich”; “Meine
Seel’ ist stille”.
Schaefer, Theodore; b. 1846, d. — ;
chief expositor of work of Inner Mis-
sions ( (]. v. ) ; since 1872 president of
Deaconess Home at Altona; wrote: Die
weibliche Diaknnic , 3 vols.; Lcitfaden
Her Inncren Mission; Praktisches Chris-
lentum, 4 vols.
Schaeffer, C. F., 1807 — 79; Lutheran
professor of theology in the Columbus
Seminary 1840 — 46; at Gettysburg 1857
to 1864, at Philadelphia, 1864 — 79. Ac-
tive as a writer.
Schaeffer, C. W., 1813 — 96; nephew
of C. F. S.; Lutheran; successor of his
grandfather, F. D. S., in Germantown,
1849 — 74; professor in Philadelphia
Seminary 1 864 — 96 ; president of Gen-
eral Synod 1859; of General Council,
1868. Author of Early History of the
Lutheran Church in America, 1857 ;
translated many hymns from the Ger-
man, among which : “Come, O Come,
Thou Qujckening Spirit.”
Schaff, Philip, 1819 — 93; Reformed
theologian; b. at Chur, Switzerland;
studied in. Germany; traveled exten-
sively ; tutored in Berlin ; ; professor of
theology at Mercersburg, Pa., 1844; part
founder of the Mercersburg theology ;
secretary of Sabbath Committee, New
York City, 1863; professor in Union
Seminary 1870, holding various chairs;
prominent in the Evangelical Alliance
and in the revision of the English Bible;
d. in New York City. History of the
Christian Church; edited translation of
Lange’s Bibelwerk ; edited Schaff -H erzog
Encyclopedia, The Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers, etc.
Schaitberger, Joseph, 1658 — 1733;
leader of the Salzburgers at the time of
the expulsion decree in 1685. After a
vain endeavor to secure, legal recognition
for himself and his followers by proving
that they adhered to the Augsburg Con-
fession (recognized with Calvinism and
Catholicism by the Peace of Westphalia
1648), he settled at Nuremberg, sup-
porting himself with hard labor and
writing tracts for the encouragement of
his oppressed associates at home.
Schaller, Johann Michael Gottlieb;
1). February 12, 1819, at Kirchenlamitz,
Bavaria; confirmed and instructed in
Latin, etc., by Pastor Wm. Loehe; at-
tended the Gymnasium at Nuremberg;
studied theology at Erlangen, where lie
graduated 1842. After serving as vicar
at Windsbach and at Kattenhochstadt,
Bavaria, he came to America in 1848, at
the instance of Pastor Loehe, who was
anxious to have the American Church
profit by the splendid gifts of “his Tim-
othy” and hoped to have him assume the
direction of affairs in Michigan. How-
ever, Schaller became pastor of the con-
gregation in Philadelphia in 1849. He
joined the Missouri Synod the same
year. In 1850 lie acted as vicar during
the vacancy in Baltimore. At the ses-
sion of the Missouri Synod of 1850 he
was convinced by Walther’s arguments
that Loehe had fallen into error, and bis
love of the truth was greater than his
respect and great love for his spiritual
father. The same year he became pastor
of the Church in Detroit and later vice-
president of the Northern District.
From 1854 to 1872 he served as vicar
(of President Wynekcn), and later as
pastor, of Trinity Church, St. Louis. In
1 857 he was elected president of the
Western District. From 1872 to 1886
he was professor of Church History and
other branches in Concordia Seminary,
St. Louis. D. November 19, 1887.
Schaller, Johannes; b. December 10,
1859, in St. Louis; d. February 7, 1919,
at Wauwatosa; son of Prof. G. Schaller;
graduate of Northwestern College and
St. Louis Seminary; pastor at Little
Rock 1881; Cape Girardeau, 1885; pro-
fessor at New Ulm (then a theological
seminary) 1889. When this institution
was converted into a teachers’ seminary,
1893, he became its president and as
such exerted wide and wholesome influ-
ence in the cause of parish-schools, of
which he was an ardent and convincing
advocate. On Hoenecke’s death he was
made president of Wauwatosa Seminary,
1908, taking the vacant chair of dog-
matics. His scholarship was supported
by a most winning personality, which
reached out far beyond the classroom.
His Bibelkunde, translated by himself
Schulling, Martin
683 Sehleferdecker, Georg' Albert
and entitled Book of Books , is used as
text-book in many Lutheran institutions.
His Pastoral Praxis (1913) deals more
fully with the problems of the Lutheran
pastor in the United States. Valuable
and the best index to Sehaller as theo-
logian and man is Biblical Christology
(1918). His death when in his prime
(February 7, 1919) was a serious loss to
Lutheran America.
Schalling, Martin, 1532 — 1G08;
studied at Wittenberg, favorite of Me-
lanchtlion; Diaeon us at Regensburg,
then at Amberg; later preacher at Hei-
delberg, finally at Nuremberg; wrote
“Herzlieh lieb liab’ ich dich, o Herr.”
Scheele, Karl; b. 1810, d. 1871 at
Wernigerode; Lutheran in state church;
pastor and academical teacher ; wrote
Die trunkene Wissenschaft und ihr Krbe
an die evangelisehe Kirche.
Scheele, Kurt Henning Gezelius
von; b. at Stockholm, 1838; Swedish
Lutheran theologian; professor at Up-
sala; bishop of Wisby; wrote on cat-
eehetics and symbolics; collaborator on
Zoeckler’s Handbuch; d. 1918.
Scheffer, Ary, 1795 — 1858; French
painter, influenced by German art of his
time; choice of lyrical subjects of the
Bible, which he presents from the view-
point of sentiment; among his paint-
ings: “Christ the Comforter,” showing
strong socialistic tendency.
Scheffler, Johann, 1024 — 77 ; studied
at Strassburg, practised medicine at
Dels; turned Catholic and became a
rabid controversialist under the name
Angelus Silesius in 1653; imperial court
physician in 1654; priest at Neisse in
1061, officer at court of prince-bishop of
Breslau in 1604; finally, in 1671, in
monastery; wrote: “Die Seele Ghristi
lieil’ge mieh”; “Jesu, komm’ doeh selbst
zu mir”; “Mir nach, spricht Christus.”
Scheibel, Johann Gottfried; b. 1783
at Breslau; a fearless champion of Lu-
theranism^ at first pastor, in 1818 also
professor of theology, in his native city;
wrote against Rationalism, and when
Frederick William III introduced the
Union of the Lutheran and Reformed
churches, he opposed it and was sus-
pended in 1830; in 1832 he moved to
Dresden, but was compelled to leave the
city because of a polemical Reformation
sermon; 1836 at Glauchau, 1839 at Nu-
remberg; d. there in 1843.
Scheidt, Christian Ludwig, 1709 to
1761; b. at Waldenburg; at time of his
death Hof rat and librarian in Hanover ;
wrote “Aus Gnaden soli ich selig werden.”
Scheidt, Samuel, 1587 — 1654; stud-
ied under Sweelinck at Amsterdam;, or-
ganist and Kapellmeister to Margrave
of Brandenburg at Halle; treated work-
ing out of choral artistically; published
some figured chorals.
Schein, Johannes Hermann, 1586 to
1630; entered Electoral Chapel at Dres-
den as soprano, studied at Schulpforta
and at Leipzig University; Kapell-
meister . at Weimar, finally cantor in
Leipzig; his Cantional contained more
than 300 sacred songs.
Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Jo-
seph von, German philosopher; b. 1775
at Leonberg, Wurttemberg; d. 1854 at
Ragaz, Switzerland; professor at Jena,
Wuerzburg, Munich; since 1841 at Ber-
lin. His philosophy underwent several
changes. At first he developed his Iden-
titaetsphilosophie (the ideal and the real
are absolutely identical) and a panthe-
istic system of nature philosophy, which
was opposed to current rationalistic the-
ology, and greatly influenced his contem-
poraries. Later he became theist, in-
fluenced by the theosopliist Boehme
(q. v.) . Still later he approached Bib-
lical Christianity more closely.
Schemelli, Georg Christian, 1670 to
1736; Kantor at Zeitz; his great work
a hymnal with 954 hymns, the musical
part of which was arranged by J. S. Bach.
Schenk, Hartmann, 1634 — 81; b. at
Ruhla, near Eisenach, at time of his
death pastor in Ostheim; wrote hymn
for the close of service: “Nun, Gott
Lob; es ist vollbracht.”
Schertzer, Johann Adam; b. 1628;
d. as professor of theology at Leipzig
1683; author of an excellent Hebrew
grammar and of a number of dogmatic
and polemic works : Breviarium Theolo-
giae; Systema Theologiae ; Collegium
Anticalvinianum.
Schicht, Johann Gottfried, 1753 to
1823; early training as organist and
pianist; law student at Leipzig ; pianist
at Qewandhauskonzerte; afterward con-
ductor; Kantor of Thomaskirche ; three
oratorios and other sacred music.
Schieferdecker, Georg Albert; born
1815; graduate of University of Leipzig;
came over with M. Stephan ; ordained
1841 as pastor in Monroe Co., 111.; pas-
tor in Altenburg, Mo.; president of
Western District 1854. Divested of the
pastorate by his congregation and of his
membership in Missouri Synod for his
Chiliasm, he joined the Iowa Synod. Re-
nouncing his error, he again joined Mis-
souri and became pastor in Hillsdale
and Coldwater, Mich., and (1876) in New
Gehlenbeek, 111.; d. 189], Author of de-
votional books.
Schick, CrCoPg
6$4
Schism, Papal
Schick, Georg; ti. 1831, attended the
Gymnasium at Frankfort on the Main ;
studied theology and philosophy at Er-
langen, Berlin, Heidelberg, graduated
1851; studied at the Sorbonne (Paris);
private tutor; refused to enter the ser-
vice of the unionistic state church as as-
sistant pastor in Frankfort; joined Mis-
souri Synod as pastor in Chicago 1854;
professor of ancient languages at Con-
cordia College (St. Louis, Fort Wayne)
1856, with title of Conrector, later Rec-
tor; made Doctor of Philosophy 1906 by
St. Louis Seminary; retired 1914; died
1915. He was a master of the science of
philology and of the art of teaching the
classical languages.
Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 1781 to
1841; German architect; studied draw-
ing and design at Berlin ; professor at
Berlin Royal Academy; erected many
public buildings and churches ; books on
architecture.
Schirmer, Michael, 1606 — 73; stud-
ied at Leipzig; taught at the Gray
Friars’ Gymnasium in Berlin; had many
domestic and personal afflictions to bear;
wrote: “Nun jauchzet, all’ ihr From-
men”; “0 Heil’ger Geist, kehr’ bei uns
ein.”
Schism [oxi&iv, to split) is the term
employed to denote a division, or rupture,
in the Church on questions of discipline
or church government. See also Heresy.
Schism between East and West.
The complete and permanent separation
of the Greek and Roman churches was
long a-preparing. The first tangible be-
ginning may be said to have lain in the
formal adoption of the Filioque (q. v. )
from the Athanasian into the Nicene Creed
by the Council of Toledo, 589. The Greeks
called this a falsifying of that symbol.
The second Trullan Council of Constan-
tinople (Quinisextum ) , 692, decided a
number of differences between the two
churches in favor of the Greeks. (Cer-
tain Latin council decrees and papal de-
cretals were ruled out as sources of canon
law, while certain Greek documents were
added, some rulings of the Roman Church
concerning celibacy, fastings, images, etc.,
were condemned, and the Patriarch of
Constantinople once again was declared
equal to the Bishop of Rome.) But the
matter became really acute when Photius,
Patriarch of Constantinople, whom Pope
Nicholas I would not recognize, called
the Eastern bishops to a council at Con-
stantinople in 867, at the same time
charging the Pope with divers heresies
(falsifying of a symbol, false doctrine of
the Holy Ghost, of fasting, etc.). This
gave the threatening schism a doctrinal
basis and made of a personal quarrel a
quarrel of the churches. The council
took sides with Photius and pronounced
the ban upon Nicholas. Although a later
council at Constantinople, 869, condemned
Photius and favored the Pope, yet a
politico-ecclesiastical question concerning
Bulgaria prevented a real cementing of
the two churches. Later Photius again
came into power, and because he would
not agree to give up his claims to Bul-
garia at another synod at Constanti-
nople, 879, he was afterward put under
the ban by the Pope. The quarrel, after
resting for two hundred years, broke out
again when Michael Cerularius, Patri-
arch of Constantinople, in 1053, renewed
the accusations of Photius, adding as a
new indictment the Roman practise of
using unleavened bread in the Lord’s
Supper. In 1054 each party put the
other under the ban, and thus the rup-
ture became complete and has never
again really been healed, though various
attempts were made, the last and most
energetic, and for a brief time seemingly
successful, under Joannes VII Palae-
ologus at Florence, 1439. The doctrinal
differences named were probably not the
most vital reasons for the schism, but
rather the unwillingness of the East to
submit to the Pope.
Schism, Papal ( Great Schism ) . The
great division in the ranks of the Church
at the end of the fourteenth and the be-
ginning of the fifteenth century, agitat-
ing and shattering the Church as no
other schism had done before. After the
death of Pope Gregory XI, in 1378, six-
teen cardinals residing at Rome elected
Archbishop Bartholomew, of Bari, as
Pope Urban VI, while thirteen other car-
dinals, dissatisfied with their choice,
went to Avignon, in Southern France,
and elected Cardinal Robert of Geneva
as Pope Clement VII, alleging that co-
ercion had been brought to bear upon
the College of Cardinals at tju: election
in Rome. Sentiment in Italy and also
in Germany, England, Denmark, and
Sweden favored Urban VI, while France
acknowledged Clement VII, later drawing
also Scotland. Savoy, Castile, Aragon,
and Navarre to his cause. Thus two
Popes, each with his College of Cardi-
nals, were arrayed against each other,
the controversy occasionally assuming
alarming proportions and being carried
on with great bitterness. Urban VI was
followed by Boniface IX (1389 — 1404),
Innocent VIII (1404 — 06), and Greg-
ory XII (1406 — 15). Clement VII (died
1394) was followed by Benedict XIII.
In order to remove the schism, the Coun-
cil of Pisa (1408) deposed both Greg-
Sehlaitei*, A<lolf
665 Hcliiimuck, Theodore i^iinimnuel
ory XII and Benedict XIII, electing in
their place Alexander VI, who was suc-
ceeded in 1410 by John XXIII. But the
two deposed Popes refused to acknowl-
edge the action of the council, with the
result that three men now claimed to be
the successors of Peter. The Council of
Constance (1414 — 18) in 1415 declared
that it possessed the supreme ecclesias-
tical authority. It deposed John XXIII
and once more declared Benedict XIII as
a schismatic, the latter, however, defying
the sentence of deposition till his death
in 1424. The council, on November 1 1,
1417, elected Martin V, and this election
gradually received the approval of the
majority of church dignitaries. The last
opposition came to an end in 1429, when
Clement VIII, nominal successor of Bene-
dict XIII, relinquished his dignity.
Schlatter, Adolf; b. 1852; Reformed
theologian ; studied at Basel and Tue-
bingen; professor at Creifswald 1888;
Berlin, 1893; '1,'uebingen, 1898; his
theology of the modern type; wrote on
Biblical theology, historical, and exeget-
ical subjects.
Schlatter, Michael, 1716 — 90; Ger-
man Reformed pioneer; b. in Switzer-
land; ordained in Holland; sent by the
Holland synods as missionary to German
Reformed people of America 1746; pas-
tor in Philadelphia and Germantown
1747; organized German Reformed
Synod same year; resigned his charge
1755; chaplain of Royal American Regi-
ment 1757 — 9; thereafter in retirement;
d. near Philadelphia.
Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel
Ernst; b. 1708 in Breslau; d. 1834 in
Berlin; founder of modern Protestant
theology; the son of a Reformed army
chaplain; entered the Moravian Sem-
inary at Barby in 1785; dissatisfied, he
left in 1787 for Halle, where he studied
Kant and Greek philosophy; for a time
private tutor; in 1796 Reformed preacher
at the Charitd in Berlin. Against the
then prevailing “enlightenment” he
wrote, in 1799, his Reden ueber die Re-
ligion, in which he gave his conception
of religion and the Church. Religion is
to him “the taste and feeling for the
infinite.” Of this work it is said that
it has influenced modern theology more
than any other work; but it utterly
failed to do justice to the Christian re-
ligion. Schleiermacher here lays the
foundation for the entirely subjectivistic
character of present-day theology. Ac-
cording to him, Christianity does not
even claim to be the final form of all
religion. Traces of the philosophy of
Kant, Leibniz, and Spinoza may be found
in this work. In 1802 Schleiermacher
had himself transferred to Stolpe; in
1804 he was appointed professor at
Halle, 1807 in Berlin; 1809 he became
preacher at the Dreifaltigkeitskirche and
in 1810 dean of the theological faculty
of the new university. In this double
capacity he remained to the end of his
life. In 1811 he issued his Kurze Dar-
stellung des theologischcn Stadiums, in
which he showed theology as an organic
whole and practical theology as its fruit.
His chief work is Ohristlicher Qlaube,
nach den Grundsactzen der evangelischen
Kirchi; im Zusammenhang dargestellt
(1821 — 2). Here religion is defined as
the feeling of absolute dependence upon
God, who is the highest Causality, man-
ifesting Himself in His attributes of
omnipotence, eternity, omnipresence, and
omniscience. In Christ was the highest
consciousness of God; redemption through
Him is the communication of His con-
sciousness of God to the believer. The
result in the faithful is regeneration.
Christ’s supernatural birth, resurrection,
ascension, and second advent are dis-
carded. The Holy Spirit is regarded as
a spirit proceeding from Christ and per-
vading the Church, the community of
the regenerate. — Schleiermacher, though
attacking Rationalism, did not teach
Biblical Christianity. He was both a
rationalist and a pantheist. His per-
nicious influence upon modern'Protestant
theology is clearly traceable, having led
it into the paths of developing its doc-
trines from the inner consciousness of
the individual heart instead of founding
it upon the impregnable rock of Holy
Scriptures.
Schletterer, Hans Michel, 1824 — 93;
studied at Ansbach, Kassel, and under
David and Richter at Leipzig; teacher
and Kapellmeister ; finally founder and
director of Augsburg School of Music;
several cantatas, 17 books of choruses.
Schlicht, Levin Johann, 1681 — 1723 ;
b. at Kalbe, professor at the Paedago-
giurn in Halle at time of his death
pastor in Berlin; very learned; wrote:
“Acli, mein Jesu, sieh, ich trete.”
Schlueter, J. W. Theodor; b. Febru-
ary 18, 1872 at Scharmbeck, Hanover;
educated at the Bremen Gymnasium and
at St. Louis; pastor at Fulda and Court-
land, Minn.; professor at Springfield
Seminary 1905; at the Northwestern
College of Lutheran Wisconsin Synod,
1908; wrote Luthers Leben.
Schmauck, Theodore Emmanuel ;
the leading spirit in the Lutheran Gen-
eral Council at the beginning of the 20th
century and its last president, who “cast
Schmid, Heinrich
686
Schmidt, Sebastian
the great influence of his personality
into the balance for the advancement of
conservative Lutheranism”; the son of
Pastor Benj. Wm. Schmauck; b. in Lan-
caster, Pa., May 30, 1800; entered Penn-
sylvania University 1870; graduating
with high honors in 1880. he entered the
Philadelphia Seminary. Upon his grad-
uation in 1883 he became the associate
of his father in “Old Salem” Church in
Lebanon, Pa. He continued to serve this
church after his father’s death till his
own end came. In 1889 Schmauck be-
came the literary editor of the Lutheran
and took over the editorship of the Lu-
theran Church Review in 1895. In 1890
he began the publication of the Lutheran
(traded Series and Commentaries for
Sunday-schools. He was preeminently
the Lutheran pioneer in this field. His
qualifications for leadership caused him
to be elected, in 1903, to the presidency
of the' General Council, an office which
he lie!d until this body was merged into
the United Lutheran Church (1918).
Under his able leadership the General
Council reached its confessional high-
water mark in 1907. In 1911, in addi-
tion to his many duties as pastor,
preacher, editor, president, and member
of many boards, he became professor of
Apologetics and Ethics at Mount Airy.
When the prospects of a merger between
the General Council, the General Synod,
and the United Synod in the South
began to materialize, Schmauck’s con-
servatism at first caused him to look
with disfavor upon such a union. But
his influence was on the wane. He
yielded and became one of the chief pro-
moters of the merger movement and also
of the organization of the National Lu-
theran Council, 1918. With all his other
activities he found time to write a large
number of books; outstanding among
them : A History of the Lutheran
Church in Pennsylvania, 1038- — 1820;
The Confessional Principle and the Con-
fessions of the Lutheran Church (with
Hr. Benze), “an epoch-making work” (Ja-
cobs) ; How to Teach if Sunday-school,
the ripe fruit of many years of study
in this field. D. March 23, 1920. (See
Sandt, Theodore Emmanuel Schmauck,
II. D., LL.D .)
Schmid, Heinrich; b. 1811, professor
at Erlangen 1848 — 81; d. 1885; best
known for his Dogmatik der ev.-luth.
Kirche, a presentation of Lutheran dog-
matics from orthodox Lutheran theo-
logians; translated into English by Hay
and Jacobs; Church History and other
historical writings.
Schmidt, Carl Christoph; b. Novem-
ber 8, 1843, at Bonfeld, Wurttemberg;
graduate of St. Louis Seminary 1808;
pastor in New York City, Elyria, O.,
Indianapolis, Ind., St. Louis, Mo.; vice-
president of Western District of Missouri
Synod 1889—91; President, 1891—8;
vice-president of Missouri Synod 1899 to
1908; Doctor of Divinity honoris causa;
wrote: Erkenntnis des lleils; Glaube
und Liche; Katechismuspredigten ; Las-
set euch versoehnen mat Gott; Leich.cn-
reden; Weg des Lebens. D. October 25,
1925.
Schmidt, Christian, 1083 — 1754;
b. at Stolberg, at time of his death
pastor of the Itergkirche near Eilenburg;
wrote: “Frohlocket, jung und alt.”
Schmidt, Erasmus; b. 1500, d. 1637;
adjunct of philosophy at Wittenberg,
professor of Greek and mathematics ;
author of a Latin translation of the New
Testament with notes, an improvement
on Beza’s work; also editor of a con-
cordance of the New Testament, which
was the basis of K. G. Bruder’s Concor-
dance.
Schmidt, Friedrich August; b. in
Germany January 3, 1837; graduate of
Concordia College 1853, and of Concordia
Seminary 1857; pastor at Eden, N. Y.,
and Baltimore (Missouri Synod 1857 to
1801); teacher at Luther College 1861
to 1872; Norwegian Synod professor at
Concordia Seminary 1872 — 6, Luther
Seminary 1870 — 80, Antimissouri Sem-
inary 1880 — 90, Augsburg Seminary
1890 — 3, United Norwegian Church Sem-
inary 1893 — 1912; edited Lutheran
Watchman 1800 — 7, .4 lies und Heues
1880 — 5, Luthersk Vidnesbyrd 1882 — 90,
Luthcrslc Kirkeblad 1890 — 5; author of
Naadevalgsstriden, 1881; Sandhed og
Fred, 1914; created D. D., by Capital
University 1883.
Schmidt, Hans Christian ; b. May 25,
1840 at Flensburg, Schleswig; d. March 6,
1911, in India; trained by Groenning
for missionary work; commissioned by
the American Lutheran General Synod
1870; arrived at Rajahmundry, India,
1870; first home furlough in 1883;
second, 1894; declined recall to America
1901, removing to the Nilgiris 1903,
where he died. Was a successful mis-
sionary.
Schmidt, J., D. D. See Roster at
end of book.
Schmidt, Johann Eusebius, 1070 to
1745; studied at Jena and Erfurt;
curate, then pastor at Siebleben, near
Gotha; popular hymn-writer; wrote:
“Fahre fort, falire fort, Zion.”
Schmidt, Sebastian; b. 1617, d. 1696;
rector and minister at Lindau; professor
of theology in Strassburg during the
Sehmolk, Benjamin
687
Schoenherr, Karl Gottlob
Thirty Years’ War; wrote works on
exegetical and Biblical theology, Col-
legium lliblicum ; edited a Latin trans-
lation of the Bible, published at Strass-
burg after his death.
Schmolck, Benjamin, 1672 — 1737;
studied at Gymnasium in Lauban, after-
ward in Leipzig, where he was also
crowned as poet; assistant to his father,
at Braucliitzsclidorf, in 1701; Diaeon us
at Schweidnitz in 1702, later Archidia-
oonus, senior, and finally inspector, hold-
ing out in his difficult position, in the '
midst of a Catholic population, till his
death ; popular preacher, diligent pastor ;
wrote, among others : “Der beste Freund
ist in dem Himmel”; “Tut mir auf die
sclioene Pforte.”
Schmucker, B. M., 1827 — 88; son of
8. S. Schmucker; a great Lutheran litur-
gical scholar; educated at Gettysburg;
held pastorates at Martinsburg, Va., Al-
lentown, Easton, Reading, and Potts-
town, Pa. Always more conservative
than his father, he became a member of
the General Council through the influ-
ence of Dr. Krauth. Coeditor of Hal-
Icsvhe Nachrichten.
Schmucker, J. G., noted pastor and
author in Lutheran General Synod, 1771
to 1859; b. in Germany; studied under
Paul Henkel and in University of Penn-
sylvania; joined Pennsylvania Ministe-
rium in 1792; pastor at Hagerstown
and York.
Schmucker, S. S., 1799 — 1873; per-
haps the most influential man in the
Lutheran General Synod in the middle
of the 19th century; author of most of
its organic documents; “not merely a
unionistic, but a pronounced Reformed
theologian”; studied at Princeton, pas-
tor at New Market, Va., 1818 — 20; pro-
fessor at Gettysburg 1826 — 64; “Father
of the Evangelical Alliance.” Trying to
substitute the Definite Platform (q.v.)
for the Augsburg Confession , he “alien-
ated from him many of his former friends
and clouded the evening of his days.”
Schneegasz, Cyriacus, 1546 — 97 ;
studied at Jena; pastor at Friedrich-
roda, at the same time adjunct to the
superintendent at Weimar; diligent
pastor, mighty in Scriptures; wrote:
“Das neugeborne Kindelein”; “Herr
Gott Vater, wir preisen dich.”
Schneider, Johann Christian Fried-
rich, 1786 — 1853; attended Zittau
Gymnasium and Leipzig University;
studied music under Unger at Zittau;
organist and musical director in Leip-
zig; many oratorios, cantatas, and
choruses.
Schneller, Johann Ludwig; b. Jan-
uary 15, 1820, at Erpfingen, Wurttem-
berg; d. October 18, 1896, in Jerusalem;
schoolteacher at Bergfelden 1838; Klein-
Eisslingen, 1839 — 40; Gansslosen, 1840
to 1842; Vailiingen, 1843 — 47; St. Chri-
schona, near Basel, 1847 — 54; trans-
ferred to Jerusalem, 1854 — 60, where he
founded large orphanage after massacre
in Syria by Mohammedans, teaching
various branches of handicraft; also or-
ganized a teachers’ seminary and an
asylum for the blind. His work is being
continued in Jerusalem by his son Lud-
wig.
Schnepf, Erhard ; b. 1495; influenced
by Luther’s Disputation at Heidelberg
in 1518; reformed Nassau; reformed
Wurttemberg on the return of Duke
Ulrich ; driven from his chair at Tue-
bingen for opposing the Interim in 1548;
helped to organize the University of
Jena; opposed the Philippists; d. 1558.
Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Baron Ju-
lius, 1794 — 1872; German painter;
trained principally at Vienna and Rome;
earlier work shows influence of Duerer;
later joined the classicists; became
associated with Cornelius, Overbeck,
Schadow, and Veit; later work in style
of Renaissance; distinguished especially
for his liible in Pictures, full of creative
power.
Schodde, G. H., Ph. D.; b. 1854 in
Allegheny, Pa., educated at Columbus,
Tuebingen, and Leipzig; professor at
Columbus since 1880; editor of Lu-
theran Standard 1880 — 90; of the Theo-
logical Magazine since 1897 ; contributor
to the Independent and the Sunday-
school Times. D. 1917.
Schoeberlein, Ludwig, 1813 — 81 ;
studied in Munich and Erlangen; tutor
in his earlier years, later professor at
Heidelberg and Goettingen, at latter
place also director of liturgical sem-
inary; prominent liturgiologist, founder
of liturgical monthly Siona, later edited
by Herold; wrote: Ueber den liturgi-
schen Ausbau des Gemeindegottesdiensts ,
Schatz des Uturgischen Chor- und Ge-
meindegesangs, and other works.
Schoenherr, Johann Heinrich, Ger-
man theosophist; b. 1770 at Memel;
d. 1826 at Koenigsberg. His theology,
which claimed to harmonize revelation
and natural sciences, is dualistic. Fire
and water are principles of all reality.
The universe and God are the result of
their union and interaction.
Schoenherr, Karl Gottlob, painter
of historical subjects; b. 1824; profes-
sor at the academy in Dresden; many
Scholasticism
688
School Brothers and Sisters
Biblical pictures, among them “Christ
at the Door”; d. 1912.
Scholasticism. The name of the
dominant Occidental theology, chiefly
dogmatics, of the later Middle Ages, so
called from its being taught in the
schools. It did not aim at creating new
doctrines, but generally took for granted
that the then existing corpus doctrinae
of the Church, both Scriptural and man-
made doctrines, was the embodiment of
the truths of religion, and by dialectics
(examining and dissecting the concepts)
and speculation (investigating the na-
ture of transcendental matters) it at-
tempted to discuss these doctrines, to'
comprehend, harmonize, and prove them,
not from the Bible, but from reason. Tbe
manner of this reasoning was largely
patterned after that of Aristotle, whose
philosophical works became known to
Western thinkers in the thirteenth cen-
tury. A mooted philosophical question
gave rise to opposing factions in Scholas-
ticism during the whole time of its dom-
ination; viz., Whether the general con-
cepts are themselves real, whether one
knows the essence of things by their
means, or whether these concepts are
merely a method of thinking required by
the peculiarities of our reason, without
guarantee that our thinking really
grasps the nature of things. On this
question philosophers were divided into
three schools : two diverging schools of
Realism and a school of Nominalism.
Nominalism held, with the Stoics, that
the general concepts (universalia), which
designate the common characteristics of
a class of things, are mere abstractions
made by human reason from the existing
objects (nomina) and having no reality
outside of the human mind (universalia
tost res) ; but Realism, with Plato and
Aristotle, contended for the reality of
t.he general concepts, for their objective
existence before, and outside of, the hu-
man mind. But the one school of Real-
ism, following Plato, taught that the
general concepts were actually and really
present as prototypes in the divine rea-
son, before the things themselves came
into being, and then also in the human
mind before the contemplation of the
empirical things (universalia ante res),
while the other school, with Aristotle,
considered the general concepts to lie in
the things themselves and thence to get
into the human mind only by means of
experience ( universalia in rebus ) . Since
Augustine, Realism had dominated in
philosophical theology, until, toward the
end of the 11th century, Roscelinus ad-
vocated Nominalism, applying it chiefly
to the doctrine of the Trinity. He was
chiefly opposed by Anselm of Canterbury,
the true father of Scholasticism. Other
celebrated exponents of Scholasticism
were Abelard, Peter Lombard, Alexander
of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Thomas
Aquinas, Duns Scotus (the former a
Dominican, tbe latter a Franciscan;
after them are named the Thomist and
Scotist factions, the former given to
Aristotelian Realism, the latter to Pla-
tonic), Occam (Nominalist), and Biel
(qq.v.). — In the 12th century Scholas-
ticism was fighting for recognition; in
tbe 13th it reached its zenith; in the
14th and 15th it declined and degen-
erated altogether into a petty wrangling
over words. Though, as thinkers, some
of the Scholastics ranked high, they
were not really theologians, since they
lacked the one essential of a theologian,
the purpose and ability of setting forth
nothing more or less than the truths of
the Bible. — The mystics of the Middle
Ages, in part, stood out as opponents of
dialectic Scholasticism, as Bernard of
Clairvaux ( q . v.), Rupert (the former also
a champion of Biblical theology) ; in part
they blended Mysticism and Scholasti-
cism, as especially Bonaventura (q.v.).
Roger Bacon was another of the few
learned men of those days who contended
for the sole authority of the Scriptures;
also Nicolaus do Lyra, GerBon (qq.v.),
and some others.
Schongauer, Martin, ca. 1445 — 91 ;
German painter, himself a pupil of Isen-
mann; teacher of Holbein the Elder and
Ducrer; delicacy combined with monu-
mental effects; painted Madonna of the
Rose Bower.
School Brothers and Sisters. About
half the Roman Catholic children of
school age in this country attend paro-
chial schools. Each diocese has its own
educational organization, over which the
bishop is supreme. There is no central
national authority. Fully nine- tenths of
the teachers are members of religious
orders and societies, some of which were
formed for this specific purpose. Each
order trains its members for their work,
and the diocesan school board is sup-
posed to establish their fitness before
they enter on teaching. The proportion
of male to female teachers is not more
than one to fifteen. Some of the educa-
tional orders also carry on secondary
schools. The statistics (1921) for the
most important teaching communities
are as follows (the first figure indicates
the number of members; the second,
that of pupils) : Christian Brothers:
963; 29,072. Brothers of Mary: 517;
12,256. Brothers Marists: 169; 4,746.
School, Catechet., of Alexandria
689
Schultens, Albert
Xaverian Brothers: 270; 7,481. Ben-
edictine Sisters i 3,155; 50,117. Sisters
of Charity: 10,764; 236,103. Domin-
ican Sisters: 5,817; 81,556. Franciscan
Sisters: 8,457; 165,022. Felician Sis-
ters: 1,687; 77,710. Sisters of St. Jo-
seph: 8,147; 189,472. Sisters of Mercy :
6,554; 106,335. School Sisters of Notre
Dame: 4,316; 121,913. Ursulines:
1,823; 26,429.
School, Catechetical, of Alexandria.
Designed primarily for the practical pur-
pose of instructing Jews and heathens in
the essentials of Christianity preparatory
to baptism. But in the philosophic at-
mosphere of Alexandria, the center of
Greek and Jewish learning and Gnostic
speculation, it assumed the character of
a theological seminary and exercised a
powerful influence on the trend of theo-
logical thought (see Alexandria, School
of Interpretation). The origin of the
school is traditionally traced to the
Evangelist St. Mark. Its earliest teacher
of whom we have definite information
was Pantaenus, a convert from Stoicism,
ca. 180. He was succeeded by Clement
and Clement by Origen (to 232), under
whose leadership the school attained the
pinnacle of its fame. At the end of the
fourth century the school disappeared.
Schop, Johann; prominent musician
in Hamburg ca. 1640; noted violinist;
wrote tunes to several of Rist’s hymns,
also for his Hausmusik.
Schrelber, August Wilhelm; born
August 11, 1839, at Bielefeld, West-
phalia, Germany; died May 22, 1903, at
Barmen, Germany ; educated at Halle
and Erlangen; offered his services to
the Rhenish Mission Society 1865; was
sent to Sumatra 1866; returned to Ger-
many 1873, after having translated
nearly the whole New Testament into
Battak; in 1884 second inspector at the
Mission House and in 1889 first inspec-
tor; visited the fields in South Africa,
the Dutch East Indies, and China; rep-
resented a large number of German mis-
sionary societies 1900 at the Ecumenical
Missionary Conference in New York City.
Schreuder, Hans Palladan Smith;
b. June 18, 1817, at Sogndal, Norway;
d. January 27, 1882, at Untunjambili,
Natal, Africa; consecrated bishop of the
cathedral of Bergen 1866; founder of the
Schreuder Mission in South Africa.
Schreuder Mission. See Norwegian
Church Mission.
Schroeckh, Johann Matthias, born
1733, died 1808; professor at Leipzig
and Wittenberg; rationalistic church
historian; his chief work, Christliche
Concordia Cyclopedia
Kirchcngeschichte, in 45 volumes; the
two last edited by Tzschirner.
Schroeder, Johann Heinrich, 1667
to 1699; studied at Leipzig, under in-
fluence of Francke; pastor at Meseberg;
Pietistic tendency; wrote: “Eins ist
not, ach Herr, dies eine.”
Schubert, Gotthilf Heinrich von;
b. 1780, d. 1860; Lutheran; a firm be-
liever in the Bible; first studied theol-.
ogy, but because of rationalism turned
to medicine and natural sciences; pro-
fessor at Erlangen and Munich; his chief
scientific work. Die Oeschiehte der Seele.
He found in nature the footprints of God.
Brilliant author of Christian tales.
Schuerer, Emil; b. 1844, d. at Goet-
tingen 1910; theologian of the Ritschlian
School; professor at Leipzig, Giessen,
Kiel, 1895 at Goettingen; chief work:
Oeschiehte des juedischen Volks im Zeit-
alter Jesu Christi (done into English).
Schuette, Konrad Hermann Louis,
1843 — 1926; professor of mathematics at
Capital University, Columbus, O., 1872;
president of the institution in 1890, also
professor of Symbolics at the Seminary;
elected general president of the Joint
Synod of Ohio and Other States in 1894;
became president of the National Lu-
theran Council in 1923; contributed five
original hymns and several translations
from the German to the hymnal of 1880,
among the latter : “0 Holy, Blessed
Trinity”; “Now Christ, the Very Son of
God” ; author of Church-member’s Man-
ual, Before the Altar, Testimonies unto
Church Union.
Schuetz, Heinrich ( Sagittarius ),
1585 — 1672; choirboy at Kassel; law
student at Marburg ; studied music
under Gabrieli at Venice; organist at
Kassel, Kapellmeister and conductor at
Dresden, also court conductor at Copen-
hagen; most influential German com-
poser of his century in developing and
promoting good church music; applied
Italian choral style to semidramatic
church music as brought to perfection by
Bach; published much sacred music, in-
cluding Passion music, psalms, and sym-
phonies.
Schuetz, Johann Jakob, 1640 — 90;
studied law at Tuebingen, practised at
Frankfurt; intimate friend of Spener,
later a separatist ; wrote : “Sei Lob und
Ehr’ dem hoechsten Gut.”
Schultens, Albert, 1686 — 1750; Dutch
Orientalist; b. at Groningen; professor
of Oriental languages at Franeker and
Leyden (d. there) ; father of modern He-
brew grammar, pioneer of Comparative
Semitics; wrote Hebrew Origins, etc.
44
Schultze, Viktor
690
Schwenkf elders
Schultze, Viktor, 1851 — ; since 1883
professor of church history and Chris-
tian archeology at Greifswald; has writ-
ten many monographs in his field: Das
evangelische Kirchengebaeude ; Archae-
ologie der altchristlichen Kunst; Die
altchristlichen Bildwerke und die wissen-
schaftliche Forschung, and others.
Schulz, Johann Abraham Peter,
1747 — 1800; studied under Kirnberger
at Berlin; held various positions as
teacher of music, Kapellmeister , and di-
rector ; distinguished as composer ; one
oratorio; cantata: Christi Tod.
Schumann, Robert, 1810 — 56; stud-
ied at Zwickau Gymnasium and at Leip-
zig; applied himself to musical study at
Heidelberg; distinguished for composi-
tion and literary work, prolific; success-
ful in writing tunes; also some organ
music.
Schwagerehe. See Degrees, Pro-
hibited.
Schwan, Heinrich Christian; born
April 5, 1819, at Horneburg, Hanover;
studied at the Gymnasium of Stade and
at the universities of Goettingen and
Jena; graduated 1842; after tutoring
for a short time, was ordained Septem-
ber 13, 1843, taking charge of a mission
in Leopoldina, Bahia, Brazil. Having
promised his uncle Wyneken to keep the
need of the Lutherans in the United
States in mind, he came over in 1850,
was installed as pastor of the small con-
gregation at Black Jack (New Bielefeld),
Mo., and received as member of the Mis-
souri Synod at its fourth annual meet-
ing (1850). In 1851 he was called to
Zion Church, Cleveland, 0., serving it till
1899, during the last decades as associate
pastor. From 1852 to 1878 he served
as vice-president of the Central District,
vice-president of the General Body, and
president of the Central District; from
1878 to 1899 as president of the General
Body. On the fiftieth anniversary of his
ordination, 1893, Luther Seminary of the
Norwegian Lutheran Synod conferred
upon him the honorary degree of Doctor
of Divinity. D. May 29, 1905. — Dr.
Schwan is counted among the fathers of
the Missouri Synod. An earnest disciple
and able exponent of confessional Lu-
theranism, he was one of the chief build-
ers of the faithful and flourishing Lu-
theran church of the city of Cleveland
and a trusty counselor and teacher of
the whole Synod, his influence extending
even beyond its confines. His unwaver-
ing fidelity to the Lutheran Confessions,
combined with a fine Christian tact, a
well-poised mind, and sound judgment
concerning men and the times, together
with his modesty and refinement, fitted
him for the position of President, espe-
cially during the trying days of the con-
troversy on election and the stirring
times of the period of expansion then
setting in. A lifelong student and ex-
pert teacher of the Catechism, he ably
supervised the writing of the Synodical
Catechism, published in 1896 and in con-
stant use in the homes, schools, colleges,
and churches of the Synod. The synod-
ical sermons printed in the Lutherancr
reveal his mastery in unfolding the mean-
ing of the text and in presenting and
aptly applying the most sublime truths
in simple, popular language.
Schwartz, Christian Friedrich, one
of the foremost Lutheran missionaries
to India; b. October 28, 1726 at Sonnen-
burg, Prussia; d. February 13, 1798 at
Tanjore, India. Through A. H. Francke’s
influence, Schwartz was prevailed • upon
to enter the service of the Danish-Halle
Mission in Tranquebar, arriving there
July 30, 1750. Four months after his
arrival he delivered his first Tamil ser-
mon from Ziegenbalg’s pulpit. He moved
from Tranquebar to Trichinopoly, where
he labored from 1762 to 1778. In 1767
he became an English chaplain, severing
his connection with the Danish-Halle
Mission. In 1778, at the request of the
Rajah, he settled at Tanjore and later
was made guardian to the heir apparent.
His political and religious influence was
far-reaching, his probity universally ac-
knowledged.
Schwarz, Johann Michael Niko-
laus; b. March 21, 1813, at Hagen-
buecliach, Bavaria; missionary to India
1843; director of seminary 1845 — 9;
Trichinopoly, 1852 — 9; Mayaveram, 1859
to 1869; d. June 21, 1887, at Tranque-
bar; an author of repute; revised Tamil
Bible.
Schweizer, Albert, professor at
Strassburg; wrote in the Lcben Jrsu
investigations; standard book on Joli.
Seb. Bach; now medical missionary in
Africa.
Schweizer, Alexander; b. 1808,
d. 1888; professor and pastor in Zurich;
eminent Reformed theologian and dog-
matician ; greatly influenced by Schleier-
macher; chief representative of the left
wing of this school.
Schwenkf elders. This body traces
its origin back to the work of Kaspar
Schwenkfeld, a counselor at the court of
the Duke of Liegnitz, in Silesia. When
Luther entered upon his work of reform-
ing the Church, Schwenkfeld, at the age
of twenty-five, threw himself into the
new movement with great energy. Al-
Sell wenkf elders
691
Scotland
though he was not an ordained clergy-
man, he took a prominent part in the
religious work and especially in the Ref-
ormation of the Church in Silesia. How-
ever, as he was independent in his think-
ing, he soon began to preach doctrines
which brought him in opposition to the
Reformation. Thus he rejected the doc-
trine of justification by faith, took ex-
ception to Luther’s adherence to Scrip-
ture as the only source and norm of
faith, and inveighed against the Lu-
theran doctrine of the efficacy of the Sac-
raments as means of grace. He also re-
jected pedobaptism and in 1531 declared
himself at variance with all the articles
of the Augsburg Confession, claiming
that he would rather be a papist than a
Lutheran. Strongly opposed to the for-
mation of a Church, he did no more than
gather congregations, in consequence of
which he was compelled to flee from one
place to another in order to escape per-
secution. He died in Ulm in 1561. After
his death his followers, although not or-
ganized into an independent churcli-body,
assembled for occasional meetings and
conferences in Silesia, Switzerland, and
Italy. In order to escape persecutions,
these followers, early in the 18th cen-
tury, decided to emigrate to America;
and in September, 1734, about 200 per-
sons landed at Philadelphia. They ob-
tained homes in Montgomery, Bucks,
Berks, and Lehigh Counties, Pa., where
the greater number of their descendants
are now to be found. Toward the close
of the Revolutionary War a closer church
organization was formed, and in 1782 a
constitution was adopted. In common
with the Quakers, Mennonites, and kin-
dred bodies they voiced their opposition
to wars, secret societies, and the taking
of oaths.
The doctrinal standards of the Sehwenk-
felders are set forth in the following
books: The Confession of Faith of
Schwenlcf elders in Qoerlitz, 1726; Cate-
chism of Schivenkfelders in America,
1855. Christ’s divinity, they hold, was
progressive, and His human nature par-
took more and more of the divine nature,
without losing its identity. The Lord’s
Supper, a symbol of both Christ’s hu-
manity and divinity, is regarded as a
means of spiritual nourishment, how-
ever, without any change of the elements,
such as is asserted in transubstantia-
tion. They regard infant baptism as not
apostolic and the mode of baptism as of
no consequence. The only officers are
ministers, deacons, and trustees, who
are elected and ordained by the local
churches; the ministers for an unlimited
period, the deacons for a term of three
years, and the trustees annually. The
members of the local churches meet in
a district conference at least once a year.
The district conferences are members of
the General Conference, in which all
church-members have equal rights and
privileges without distinction of sex.
The General Conference has original and
appellate jurisdiction in all matters re-
lating to the Schwenkfelder Church. Be-
sides limited Home Mission work the
denomination carries on mission-work,
through boards of other churches, in
India, Africa, and Japan. — Statistics,
1921: 6 ministers, 7 churches, 1,336
communicants.
Scofield Reference Bible, edited by
the Rev. C. I. Scofield, D. D. Its special
features are: All the great words of the
Scripture are clearly defined; chain ref-
erences, with final summaries, cover all
the great topics of Scripture; every
book of the Bible has an introduction
and analysis, which facilitates book-
study, the true method of Bible-study;
helps at Jiard places; apparent contra-
dictions are reconciled and explained;
the types are explained and illustrated
by New Testament references; the
Greater Covenants are analyzed and ex-
plained ; the prophecies are harmonized,
thus becoming self-explanatory. The
text is the Authorized, or King James,
Version, with emendations in the margin
where needed. Not to be recommended
for general use.
Scotists. See Scholasticism.
Scotland. Strict Calvinism was speed-
ily and successfully established in Scot-
land through the vigorous measures of
John Knox. The struggle between Pres-
byterianism and Episcopalianism lasted
over a century, but since 1688 Scotland
has been overwhelmingly Presbyterian.
The first presentation of Scotch Presby-
terian doctrine was the confession com-
posed by John Knox in 1560. This,
however, was replaced by the Westmin-
ster Standards in 1647. The union with
England (1707) brought Scotland no
political or industrial prosperity. Both
the landed aristocracy and the crown
claimed the right of appointing clericals
to office, which was incompatible with
the unity and independence of the sys-
tem of Scotch Presbyterian organization.
In 1743 the Covenanters, who had al-
ready separated, organized as Reformed
Presbyterians. In 1752 a new body sepa-
rated and called itself the “Relief.” In
the course of a century the number of
separatist organizations had grown to
about 500 congregations; in 1847 they
were combined as the United Presbyte-
Scotland
Scrtven, Joseph
692
rian Church. At the beginning of the
19th century a reawakening under
Thomas Chalmers took place in the
Church of Scotland. However, the pat-
ronage struggle was resumed, which
finally led to the “Disruption” and the
organization of the Free Church of Scot-
land. The Free Church doubled its mem-
bership in the next sixty years, until
in' 1874 the Right of Patronage was
removed by Parliament, when the Es-
tablished Church again gained in popu-
larity. The close of the last century,
therefore, witnessed three great Presby-
terian churches in Scotland: the Estab-
lished Church, the Free Church, and the
United Presbyterian Church. The dif-
ference between them was principally
their various attitudes as to the relation
of Church and State. Negotiations for
union between the Free and United
churches, opened in 1803, resulted in the
organization of the United Free Church
of Scotland, October 31, 1900. A small
minority of 27, who opposed the union,
now declared itself to be the only true,
legitimate Free Church and laid claim
to all the property of the organization.
A settlement was finally accomplished
after a long-continued struggle. Besides
the bodies mentioned, there are three
other small Presbyterian churches in
Scotland : 1 ) the Free Presbyterian
Church, 2) the Reformed Presbyterian,
3) and the original secession, properly
called the Old Light. — The Scotch Epis-
copal Church. The Scotch Episcopal
Church was in former times the great
rival of the Presbyterian Church, but
after the downfall of the Stuarts that
Church was almost eliminated from the
country. In 1792 it was granted full
toleration. — Congregationalists. The
Congregational Church in Scotland was
founded in 1728 by John Glas, a minister
of the Established Church. Other Con-
gregational churches were organized
later; they joined the Congregational
union organized in 1863. A division in
the Secession Church in 1841 resulted in
the founding of the Evangelical Union.
In 1896 the Congregationalist Church
and the Evangelical Union were united
to form the present Congregational Union
of Scotland. The number of Baptists in
Scotland is comparatively small. Their
doctrine is Calvinistic, their worship
simple, and their organization strictly
Congregational, for which reason they
are enumerated under this heading. —
Among the other Protestant bodies the
Methodists, both Wesleyan and primitive,
are most important. There are also
small bodies of Quakers, Irvingites, Uni-
tarians, and Swedenborgians. The Ro-
man Catholic Church is represented in
Scotland by about half a million mem-
bers, most of whom are of Irish descent,
although 30,000 of them are Scotch. This
element is found among the Highlanders
of Gaelic tongue, who have remained
loyal to the Roman Catholic hierarchy.
Institutions such as Bible and tract so-
cieties, city missions, schools for morally
neglected children, temperance societies,
and others have been created by the
Church.
Scott, Thomas, 1705 — 75; teacher;
belonged to Independents; minister at
Ipswich; sole pastor of congregation
after 1740; several collections of hymns,
in which : “Return, 0 Wanderer, Return.”
Scott, Sir Walter, 1771 — 1832; re-
ceived very broad education; holds very
high rank as novelist and historian;
very successful also as poet; no direct
contributions to liymnody, but lines:
“When Israel of the Lord Beloved,” from
Ivanhoe, and paraphrase of Dies Irae:
“That Day of Wrath, That Dreadful
Day,” have come into use.
Scott’s Bible. A family Bible, with
original notes, practical observations,
and marginal references, published in
1796, 4 vols., and in the 9th edition, in
1825, 6 vols., by Thomas Scott, a clergy-
man of the Church of England (b. 1747,
d. 1821).
Scotus Erigena, John, b. and prob-
ably educated in Ireland; principal of
the court school at Paris 847 ; had a
knowledge of Greek exceptional for his
days. Though probably neither priest
nor monk, he yet discussed theological
questions, but from a standpoint of phi-
losophy. His doctrine is the first at-
tempt at a speculative dogmatics in the
Occident, and he is the connecting link
between Greek and Occidental philosophy,
having some influence on Scholasticism.
Scotus, John Duns ( Doctor Subtilis) ;
celebrated Scholastic; Franciscan, b. in
Ireland (?), taught philosophy and the-
ology; since 1300 in Oxford, Paris, Co-
logne; founder of Scotist School and
theologico-philosophic system opposed to
that of Thomas Aquinas; with a ten-
dency to Nominalism, radically changing
the content of religious and moral con-
cepts. (Will not dependent upon reason,
but vice versa. — God does not will what
is good, but what God wills seems good
to man.) See Scholasticism.
Scouts. See Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts.
Scriven, Joseph, 1820 — 86; educated
at Trinity College, Dublin; went to Can-
ada in 1845, living last at Port Hope,
on Lake Ontario; his hymn “What a
ScrtveneC, C. It. A.
893 Seentftty, Knlghtt and Ladies of
Friend We Have in Jesus” a great
favorite.
Scrivener, Frederick Henry Am-
brose, 1813 — 91; Church of England
theologian and New Testament scholar ;
wrote many books on New Testament
criticism; edited a Greek text of the
New Testament.
Scriver, Christian, 1629 — 93. His
father died in 1629; boy able to get
education with help of rich relative ;
studied at Rostock; tutor at Segeberg;
Archidiaconus at Stendal 1653 ; pastor at
Magdeburg 1667 ; later also assessor at
the consistory ; then seholarch and finally
senior; in 1690, Konsistorialrat and
private chaplain at Quedlinburg. Very
popular and influential preacher; author
of Seelenschatz and of Zufaellige An-
dachten (devotional books) ; hymns full
of devotion and with power of Gerhardt;
wrote: “Der liebcn Sonne Lieht und
Pracht”; “Auf, Seel’, und danke deinem
Herrn.”
Scudder, John, missionary of the Re-
formed (Dutch) Church; b. Septem-
ber 13, 1793, at Freehold, N. J.; d. Jan-
uary 13, 1855, at Wynberg, South Africa;
sent to Ceylon by the American Board;
transferred, in 1836, to Madras for lit-
erary work. The Arcot Mission grew up
under his direction. Eight sons, two
granddaughters, and two grandsons have
been in the service of that mission. Ill
health drove him to Africa, where he
died.
Seamen’s Homes. Owing to the fact
that the life of a seaman takes him
away from the home and exposes him to
many temptations, institutions have
been established which seek to provide
a home for seafaring men while they
are on shore. Homes have also been
established for disabled seamen (e. g..
Sailors’ Snug Harbor, Staten ■ Island,
N. Y., founded 1801). The American
Seamen’s Friend Society, editing the
Sailors’ Magazine, cares for seamen in
New York, sends chaplains to other
ports, and places libraries on vessels. —
Mission-work among the seamen is car-
ried on by various Lutheran church-
bodies at various ports.
Seckendorf, Veit Ludwig von, Ger-
man Lutheran statesman and scholar;
b. 1626, d. 1692 as chancellor of the
newly founded University of Halle, His
chief work is his Commenta/rius Histori-
o us de Lutheranismo seu de Reformations
(1688 — 92), a monumental work, a refu-
tation of the Jesuit Maimbourg; still
indispensable for every historian of the
Reformation because of the wealth of
original sources. It was abridged and
translated into German by Chr. F.
Junius, reprinted in Baltimore 1865.
Second Advent of Christ. See Ad-
vent of Christ, Second.
Secular Clergy. Parish priests,
bishops, and other members of the Ro-
man clergy wbo live in the every-day
world (saeculum) without being bound
by a monastic rule are called secular
clergy, in distinction from the members
of religious orders, who have withdrawn
from the world, are bound by a rule
(regula), and are therefore known as
regular clergy. The secular clergy essen-
tially contains the hierarchy and holds
precedence.
Secularism. See Atheism.
Security, Knights and Ladies of
(Security Benefit Association). This
lodge was chartered under the laws of
the State of Kansas in 1892 by members
of the Masonic Fraternity, the Ancient
Order of United Workmen, both Orders
of the Woodmen, and others. Councils
of Knights and Ladies of Security are
practically private social clubs rather
than mystic temples; nevertheless they
maintain a ceremonial and a ritual, “cal-
culated to impress upon the mind of the
novitiate the importance of wisdom, secu-
rity, protection, and fraternity.” The
National Executive Committee decides
all questions relative to the ritual cere-
monies and secret work and prescribes
the secret work itself. ( Constitution and
Laws, sec. 15.) The “obligation” reads
in part: “I agree, if accepted as a mem-
ber of the order, to be bound by all its
laws now in force or that may be here-
after enacted, without reservation or ex-
ception as to the character or nature of
such after-enacted laws.” (Sec. 87.)
Every lodge has a “prelate and an altar.”
The duties of the “prelate” are to con-
duct the devotional exercises of the coun-
cil and to administer the obligations of
the order. (For prayers see Christian
Cynosure, Vol. LI, No. 12, April, 1919,
p. 363.) Upon the “altar,” which is
placed in the center of the lodge, should
rest a “fine, well-bound copy of the Holy
Bible.” There is also an elaborate fu-
neral ritual. (See Christian Cynosure,
Vol. LI, No. 12, p. 363 sqq.) Recently
this order changed its name to Security
Benefit Association, without, however, es-
sentially changing its character. It con-
ducts a mutual cooperative farm of 404
acres near Topeka, Kans., with homes for
aged members and for orphans of de-
ceased members, and a hospital. The
S. B. A. does business in 38 States and
in the District of Columbia. It has a
novelty in a “moving-picture degree.”
Sedating, CoelinM
694
Seminaries, Tlieoloutenl
To get this degree, a subordinate council
is required to procure a minimum class
of 100 new members. More than 40,000
members have been initiated in this way
in recent years. Membership: 1,982
lodges with 227,835 benefit members.
There is also a juvenile department with
13,510 members, which has a ritual of
its own.
Sedulius, Coelius. Little is known of
this hymn-writer beyond the fact that he
flourished about the middle of the 5tli
century and that he was converted to
Christianity comparatively late in life;
published a number of works, most of
them in the field of sacred poetry; wrote
the so-called Alphabet Hymn of twenty-
three sections, from which are taken
A Solis Ortus Gardine (“From Lands
which See the Sun Arise”) and Hostis
Herodes Impie (“Herod, Thou Foe Most
Impious” ) , both of which are in common
use in translations.
Seeberg, Beinhold; b. 1859 in Livo-
nia; studied at Dorpat and Erlangen;
at first associate professor at Dorpat; in
1889 professor of church history and New
Testament exegesis at Erlangen; 1898
professor of systematic theology at Ber-
lin; influential Lutheran theologian of
modern type; author of an extensive
History of Dogma and other works. .
Segnatura. See Curia, Roman.
Seiss, Jos. A.; noted pulpit orator
and author; b. March 19, 1823; son of
a Maryland miner; grew up under Mo-
ravian influences; educated at Gettys-
burg; licensed by the Lutheran Virginia
Synod 1842; held pastorates in Mary-
land, including Baltimore, 1842 — -58 ;
1858 pastor of old St. John’s, Philadel-
phia; from 1874 till his death, 1904, he
served the Church of the Holy Com-
munion. Seiss exerted a strong influence
in the Pennsylvania Ministerium and the
General Council, serving a number of
terms as president of both bodies. He is
the author of Ecclesia Lutherana, Lec-
tures on the Gospels, On the Epistles.
His works On the Last Times and On
the Apocalypse are pervaded with chil-
iasm. His pulpit style was stately, dig-
nified, and artistic rather than churchly.
Selle, Christian August Thomas;
b. 1819 in Gelting, Schleswig; subteacher
at fifteen; emigrated to America 1837;
printers’ apprentice and factory-worker,
lie privately studied theology and was
licensed to preach by Ohio Synod; con-
tinued his studies under the guidance of
Dr. Sihler; pastor of First St. Paul’s
Church, Chicago, 184ti; charter member
of the Missouri Synod; at Crete, 111.,
1851; Rock Island, 111., 1858; second
professor at the Teachers’ Seminary
(Fort Wayne, Addison), 1861 and editor
of the Schulblatt; retired 1893; d. 1898.
Sellin, Ernst Friedrich Max; born
1867 ; since 1908 professor of Old Testa-
ment exegesis at Rostock; wrote on Old
Testament subjects; critic; editor-in-
chief of a comprehensive modern com-
mentary on the Old Testament; wrote
volume on Minor Prophets.’
Selnecker, Nikolaus; b. 1530, d. 1592;
studied at Wittenberg, favorite pupil of
Melanchthon; Privatdozent at Witten-
berg; 1557 second court preacher at
Dresden; 1565 professor of theology at
Jena; 1568 professor and pastor at Leip-
zig, also court preacher at Wolfenbuet-
tel; co worker on the Formula of Con-
cord; later spent some time at Halle,
Magdeburg, and Hildesheim, obliged to
bear much enmity on account of his un-
compromising position on sound Luther-
anism; a very prominent figure in the
ecclesiastical history of the latter half of
the 16tli century; wrote: “Ach bleib bei
uns, Herr Jesu Christ”; “Hilf, Heifer,
hilf in Angst und Not”; “Lass micli dein
sein und bleiben,” and other hymns.
Semi-Arianism. See Arianism.
Seminaries, Theological. Higher
institutions for the special professional
training of ministers of the Gospel
( clergymen, pastors, preachers ) , their
rank embracing every form of training-
school from a theological high school to
a full graduate seminary. The designa-
tion itself is derived from the Latin
word seminarium, nursery of young
trees. Since the time of the Council of
Trent the name has been applied as
official designation of institutions en-
gaged in the training of clergymen, and
not only in the Roman Catholic Church,
but in .the Protestant denominations as
well. The word is not to be confused
with the term seminar, which is now
applied to a class for advanced study or
research, chiefly in universities and full
seminaries. In a number of instances
the name seminary is used for the clas-
sical pretheological schools, the real pro-
fessional school being designated as a
Stiff or theological college. — When the
Protestant churches were established in
this country, early in the 17th century,
the congregations at first drew on the
Fatherland for ministers. But this
method proved unsatisfactory for a num-
ber of reasons, and so the second or
third generation of American citizens
was obliged to consider the training of
its own pastors and preachers. It was
this consideration which led to the
Seminaries, Theological
695
Seminaries, Theological
founding of Harvard College, now Har-
vard University, for the prospect of leav-
ing “an illiterate ministry to the
churches when our present ministers lie
in the dust” held real terrors for these
staunch Bible defenders. The Lutherans
of the East, in the early years, often
resorted to the laboratory training of
young men for the ministry; that is,
men were educated for the ministry by
spending a number of years in the home
of some older pastor, studying languages,
philosophy, and the theological branches
preparatory for the work and then being
examined by a committee or even by an
entire synodical body in convention as-
sembled before being admitted to the
ministry. The first separate seminary
in America was established by the Dutch
Reformed Church at Flatbush, Long
Island, N. Y., in 1774. Soon afterward
other seminaries were opened, their num-
ber increasing very rapidly during the
first half of the 10th century, until at
the present time more than 150 semi-
naries are doing work in the United
States alone. — The organization of the
average seminary is the following. At
its head is a president, who serves as
chairman of the faculty and usually
represents the institution toward the
outside. A dean may be in charge of
certain administrative and disciplinary
functions. As a rule, four or five depart-
ments of instruction are distinguished —
that of exegetical theology, that of his-
torical theology, that of systematic the-
ology, that of practical theology, and
that of philosophy. The department of
exegetical theology usually offers courses
in Arabic, Greek, Hebrew (or in Semitics
and in New Testament philology ) , En-
glish exegesis, Biblical isagogics, her-
meneutics, textual and higher criticism,
and related subjects. The department
of historical theology offers courses in
church history, including its individual
periods and epochs, especially the history
of the Reformation and denominational
history, history of doctrine, patristics,
and related topics. The department of
systematic theology offers courses in
dogmatics, apologetics, ethics, Christian
evidences, theism, history of religion,
philosophy of religion, general moral
philosophy, and related topics. The de-
partment of practical theology offers
courses in pastoral calling, church pol-
ity, homiletics, catechetics, liturgies,
church music, elocution, religious educa-
tion, diaconics and missions, Christian
sociology, and related topics. The de-
partment of philosophy usually offers
courses in history of philosophy, prob-
lems of philosophy, systems of philos-
ophy, ■ psychology, metaphysics, logic,
and related subjects. The tendency in
recent years is to extend the range and
nature of the courses offered in order to
lay greater stress on what is called the
social program of the Church. As soon
as this tendency goes beyond the lines
laid down in the Bible, it is naturally
to be deplored and condemned. — Four
types, or kinds, of seminaries are now
distinguished : 1 ) Seminaries that ac-
tually require college graduation for ad-
mission, these being the regular grad-
uate seminaries, some of which now offer
some advanced work beyond that de-
manded for a diploma; 2) seminaries
which require at least two years of col-
lege work or special pretlieologieal train-
ing for admission; 3) seminaries which
require only high school graduation or
its equivalent; 4) seminaries which
have no definite scholastic standards for
admission. To the last class belongs
especially the growing number of Bible
schools and mission-training schools.
Quite a few seminaries are now affiliated
with colleges or universities, either as
departments or by virtue of special ar-
ticles of agreement. In the Lutheran
Church the “practical” seminary does
not require Bible languages and certain
other college subjects for admission,
while the “theoretical” seminary places
a pretty strong emphasis on the knowl-
edge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. — The
institutional control of theological sem-
inaries is, in most cases, vested in a
board of control or a board of trustees,
usually elected directly by the church-
body under whose auspices the seminary
is maintained. This body is in direct
control of tlie business or financial end
of the institution, with directive powers
in the internal administration of the
school which they serve. When the
board of trustees is large and unwieldy,
it is deemed advisable to have a separate
board, usually known as the executive
committee, in actual charge of the insti-
tution. The faculty members, particu-
larly in the Lutheran Church, are
pledged to the confessions of their
Church, and a declaration to that effect
is usually required at the time of their
induction into office. — The entrance re-
quirements of the various institutions
v ary with the character or type of school
which they represent. In graduate theo-
logical seminaries a full college course
or its equivalent is demanded for ad-
mission. In church-bodies which main-
tain special schools for pretheological
training, graduation from such acad-
emies or junior colleges is the only
requisite. In still other cases certain
Seminaries, Theological
696
Seminaries, Theological
standards are “preferred,” or “desired,”
or “expected,” but nothing definite is de-
manded. Methods of teaching are still
largely informational, although conver-
sational and functional methods are
gradually being introduced in some of
the schools. — Among the chief theolog-
ical seminaries of America are the fol-
lowing, the information including the
name, the location, the date of establish-
ment, and, in most cases, the confes-
sional standpoint: —
Hutchinson Theological Seminary,
Hutchinson, Minn., 1910 (Seventh-day
Adventist) ; Berkeley Baptist Divinity
School, Berkeley, Cal., 1889 (Northern
Baptist) ; Colgate Theological Seminary,
Hamilton, N. Y., 1819 (Northern Bap-
tist) ; Crozer Theological Seminary,
Chester, Pa., 1867 (Northern Baptist) ;
Divinity School, University of Chicago,
Chicago, 111., 1865 (Liberal) ; Kansas
City Baptist Theological Seminary, Kan-
sas City, Kans., 1901 (Northern Bap-
tist) ; Newton Theological Institution,
Newton Center, Mass., 1825 (Northern
Baptist) ; Rochester Theological Semi-
nary, Rochester, N. Y., 1850 (Liberal);
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary,
Louisville, Ky., 1858 (Conservative);
Southwestern Baptist Theological Sem-
inary, Fort Worth, Tex., 1908 (Conser-
vative) ; Bonebrake Theological Semi-
nary, Dayton, O., 1873 (United Brethren
in Christ) ; Christian Divinity School,
Defiance, O., 1868 (Christian Church) ;
Bangor Theological Seminary, Bangor,
Me., 1814 (Congregational); Hartford
Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn.,
1834 (Liberal); Oberlin Graduate School
of Theology, Oberlin, 0., 1834 (see Ober-
lin Theology) ; Yale Divinity School,
New Haven, Conn., 1822 (Liberal);
Drake University Bible College, Des
Moines, Iowa, 1881 (Disciples of Christ) ;
Evangelical School of Theology, Reading,
Pa., 1881 (Evangelical Association);
Evangelical Theological Seminary, Naper-
ville, 111., 1873 (Neutral) ; Eden Theo-
logical Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., 1855
(Evangelical Synod, Liberal Tendency);
Boston University School of Theology,
Boston, Mass., 1839 (Methodist Epis-
copal) ; Drew Theological Seminary,
Madison, N. J., 1868 (Methodist Epis-
copal) ; Garrett Biblical Institute,
Evanston, 111., 1855 (Methodist Epis-
copal) ; Iliff School of Theology, Denver,
Colo., 1903 (Methodist Episcopal) ;
Maclay College of Theology, Los Angeles,
Cal., 1885 (Methodist Episcopal) ; West-
minster Theological Seminary, West-
minster, Md., 1884 (Methodist Prot-
estant) ; Moravian Theological Seminary,
Bethlehem, Pa., 1863 (Moravian Church);
Austin Presbyterian Theological Semi-
nary, Austin, Tex., 1902 (Presbyterian) ;
Columbia Theological Seminary, Colum-
bia, S. C., 1828 (Presbyterian); Union
Theological Seminary, Richmond, Va.,
1867 (Presbyterian); Theological Sem-
inary of the Cumberland Presbyterian
Church, McKenzie, Tenn., 1842; Auburn
Theological Seminary, Auhurn, N. Y.,
1820 (Presbyterian); Bloomfield Theo-
logical Seminary, Bloomfield, N. J., 1867
(Presbyterian); Dubuque Theological
Seminary, Dubuque, Iowa, 1852 (Pres-
byterian) ; Lane Theological Seminary,
Cincinnati, O., 1829 (Presbyterian);
McCormick Theological Seminary, Chi-
cago, 1830 (Presbyterian); Presbyterian
Theological Seminary at Omaha, Nebr.,
1891; Princeton Theological Seminary,
Princeton, N. J., 1822 (Conservative);
San Francisco Theological Seminary,
San Anselmo, Cal., 1871 (Presbyterian) ;
Western Theological Seminary, Pitts-
burgh, Pa. (Presbyterian) ; Reformed
Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Pitts-
burgh, Pa., 1810; Pittsburgh Theolog-
ical Seminary, Pittsburgh, Pa., 1868
(United Presbyterian) ; Xenia Theolog-
ical Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., 1794 and
1877 (Conservative); Berkeley Divinity
School, Middletown, Conn., 1854 (Prot-
estant Episcopal) ; Divinity School of
the Protestant Episcopal Church, Phil-
adelphia, Pa., 1 862 ; Episcopal Theolog-
ical School, Cambridge, Mass., 1867;
General Theological Seminary, New York,
N. Y., 1822 (Protestant Episcopal) ;
Nashotah House, Nashotah, Wis., 1842
(Protestant Episcopal) ; Protestant
Episcopal Theological Seminary in Vir-
ginia, Alexandria, Va., 1823; Seabury
Divinity School, Faribault, Minn., 1860
(Protestant Episcopal); Western Theo-
logical Seminary, Chicago, 111., 1883
(Protestant Episcopal) ; Theological
Seminary of the Reformed Episcopal
Church, Philadelphia, Pa., 1887; Theo-
logical School of the Christian Reformed
Church, Grend Rapids, Mich., 1876 (Con-
servative) ; Theological Seminary of the
Reformed Church in America, New
Brunswick, N. J., 1784 (Conservative);
Central Theological Seminary, Dayton, 0.,
1850 (Reformed Church in U. S.); Re-
formed Church Theological Seminary,
Lancaster, Pa., 1831; Meadville Theo-
logical Seminary, Meadville, Pa., and
Chicago, 111., 1846 (Liberal) ; Crane
Theological School, Tufts College, Mass.,
1852 (Liberal) ; Ryder Divinity School,
Chicago, 111,, 1851 (Universalist, Lib-
eral ) ; Harvard Theological School,
Cambridge, Mass,, 1650 and 1819 (Lib-
eral) ; Union Theological Seminary,
New York, N. Y., 1836 (Liberal).
Semi-Pelagians
097
Separate Baptists
The foremost theological seminaries of
the various Lutheran bodies in America
are the following : A. Of the United
Lutheran Church: Hartwick Seminary,
Otsego Co., N. Y., 1797 ; Theological
Seminary, Gettysburg, Pa., 1820; Sus-
quehanna University, Selinsgrove, Pa.,
1 858 ; Lutheran Theological Seminary,
Mount Airy, Philadelphia, Pa., 1864;
Southern Theological Seminary, Colum-
bia, S. C., 1830; Hamma Divinity School,
Springfield, 0., 1845; Chicago Seminary,
Maywood, 111., 1891; Western Midland
Seminary, Fremont, Nebr., 1895; Martin
Luther Seminary, Lincoln, Nebr., 1913;
Pacific Theological Seminary, Seattle,
Wash., 1911. B. Of the Joint Synod of
Ohio : Capital University Seminary, Co-
lumbus, 0., 1830; Luther Seminary,
St. Paul, Minn., 1884. C. Of the Iowa
Synod : Wartburg Theological Seminary,
Dubuque, Iowa, 1854. 1). Of the Buffalo
Synod: German Martin Luther Semi-
nary, Buffalo, N. Y., 1840. E. Of the
Augustana Synod : Augustana Seminary,
Rock Island, 111., 1800. F. Of the Nor-
wegian Lutheran Church: Luther Sem-
inary, St. Paul, Minn., 1917. O. Of the
Lutheran Free Church: Augsburg Sem-
inary, Minneapolis, Minn., 1869. H. Of
the Eielsen Synod: Lutheran Bible
School, Minneapolis, Minn., 1917. I. Of
the United Danish Church: Trinity
Seminary, Blair, Nebr., 1884. J. Of the
Danish Church: Grand View College,
Des Moines, Iowa, 1896. K. Of the
Suomi Synod: Suomi Seminary, Han-
cock, Mich., 1896. L. Of the Finnish
National Church: Theological Seminary,
Ironwood, Mich., 1918. Af. Of the Mis-
souri Synod: Concordia Theological
Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., 1839; Concor-
dia Seminary, Springfield, 111., 1846.
N. Of the Wisconsin Synod: Theolog-
ical Seminary, Wauwatosa, Wis., 1865.
O. Seminaries located outside of the
United States: Waterloo Seminary,
Waterloo, Out., 1911; Lutheran Semi-
nary, Saskatoon, Sask., 1913; Concordia
Seminary, Porto Alegre, Brazil, 1907 ;
Theological Seminary, Berlin-Zehlendorf,
Germany, 1921 ; Concordia Seminary,
South Australia. — For statistics see
Kelly, Theological Education in America,
Lutheran World Almanac, and other
annuals.
Semi-Pelagians. See Pelagians.
Semler, Johann Salomo; b. 1725,
d. at Halle 1791 ; father of modern Bib-
lical criticism; was raised in Pietistic
surroundings, but soon drifted into Ra-
tionalism. In 1752, at the instance of
Baumgarten, he was called as professor
of theology to Halle, where with his ra-
tionalism, by word and letters, he under-
mined almost all the doctrines of the
Church. Miracles and prophecies are ex-
plained as deceptions and accommoda-
tion to prevailing ideas of time and
surroundings. At the end he realized the
destructive influence of Rationalism; he
had sown the wind and was reaping the
storm. He died of a broken heart.
Sendomir Consensus. Lutheran,
Zwinglian, and Moravian Poles met in
1570 at Sendomir, on the Vistula, and
agreed on a common confession while
acknowledging that of each party. Of
course, their controversies soon broke
out afresh.
Senegal-Niger, Upper. A colony in
French West Africa. Senegal has an
area of 74,112 sq.mi. and a population
of 1,225,523. Niger has an area of
349,400 sq. mi. and a population of
1,084,043. The inhabitants in Senegal-
Niger are chiefly Mandingoes, Foolahs,
Sarakoles, and other Negro tribes. Ani-
mism prevails. Islam has a large follow-
ing. Missions have been begun by the
Paris Mission Society. Statistics: For-
eign staff, 2; Protestant Christian com-
munity, 70; communicants, 35,
Senegambia. See Senegal-Niger.
Senfl, Ludwig, 1492 — 1555; pupil
and successor of Heinrich Isaak, Kapell-
meister of Imperial Chapel at Munich;
later court conductor; eminent composer
of counterpoint; among his published
works Quinque Salutationes Domini
Nostri Hiesu Ghristi and Magnificat
8 Tonorum; many manuscripts of sacred
music in the Munich Library.
Sensationalism, or Sensualism, the
theory that all knowledge or ideas orig-
inate in sense perceptions. Philosoph-
ically it leads to empiricism (q.v.);
ethically, to hedonism (q.v.).
Sensualism. See Sensationalism.
Separate Baptists. The origin of
this body may be traced to the revival
movement of White-field, which culmi-
nated in the Great Awakening. Indors-
ing this revival, small groups of Baptists
separated themselves from the Regular
Baptists, who were opposed to the re-
vival, forming a separate denomination,
among whom wtre the leaders Isaac
Backus and Shubael Stearns. In 1787
the Regular and Separate Baptists in
Virginia formed a union, adopting the
name United Baptist Churches of Christ
in Virginia. Separate Baptists reject
all creeds and confessions of faith, but
publish in the minutes of their yearly
meetings articles of belief, which, in the
main, agree with the general confessions
of the Free-will Baptists. They regard
Sequences, or Tropes
698
Seventh-Day Adventists
footwashing as an ordinance of Christ
and reject the strict Calvinistic doctrine
of election, reprobation, and fatality,
preaching the general atonement of
Christ and the freedom of salvation for
all who will come. Statistics, 1910 :
47 ministers, 40 churches, 3,902 com-
municants.
Sequences, or Tropes. A hymn or
tractus following the gradual, originally
inserted to fill the space of time during
which the lector proceeded from the
epistle-ambo to the gospel-ambo.
Serampore Brotherhood. See India
and Missions.
Seraphim. Heavenly beings described
Is. 0 as an order of angelB who stand
around the heavenly throne, having each
six wings, also hands and feet, and prais-
ing God with their voices. They are
commonly classified with the cherubim
as archangels. See Angels, Cherubim.
Serbia. Now a part of Jugoslavia
(language, Slavic). Adopted Christian-
ity in the eighth century. To-day a
small number of Evangelical, Roman
Catholic, Jewish, and Mohammedan in-
habitants are enjoying religious tolera-
tion, but the state church is the Serbian
Orthodox Church (5,602,227 members),
affiliated with, and holding the same
views as, the other Eastern Orthodox
churches. Highest authority : the Na-
tional Synod, consisting of the Patriarch
and three other bishops.
Serbian Orthodox Church in the
United States is under supervision of
the archbishop of the Russian Orthodox
Church of the United States, with which
it agrees in doctrine and polity. Statis-
tics, 1910: 12 congregations, 14,301
members, 29 priests.
Serle, Ambrose, 1742 — 1812; com-
missioner in the English government
transport office; author of several prose
works, one of which includes hymns;
wrote: “Thy Ways, 0 Lord, with Wise
Design.”
Servetus, Michael, noted Spanish
physician and anti-Trinitarian; b. 1511
at Tudela; studied at Toulouse; at
coronation of Charles V came to Ger-
many, where, in 1531, he published his
anti-Trinitarian doctrines in De Trini-
tatis Erroribus; returned to France,
where his main work, Christianismi
Restitutio, appeared, 1553. After he
had escaped the Catholic inquisition, he
was arrested while passing through
Geneva and through Calvin’s influence
condemned to death as heretic and
burned alive, October 27, 1553.
Servites. The fifth mendicant order,
founded 1239, devoted to the glorifica-
tion and service of the Virgin. Its mem-
bers serve missions and teach in secon-
dary schools.
Settlements. In modern social work,
special rooms or houses (settlement
houses, neighborhood houses, etc.) de-
voted chiefly to social welfare work.
A settlement house usually includes
meeting-rooms, soup-kitchens, day-nur-
series, gymnasiums, and sometimes dis-
pensaries. A notable example is Hull
House, in Chicago.
Seuel, Edmund, manager of Concor-
dia Publishing House of Missouri Synod;
b. April 21, 1865; studied at Fort
Wayne, Ind. (Concordia College) and
St. Louis, Mo. (Concordia Seminary) ;
Lutheran pastor at Ogallala, Nebr. ; pro-
fessor, then president of Walther Col-
lege, St. Louis ; became manager of the
Publishing House in 1907; treasurer of
the Missouri Synod since 1914.
Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. Chris-
tian youths who, according to a legend,
having been walled up, during the Decian
persecution, in a cave, fell asleep and
awoke after ca. 200 years to find the
Christian Church everywhere established.
Seventh-Day Adventists. The move-
ment which resulted in the formation of
the Seventh-day Adventist Denomination
originated in a discussion aH to the cor-
rect interpretation of the passage in
Dan. 8, 13. 14 : “Then shall the sanc-
tuary be cleansed,” which Wm. Miller and
other Adventist leaders had interpreted
as referring to the cleansing of the earth
at the coming of Christ which they
looked for in 1844. With the passing
of that period some, upon renewed in-
vestigation, became convinced that while
there had been no mistake with regard
to the time, there had been an error in
interpreting the character of the event,
since the sanctuary to be cleansed was
not this earth, but the sanctuary in
heaven, where Christ ministered as High
Priest. This work of cleansing, accord-
ing to the Levitical type, was the final
work of atonement, the beginning of the
preliminary judgment in heaven, which
is to precede the coming of Christ as
described in the judgment scene of Dan.
7, 9. 10, which shows an “investigative
judgment” in progress in heaven, while
events are still taking place on earth.
The standard of this investigative judg-
ment was to be the Law of God as ex-
pressed in the Ten Commandments,
which formed the code that was placed
in the Ark of the Covenant in the earthly
Seventh-Day Adventists
699
Seventh-Day Baptists
sanctuary, a type of the heavenly sanc-
tuary. The fourth precept of this Law
commanded the observance of the seventh
day of the week as the Sabbath, and they
found nothing in Scripture commanding
or authorizing the change of the Sab-
bath from the seventh to the first day.
The passage in Rev. 14, 0 — 14, particu-
larly that portion l>eginning with the
I'll rase, “The hour of His judgment is
come,” they interpreted as a representa-
tion of the final work of the Gospel;
and they understood it to mean that
with the coming of this “judgment” (in
1844, as they believed) a movement was
imperative to carry to every nation and
tongue a warning against following tra-
dition and a call to men to follow the
commandments of God and the faith of
Jesus. They also believed that when
this final message had been carried to all
the world. Christ would come to reap the
harvest of the earth. In 1845 and 1846
a few persons in New England, formerly
First-day Adventists, began to observe
the seventh day of the week and to
preach the doctrines which now consti-
tute the distinctive tenets of the
Seventh-day Adventists. Prominently
connected with this movement were three
persons — Joseph Rates, James White,
and Mrs. Ellen G. White, the last-named
being looked upon in the early history
as possessing the gift of prophecy and as
receiving instruction for the Church
from time to time by the direct inspira-
tion of the Holy Ghost. In 1849 they
began the publication of a paper at Mid-
dletown, Conn. Later they established
their headquarters at Rochester, N. Y.,
but in 1855 transferred them to Battle
Creek, Mich., and in 1903, to Washing-
ton, D. C. At a conference held in Battle
Creek in October, 1860, the name “Sev-
enth-day Adventist Denomination” was
for the first time formally adopted as
their official name. As far as doctrine is
concerned, Seventh-day Adventists have
no formal or written creed, but claim to
take the Bible as their rule of faith and
practise. They believe, however, in the
following points of doctrine: The Law
of God is the divine standard of right-
eousness, binding upon all men. The
seventh day of the week, from sunset on
Friday to sunset on Saturday, is the
Sabbath established by God’s Law and
should be observed as such. Immersion
is the only proper form of baptism. Man
is not by nature immortal, but receives
eternal life only by faith in Christ. The
state to which man is reduced at death
is one of unconsciousness. The personal,
visible coining of Christ is near at hand
and is to precede the millennium; at
this coming the living righteous will be
translated, and the righteous dead will
arise and be taken to heaven, where they
will remain until the end of the millen-
nium. During the millennium the pun-
ishment of the wicked will be deter-
mined, and at its close Christ with His
people will return to the earth, the resur-
rection of the wicked will occur, and
Satan, the originator of all sin, will,
together with his followers, meet final
destruction. They make the use of in-
toxicants or tobacco in any form a cause
for exclusion from church-fellowship, ad-
vocate complete separation of Church
and State, are opposed to all religious
legislation, strongly condemn “higher
criticism,” practise open communion, as
also foot-washing, accept the special gifts,
maintain a tithing system, and are con-
gregational in their polity. They are
largely anti-Trinitarians, deny Christ’s
deity, and are at variance with the fun-
damental teachings of Christianity as
laid down in the Apostles’ Creed. Their
peculiar doctrines are set forth in :
Scripture References, Who Changed the
Sabbath t Appeal on Immortality, Per-
sonality of Ood, Synopsis of Truth,
A. Brief Exposition of the Views of the
Seventh-day Adventists, by Uriah Smith.
Statistics, 1921: 712 ministers, 2,232
churches, 100,658 communicants.
Seventh-Day Baptists. The first
Seventh-day Baptist church was organ-
ized at Newport, R. I., in 1871. Other
organizations were- effected as early as
1700 at Philadelphia. In 1728 the found-
ing of the Ephratah Community of Ger-
man Baptist Brethren resulted in the or-
ganization of the German Seventh-day
Baptists. In doctrine the Seventh-day
Baptists are Reformed and incline to
the Calvinistic group of Baptists. Their
distinguishing feature is the observance
of the seventh day as the Sabbath, and
they devote much time to showing the
error of adopting another day instead
and the evil consequences flowing from
this supposed perversion. Church-mem-
bership is granted only to those who have
been immersed. In polity they are in-
tensely independent Congregationalists,
the General Conference possessing only
advisory powers. In their missionary
efforts the work of Sabbath reform is
carried on very much in the fanatic
spirit of Stephen Mumford, the first
Seventh-day Baptist in America (1664).
In the foreign field they are active in
China, British Guiana, Holland, and
Java. In 1921 they had in the United
States 97 ministers, 71 churches, and
7,774 communicants.
Severing Ii»uk, J. D.
700
Seyllarth, Gustav
Severinghaus, J. D., 1834 — 1905;
leader among the Germans in the Lu-
theran General Synod; graduated from
Wittenberg Seminary 1861; founder of
the Lutherische ICirchenfreund 1869; es-
tablished connections with Breklum in
1878; founded a seminary in Chicago
1883j which was afterwards transferred
to Atchison, Kans.
Sexual Life. The sexual tendency,
the inclination which causes the normal
adult person of either sex to seek the
society of persons of the opposite sex, is
normally and naturally to find its outlet
and expression in the state of marriage,
or holy matrimony. The relation in
which one man and one woman, living
together in sanctification and honor,
1 Thess. 4, 4, and in which either spouse
renders to the other due benevolence,
1 Cor. 7, 3, is not only in full accord
with the will of God, but it has also
been shown by history to be the most
conducive to a normal, healthy life and
to the full development of the best powers
of service. If the Lord, for reasons best
known to Him, denies to a person such
a life partner or takes him away before
the full measure of life has been filled,
then such a person will practise the
proper continence by keeping his or her'
members in subjection and by overcom-
ing every form of sexual lust and de-
pravity by the approved means of work
and prayer. Celibacy, such as practised
in the Roman Catholic Church, is ab-
normal, unnatural, and out of harmony
with the will of God, as clearly expressed
in 1 Tim. 3, 2. 12. It is a matter of his-
torical record that men who misunder-
stood the exhortation to chastity or be-
lieved themselves bound by the so-called
vows of chastity (that is, of celibacy)
rendered themselves impotent, incapable
of contracting marriage, thereby hoping
to keep the natural desires in subjection.
Such a course is not in agreement with
the will of God. — On the other hand,
every use and abuse of either the primary
or secondary organs of sex outside of
their decent, sanctified use in holy mat-
rimony conflicts with that chastity and
decency which God expects from all men,
according to the Sixth Commandment.
Thus fornication, the cohabitation of
people who are not married, is named
as a work of the flesh. Acts 15, 10; Gal.
5, 19. Adultery, the cohabitation of two
people, either of them or both being mar-
ried, is likewise most emphatically con-
demned in Holy Scriptures. Mark 10, 11;
Gal. 5, 19. By the same token all undue
familiarity of adult persons outside the
married estate, such as dallying, hug-
ging, petting, and kissing, is not per-
mitted. Even close relatives, in whose
case exhibitions of tenderness are per-
missible, will be careful not to carry
such expressions to excess. Prov. 5, 20;
6, 27. 28; Ezek. 23, 3. 8. 21. The sin of
masturbation, or self-abuse, is mentioned
in the Bible only with extreme loathing.
Rom. 1, 24. The same is true of other
sex perversions, such as were practised
by the heathen at the time when Chris-
tianity was first proclaimed, such as
pederasty, Rom. 1, 26. 27, and sodomy,
chiefly in the nature of cohabitation with
beasts, Lev. 18, 23. — Over against these
perversions the Bible clearly teaches that
the normal sex life of men and women
should be that of holy wedlock, the pur-
pose of which is the procreation of chil-
dren and cohabitation for mutual care
and protection.
With regard to sex education there
can be no doubt that parents, teachers,
guardians, and pastors have a duty to
perform, namely, that of bringing up
their children in chastity and decency.
However, this should not be done in an
indiscriminate manner, possibly even by
making the children acquainted with
evils concerning which ignorance would
have been a better defense, hut in the
manner indicated by Luther in his mas-
terful exposition of the Sixth Command-
ment, the positive side of chastity and
decency being stressed almost exclusively.
This can be done without challenging
curiosity, as the development of the chil-
dren and circumstances calls for it. If
the miracles attending procreation are
brought to the attention of children in
the right manner, especially at the time
when their bodily development warrants
and demands this information, they will
enter into the years of greatest dangers
fully equipped to cope with the situation,
for the basis of their attitude is the fear
and love of God. For specific sex in-
struction the boys will ordinarily depend
upon their father; the girls, upon their
mother. If it is advisable to broach sub-
jects pertaining to sex education before
classes, it is best to separate the sexes.
Sometimes a short talk by a doctor to a
class of young men and by a nurse to
a class of young women, if done in the
right spirit, may be recommended. See
also Birth Control; Dancing ; Marriage.
Seyffarth, Gustav; b. 1796 in Uebi-
gau. Province of Saxony ; attended
St. Afra’s School, Meissen; studied the-
ology, philosophy, and philology at Leip-
zig for four years; took the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy; continued his
studies, especially of the languages of
the ancient Bible versions; published
a work on the pronunciation of Greek;
Shakers
701
Shiites
was in charge of the continuation of
Spohn’s work on the Egyptian language
— one of the most learned Egyptologists
of his day. Since 1823 professor of ar-
cheology at Leipzig; resigned because of
the intrigues of the Freemasons, drawing
a full professor’s pension. Meeting Wal-
ther and Wyneken in 1851, he came to
America and filled gratuitously, for
three years, a professorship at Concordia
College and Seminary, St. Louis. Re-
turned to his archeological studies in
New York 1859; d. in childlike faith
1885. A most prolific writer.
Shakers. Popular name of oldest
American communistic sect, the “United
Society of Believers in Christ’s Second
Appearing,” or “Millennial Church,”
founded about the middle of the 18th
century in England by Ann Lee ( q.v .).
In 1747 a number of Quakers, incited by
the fanatic preaching and ecstasies of
the “French Prophets,” formed a small
society, the members of which, because
of their movements during religious ex-
citement, were derisively called “Shaking
Quakers.” These were joined, 1858, by
Ann Lee, who became the real founder
of the sect and a “prophetess,” claiming
to lie an incarnation of Christ and en-
joining celibacy upon her followers. Be-
cause of persecution and imprisonment
she emigrated to America, 1774, with
eight adherents. They first settled at
Watervliet, N. Y., gaining followers in
spite of persecution. The first society
was organized, 1787, at Mount Lebanon,
N. Y„ which has remained the headquar-
ters of the sect to the present day. Its
missionary activity reached its height
1 805 — 35, when new societies were or-
ganized in Eastern States, in Kentucky,
Ohio, and Indiana, with a membership
of 5,000. But since 1860 it has suffered
a steady numerical decline, having only
12 societies and 367 members in 1916
and 6 societies in 1922. — Their teach-
ings are as follows: God has a dual
nature, partly male, partly female.
Adam, created in God’s image, also was
dual. His fall consisted in transgressing
the law of chastity. Christ, like all
other spirits, also is dual and was in-
carnated in .Jesus and Ann Lee, repre-
senting male and female elements of
God. However, neither Jesus nor Ann
Lee are to be worshiped, only loved and
honored. Consequently the Shakers re-
ject the Holy Trinity and atonement,
also physical resurrection, Last Judg-
ment, and eternal damnation. Other
tenets are their pronounced communism,
celibacy, non resistance, and non-partici-
pation in war, perfectionism, spiritism,
insistence upon public confession. The
government of each community is vested
in four elders, two men and two women.
Their services consist of hymns, ad-
dresses, and especially of a certain
rhythmical marching, in which men and
women are grouped separately.
Shamanism. Name of animistic cult
of Uralo-Altaic peoples of Northern
Asia, applied also to that of Eskimo and
American Indian tribes. It is practised
by the shaman, or medicine-man, who,
combining the functions of exorcist, sor-
cerer, priest, and doctor, claims' to be
able to command supernatural forces,
divine, heal, drive out evil spirits, and,
in general, avert evil and accomplish
good for those who employ him, and
plays a leading role in ce'remonial dances
and feasts. The trance, induced by self-
hypnotism, and the use of drums are
common characteristics of his perfor-
mances.
Shammai, Jewish Rabbi of first cen-
tury B. C., contemporary of Hillel ( q . u.)
and with him member of Sanhedrin. In
opposition to the liberal-minded Hillel
he favored a strict, even severe, inter-
pretation of the Law.
Shastras, or Bhasters, strictly, the
law books of the Hindus, but in common
usage, any of their sacred writings, in-
cluding the Vedas (q.v.), their commen-
taries, and the six orthodox systems of
Indian philosophy. See Brahmanism.
Shedd, William G. T., 1820 — 94;
Presbyterian; b. at Acton, Mass.; pas-
tor; professor, last in Union Theolog-
ical Seminary, New York City (d. there) ;
wrote: History of Christian Doctrine;
Dogmatic Theology ; etc.
Sheldon, Charles Monroe, 1857 — ;
Congregationalist; b. at Wellsville,
N. Y.; pastor at Waterbury, Vt., and
Topeka, Kans.; minister at large; aim:
to advance practical Christianity; pro-
lific miscellaneous writer.
Shem-hammephorash, KHBfin Del,
term used by Jews of Middle Ages to
designate the Tetragrammaton, nirp,
the Old Testament divine name, com-
monly pronounced “Jehovah” by Chris-
tians. The Jews avoided its pronuncia-
tion. Magic powers were attributed to
it by the Kabbala (q.v.), and he who
knew its secret could perform miracles.
Meaning of term not assured; perhaps
“the distinctive name.” Also a designa-
tion of ridicule used by Luther in writ-
ing against the Jews.
Shiites (from Arabian shi‘a, “party”).
Name of one of the two main divisions
of Mohammedanism. The principal dif-
ference between them and the other great
Shintoism
702
Shi iitofsiii
division, the Sunnites (q.v.), is their
belief that the caliphate is hereditary
and not elective, that consequently it
belonged to Ali, Mohammed’s son-in-law,
and his descendants, and that the first
three caliphs, Abu-Bekr, Omar, and Oth-
man, who were elected to the office, were
usurpers. They are found scattered over
the whole Moslem world, hut especially
in Persia, where their confession was
made the state religion in 1512, and
among the common people of India. Of
the total Mohammedan population of the
world of 221,000,000, the Shiites number
about 15,000,000. They are divided into
many sects. The religious systems of
the Assassins, Druses, and Babists
(qq.v.) are derivative of the Shiite re-
ligion.
Shintoism. The ancient native re-
ligion of Japan. The primitive Japanese
cult was a crude polytheistic nature-
worship. It included the worship of all
those beings that excite admiration, awe,
or terror. To these was applied the
name kami, the Japanese name for the
deity; literally, “above, superior.” Such
kami were, besides human beings, the
sun, the heavens; rain, thunder, winds;
animals, such as the tiger, wolf, fox,
serpent, also birds; plants, trees, moun-
tains, seas, etc. In time these crude
beliefs developed mythological aspects.
The chief source of our knowledge of
ancient Japanese cosmogony and mythol-
ogy are two old semihistorical records,
the Kojiki, compiled 712 A. D., and the
Nihongi, compiled 720 A. D. They relate
that a male kami, Izanagi, and a female
kami, Izanami, together brought the
islands of Japan into existence and also
gave birth to many of the gods and god-
desses in the Shinto pantheon. The most
eminent of these is Amaterasu, the sun-
goddess, who now holds the highest rank
and is worshiped at Ise, the center of
Shintoism. This crude nature-worship
had no name until the 6th century A. D„
when Buddhism (q.v.) was introduced
into Japan and the name Shinto, a
Chinese expression meaning “the way of
the gods” and the equivalent of the
Japanese Kami-no-michi, was applied to
the native religion to distinguish it from
its new rival. From that time on Shin-
toism developed other features, which
were partly due to Chinese influence.
Ancestor-worship (q.v.) crept in, and
the dead, especially deceased emperors,
famous men, scholars, warriors, began
to be regarded as kami. New kami were
continually added to the pantheon, until
they became innumerable. The gods are,
as a rule, considered to be beneficent,
though they may cause illness and mis-
fortune, if their worship is neglected.
On the other hand, the aid of the gods is
sought as a protection against plagues
and disasters. Important is the fact
that reverence for the emperor became
a part of Shintoism, and the native re-
ligion was made to serve the interests of
his house. ’Phis cult of the mikado was
given a quasihistorical basis by attribut-
ing divine descent 'to him. He is the
direct descendant of the sun-goddess.
The Shinto shrines are simple, un-
painted, wooden structures. Before them
are the torn, gateways, consisting of two
uprights, with two cross-beams at the
top, the upper slightly curved and pro-
jecting beyond the lower. The interior
of the temples is almost bare. There
are no idols, unless the shintai, or “god-
liodies,” are regarded as such. These
shintai are mirrors, swords, precious
stones, and other objects, in which the
mitam.a, or spirit of the deity, is believed
to reside. However, these shintai are
contained in boxes and are seldom ex-
posed to public view. The shintai of the
chief deity, the sun-goddess, is the mir-
ror, a symbol of the brilliancy of sun-
light. The Shinto cult has a ritual and
a hereditary priesthood, the emperor
being the chief priest. Celibacy is not
enjoined upon the priests, neither do
they wear any distinctive dress except
when they officiate. Public worship in
the ordinary sense is not held, the priests
worshiping by themselves. The laity,
however, also come to the shrines to
worship. A bell or gong is rung to call .
the attention of the god or goddess to
the worshiper. The worship consists of
obeisances and clapping of hands. Offer-
ings of food, drink, and fabrics were
formerly made, but these have in modern
times been replaced by the gohei, sticks,
to which strips of white paper are at-
tached. These, of course, are merely
representations or imitations of the
fabrics formerly offered. — Shintoism
has no code of ethics for its followers.
It considers man to be inherently good,
and everything is well if he follows his
own good impulses. Any impurities
caused by contact with things that defile
can be easily cleansed away, and bathing
is one of the principal means of purifi-
cation. There is no sense of sin, and
consequently the ideas of forgiveness of
sins and of redemption are entirely lack-
ing. The teachings regarding the soul
and the life beyond the grave are vague.
Belief in life after death is expressed,
but there is no teaching regarding heaven
and hell. To sum up, Shintoism is a
mixture of nature-, ancestor-, and hero-
worship, a cult that has neither sacred
Sliruhsole, William
Sierra Leone
ro3
books nor dogmas nor a code of ethics. —
After the introduction of Buddhism into
Japan Shintoism remained an indepen-
dent cult for some time, but about the
))th century it was absorbed by the alien
religion. The two religions formed one
system under the name of Ryobu-Shinto,
in which Buddhism, however, exerted the
greater influence. This state of affairs
continued until the 18th century, when
a strong reaction in favor of Shintoism
set in. This revival of the ancient faith,
with its mikado cult, led to the restora-
tion of the imperial power in 1868, which
had for centuries been eclipsed by the
nhoguns, the Japanese feudal lords.
However, a cult so barren in ethical
teachings as Shinto is, compared with
Buddhism, could exert only little influ-
ence on the people. It is now little more
than a vehicle for the expression of pa-
triotism and loyalty to the emperor and
is kept alive by pilgrimages and fes-
tivals. As it is practically impossible
to differentiate between Shintoists and
Buddhists in Japan, no statistics regard-
ing the adherents of each can be given.
The census of 1019 gives the following
figures: 40,459 Shinto shrines, 66,738
minor shrines, 14,698 priests, 71,626
Buddhist temples, 36,086 minor temples,
52,894 priests and priestesses.
Shrubsole, William, 1759 — 1829; in
earlier years shipwright in the dockyard
at Sheerness, then clerk; later clerk in
the Bank of England ; then secretary to
the Committee of the Treasury; wrote:
“When Streaming from the Eastern
Skies.”
Siam, Kingdom of, country in Eastern
Asia. Area, 104,568 sq.mi. Population
(official estimate), 1922, 9,322,000, of
Mongolian and Indonesian stock. Bud-
dhism is the state religion. Animism
prevails throughout the country. Islam
has many followers. Nestorianism had
a footing in the 19tli century. Missions
were begun by Karl Guetzlaff under the
Netherlands Missionary Society in 1828.
Persecutions have done much to hinder
the work. Including Laos, missions are
carried on by American Bible Society,
Presbyterian Church in U. S. A., Seventh-
day Adventists, Churches of Christ in
Great Britain, Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel. Statistics: Foreign
staff, 102; Christian community, 14,846;
communicants, 8,344.
Sibel, Kaspar, 1590 — 1658; Dutch
Reformed; b. at Unterbarmen, Germany;
pastor; last charge Deventer, Holland
(d. there) ; arranged for Synod of Dort;
revised Dutch Bible; manuscript auto-
biography,
Sickingen, Franz von; b. 1481;
champion of the knights against the
princes; wrote for the Reformation and
would gladly have given most of his
income to translate Luther into French
to win the Kaiser; twice invited Luther
to his castles, “inns of righteousness”
for the persecuted reformers; killed in
fight against Elector of Treves at Land-
stuhl in 1523.
Sibylline Books. A collection of
apocryphal prophecies, partly of Jewish,
partly of Christian origin, containing
polemics against polytheism, visions of
a Golden Age, the coming of Christ, the
final Judgment, etc. The mass of mate-
rial accumulated from the second cen-
tury B. C. to about the fourth or fifth
A. D. Some of the Christian Fathers
unhesitatingly appealed to these oracles
in defense of Christianity. Others used
them with caution or ignored them
entirely.
Sieck, Henry; b. 1850 at Mannheim,
Baden, graduate of Concordia Seminary
1873; pastor in Memphis, Tenn., South
Bend, Ind., Zion Church, St. Louis, and
elsewhere in the Missouri Synod; presi-
dent of St. John’s College, Winfield,
Kalis., 1893; pastor of Mount Olive
Church, Milwaukee; published several
volumes of English sermons; d. 1916.
Siegler, Richard ; graduate of North-
western College and Milwaukee Semi-
nary (Lutheran) ; pastor at Barre Mills
1886 — 1910; field representative of edu-
cational institutions and missions of
Wisconsin Synod (since 1917 of Joint
Synod ) .
Sieker, Johann Heinrich; b. 1838
at Scliweinfurth, Bavaria; emigrated to
Wisconsin, 1847 ; studied at Gettysburg
(Wisconsin Synod had no seminary of
its own) ; ordained as Lutheran pastor
of Granville, Wis., 1861 ; in full accord
with the leaders of Wisconsin Synod in
its withdrawal from the General Synod ;
pastor of Trinity, St. Paul, 1867, be-
coming a member of the Minnesota
Synod and its president; induced it to
withdraw from the General Council and
to join the Synodical Conference; pastor
of St. Matthew’s, New York, the oldest
Lutheran congregation in the United
States, 1876; joined Missouri in 1881,
the congregation in 1885; founder of
Concordia Institute, Bronxville, devel-
oped from the academy of St. Matthew’s,
the congregation becoming a most gen-
erous supporter of the college, Inner
Mission, and charitable institutions.
Sierra Leone. A British colony and
protectorate on the west coast of Africa,
between Liberia and French Guiana.
SleveKingr, Amalie
704
Slhler, Wilhelm
Area, 31,000 sq. mi. Population,
1,541,311, mostly Negroes. Missions by
a number of Reformed churches and so-
cieties. Statistics: Foreign staff, 108;
Christian community, 37,913; communi-
cants, 19,413.
Sieveking, Amalie; b. 1794, d. 1859;
gave her services to the hospitals in
Hamburg during the cholera epidemic of
1831; formed a Protestant sisterhood,
1832, for the care of the sick and the
poor.
Sievers, G. E. G. Ferdinand; b. 1810
at Lueneburg, Hanover; graduate of
Goettingen; studied at Berlin and Halle.
Won through Wyneken’s appeal, he
headed the Lutheran colonists sent by
Loehe, who founded Frankenlust, Mich.,
1847, remaining their pastor till his
death, 1893. An energetic missionary,
he traveled in Michigan, Ohio, Wiscon-
sin, and Minnesota, founding congrega-
tions in Bay City and vicinity, and in
Minneapolis and other parts of Minne-
sota. As chairman of the Board for Mis-
sions among the Heathen he frequently
visited the stations of the Indian Mis-
sion. His incessant appeals in behalf of
Foreign Missions resulted in the found-
ing of the Missouri Synod’s Foreign’
Missions, 1893.
Sigismund, John. See John Sigis-
mund.
Signorelli, Luca, ca. 1441 — 1523;
Italian painter; applied anatomical
knowledge to painting; frescoes in
Cathedral of Orvieto, including “Resur-
rection of the Dead”; “Madonna En-
throned,” in the Cathedral of Perugia.
Sihler, Wilhelm; b. November 2,
1801, at Bernstadt, Silesia; entered col-
lege at ten, the military school at fifteen,
lieutenant at eighteen. Taking his dis-
charge, he entered, 1826, the University
of Berlin, where he heard philosophical,
philological, and a few theological lec-
tures; a great admirer of Schleier-
macher. Graduating as Doctor of Phi-
losophy, he tutored for a year and in
1830 became instructor at a private col-
lege in Dresden. A rationalist till now,
the grace of God here led him to know
his sinfulness and his Savior and, greatly
through his intercourse with such pro-
nounced Lutherans as Professor Selieibel,
Dr. Rudelbach, and Pastor Wermels-
kirch, to study and love the Bible and
the Lutheran Confessions. Forced to
relinguish his position at Dresden on
this account, he became a private tutor
in Livonia, 1838 on the island of Oesel,
1840 at Riga. Desirous of entering the
ministry, Wyneken’s Appeal, together
with the advice of his pastoral friends
and the Dresden Mission Society, won
him for the work in America. Recom-
mended by Dr. Rudelbach and by Pastor
Loehe, the professors at Columbus, O.,
directed him to Pomeroy, O., where he
preached his inaugural sermon Janu-
ary 1, 1844. Here he contributed ar-
ticles to the Lutherische Kirchenzeitung
and wrote A Dialog of Two Lutherans
on Methodism. Through the Lutheraner
he became acquainted with -Walther and
the other confessional Lutherans. In
1845 he, with others, withdrew from the
Ohio Synod because of its unionistic
position. In July of the same year he
became Wyneken’s successor at Fort
Wayne, having pharge of three preaching-
stations besides and laboring with great
success for the planting of the Church
in the surrounding counties. A thor-
oughly Scriptural preacher (he published
three volumes of sermons) and conscien-
tious pastor, insisting on purity of doc-
trine, holiness of life, and the old-
fashioned Lutheran Church discipline,
and, particularly, laying great stress on
the training of the children in school
and Christenlehre, as well as on the
training of children and adults in the
Catechism, he left behind him, at his
death, October 27, 1885, “a congregation
thoroughly indoctrinated, full of living
faith, and rich in good works.” — The
Missouri Synod owes its character and
growth, under God particularly to three
men — Walther, Sihler, and Wyneken.
Sihler took a prominent part in the
work of the conferences leading to the
organization of the Synod. He was its
first vice-president, overseeing the East-
ern part of the Synod, and the first pres-
ident of the Central District, zealous in
preserving pure Lutheranism and ever
alive to its missionary opportunities.
Taking up the work, begun by Wyneken,
of training men for the ministry, he
established, with the help of Loehe, the
Practical Seminary at Fort Wayne
(1846) and served aB its president and
professor till 1861. In 1857 he founded,
with others, the Teachers’ Seminary, at
the Fort Wayne College; he was presi-
dent of Concordia College, Fort Wayne,
and repeatedly served as instructor.
A zealous champion of confessional Lu-
theranism and a keen-eyed, warm-hearted
promoter of Synod’s practical work, ad-
vocating these things with all the force
of his sturdy Christian character (at
conventions and colloquies) and of his
blunt and vigorous pen (he wrote a num-
ber of pamphlets and over 100 articles
for Synod’s periodicals), he put a last-
ing mark upon Synod.
Sikhs
?65 Sin
Sikhs. Originally an Indian sect,
now grown into a nation, principally
found in the Punjab. Founded by Nanak
(b. 1469), who endeavored to unite Mo-
hammedanism with Hinduism, rejecting
the social and ceremonial restrictions of
the latter. Their chief religious tenet
is strict monotheism. The doctrines of
reincarnation, karma, and nirvana
( qq. v . ) , were retained, while the Hindu
caste system and pilgrimages were re-
jected. Their sacred book is the Grantha,
preserved in the capital, Amritsar. In
the middle of the 19th century they came
into conflict with the British, who de-
feated them in two campaigns and in
1849 annexed the Punjab. They number
3,238,803 (census of 1921).
Simeon Stylites. See Stylites.
Simon, Richard, 1038—1712; Ro-
man Catholic scholar and critic; one
of the pioneers of the historico-critical
method in its application to the books
of the Bible. His Histoire Critique
(“Critical History of the Old Testa-
ment”), published in 1078, was con-
demned as heretical, but was republished
by the author in Rotterdam in 1085.
Simon also made respectable contribu-
tions to the study of the Biblical text
and of ancient versions.
Simony (for derivation of word see
Acts 8, 18 — 20). The purchase or sale
of anything spiritual for money or other
temporal consideration. Many of the
earlier church councils found it neces-
sary to condemn simony, and Justinian
(533) caused an imperial decree against
it, engraved on marble, to be placed in
St. Peter’s Church at Rome because
simony had been used in papal elections.
Pope Gregory I (599) urged various
bishops to purge their churches of sim-
ony; the practise had evidently become
general. It rose to still greater heights
in the 11th century. In 1033 a twelve-
year-old boy became Pope as Benedict IX,
his father having bought the papal dig-
nity for him. Benedict, in turn, sold the
office to Gregory VI. A resolute oppo-
nent of simony arose in Gregory VII
(1073 — 85), who was determined to put
an end to lay investiture as then prac-
tised, which he termed simony. Kings
and other rulers claimed the right of
nominating candidates to ecclesiastical
dignities that fell vacant in their terri-
tories and of investing them with the
material possessions that went with the
office. During the vacancy of a benefice
the ruler appropriated the income. He
also took the personal property of the
deceased prelate and received a fee from
the new incumbent at his investiture.
Concordia Cyclopedia
Under such conditions, benefices were
often practically sold to the highest bid-
der regardless of his fitness. Gregory’s
efforts led to a long struggle, which was
ended by later Popes through a com-
promise, in which the Church gained
most of her points. But if Gregory had
driven the devils of simony out of the
temporal princes, they appear to have
made their lodging thereafter in the
hierarchy, particularly at Rome. Popes
became the worst offenders. It is illum-
inating to find that some of the later
canonists taught that what was simony
in others was not simony in the Popes,
because everything in the Church was
theirs. Dante’s Inferno makes Nicho-
las III the mouthpiece of the simoniacs
in hell and refers to the simony of Boni-
face VIII and Clement V. On the eve
of the Reformation the venality of Rome
reached its height. Everything spiritual
was frankly for sale, and the most
shameless methods were employed to in-
crease the profits, the same preferment
being sold to as many as possible, though
only one could hold it, and old men being
preferably appointed, so that a new
vacancy might occur soon. From this
curse, as from some others, the Roman
Church was delivered by theReformation.
Sin. Sin is Scripturally defined as
the transgression of the divine Law.
1 John 3, 4. Sin always has its root
in the will of the individual. Irra-
tional beings cannot sin. Yet this does
not mean that every sin is connected
with a direct act of the will ; it may be
involuntary, or it may be a state or con-
dition. There are different kinds and
different degrees of sin: original sin
(see Original Sin); actual sin — every
act, thought, emotion, conflicting with
the Law of God. Actual sins may be
involuntary or may be sins of ignorance.
Acts 17, 30. There is the sin of omis-
sion, which is a neglect of duty or a
failure to measure up to full responsi-
bility. But there is also voluntary or
presumptuous sin, committed against
the warnings of conscience and with the
consent of the will, a violation of known
duty. The necessary consequence of sin
is guilt; on the part of God, it is right-
eous wrath and punishment. Wilful sins
grieve the Spirit and sear the sinner’s
conscience until he can no longer feel the
point of the Spirit’s sword. Heb. 4, 12.
The heart becomes too hard to be softened
or pricked and the sinner too blind to
see and too deaf to hear. He no longer
desires salvation; he has sinned away
his day of grace. The Lord in love had
pleaded with him, but he refused to hear
and repent; and when, in the day of
45
Sin, Original
706
Sin, Original
reckoning, he cries for mercy, his cries
are unheard. The day of salvation has
ended, and the door of mercy is closed.
The Lord declares: “My Spirit shall not
always strive with man.” Gen. 6, 3.
There is a limit to God’s long-suffering
and patience. Acts 7, 51 — 53. This state
of hardening of the heart is not identical
with the unpardonable sin. The hardened
state of the soul may be reached by
omitting to do what the Holy Ghost
wants, namely, to accept Christ. The
unpardonable sin, on the other hand,
while a true hardening (self -hardening)
of the heart, always implies the rejection
and repudiation of truths which had
once been accepted by intellect and con-
science. See Sin, Unpardonable.
Sin, Original (Inherited). This term,
in its ordinary acceptation, does not
refer to the origin of sin in the begin-
ning, but it signifies both the guilt of
Adam’s sin imputed to his offspring
(hereditary guilt), Rom. 6, 12 (see
Formula of Concord, I, Art. 1 ; Sol.
Decl., § 9, and the corruption of man’s
nature which took place when sin
entered and which ever thereafter has
inhered in the human will and inclina-
tions. The texts which particularly refer
to original sin are Gen. 6, 3; John 3, 6;
Ps. 51, 6; Gen. 6, 6; Job 15, 14; Rom.
14, 23. It is plain that original sin is
not an activity, but a quality, a state, an
inherent condition. It exists even though
there be no conscious, voluntary act of
the internal or external powers, of the
mind or the body. Yet it is “a root and
fountainhead of all actual sins.” It is
their parent, and they are its offspring.
It is the silent, unseen cause; they are
the effects. — The description of original
sin given in the Augsburg Confession,
Art. II, contemplates it not in the ab-
stract, as though it were something
which subsists in itself and were capable
of being viewed apart, but as inhering in
the nature of man and inseparable from
it even in thought, so long as it con-
tinues to exist. It has no existence
apart from human nature and hence can-
not be described as something that is
“essential and self-subsisting.” (See For-
mula of Concord, Epitome, chapter I.)
The Second Article, therefore, speaks of
men with sin, the sin with which they
are born, and declares that this sin con-
sists in this, that they are “without the
fear of God, without trust in God, and
with concupiscence.” It sets forth their
natural disability from birth with refer-
ence to that which is good in the eyes
of God, and their positive inclination
toward all that is evil. When it says
that they are “without the fear of God,
without trust in God,” the meaning is,
not only that they do not, but that they
cannot and can never, by their own
reason or strength, truly fear God, or
trust in Him and love Him as He would
have them fear, trust, and love. In order
that they may do this, a work of divine
grace is necessary in them. And when
the article says that they are “with con-
cupiscence,” the meaning is that they
are, in all the powers of their being, in
those of the understanding, reason,
heart, and will as well as in those of
the body, full of evil desire and evil in-
clination, according to Gen. 8, 21 and
6, 5: “The imagination of man’s heart
is evil from his youth,” “only evil con-
tinually.” — The reality of original sin
is denied by all forms of Pelagianism
( see Pelagianism ) , which includes the
Modernistic error and Christian Science.
Against all these errors our Confession
affirms that “this disease, or vice of
origin, is truly sin.” The Formula of
Concord says: Original sin “is an entire
want or lack of concreated original
righteousness in Paradise, or of God’s
image, according to which man was orig-
inally created in truth, holiness, and
righteousness, and at the same time an
inability and unfitness for all the things
of God.” And further: “Original sin
(in human nature) is not only such an
entire absence of all good in spiritual,
divine things, but instead of the lost
image of God in man it is at the same
time also a deep, wicked, horrible, fath-
omless, inscrutable, and unspeakable cor-
ruption of the entire nature and all its
powers, especially of the highest, prin-
cipal powers of the soul in understand-
ing, heart, and will; that now, since the
Fall, man inherits an inborn wicked dis-
position and inward impurity of heart,
evil lust, and propensity. We all, by
disposition and nature, inherit from
Adam such a heart, feeling, and thought
as are, according to their highest powers
and the light of reason, naturally in-
clined and disposed directly contrary to
God and His chief commandments; yea,
they are enmity against God, especially
as regards divine and spiritual things.
For in other respects, as regards natural,
external things which are subject to rea-
son, man still has, to a certain degree,
understanding, power, and ability, al-
though very much weakened, all of which,
nevertheless, has been so infected and
contaminated by original sin that before
God it is of no use.” (Concordia Tri-
glotta, p.863.) And, again, the same
confession says: “We believe, teach, and
confess that original sin is not a slight,
but so deep a corruption of human na-
Sin, The Unpardonable
707
Sins, Venial and Mortal
ture that nothing healthy or uncorrupt
has remained in man’s body or soul, in
his inner or outward powers.” (Ibid.,
p. 781.) — In order that human nature
may be delivered from this horrible evil
and healed, the Holy Spirit’s work of
regeneration and sanctification is nec-
essary; and as a means to this end He
uses Baptism; for original sin condemns
and brings eternal death “upon those
not born again through Baptism and
the Holy Ghost.” ( Augsb. Conf., Art. II.
Gone. Trigl., 43.) It is covered and for-
given before God for Christ’s sake “in
the baptized and believing.” (Form, of
Con. Cone. Trigl., 1. e.) . “He that be-
lieveth and is baptized shall be saved.”
Mark 16, 16. — The final separation of
the human nature and the corruption
inhering in it, which separation God
alone can effect, will come to pass
“through death, in the resurrection,
where our nature which we now bear
will rise and live eternally, without
original sin, and separated and sundered
from it.” (Form, of Con. Cone. Trigl.,
873.)
Sin, The Unpardonable. To this sin
the following passages refer: Matt.
12, 31; Mark 3, 29; Luke 12, 10; Heb.
6, 4 — 6; 1 John 5, 16. If we compare
these passages with one another, it be-
comes plain that the sin against the
Holy Ghost, or the unpardonable sin,
consists in a knowing, conscious, stub-
born, and malicious opposition to divine
truth once recognized as such, and in
blasphemous hostility against it. J. Ger-
hard defines it as “an intentional denial
of evangelical truth, which was acknowl-
edged and approved by conscience, con-
nected with a bold attack upon it, and
voluntary blasphemy of it.” Quenstedt
sets it forth in three points somewhat
more elaborately. “The sin against the
Holy Ghost consists 1 ) in a denial of
evangelical truth, which was evidently
and sufficiently acknowledged and ap-
proved and which denial was effected by
a full, free, and unimpeded exercise of
the will; 2) in a hostile attack upon
the same; 3) in a voluntary and atro-
cious blasphemy.” — The stubborn and
malicious opposition, which is the essence
of the unpardonable sin, may be further
distinguished as follows: 1) Some not
only have internally experienced the
truth, given their assent to it, but have
also externally received it and have
nevertheless set themselves against it, to
which class all apostates belong, and to
whom Heb. 6, 4 applies. 2) Others have
not outwardly confessed themselves to
it, but are at the same time convinced
in their minds of its reality, yet, not-
withstanding, obstinately and wickedly
oppose it, as the Pharisees and scribes
did, who did not believe in the doctrines
of Christ, but were convinced from the
works of Jesus and the Scriptures of the
Old Testament that Christ was true God
and revealed divine truths. From this
it iB easily perceived that the Apostle
Peter, though he denied his Master and
the truth, as also Paul, who was a re-
viler, a blasphemer, and a persecutor of
divine truth previous to his conversion,
are not to be classed among those who
have committed the sin against the Holy
Ghost, in that the first transgressed has-
tily, through fear of men, and the second
did so through ignorance, as he says
1 Tim. 1, 13. — The unpardonable sin is
called the sin against the Holy Ghost
not with reference to the person of the
Holy Spirit, who then would appear to
have precedence of the Father and the
Son, but must be understood of His
office, in that He reveals, and testifies
to, the heavenly truths. It is a con-
scious resistance to the special work of
the Holy Ghost to call, enlighten (Eph.
1, 17. 18), convert, renew (Eph. 6, 9;
Titus 3, 5), and sanctify man (2 These.
2, 13; Eph. 4, 30; 1 Cor. 6, 11).-— This
sin* is unpardonable not because of any
unwillingness in God, but because of the
condition of him who commits it. This
sin cannot be forgiven, not because the
mercy of God and the merits of Christ
are not sufficiently great, but because in
consequence of his obdurate rejection of
the Word of the Holy Spirit, the judg-
ment of final obduration is pronounced
against him. The Holy Spirit has for-
saken him utterly, and repentance has
become impossible.
Sins, Venial and Mortal. The Eoman
Church teaches that sins, in their own
nature, vary in degree of gravity, the
weightier ones meriting eternal death
(mortal sins), while the lighter ones
only weaken grace and can be satisfied
by temporal punishment (venial sins).
The character of a sin is held to be de-
termined by the amount of deliberation
involved and the degree of wrong com-
mitted (theft, e. g., being mortal or
venial according as the amount stolen
is large or small ) . Only mortal sins
require the sacrament of penance (see
Confession, Auricular) . The guilt of
venial sins can be removed by good
works. ( Catechismus Romanus, II, 5. 46.)
— This philosophical distinction conflicts
with the Scripture, which teaches that
every sin as such merits the wrath of
God, Jas. 2, 10; Gal. 3, 10; Matt. 5,
18. 19, and is therefore mortal, Rom.
6, 23; Ezek. 18, 4; but that every sin
Singmaster, J. A.
708
Slander
ceases to be mortal when faith in Christ
intervenes, Rom. 8, 1; 1 John 1, 7. The
relative deadliness of sin, accordingly, is
not dependent on intrinsic differences in
sins, but solely on the sinner’s relation
to Christ.
Singmaster, J. A.; b. 1852; educated
at Gettysburg; held Lutheran pastorates
in Pennsylvania and in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
1876 — 1900; then became professor of
Systematic Theology in Gettysburg Sem-
inary; president of the seminary since
1906; president of General Synod 1915
to 1917 ; editor of Lutheran Quarterly
and author of Systematic Theology, Re-
formers before the Reformation, etc.;
outlined the mode of procedure for the
“Merger” of 1918; d. 1926. '
Sisterhoods. Of the Roman Catholic
sisterhoods, or religious organizations
for women, which are not treated in
separate articles (as are Angelicals,
Benedictines, etc.), the following may be
briefly mentioned : 1 ) Sisters of the
Good Shepherd (50 houses in the United
States in 1921). An institute to shelter
fallen women and girls who come volun-
tarily or are sent by civil or parental
authority (called penitents) ; also
neglected children (called preservates) .
Penitents may remain for life as quasi-
members of the society ( magdalens ) . •—
2) Little Sisters of the Poor. An insti-
tute to provide for homeless old men and
women. As there is no fixed income,
funds are usually procured by begging
from door to door. — 3 ) Sisters of the
Holy Child Jesus. Pounded by Mrs. Con-
nelly, an American convert. Their prin-
cipal object is the education and instruc-
tion of females of all classes and ages,
either individually (as prospective con-
verts) or in schools and colleges. • —
4) Sisters of St. Joseph. A name borne
by various communities, some educa-
tional, others conducting homes, hospi-
tals, asylums, etc. — 5) Felician Sisters.
An educational sisterhood, founded in
Poland, teaching in Polish parish schools.
— 6 ) Sisters of the Immaculate Heart
of Mary. An educational sisterhood.
See also Brotherhoods.
Sixtus IV, Pope 1471 — 84; b. 1414;
was little concerned with theology, but
all the more with politics and business;
had some splendid buildings erected at
Rome; recreated the Vatican Library,
but was avaricious and practised nep-
otism and simony in a degree astounding
even in a Pope; introduced the Inquisi-
tion in Spain 1478.
Sixtus V, Pope 1585 — 90; showed
great executive ability and diplomatic
pliancy; had Sixtine edition of Vulgata
prepared,
Skepticism. That phase of philo-
sophic thought which, in opposition to
dogmatism, holds that the attainment
of truth is impossible. Its principal
exponent among the ancient philosophers
was Pyrrho of Elis (b. ca. 365 B. C. ).
Like the Stoics and Epicureans, Pyrrho
pursues the practical aim of finding
mental peace and quiet. To obtain this,
however, all metaphysical speculation is
futile, resulting rather in perplexity and
disquiet. No two schools of philosophy
agree on first principles, because the
essence of things is incomprehensible.
The attitude of the sage is therefore a
suspension of judgment. He neither de-
nies nor affirms categorically, since in
every case the pro and the con may be
defended with equal force and plausi-
bility.
Skoptsi. See Russian Sects.
Slander. A sin against the Eighth
Commandment, its particular features
being a form of defamation by which
another person (or persons) is held up
to ridicule, disgrace, contempt, and
hatred, chiefly in speech, signs, and ges-
tures, to which we may add the writ-
ten or printed defamation known as
libel. While a libel may be produced
without being communicated, slander can
hardly be said to have any existence
unless it is communicated to the mind
of another. Black (Law Dictionary) de-
fines slander as the speaking of false and
malicious words concerning another
whereby injury results to his reputation,
and a slanderer as one who maliciously
and without reason imputes a crime or
fault to another of which the latter is
innocent. — The Bible is very emphatic
in its denunciation of slander. We read;
“I have heard the slander of many; fear
was on every side, while they took coun-
sel together against me.” Ps. 31, 13. “He
that uttereth a slander is a fool.” Prov.
10, 18. The prophet Jeremiah reproaches
the sinners of his day with the words :
“They are grievous revolters, walking
with slanders.” Jer. 6, 28. And again :
“Take ye heed every one of his neighbor ;
. . . every neighbor will walk with
slanders.” Jer. 9, 4. A stern rebuke is
that of Asaph: “Thou sittest and
speakest against thy brother ; thou
slanderest thine own mother’s son.” Ps.
50, 20. And the Lord says ; “Whoso
privily slanderetli his neighbor, him will
I cut off.” Ps. 101, 5. The New Testa-
ment takes exactly the same position.
Rom. 3, 8; 1 Tim. 3, 11. — The insidious
feature of slander is this, that the victim
rarely knows of the evil things that are
being circulated about him. Being in-
nocent of wrong-doing, he does not sug^
Slavery
709
Slovak Ev. Lnth. Synod
pect that a net of baseness is being
woven about him. Very often the situa-
tion is simply this, that some statement
of his has been misunderstood or torn
from its context or that some report
concerning him has been ruthlessly
garbled. When he does find out about
it, the damage is usually done to an
extent that hours of explanation cannot
undo the harm. The words of Luther
according to which we are to follow the
exhortation of the Eighth Commandment
in defending our neighbor, in speaking
well of him, and in putting the best con-
struction on everything, will prove the
best antidote against slander.
Slavery. “That civil relation in
which one man has absolute power over
the life, fortune, and liberty of another.”
(Black.) There can be little doubt, as
a recent writer lias pointed out, that the
spread of Christianity was the cause of
the increasing sentiment among the na-
tions against slavery, so that it is now
confined to a few remote districts in
uncivilized countries. It is true that
the position of the slaves among the
Jews was not attended with such shame-
ful evidences of degradation as among
the heathen, where slavery was a malig-
nant canker and the lot of the average
slave was worse than that of a beast of
burden. As the influence of Christianity
increased, the hold of slavery gradually
weakened, and where it was still main-
tained, the inhuman cruelties which were
formerly practised were gradually aban-
doned. Slavery in the Eastern Empire
was abolished at the end of the I4th
century; in Greece, in 1437. Serfdom,
which arose as a consequence of the uni-
versal disorder and chaos of society in
the Latin Empire, was looked upon with
disfavor from the first by men who re-
alized whither it tended. In modern
times enlightened states have abrogated
both serfdom and slavery, the latter
being abolished by law in England in
1833, 1846 in Sweden, 1849 in Denmark,
1848 in France, 1855 in Portugal, 1863
in the United States, 1871 in Brazil. —
Though the question has therefore ceased
to be a burning one, yet it is well to
remember, in view of the numerous pas-
sages throughout the Bible which treat
of slavery, that the institution of slavery
is not intrinsically and fundamentally
wrong from the Biblical Standpoint.
While a Christian may hold the opinion
that it is far better, from a social and
economic viewpoint, that slavery should
not be tolerated in a state or a country,
he will still maintain that, according to
the clear expression of God’s will in His
Word, even Christians might possess
slaves or sanction their holding. Against
men-stealers, against dealers in slaves,
we have a plain passage of Scriptures,
1 Tim. 1, 10, but there is no word of the
Lord forbidding slavery itself. What
the apostle writes Eph. 6, 5 — 8; Col. 3,
22 — 25; 1 Tim. 6, 1; Titus 2, 9. 10, and
in the letter to Philemon, agrees with
what the Lord has spoken in the Old
Testament, Lev. 25, 44 — 46; Gen. 30, 43;
Job 1, 3 ff. — It is true, of course, that
God inflicted slavery upon men as a pun-
ishment for their sins, Deut. 28, 15 — 69;
Jer. 5, 19; 17, 4; that He made whole
nations the abject and spurned servants
of others; but it is equally true that
vile and inhuman treatment of slaves is
not a necessary concomitant of the state
of slavery and would not be thought of
if all masters had at all times feared
God and heeded what the Lord says,
Eph. 6, 9 and Col. 4, 1 : “Masters, give
unto your servants that which is just
and equal, knowing that ye also have
a Master in heaven.” That slaves were
a piece of property without rights and
could be treated, and disposed of, by
their masters according to an unbounded
license is an idea which nowhere finds
confirmation in Scriptures. What the
apostle taught in all the passages in
which he touched upon the institution of
slavery was this, — that slaves are not
only human beings like their masters,
having the same Lord and Creator in
heaven above, but that they are also in-
cluded in an equal measure in the salva-
tion which was earned by Christ; that
the gracious will of God concerns also
them; that He desires them to be saved
through the knowledge of the truth.
Slaves must therefore be considered as
possessing the full dignity of men, a fact
which, together with the certainty of the
redemption wrought also for them, gives
them full equality, in the sight of God,
with their masters. Had these truths
of Scripture always received the recog-
nition which they deserve, there would
be no chapter concerning the inhuman
cruelties of many slaveholders in the
history of most civilized countries. All
these facts enable us to appreciate all
the more the fact that slavery, at least
in its most inhuman forms, is practically
a thing of the past wherever civilization
has penetrated and Christianity has
gained some influence; for by virtue of
this fact some of the concomitant evils
will never get an opportunity to lift
their heads.
The Slovak Ev. Luth. Synod of the
United States of America. About forty-
five years ago Slovak Lutherans began
to emigrate tp the United States. Within
Slovak Ev. Lutli. Synod
710
Slovakia'
a short time after their arrival, congre-
gations were organized, among the first
being those at Streator, 111., Freeland,
Pa., and Minneapolis. At first the con-
gregations were much neglected, due to
the lack of regular pastors and teachers.
To no small degree the General Evangel-
ical Church of Hungary was responsible
for this state of affairs, as it did noth-
ing whatsoever for the spiritual welfare
of its former members. Men well versed
in the Word of God and the doctrines of
the Lutheran Church, fit to become
leaders, were lacking. The first steps
to organize the Slovak Synod were taken
in 1894. A meeting was held on June 4
at Mahanoy City, Pa. Four clergymen
and seven lay members were present.
A “Slovensky Evanjelicky Semorat” was
organized. The official organ was Cir-
kevne IAsty ( Church Leaves ) . At a
pastoral conference held June 4, 1902, at
St. Paul’s Church, Braddock, Pa. ( 9 pas-
tors present, four of these affiliated with
the Missouri Synod), a mutual under-
standing was reached, and it was de-
cided to organize the Slovak Ev. Luth.
Synod of the U. S. A. The organization
took place September 2, 1902, at Con-
nellsville, Pa. President, Rev. Daniel
Laucek; secretary, Rev. Drahotin Kra-
cala. The synod professed its adherence
to the Confessions of the Lutheran
Church and declared itself in full ac-
cord with the Missouri Synod in doctrine
and practise. (It joined the Synodical
Conference in 1908.) All were elated
over the success of the first meeting of
their synod and promised to work for
its welfare. However, the first years of
the body were marked by strife and
struggles. Many severed their connec-
tion with it on account of its true Lu-
theran practise, such as its firm stand
against open Communion. The synod
was accused of harboring hierarchical
aims. A campaign of abuse was inaugu-
rated among the Slovak people, and some
pastors left the synod. Others had to
be suspended for cause. It seemed that
the synod would disband. But with the
help of God it has remained true to the
Word of God and the Lutheran Confes-
sions to this day. It numbers 31 pas-
tors, 1 professor, and 4 teachers, 37 or-
ganized congregations and 25 mission-
stations, a few other congregations not
yet formally members of the synod, but
one in faith with it and served by its
pastors; 13,669 baptized members, 7,000
communicant members, 38 Sunday-
schools. Congregational expenditures
( 1913) , $140,987; benevolences, $15,282.
Present officers : J. S. Bradac, president ;
Jos. Kucharik, vice-president; P. Rafaj,
secretary; Mr. John Chovan, treasurer;
Mr. J. Javornik, financial secretary. —
The synod has neither a theological sem-
inary nor any other higher institutions
of learning. The pastors and teachers
are educated in the colleges and semi-
naries of the Missouri Synod. The
synodical meetings are held yearly, in
the latter part of August. A complete
report is published in book-form. The
synod has 3 visitors and is divided into
3 Districts, Eastern, Central, and West-
ern. Pastoral conferences are held at
appropriate times in each District.
Synod’s official paper, the Bvedok (Wit-
ness), is spreading its message widely.
Its object is to spread the teachings of
the Lutheran Church through the printed
word, to defend the Church against false
doctrines and all foes, and thus to do
mission-work among the Slavs in gen-
eral. It has many subscribers in Czecho-
slovakia, Jugoslavia, Hungary, and
Russia. For the young people the Mlady
Luteran (Young Lutheran) is published.
To collect the necessary funds for vari-
ous charitable purposes, a budget system
is in effect. The collections for the For-
eign, Negro, and Jewish Missions are sent
through the channels of the Missouri
Synod and the Synodical Conference.
Synod has a Board for Home Missions
and one for Missions in Czecho-Slovakia
and Jugoslavia. In 1920 the work was
begun in the Republic of Czecho-Slovakia,
the birthplace of almost all of synod’s
members. The work was, and still is,
fraught with great difficulties and en-
tails a heavy financial outlay. At pres-
ent the synod has two organized con-
gregations there and a fine, valuable
property. One of the buildings located
on it serves as a place of worship for one
of the congregations. The plan of the
synod to establish a theological seminary
could not be carried out. Its mission
has good prospects. — Synod has pub-
lished various books for church and
school use, most important among them
the Book of Concord and a hymn-book,
the Tranosciua. A most important issue
facing the synod is the organizing of
parochial schools, of which at the present
writing there are only two. It also in-
tends to build an orphans’ home.
Slovak Synod, Zion. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Slovakia. The Slovaks, a Slavic race,
have been living in their present habita-
tion from time immemorial. The great
Moravian kingdom was in existence long
before the Huns and Magyars came to
Europe. King Ratislav, a Christian,
called German monks to Christianize the
Slovakia
711
Smalcald Articles
Slovaks; but it was only after Cyrillus
and Methodius (qq.v.), whom the Greek
Emperor Michael sent at the request of
the king in 863, preached in the Slavic
tongue that the nation was won for the
Gospel. — The Slovak race came under
the influence of the Reformation quite
early. The teachings of John Hus had
prepared the way. Persecuted Hussites
under Jiskra came to Slovakia in 1429
and spread the Holy Scriptures and
their religious literature, translated into
Czecho-Slovak. Hungarian merchants
who had been at Leipzig in 1520 brought
back Luther’s writings. Not less than
200 Hungarian students attended the
University of Wittenberg between 1522
and 1564. Queen Mary was favorably
disposed towards the teachings of Luther
and corresponded with him. The Gospel
was readily accepted throughout Hun-
gary, especially by the Slovaks. The
Pope bestirred himself, and as early as
1523 the diet decreed the extirpation of
the Lutherans and the confiscation of
their property. (Slovak martyrs: Greg-
ori and Nieolay.) Since civil affairs,
however, such as the war between Hun-
gary and the Turks, occupied the ene-
mies of the Reformation, Luther’s teach-
ings spread rapidly. Maximilian II was
a Protestant at heart. Almost the entire
country was won. In 1563 the Hunga-
rians declared for Calvinism, while the
Slovaks remained faithful to Lutheran-
ism. The Lutheran Church had 3 mil-
lion adherents, mostly Slovaks, in 900
parishes. At the first synod in 1610,
called by Geo. Thurzo, the Church was
divided into three districts, under the
Superintendents Elias Lani, Samuel
Melik, and Izak Abrahamides. There
followed severe persecutions, particularly
from 1670 to 1680, the clergy especially
had to endure various forms of suffer-
ings, and 888 churches were confiscated.
The Tolerance Patent of Joseph II put
an end to the persecutions (1781), and
in 1868 Parliament, at Budapest, estab-
lished religious liberty. The Lutheran
Church again expanded. The 200 par-
ishes grew to 500. But new forms of
oppression appeared. The union between
the Calvinists and Lutherans, repeatedly
proposed after the revolution of 1848,
did not indeed, become a reality, thanks
to the good work of Dr. M. J. Hurban
and other Slovaks ; but, on the one hand,
the Magyars left no means untried to
rob the Slovaks of their language and
their faith; and, on the other hand,
rationalism got a firm hold on the
Church. — Before the World War the
General Evangelical Church of Hungary
(the Lutheran Slovaks numbering about
half a million) had four bishops or
superintendents, who, after the manner
of state church officials, dealt harshly
with the faithful ministers of the Gospel.
After the Republic of Czecho-Slovakia
was founded, at a synod held in 1920,
the Church was reorganized and divided
into two districts, under administrators
or bishops; but the old evil remained:
Church and State have not been sepa-
rated, and while the Church professes
adherence to the Lutheran Confessions,
its leaders and pastors, with very few
exceptions, are adherents of rationalism,
Liberalism, and unionism.
Smalcald Articles. The Lutherans,
from the first, had always appealed to
a general and free council. At last Pope
Paul III, on June 4, 1536, called one to
meet at Mantua on May 8, 1537 ; but it
was for “the utter extirpation of the
poisonous, pestilential Lutheran heresy,”
as he said on September 23. What were
the Lutherans to do? The Elector John
Frederick of Saxony, on December 1,
asked Luther to write an ultimatum to
be considered by the Estates when meet-
ing at Smalcald in February. In a short
time the work was done, and towards
the end of the month it was discussed by
a number of friends and signed, after a
few minor changes. Melanclithon added
that a primacy of human right might be
conceded to the Pope if he admitted the
Gospel, — which the Elector did not
relish. Part I treats “the high articles
of divine majesty,” but very briefly, be-
cause not disputed. Part II treats the
articles “that pertain to the office and
work of Jesus Christ, or our salva-
tion” — justification, the Mass, the pa-
pacy. Part III treats sin, the Law, re-
pentance, etc. At the first proceedings
Chancellor Brueck moved to consider the
doctrine. Luther had a severe attack of
gravel and could not attend the sessions,
and the Estates only reaffirmed the
Augsburg Confession and the Apology.
Though Luther’s Smalcald Articles were
not officially adopted by the Smalcald
League as such, the “coarse Pomeranian”
Bugenhagen called the theologians to-
gether to sign Luther’s articles, and
forty-four loyal Lutherans signed them
as expressing their faith. Next year
Luther published his articles as if they
had been adopted at Smalcald; it is
possible he never learned what happened
to them during his illness. They grew
in esteem and were embodied in the Book
of Concord of 1580. In view of Luther’s
illness and in lieu of Luther’s Smalcald
Articles “On the Papacy,” Melanchthon
wrote a “Tract on the Power and Pri-
macy of the Pope and on the Power
Smalcald Led# tie
Socialism
713
and Jurisdiction of the Bishops.” Owing
to the fierce antipapal wind blowing
at Smalcald, Melanclithon, as usual,
trimmed his sails to the wind, sup-
pressed his own sentiments, and wrote
more vehemently than his wont, in the
spirit of Luther, on the Pope as the
Antichrist. This Lutheran writing of
Melanchthon’s, with Veit Dietrich’s Ger-
man translation, was signed by the
Estates together with the Augsburg Con-
fession and the Apology. In the Book
of Concord Melanchthon’s Tract appears
as an appendix to Luther’s Smalcald
Articles. This is proper, if not techni-
cally, at least practically.
Smaleald League. Formed in 1531
by five princes and eleven cities for
mutual protection against the war
threatened by Charles V at Augsburg
in 1530. Others joined, even Denmark;
France and England wished to join.
Pressed by the Turk and impressed by
the League, Karl did not make war, but
the Nuremberg Religious Peace. Philip
of Hessen was the soul of the League,
but his bigamy eliminated him in 1540,
and the Smalcald War of 1546 ended
the Smaleald League.
Smalcald War. Wars with France,
the Pope, and the Turk kept Charles V
from executing the fierce Edict of Worms
of 1521. At last he was free to settle
with the hated heretics and in June,
1540, began the War on the Smalcald
League by outlawing the Elector of
Saxony and the Landgrave of Hessen.
These two reenforced the troops under
Schaertlin and by quick action could
have crushed the Emperor. They dallied.
The Lutheran Maurice of Ducal Saxony
invaded his Lutheran cousin’s Electoral
Saxony. The Elector returned to save
his country. Philip of Hessen, in anger,
went home. The Kaiser crushed the Elec-
tor at the Battle of Muehlberg, in 1540.
Philip gave himself up. The Smalcald
League was ended. The Kaiser was
supreme in Germany. Only the lowland
cities held up the banner of Lutheranism.
Smend, Julius, 1857 — ; studied at
Bonn, Halle, and Goettingen; held vari-
ous positions as pastor at Paderborn,
Bonn, Siegen, and Seelscheid; professor
at seminary in Friedberg, later at Uni-
versity of Strassburg, now at Muenster;
prominent in liturgiology and hymnol-
ogy; associate editor, with F. Spitta, of
Monatssohrift fuer Gottesdienst und
kirchliche Kunst; also published books
on liturgies and related subjects, espe-
cially Der evangelisohe Gottesdienst.
Smith, Eli; b. September 13, 1801, at
Northfield, Conn.; d. January 11, 1857,
at Beirut; American Board missionary
to the Near East, especially Syria;
translated the Bible into Arabic.
Smith, Joseph. See Mormonism.
Smith, Preserved, 1880—; author,
translator, editor; son of Henry Pre-
served Smith; b. in Cincinnati; libra-
rian at Union Seminary in New York ;
wrote: Critical Study of Luther’s Table
Talk; Life and Letters of Martin Luther
(1911,1914); etc.
Smith, Rodney, 1800—; English
Methodist, revivalist; b. at Wanstead;
gipsy; converted 1870; Salvationist;
founder of Gipsy Gospel Wagon Mission;
missioner of National Free Church Coun-
cil 1897; made visits to America.
Smith, Samuel Francis* 1808 — 95;
educated at Harvard and Andover ; held
several charges as Baptist minister;
later editor of Baptist publications;
among his hymns: “The Morning Light
is Breaking.”
Social Service. This is a rather wide
term, comprising the work of a large
number of organizations in behalf of
the spiritual and bodily welfare of hu-
man society. Under a classified social
service list such organizations are re-
corded as the American Association for
Organizing Family Social Work, Amer-
ican Child Health Association, American
Country Life Association, Children’s Aid
Society, National Health Council, Play-
ground and Recreation Association of
America, Russell Sage Foundation, So-
ciety for the Prevention of Cruelty to
Animals, and many others. The Federal
Council of Churches has a Commission
on the Church and Social Service.
A wrong underlying idea is a prompting
motive on the part of some churches in
doing so-called social service work,
namely, the idea that man can be re-
formed if his environments are improved.
While it will benefit man to improve his
environment (which the state may legit-
imately do), yet the individual only
then undergoes an essential change, that
change which is necessary for salvation,
when his sinful heart has been converted
to God through repentance and faith.
Socialism. “A scheme of government
aiming at absolute equality in the dis-
tribution of the physical means of life
and enjoyment. It is on the Continent
employed in a larger sense; not neces-
sarily implying communism, or the en-
tire abolition of private property, but
applied to any system which requires
that the land and the instruments of
production should be the property, not
of individuals, but of communities or
associations or of the government.”
Socialism
713
Socialism
(Mill, Political Economy.) While So-
cialism, in the broad general sense, has
reference to changes of a most radical
sort in the social and economic order,
in a narrower and more modern sense it
means the theories and plans of those
who would substitute public property in
land^md capital for private property in
these instruments of production. — In
earlier times Socialism, under the name
of Communism, frequently opposed all
private property; but modern Socialism
emphasizes private property and income,
except where the radical communists are
in power. In the course of its develop-
ment, socialistic thought has undergone
changes in the view taken of social dif-
ferences and classes. From Plato up to
quite recent times Socialism has been
regarded as incompatible with great dis-
tinctions in social rank. The French
Socialist Saint-Simon contemplated an
army-like organization of society, with
high officials, like captains, majors,
and generals, and the Saint-Simonians
thought it right that those holding
higher positions should receive higher
remuneration than the masses, to cor-
respond to the higher value of their
services; but beyond that concession
they did not dare to go. Modern So-
cialism, as a popular movement, has be-
come fairly democratic; it looks with
little favor on the idea of classes per-
manently set apart for rulership and is
inclined to favor equal incomes, while
allowing each one to use his income as
he may see fit. In this respect modern
Socialism differs from Communism, espe-
cially in the sense in which some pseudo-
reformers have been using the term. —
Socialism as commonly understood in
our days holds that the present system
of industry which is carried on by pri-
vate competing capitalists, served by
competitive wage labor, must be super-
seded by a system of free associated
workers utilizing a collective capital
with a view to an equitable method of
distribution. On this theory private
property in land and capital is to be
abolished, and the private receipt of rent
and interest is to cease. Income, as al-
ready stated, is to be private, and all
such moderate wealth is to be devoted,
not to production, but to consumption,
at the free disposition of the owner.
Socialism in this sense, especially where
state ownership is contemplated, is the
extension of the free, self-governing
principle recognized in democracy to in-
dustry and economics. It is industry of
the people, by the people, for the people.
The company or private corporation is
at present the governing power in indus-
try; but even as regards the great com-
panies, the control of the government
and of social opinion is continually ex-
tending. Many of the great companies
are no longer conducted by the owners
of the capital as such, but by a paid
staff of officials under a manager; and
in the opinion of many of the saner
Socialists the whole organization could
without shock be transferred to the
direct service of the community.
The claim of modern Socialism to be
distinctly a new movement rests on two
great facts — the industrial revolution
and the development of the modern de-
mocracy. Production is no longer car-
ried on by the individual or by family
labor for local or family use. The wage
earner has little control of the instru-
ments of labor. Instead of working on
his own account with his own small
capital, he toils in large factories under
employers who own and control the cap-
ital invested in them. Industry is car-
ried on by the united efforts of thousands
of men, and it is no longer the function
of the individual, but it is a social and
collective function. Socialists maintain
that the energetic individualism which
originated and established the industrial
revolution has been superseded by the
results of that revolution. Modern So-
cialism, scientific Socialism, so called,
believes in the coming of Socialism as
the result of an economic evolution ; and
that earlier Socialism, which thought
that artificial plans for a socialistic
state could be elaborated in the minds
of men and then introduced is contemp-
tuously called Utopian Socialism. The
modern Socialist claims that he can do
no more than guide and direct the great
-natural and social forces in their evo-
lution.
The influence of Socialism on social,
economic, and political thought has been
very great. Socialism in its better form
has greatly helped to give prevalence to
the historical conception of political
economy. It has taught that the entire
technical and economic mechanism should
be made subordinate to human well-being
and that moral interests should be su-
preme over the whole field of industrial
and commercial activity. It inculcates
an altruism unattainable by any prob-
able development of human nature. It
has given an exhaustive criticism of the
existing society and of the prevalent
economic theories. Almost every treatise
in economics which appears in our days
bears the mark of socialistic criticism of
the present society. So Socialism of the
better kind has made a deep and abiding
impression on the thought and activity
S. P. C. A.
714
Socinlanism
of tlie world. Germany led the way in
•the recognition of the influence of social-
istic theories, and this is particularly
observable in the State Socialism and in
the Social Democratic Party, which
played so great a rSle in the political
situation of Germany about two decades
ago. The Socialists of the chair, many
of them university professors, are an in-
fluential group of professional and other
economists, whose position may be best
described as illustrating the influence of
the socialist movement in the above di-
rections. They recognize the historical
and ethical character of economics; and
all of them make important concessions
to the socialistic criticism of the existing
society and of industrial conditions. So-
cialism, under the leadership of such
men, does not desire a modification, but
a renovation of the existing industry
and, through it, of the existing society.
Modern popular Socialism, as already
stated, is thoroughly democratic and
opposes Socialism of the chair and the
State Socialism of the ruling classes.
It does not wish Socialism without de-
mocracy. In Russia the most extreme
form of communistic Socialism was in-
troduced by the Bolsheviki. See Bol-
shevism and, for the discussion of the
principles involved from the Biblical
standpoint, Communism.
Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Animals. Founded in Penn-
sylvania 1867. Many similar societies
now exist in various parts of the world,
the Pennsylvania society being generally
taken as model. It tries to prevent
cruelty by moral suasion and advice.
The Pennsylvania society was the first
one to provide ambulance service for
disabled animals and a derrick for the
purpose of hoisting animals out of holes.
It establishes homes for stray dogs and
cats, where, in case of necessity, such
animals are painlessly put to death.
Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel in Foreign Parts. An Angli-
can organization, founded June 27, 1701,
at London. It depends upon the eccle-
siastical organization for its support.
A Woman’s Mission Association was or-
ganized in 1866, whose objects are:
"1) To provide missionary teachers for
Christian instruction of native women
and girls in heathen countries by sup-
porting abroad, and selecting and prepar-
ing in this country [England], church
women qualified for the work; 2) to
assist female schools; 3) to employ
other methods for promoting Christian
education; 4) to assist generally in
keeping up an interest in the work of
the Society.” The S. P. G. labors in close
harmony with the authorities in the
Anglican Church. Fields: Asia, Africa,
Oceania and Australasia, South America,
West Indies, North America.
Society Islands, Tahiti Islands.
A group of islands in the South Pacific
Ocean, formerly called Georgian Islands,
belonging to France since 1880. Ikrea,
600 sq. mi. Population, 15,000, of Poly-
nesian stock. Discovered by Spain 1606.
Captain Cook visited the islands in 1777.
In 1797 the London Missionary Society
began operations, the Duff arriving in
March of that year. After many mis-
takes and disappointments the victory
was finally won. In 1826 eight thousand
Tahitians had been baptized. The whole
Bible had been translated into the ver-
nacular in 1835. French Roman Catho-
lics forced their way into the islands
and caused great affliction. The L. M. S.
was expelled, but the French Evangelical
Missionary Society took its place and
organized the scattered congregations
into a church. The western islands in
this group were temporarily protected
against French Catholic aggression by
England. Raiatea, where John Williams
worked since 1819, was the seat of much
missionary success. It is the policy of
France to oppose Protestant missionary
endeavor. See Polynesia.
Socinianism, the theological system
of Faustus Socinus (q. v.) and his fol-
lowers. During the Reformation there
arose a number of anti-Trinitarians in
Europe, mainly in Italy. They found
refuge for a time in Switzerland, then,
expelled from there, in Transylvania and
Poland, where anti-Trinitarians became
numerous, especially among the Polish
nobility. These scattered elements were
united by Faustus Socinus, who came to
Transylvania, 1578, and Racow, Poland,
became the center of the movement and
seat of a flourishing school. The con-
fession around which the Socinians ral-
lied is the Racovian Catechism. (Cate-
chesis Eeelesiarum Polonioarum. Pol.,
1605; Lat., 1609.) For a half century
after the death of Socinus, Socinianism,
under the leadership of distinguished
theologians, Crell, Schlieliting, Wolzogen,
Wissowatius, et al., experienced a re-
markable growth; but then the Roman
Catholic reaction set in. Their school
was destroyed, their churches closed, and
in 1658 they were expelled from Poland.
While anti-Trinitarians have maintained
themselves in Transylvania to the pres-
ent day (ca. 60,000), the Polish Soci-
nians fled to Prussia and other parts of
Germany and to the Netherlands, but
found little toleration. Even in England
they were persecuted, until the rise of
Socinus
715
Soterlolog)'
Deism (q.v.) afforded them protection.
English anti-Trinitarianism, which found
a fuller development in America, is, how-
ever, really an independent movement;
for which see Unitarians. The Socinian
theological system, in spite of its super-
naturalism (which American Unitarians
have rejected completely), is essentially
rationalistic. The Bible is the only
source of religious truth, but can contain
nothing contrary to reason. The doc-
trines of the Trinity, original sin, pre-
destination, especially are rejected.
Christ is a human being, who, however,
because of his supernatural birth and
translation to heaven, was empowered to
show men the way to God" through his
teaching and life. Whosoever enters on
this way is given forgiveness of sins and
eternal life. The death of Christ is not
a vicarious atonement but merely testi-
fies to the truth of His teachings and
earned for Him divine honor. Baptism
and Communion are useful, but not nec-
essary ceremonies.
Socinus. Latinized name (Sozzini)
of two Italian anti-Trinitarians, founders
of Socinianism {q.v.) . Laelius Socinus,
b. 1525 at Siena, devoted himself to theo-
logical studies, which led him to doubt
the divinity of Christ. Since 1547 he
traveled widely and associated with
Protestant reformers, but for fear of
persecution never openly expressed his
true convictions. These he embodied in
his writings, which he willed to his
nephew Faustus. D. 1562 at Zurich. —
Faustus Socinus, b. 1539 at Siena; since
1562 at Zurich, where he studied the lit-
erary legacy of his uncle and became
firmly established in his anti-Trinitarian
views. After twelve years at Florence
and four at Basel he went to Transyl-
vania, then to Poland, where he found
various scattered Unitarian elements,
especially among the upper classes.
These he freed from anabaptistic and
chiliastic admixtures and unified and
organized them. Lived mainly in Cra-
cow, but spent last years in retirement.
Sociology. The science which treats
of the origin and history of the social
relationship of men, social phenomena,
the progress of civilization, and the laws
of human intercourse. Christian sociol-
ogy attempts to place all these facts in
relation to Christianity.
Socrates, Greek church historian at
Constantinople; b. ca. 380; in 439 wrote
a church history of seven books, continu-
ing that of Eusebius and covering the
time from 306 to 439; but not fully
reliable.
Sodality. See Confraternity.
Soden, Hans Karl Hermann von;
b. 1852 at Cincinnati, 0., studied at
Tuebingen; since 1893 associate profes-
sor of New Testament exegesis at Berlin;
belongs to the liberal Ritschlian school;
d. 1914.
Soederblom, Nathan, Swedish Lu-
theran theologian; b. 1866 at Helsing-
land, Sweden; rector of Swedish Church,
Paris, 1894; professor at Upsala 1901;
Leipzig, 1912; since 1914 Archbishop of
Upsala and Prochancellor of University;
visited America 1923. Gifted scholar,
but Liberalist and crass unionist. See
his Christian Fellowship, 1923.
Solomon Islands, Melanesia, a group
of islands in the Pacific Ocean belonging
to Great Britain. Area, 16,950 sq. mi.
Population, estimated, 200,000. Bou-
gainville (120 mi. long), and a few
smaller islands, until the World War,
belonged to Germany. The inhabitants
are Melanesians, mostly savage and can-
nibalistic. The islands are under Aus-
tralian administration. The Anglican
Melanesian Mission has taken hold of
the islands. The Roman Catholic Church
began work in 1898. See Melanesia.
Somaliland (Italian), a colonial pos-
session of Italy in Eastern Africa, bor-
dering on Abyssinia, enlarged by Juba-
land, which was taken from German
East Africa after the World War and
added, to balance the British and French
acquisitions of the former German posses-
sions. Area, 154,000 sq. mi. Population,
ca. 650,000. Missions by the Evangeliska
Fosterlands Stiftelsen. Statistics: For-
eign staff, 11; Christian community,
210; communicants, 38.
Sommer, M. See Roster at end of
book.
Song Service. A form of worship in
public assembly of the congregation, in
which the feature of song and prayer
predominates, the hymns and anthems
rendered usually following some progres-
sive line of thought in order to present
some fundamental doctrine of Christian-
ity. It is well to keep in mind, on such
occasions, the dictum of Luther that it
is better not to sing or pray or come
together if the Word of God is not
taught.
Soteriology. That part of dogmatics,
or doctrinal theology, which treats of
the work of salvation as wrought by the
Second Person of the Trinity. In Lu-
theran circles, more specifically the doc-
trine of Holy Scripture concerning the
application of the merits of Christ to
the individual sinner, whereby the sin-
ner is led to the actual possession and
enjoyment of the blessings which Christ
Soul-Sleep
South America
ne
has procured for all mankind. See Re-
demption, Atonement.
Soul-Sleep. The doctrine of soul-sleep
(psychopannychism) implies that the
souls of the departed sleep so long as
the body lies in the grave. Scripture,
however, does not refer to the soul’s
sleep, but simply to the soul’s rest, as
Rev. 14, 13. Naturally, we may say that
the dead sleep; but this refers to the
body, not to the soul; cp. Heb. 4, 9 — 11.
Since with death all experiences of time
and space come to an end, the interval
between death and the resurrection does
not exist for the soul. See Death, Anni-
hilationism, Eternal Life'
Soul, The. The vital principle in
man, whereby he perceives, reasons, and
learns. The rational soul is simple and
immaterial (not composed of matter and
form). All languages apparently dis-
tinguish between soul and spirit. How-
ever, psychologists by no means agree in
their definitions of the two; some give
to the spirit the higher potency, others,
to the soul. From mind, soul is com-
monly distinguished by referring mind
to the various powers which the soul
possesses. Spirit, when considered sepa-
rately, may signify the principle of life;
mind, the principle of intelligence;
whereas soul always refers to the essen-
tial nature, the essence of man’s being.
See Angels, Flesh, Immortality, Image
of God.
Souter, Alexander, 1873 — ; Presby-
terian; classical scholar; b. at Perth,
Scotland; professor at Aberdeen 1897;
of New Testament Greek, Oxford, 1903;
wrote: Text and Canon of New Testa-
ment, 1913; Pocket Lexicon of Greek
New Testament, 191fi; etc.
South Africa. See Africa, South.
South America. The southern con-
tinent on the Western Hemisphere.
Area, estimated, 7,300,000 sq. mi. Popu-
lation, approximately, 57,000,000. The
South American countries are Argentina,
Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecua-
dor, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Dependencies of European states are
British Guiana, Dutch Guiana, and
French Guiana. The Falkland Islands
off the southeast coast belong to Great
Britain.
Argentina, or the Argentine Republic,
second largest state in South America.
Area, 1,153,418 sq. mi. Population, offi-
cial estimate, 9,548,092, of whom about
2,000,000 are foreign-born. Capital,
Buenos Aires; population, 1,811,475.
Greatest length of Argentina, 2,300
miles; greatest width, 930 miles. First
declaration of independence, July 8,
1816. Adoption of present constitution,
May 25, 1852. Native population, de-
scendants of early Spanish settlers,
mixed with aboriginal Guarani and
Quichua stock. The Roman Catholic re-
ligion is supported by the state, but
religious liberty is recognized. The pres-
ident of the Republic must be a Roman
Catholic and an Argentinean by birth.
Spanish is the official language. Mis-
sions by a large number of churches and
societies, among them the Lutheran
Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and Other
States and United Lutheran Church in
America. Statistics: Foreign staff, 329;
Protestant Christian community, 11,341;
communicants, 8,890.
Tierra del Fuego, south of Argentina,
was entered for missionary purposes by
Captain Allen Gardiner in 1822. In
1844 he founded the Patagonian Mis-
sionary Society, which later adopted the
name of South American Missionary So-
ciety. In 1850 he and his companions
met death by starvation. The message
of the party to the world was : “My soul,
wait thou only upon God, for my expec-
tation is from Him.” Ps. 62, 5. Very
successful work has since been done by
the South American Missionary Society.
Bolivia, an inland republic of South
America. Area, 514,595 sq. mi. Popula-
tion, estimated, 2,820,074, fully 50 per
cent, being native Indians. Capital, La
Paz, with a population of 115,252. Span-
ish is the official language, although
many natives speak only their own lan-
guage. The present constitution was
adopted 1880. The Roman Catholic re-
ligion is recognized by the state, but
toleration is practised. — Missions by a
number of churches and societies. Sta-
tistics: Foreign staff. 118; Christian
community, 438; communicants, 323.
Brazil, United States of, a federal re-
public of South America, consisting of
20 federated states and the Territory of
Acre. Area, 3,276,358 sq. mi. Population
(1920), 30,635,605, of whom 29,045,227
were native-born, 558,405 Italians,
433,577 Portuguese, 219,142 Spanish,
52,870 Germans, 27,926 Japanese, and
3,439 Americans (U. S.). Capital, Rio
de Janeiro; population (1920), 1,157,873.
Brazil is the largest state in South
America, exceeding in size the United
States (exclusive of Alaska) by some
250.000 sq. mi. Its length is 2,691 and
its width 2,500 miles. It was discovered
in 1500 by Cabral, a Portuguese. Brazil
was declared a republic 1889. Portu-
guese is the official language. The Ro-
man Catholic Church, in a most depraved
and pagan form, is dominant. All but
100.000 inhabitants, excepting also the
South America
South America
nt
Indian tribes in the interior, are said
to be of that faith. Religious liberty
is guaranteed. The native inhabitants
are of Portuguese, native Indian, Negro,
and mixed descent. Since the World
War there has been a very strong Euro-
pean immigration. Missions by a num-
ber of churches and societies, among
them the Lutheran Synod of Missouri,
Ohio, and Other States. Statistics:
Foreign staff, 513; Protestant Christian
community, 101,454; communicants,
09,147.
Chile (Chili), Republic of, a state on
the west coast of South America. Area,
289,796 sq. mi. Population (1922),
3,805,000, almost exclusively of Euro-
pean extraction with some 100,000 na-
tive Araucans and other natives. Total
length, 2,800 miles. Average breadth,
ca. 100 miles. Santiago, the capital, has
a population of 507,290. The Spanish
yoke was thrown off 1810 — 18. The
present constitution was adopted in
1833. The language is Spanish. The
Roman Catholic Church dominates, being
supported by the state; but religious
liberty is assured by the constitution.
Missions conducted by a number of or-
ganizations. Statistics: Foreign staff,
182; Protestant Christian community,
11,551; communicants, 6,041.
Colombia, Republic of, in the extreme
northwest of South America. Area,
estimated, 470,910 sq. mi. Population,
approximately, 0,300,000, mainly whites
and half-castes, with several hundred
thousand Indians. Bogota, the capital,
had a population of 166,148 in 1923.
The republic was established by Simon
Bolivar in 1819, who revolted against
Spain. Spanish is the official language.
Roman Catholicism is the state religion.
Toleration, though not constitutionally
guaranteed, is actually practised. Mis-
sions by the Gospel Missionary Union,
Presbyterian Church in U. S. A., Seventh-
day Adventists. Statistics: Foreign
staff, 40; Protestant Christian com-
munity, 3,567 ; communicants, 538.
Ecuador, Republic of, on the Pacific
coast of South America. Area, esti-
mated, 118,627 sq. mi. Population, ap-
proximately, 1,500,000, of Spanish de-
scent, Indians, and mixed races. Quito,
the capital, has a population of 80,700.
Spanish is the official language. Roman
Catholicism is the state religion, with no
toleration of other religions. The pres-
ent constitution dates from 1906. Mis-
sions by the Christian and Missionary
Alliance, Gospel Missionary Union,
Seventh - day Adventists. Statistics :
Foreign staff, 46; Protestant Christian
community, 158; communicants, 118.
Paraguay, Republic of, an inland re-
public of South America, comprising
Paraguay proper and the Paraguayan
Chaco. Area, estimated, 196,000 sq. mi.
Population, approximately, 1,000,000;
the majority a mixed race, descended
from Spaniards and Guarani Indians.
The common language is a corrupt form
of Guarani; but Spanish is spoken in
the chief centers. Asuncion, the capital,
had a population in 1920 of 99,836. The
present constitution was adopted in
1870. The Roman Catholic Church is
dominant, but toleration is practised.
Missions by a number of churches and
societies. Statistics: Foreign staff, 50;
Protestant community, ca. 2,000.
Peru, Republic of, on the Pacific coast,
between Ecuador and Chile. Area,
533,916 sq. mi. Population, estimated,
4,620,000, chiefly Peruvians of Spanish
descent and Indians. Lima, the capital,
had a population in 1920 of 176,467.
Independence from Spain was declared
in 1821. The present constitution was
accepted in 1920. Spanish is the pre-
vailing language. The Roman Catholic
religion is the state religion, but tolera-
tion exists. Missions by a number of
churches and societies. Statistics: For-
eign staff, 114; Protestant Christian
community, 4,568; communicants, 3,908.
Uruguay, Republic of, the smallest re-
public in South America. Area, 72,153
sq. mi. Population, estimated, 1,603,000,
chiefly native Uruguayans, with many
Spaniards and Italians and mixtures.
Montevideo, the capital, had a popula-
tion of 350,056 in 1922. Independence
from Spain was declared in 1825. The
present constitution came in force in
1919. The majority of the people are
Roman Catholics. Church and State are
separate, and there is complete religious
tolerance. Missions by a number of
churches. Statistics: Foreign staff, 71;
Protestant Christian community, 1,321;
communicants, 868.
Venezuela, Republic of, the northern-
most state of South America, comprising
twenty federated states, one federal dis-
trict, and two territories. Area, 393,976
sq. mi. Population (1920), 3,000,000.
The country was discovered by Columbus
in 1498. Venezuela was the first of the
South American countries to declare in-
dependence from the Spanish yoke,
July 5, 1811. Caracas, the capital, has
a population of 93,000. The inhabitants
of Venezuela are a mixture of Spanish
and Indian blood; but there are many
Negro and aboriginal Indian tribes.
Spanish is the official language. The
prevailing religion is Roman Catholic.
Religious liberty is constitutionally
South America, Oatli, Church In 718
South America, Catl>. Church In
guaranteed. Missions by a number of
churches. Statistics: Foreign staff, 95;
Protestant Christian community, 1,819;
communicants, 1,371.
British Guiana, a British colony in
northeastern South America. First set-
tled by the Dutch in 1580; ceded to
Great Britain in 1814. Area, 89,480
sq. mi. Population, 297,691, most of
whom are Negroes and East Indian
coolies (Hindus), with some aboriginal
Indian tribes. The capital, Georgetown,
has a population of 55,490. Liberty of
conscience prevails. Tbe Moravians be-
• gan work among the Negroes in 1735
and later among the Arawaks, but it
was finally discontinued. Later other
societies followed. Missions by a num-
ber of churches, among them the United
Lutheran Church in America. Statis-
tics: Foreign staff, 76; Protestant
Christian community, 89,375; communi-
cants, 23,561.
Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, belonging to
the Netherlands since 1667, on the north-
east coast of South America. Area,
54,291 sq. mi. Population, 128,822, ex-
clusive of Negroes and bush Indians.
Paramaribo, the capital, had a popula-
tion of 41,773 in 1920. Liberty of con-
science prevails. Missions were begun
by tbe Moravians in 1738 among the
bush Negroes. Statistics: Foreign staff,
102; Protestant Christian community,
26,029; communicants, 7,301.
French Guiana, or Cayenne, a French
colony in northeastern South America.
Settled by the French in 1626. Area,
. 32,000, sq. mi. Cayenne, the capital, has
a population of 10,000. France has a
penal colony in French Guiana. The
climate is very unhealthful. No Prot-
estant missions are permitted. The Ro-
man Catholic Church prevails.
South America, Roman Catholic
Church in. The purpose of this article
is to present, in its essential features,
the history of the Roman Catholic
Church in South America from the era
of discovery and conquest to the present
day. South America has about 57,000,000
inhabitants, consisting of Spaniards and
Portuguese (in Brazil), and to a large
extent of a mixed race (the mestizos ),
sprung from unions of Spaniards and
native Indians. Of the latter there are
still several millions of pure blood, many
of whom have as yet been untouched by
the influences of religion or civilization.
There are also many Negroes, especially
in Brazil, and in recent times the tide
of European emigration has, in part,
turned toward South America (Germans
in Brazil, Argentina, Chile ) . Apart from
the small territories of British and Dutch
Guiana and a sprinkling of Protestant
settlements elsewhere, the entire South
American continent is, and for four hun-
dred years has been, the undisputed do-
main of the Roman Catholic Church.
The type of Catholicism found in South
America is, however, more pagan than
Christian, according to Roman Catholic
testimony, while the moral life is natu-
rally at a correspondingly low stage.
“Many crosses,” says Warneck, “but no
word of the Cross; many saints, but no
followers of Christ.”
Turning from these general remarks
on present conditions to the earlier
periods of Roman Catholic history in
South America, we note, to begin with,
that the Spanish explorers and con-
querors were animated by three passions :
the lust of gold, the love of war and ad-
venture, and a fanatical zeal to spread
the Roman Catholic faith. Thanks to
the long struggle of the Spaniards
against the Moors and the violent meth-
ods for the eradication of heresy, war
and religion had become intimately asso-
ciated in the Spanish mind. Hence the
sword was frequently resorted to by the
conquistadores to enforce the teachings
of the missionary priests or friars who
usually accompanied the expeditions.
The ruthless slaughter, by Pizarro, the
conqueror of Peru, of thousands of In-
dians attending Atahualpa, the Inca,
when the latter refused to accept the
teachings of the friar Valverde, is doubt-
less an extreme case, but it illustrates
the temper and the methods of the Span-
ish invaders. Then, too, the Spanish
missionaries were often satisfied with
the outward acceptance of the Catholic
faith without giving their “converts”
any solid instruction in the principles
of Christianity. Instead of Christianiz-
ing the natives, they frequently did little
more than paganize Catholic ceremonies.
On this point the account of George
Juan and Antonio Ulloa, who, about the
middle of the 18th century, were dis-
patched by the Spanish king to his over-
seas dominions with a view to securing
authentic and direct information on pre-
vailing conditions, is illuminating. The
report of these men, known as the
Noticias Secretas de America and writ-
ten after two years of personal observa-
tion, is a damning arraignment both of
the Spanish colonial officials and of the
Spanish clergy. Besides describing the
outrageous mistreatment and exploita-
tion of the Indians by the civil author-
ities, the report states “that the religious
instruction given to the Indians is such
that old men of seventy know no more
than little Indian boys of the age of six.
South America, Cath. Church in 719
South America, Cath. Church in
and neither these nor those have any
further instruction than parrots would
have if they were so taught. . . . Their
religion does not resemble the Christian
religion any more than that which they
had while they were in a state of pagan-
ism,” etc. Again, referring to the avarice
of the clergy: “As soon as the parish
priests are promoted to their cures, they
usually bend all their efforts to amassing
wealth. ... A curate of the province of
Quito told us as we were passing through
his curacy that, including the festivals
and the commemoration of departed
souls, he collected every year more than
two hundred sheep, six thousand hens
and chickens, four thousand guinea pigs,
and fifty thousand eggs; and it should
be remembered that this curacy was by
no means one of the most lucrative.”
As a result of the inhuman treatment
and spoliation on the part of their
masters, civil and clerical, the report
says that “many Indians in sheer de-
spair have fled to the unconquered dis-
tricts, there to continue the practises of
their idolatrous neighbors.” As indi-
cated above, the religion of the Catholic
Indian of South America to-day is little
better than that of his ancestors when
the two Spanish emissaries wrote their
report. In the words of a recent writer
( Sweet, History of Latin America ) , “the
Indian of South America is a nominal
Christian only, while at heart he is still
a pagan. He still worships images made
of clay, while in times of drought he
worships lakes, rivers, and springs. He
still consults the future by opening ani-
mals and inspecting the entrails, just as
the priests were doing when Cortez en-
tered the Aztec capital. Every village
has its chapel, where abides the patron
saint, and every year there is celebrated
an eight-day feast in honor of the saint,
in which drunkenness, dancing, and
carousal are the chief features.” Such
are the fruits of four centuries of Roman
Catholic tutelage. It need hardly be
added that the Roman Catholic Church,
during her long history in South Amer-
ica, did little or nothing to encourage
popular education. The work of educa-
tion, at first entirely in the hands of the
Church, was conducted exclusively in the
interests of a small class. The Fran-
ciscans, in some instances, gave the In-
dians and mestizos (half-breeds) elemen-
tary instruction in the three “R’s,” but
as a general thing the great mass of the
population received no training except
such as was given in the public exercises
of the Church. As for higher education,
this was designed almost exclusively for
the training of the priesthood (Univer-
sity of Lima established in 1551; the
Jesuit University of Cordoba in Argen-
tina founded 1616). Even to-day, the
Church is a powerful factor in educa-
tional affairs. In Colombia publit edu-
cation, according to the constitution of
1886, is to be managed in accordance
with the Catholic religion, and the
Jesuits are practically in control. In
most cases the state makes appropria-
tions for the support of church schools.
On the other hand, every South Amer-
ican republic has a system of free com-
pulsory education, which theoretically
leaves little to be desired. But actual
conditions lag far behind theory. In
Bolivia there are no more than six hun-
dred primary schools, with forty thou-
sand children in attendance. In Peru
one hundred thousand children are in
school, three hundred thousand are not.
In Colombia ninety per cent, of the popu-
lation are illiterate, and Paraguay, once
under Jesuit control, stands still lower.
Educationally, Argentina, Chile, and
Uruguay are in the lead, and thirty -one
per cent, of Chile’s population are illit-
erate. Due to the long domination of
the Roman Catholic Church, whose aim
is obedience and submission rather than
education and enlightenment, the neces-
sity of popular education has thus far
been the ideal of social reformers rather
than a conviction of the people at large.
But breaches are made in the wails, and
the resistless march of liberal ideas,
coupled with the spur of Protestant ac-
tivity, will eventually do the rest.
Regarding the relation between the
Church and the civil powers, the colonial
period of Roman Catholic history in
South America presents the rather
unique phenomenon of the preeminence
of the secular authority as over against
the ecclesiastical. This does not mean
that there was hostility or serious fric-
tion. There was rather peaceful coopera-
tion; for although the Spanish sover-
eigns asserted their rights, they were in
sympathy with the aims and methods of
the Church. Nevertheless, the system
did not square with the ideals of a Greg-
ory VII or an Innocent III. How did
the Spanish crown secure this authority?
The bull of Alexander VI, issued in 1493,
supplies the information. This famous
document granted to Ferdinand and Isa-
bella absolute control over the newly
discovered lands of America west of a
well-known line of demarcation (subse-
quently shifted farther westward, for the
benefit of Portugal ) . In the words of
the Pope himself: “We give, concede,
and assign them [the regions referred
to] in perpetuity to you and the kings
South America, Cath. Church in 720
Southern Baptist Convention
of Castile and of Leon, your heirs and
successors, and we make, constitute, and
depute you and your heirs and succes-
sors, the aforesaid, lords of these lands,
with free, full, and absolute power,
authority, and jurisdiction.” Pursuant
to this papal grant, a royal decree of the
year 1574 contains the following pas-
sages as respecting the authority of the
Spanish crown: “The right of ecclesias-
tical patronage belongs to us in the
whole state of the Indies [meaning the
Spanish colonial possessions in Amer-
ica], . . . having been conceded to us by
the bulls of the supreme Pontiffs, given
voluntarily. . . . No person, either secu-
lar or ecclesiastical, may dare, on what-
ever occasion, to intermeddle in any
affair that may concern our royal pat-
ronage . . . nor to appoint to any church
or benefice nor to receive such appoint-
ment without our nomination,” etc.
Accordingly, every ecclesiastical office
was filled by the king's nomination, all
ecclesiastical cases, such as controversies
between councils and the bishops, be-
tween bishops and archbishops, between
priests and their parishes, were tried
before the courts of the civil government,
and the resolutions of ecclesiastical
synods were submitted to the viceroy
for his approval. Even a papal bull
might be quietly ignored if the king did
not favor its publication.
The revolutionary period at the be-
ginning of the past century, when the
South American colonies declared their
independence of Spain, marks a new
epoch in the relation of Church and
State. There is a steady trend toward
complete separation, though this con-
summation still lies in the future. The
new republics which sprang up on the
ruins of the Spanish colonies declared
in their several constitutions that the
Roman Catholic religion was to be the
religion of the state, while all other
creeds were prohibited. But the leaven
of liberal ideas, working steadily since
the emancipation, the rise of anticlerical
parties, which resent the interference of
the Church in politics, and perhaps,
among other influences, the example of
the United States have served to loosen
the Church’s grip on the civil govern-
ment. Despite clerical protest (abetted
by the Pope) such laws as the seculariza-
tion of cemeteries, civil marriage, the
recognition of other denominations be-
side the Roman Catholic have been
passed in all the republics of South
America. Indeed, in Brazil, Ecuador,
and Uruguay the state recognizes no
religion, but places them all on the same
legal footing. Argentina, while not
recognizing Roman Catholicism as the
religion of the state, nevertheless sup-
ports the Romish Church, and its presi-
dent must be a Roman Catholic. In all
the other republics, however, the Romari
Catholic religion is still acknowledged
as the religion of the state, while other
forms of faith and worship are per-
mitted. In 1921 President Alesandri of
Chile advocated complete separation of
Church and State for his republic, and
this will doubtless be the ultimate solu-
tion of a vexing problem in all the South
American republics, as already advocated
by Simon Bolivar, the Liberator.
South Carolina, Synod of. See
United Lutheran Church.
Southcottians, followers of Joanna
Southcott (1750 — 1814) of England, an
uneducated woman, who claimed to pos-
sess supernatural gifts and to be the
woman of Rev. 12. At the age of sixty-
four she declared that she, as “bride of
the Lamb,” would give birth to the Mes-
siah, but died of tympanitis the same
year. She obligated her followers to
observe Mosaic laws regarding the Sab-
bath and clean and unclean meats. Once
numerous, the sect gradually dwindled,
becoming extinct at the end of the 19th
century. The movement has had several
offshoots, among them the House of
David (q.v.).
Southern Baptist Convention. This
body was organized at Augusta, Ga., in
May, 1845, with a representation of 300
churches from the various Southern
States, as the direct result of the anti-
slavery sentiment prevailing in the Bap-
tist churches of the North, which ren-
dered further cooperation of the two
sections, North and South, impossible,
the Foreign Mission Society of the de-
nomination, with headquarters at Bos-
ton, refusing to accept slaveholders as
missionaries and declaring “that they
[the Northern Baptists] could never be
a party to any arrangement which would
imply approbation of slavery.” Though
at different times, especially in 1879,
attempts have been made to reunite the
two sections, it was held wiser that sepa-
rate organizations should exist. In doc-
trine the Southern Baptist churches are
in harmony with those of the North,
though, on the whole, they are more
strictly Calvinistic and hold more firmly
to the Philadelphia Confession of Faith
than the Northern churches. In polity,
there is no essential difference, and both
Northern and Southern churches ex-
change membership and ministry on
terms of perfect equality, their separa-
tion being purely administrative in char-
Southern Rhodesia
721
Spain
acter, not doctrinal. Since the Civil
War the Convention meets annually.
The Foreign Mission Board is located
at Richmond, Va., and the Home Mission
Board at Atlanta, Ga. The Sunday-
school Board was reestablished at Nash-
ville, Tenn., in 1891. These three de-
nominational boards carry on the work
of the Southern Baptist churches; the
Home Mission work, under the care of
the Home Mission Board, covering the
entire territory of the South, Cuba, the
Isle of Pines, and the Panama Canal
Zone, and, in cooperation with the Bap-
tist State Mission Board of Southern
Baptists, Southern Illinois and New
Mexico. It also cooperates with the
Negro Baptists in the South and main-
tains work among the Indians in Okla-
homa and other Southern States, operat-
ing, in addition, 36 mountain mission
schools in the Southern Appalachian and
Ozark highlands, with an attendance of
nearly 6,000. The Sunday-school Board
is both missionary and educational in
character, giving pecuniary assistance
both to the Home and to the Foreign
Mission Board. The Foreign Mission
Board occupies 61 stations and about
1,000 outstations in China, Japan, Af-
rica, Italy, Mexico, Brazil, and Argen-
tina. The Southern Baptist Convention
maintains publishing houses at Mexico
City, Canton, China, and Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. At home it maintains 2 theo-
logical seminaries, 39 standard colleges
and universities, 12 junior colleges, and
63 preparatory schools, all of which,
with the exception of the Southern Bap-
tist Theological Seminary at Louisville,
Ky., are under the general supervision
of the state conventions, the South-
western Baptist Theological Seminary at
Waco, Tex., being under the control of
the Texas State Convention. It main-
tains also 11 hospitals and 12 orphan-
ages and homes for the aged. It has
4,711 young people’s societies with a
membership of 176,540, and its publish-
ing interests are represented by 19 weekly,
4 monthly or semimonthly, and two quar-
terly publications. Statistics, 1920 :
15,551 ministers, 26,147 churches, and
3,199,005 communicants in the United
States.
Southern Rhodesia. See Africa,
South.
Southwest Africa, formerly German
Southwest Africa, a protectorate man-
dated to the Union of South Africa.
Area, 322,400 sq. mi. Population : na-
tive, 218,000, mostly Ovambas, Hereros
(Ovahereros), Bergamaras, and Hotten-
tots; foreign, ca. 20,000, of whom many
are Germans. Missions by the Seventh-
Concordia Cyclopedia
day Adventists, Finska Missionssaells-
kapet, Rlieinische Missionsgesellschaft,
South African Missionary Society. Sta-
tistics: Foreign staff, 105; Christian
community, 62,924 ; communicants,
27,780.
Southwest, Synod of the. See
Synods, Extinct.
Sozomenos, Hermias Salamanes, of
Constantinople, in 439, wrote a church
history in nine books for the years 323
to 423, based on Socrates’ contemporary
work.
Spaeth, Adolph, a leader in the Lu-
theran General Council; b. December 29,
1839, in Wurttemberg; educated at Tue-
bingen; private tutor in Italy, France,
and Scotland till 1864, when he ac-
cepted a call as associate pastor (with
Dr. Mann) of Zion Church, Philadelphia.
In 1867 he took charge of St. JohanniB.
In 1873 he became professor in the Phil-
adelphia Seminary, was president of the
General Council 1880 — 8 and of the
Pennsylvania Ministerium 1892 — 5. He
wrote the biographies of Dr. Mann and
of Dr. C. P. Krauth (whose son-in-law he
was). Besides being a historian he was
a liturgical scholar, was a gifted pulpit
orator, and wrote a number of homilet-
ical works. D. June 25, 1910.
Spain. Religious history to the Ref-
ormation. Apart from the legend that
James the Elder brought Christianity
to Spain, the statement of Paul concern-
ing his intended visit there (Rom.
15, 24), and the mere notices of Ter-
tullian and Irenaeus that there were
Christians also in Spain, we know noth-
ing of the origin and early history of the
Spanish Church. But the letters of
Cyprian in the third century and, par-
ticularly, the canons of the Synod of
Elvira at the opening of the fourth bear
clear testimony to the general spread of
Christianity and, it must be added, to
an extraordinary laxity in morals and
discipline. Of the Teutonic invaders
who settled in Spain at the beginning
of the fifth century, the Suevians, veer-
ing unsteadily between Arianism and
Catholicism, surrendered to the Arian
Visigothic king Leovigild and disap-
peared as an independent nation ( 585 ) .
The Goths, on the other hand, after
vainly attempting to establish Arianism
as the dominant religion, adopted Cath-
olicism at the Synod of Toledo (589),
and thus religious unity was preserved.
The Saracenic invasion (711) gave rise
to that age-long struggle between the
Cross and the Crescent, which finally
resulted in the capture of Granada, the
last stronghold of Islam in Spain (1492).
46
Spain, Catholic Church In
722
S Dead, Hnqnin
Spain, Catholic Church in. The be-
ginnings of Spanish Christianity are in-
volved in obscurity. The legend about
St. James is untrustworthy. There is a
bare possibility that Paul visited Spain
during the course of his labors ( cf . Rom.
15, 24. 28). We do not reach solid his-
torical ground before the year 306. The
acts of the Synod of Elvira, which met
in that year, reveal the Spanish Church
as “old,” fully organized, and — thor-
oughly corrupt. The Priscillianist con-
troversy (see Priscillianists) , which
broke out toward the end of the century,
is especially noteworthy as furnishing
the first example in the Christian
Church of the use of the sword for the
suppression of heretical opinion. Pris-
eillian and six of his adherents were
beheaded at Treves in 385 — the initial
libation of blood on the altar of religious
intolerance. But Priscillianism was not
effectually checked until nearly two cen-
turies later (563). Meanwhile the West
Goths had invaded the land and sought
to force their Arianism upon the Span-
ish Catholics. The struggle was ended
when the Gothic king Reccared publicly
accepted the Catholic faith at the Synod
of Toledo (589). A new epoch opens
with the Moslem invasion in 711, which
introduced an alien race and an alien
religion into the peninsula and resulted
in what may justly be called an age-
long Spanish crusade against the Mo-
hammedan Moors, a holy war, continued
until 1492 and even later. This pro-
tracted conflict left its mark on the
national character. Spain became pre-
eminently the land of fierce, fanatical
intolerance, the home of the Inquisition,
of religious bigots like Philip II. The
crusade against the Moors was followed
by a shorter one against the Reforma-
tion. The latter movement had made
such progress that in the words of a
Spanish writer of 1550 it would have
swept over the entire country if the
Inquisition had delayed its activity three
months longer. Thanks to Philip II and
the Spanish clergy this approved engine
of repression was opportunely called into
play and prevented such a consummation.
Spanish Catholicism henceforth remained
unchallenged, until the political up-
heavals of the 19th century made some
breaches in the wall of clerical domina-
tion. The Inquisition was abolished
(1808 and 1834), the Jesuits were ex-
pelled (1868), and the constitution of
1869, though recognizing Roman Cath-
olicism as the state religion, granted
toleration to non-Catholics. Such essen-
tially is the situation at present, though
the Protestants, whose number is slowly,
but steadily increasing, are subject to
annoying restrictions. See also preced-
ing article.
Spalatinus was the name given to
George Burkhardt , who was born at
Spalt in 1484. He became a priest in
1508 and bought a Bible at a high
price; tutored John Frederick, son of
the Elector of Saxony; private secre-
tary to Frederick the Wise in 1514 and
as such of very great service to Luther,
who wrote him more than 400 letters.
After Frederick’s death in 1525 Spalatin
went to Altenburg and visited the
churches; wrote an account of the great
Reichstag of Augsburg in 1530; took
the sick Luther home from Smalcald in
1537 ; helped reform Ducal Saxony and
consecrate Amsdorf bishop of Naum burg
in 1542; d. 1545.
Spangenberg, Johann, 1484 — 1550;
pastor at Nordhausen; later superin-
tendent at Eisleben; published hymns
with tunes composed by himself : Ziooelf
ehristliche Lobgesaenge, 1545, also Quae-
stiones Musicae, 1536.
Speaking in Tongues. See Catholic
Apostolic Church.
Speckhard, Hermann; b. 1859 at
Friedberg, Hessen; graduate of Concor-
dia College, Fort Wayne, and Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis; pastor in Hillsdale
(1882), Ionia, and (1894) Saginaw,
Mich.; d. there in 1916; contributed to
Lehre und Wehre and Homiletic Maga-
zine; vice-president of the Missouri
Synod and of the Synodical Conference.
Spee, Friedrich von, Roman Cath-
olic religious poet; b. at Kaiserswerth
in 1591; d. at Treves in 1635; was
professor of grammar, philosophy, and
ethics in the Jesuit college at Cologne
after 1621 ; then cathedral preacher at
Paderborn; later at Wuerzburg and at
Peine, near Hildesheim ; prominent as
a leader in the Roman Catholic Counter-
Reformation (q. u.) ; issued two collec-
tions of religious poems.
Speer, Robert Elliott, 1867 — ; Pres-
byterian layman; b. at Huntingdon,
Pa.; educated at Princeton; secretary
of Presbyterian Board of Foreign Mis-
sions from 1891; made three great tours
of visitation, two carrying him to Asia
(1896 — 7 and 1914 — 5), one to South
America (1909); wrote Presbyterian
Foreign Missions (1901); South Amer-
ican Problems (1912) ; Studies in Mis-
sionary Leadership (1914); etc.
Spegel, Haquin, 1645 — 1714; third
archbishop of Upsala ; great traveler,
having visited Denmark, Germany, Hoi-
Spencer, Herbert
723
Spinoza, Baruch
land, and England; among his hymns:
“The Death of Jesus Christ, Our Lord.”
Spencer, Herbert, English philoso-
pher; b. 1820 at Derby; lived in Lon-
don; d. 1903 at Brighton. In his
philosophy, which is a materialistic
monism and influenced by Comte’s posi-
tivism (q.v.), he distinguishes between
the knowable and the unknowable. It
is futile to investigate the unknowable
(agnosticism). To explain the know-
able, he developed a system of philos-
ophy based on the theory of evolution.
Unlike Darwin, who was interested
mainly in the origin of species, Spencer
applied the theory of evolution not only
to all forms of organic life, but also to
mental and social phenomena. His at-
tempt to show that the same law of
development is at the basis of all phe-
nomena is contained in a series entitled
Synthetic Philosophy, of which the fol-
lowing appeared: First Principles, Prin-
ciples of Biology, Psychology, Sociology,
Kthios. He held that all religion has its
origin in ancestor worship (q.v.). Evo-
lution precludes the desire for redemp-
tion and reunion of the creature with
his Creator.
Spener, Philipp Jakob; b. 1635 in
Upper Alsace. Generally regarded as
the father of Pietism; he is at least
“the most influential center of this move-
ment.” He received a devout education
from his parents and additional spiritual
nourishment from Johann Arndt; later,
from writings of Richard Baxter. He
entered the University of Strassburg and
studied under Dannhauer and Johann
and Sebastian Schmidt. In 1663 assis-
tant preacher at the cathedral; in 1666
called as senior pastor to Frankfort-on-
the-Main. Here, in 1670, he introduced
bis collegia pietatis, or private devo-
tional gatherings, twice a week, in his
house. In 1675 he published his Pia
De&ideria, which attracted wide atten-
tion. In the first part are pictured the
deplorable conditions in the Church as
he saw them, and secondly helpful mea-
sures were proposed for their improve-
ment, stress being laid especially on
personal piety by means of private
devotional gatherings. These recommen-
dations aroused both hearty acceptance
and violent opposition and ushered in
the Pietistic Controversy. In 1686
Spener accepted a call as court preacher
to Dresden, at that time a most influ-
ential position in the Lutheran Church.
From here he influenced greatly A. H.
Francke and Paul Anton at Leipzig in
organizing the so-called Collegia Biblica.
In 1691 he was called as provost of
St. Nicolai to Berlin, where he was in-
strumental in placing his friends,
Francke and Anton, as professors in
Halle. Spener wanted to be an orthodox
Lutheran, but had evidently imbibed
many ideas from Reformed sources. He
stood for a mild form of Chiliasm.
D. February 5, 1705, at Berlin. See
Pietism.
Spengler, Lazarus, 1479 — 1534; stud-
ied at Leipzig; held position in town
clerk’s office at Nuremberg; later him-
self town clerk, then Ratsherr; met Lu-
ther in 1518 and espoused cause of
Reformation; leader of the work in
Nuremberg and vicinity ; included in
Bull of Excommunication of 1520; in-
strumental in opening a Gymnasium in
his city; upheld strict Lutheranism at
Augsburg in 1530; wrote: “Durch
Adams Fall ist ganz verderbt.”
Speratus, Paul, 1484 — 1551; studied
at various universities; preacher at
Dinkelsbuehl, Bavaria, in 1518; later at
Wuerzburg and Salzburg; imprisoned
at Olmuetz for his stand for the Ref-
ormation; at Wittenberg in 1523, as-
sisting Luther in preparation of first
Lutheran hymn-book; preacher at Koe-
nigsberg, and finally Lutheran bishop of
Pomerania ; wrote : “Es ist das Heil
uns kommen her.”
Spiecker, Johannes; b. March 29,
1856, at Boppard, Germany; d. Janu-
ary 19, 1920, at Barmen, Germany;
educated at Tuebingen and Bonn; pastor
at Herchen 1883 — 5; instructor at Bar-
men Missionary Institute 1885; Direc-
tor of Rhenish Missions 1908; visited
Africa twice and Dutch East Indies once
in the interest of missions.
Spieker, G. F., historian; 1844 to
1913; educated at Gettysburg and Phil-
adelphia; Lutheran pastor 1867 — 83;
taught Hebrew at Muhlenberg College,
1883 — 94; professor of church history
in Philadelphia Seminary 1894 — 1913.
Spinoza, Baruch (Benedict de),
philosopher; b. 1632 at Amsterdam, of
Jewish parents, who, persecuted in Por-
tugal, had sought refuge in the Nether-
lands; excommunicated by synagog be-
cause of his religious views; spent
uneventful life in the Netherlands, gain-
ing livelihood by grinding lenses ;,d. 1677
at The Hague. One of most influential
philosophers of modern times. In his
Tractatus Tkeologico-Politicus, 1670, he
attacked the Christian view of revelation
and the authenticity of the Old Testament.
Religiously his Tractatus contained prin-
ciples of rationalism which appeared a
century later. Politically it anticipated
Rousseau’s ideas in the latter’s Contrat
Social. In his main work, Ethica, 1677,
Spires, Diet of
Spiritism
724 •
he developed, in contradistinction to Des-
cartes’s dualism, a pantheistic monism.
There is only one infinite substance, God
(or nature), with an infinite number
of “attributes,” of which man can com-
prehend only two, thought and extension.
Ideas and physical objects are “modes”
of these attributes. See Pantheism.
Spires, Diet of, 1526. The Peace of
Madrid gave Charles V a free hand, and
he would now enforce the fierce Edict of
Worms of 1521 and crush the Lutherans;
hut the newly formed Holy League of
Cognac and the invading Turk staid
his hand. The Diet unanimously re-
solved: “Each one is to rule and act for
himself as he hopes and trusts to answer
to God and the Imperial Majesty.” That
opened the door for the spread of Lu-
theranism ; it gave independence from
Rome, at least to the Lutheran terri-
torial princes; it divided Germany re-
ligiously. Since Worms the most im-
portant Reichstag.
Spires, Diet of, 1529. Victorious
over the Holy League of Cognac, an al-
liance of France, England, the Pope, Ven-
ice, and Milan, Charles V, conscious of
his power, most autocratically canceled
the perfectly legally passed laws of the
Diet of Spires of 1520 and also most
autocratically commanded the Estates
forthwith to execute the fierce Edict of
Worms of 1521 ( q.v .). This unconsti-
tutional act gave pause even to some of
the Catholic Estates; but the stalwart
reactionary papistic majority enacted
into law the wishes of the Kaiser. On
April 19 the Lutherans protested against
this act of tyranny — “In matters con-
cerning God’s honor and the salvation
of souls each one must for himself stand
before God and give account, so that
herein no one can excuse himself by the
action or resolution of others, either
more or less.” The Kaiser rejected the
protest and even imprisoned the bearers.
Luther’s heroic stand at Worms in 1521
made possible this glorious Protest at
Spires in 1529, from which all Prot-
estants take their title. In 1542 the
haughty Kaiser had to make concessions
to get Lutheran help against the invad-
ing Turk, and in 1544 more concessions
to get Lutheran help against France to
win the Peace of Crespy, September 14,
1544, which gave him a free and strong
hand to crush the Lutherans at Muehl-
berg.
Spirit, Holy. See Holy Spirit.
Spiritism ( Spiritualism ). An un-
christian, antichristian cult, based on a
real or pretended intercourse with the
souls of the dead. The founding of this
cult, in its present form, is ascribed to
the Fox Sisters, of Hydeville, N. Y. For
the greater part, Spiritistic mediums are
tricksters and frauds. In so far as they
may commune with the spirits of the
departed, they come under the condem-
nation of the Word of God: “There
shall not be found among you any one . . .
that useth divination, or an observer of
times, or an enchanter, or a witch, or
a charmer, or a consulter with familiar
spirits, or a wizard, or a necromancer.”
Dent. 18, 10. 11. — Since 1848, modern
Spiritism has had adherents in the
United States. Many are enticed by its
trickery and its lure of the unknown.
Besides, the Spiritists advise their un-
initiated to read the Bible, thereby
gaining their victims’ confidence. These
advisers then cause the reader to ques-
tion the obvious meaning of certain
parts of the Bible. Spiritism, deprived
of its mask, is found to deny the deity
of the Lord Jesus, just as it denies the
existence of the devil, demons, and an-
gels. Exponents of Spiritism make the
following statement about the Bible:
“To assert that it is a holy and divine
book, that God inspired the writers to
make known His divine will, is a gross
outrage on, and misleading, the public.”
“The New Testament is made up of tra-
ditions and theological speculations by
unknown persons.” ( Outlines of Spirit-
ualism for the Young, 13. 14.) In the
Spiritistic book Whatever Is, Is Right
we find the following assertions: “What
is evil? Evil does not exist; evil is
good. What is a lie? A lie is the truth
intrinsically; it holds a lawful place in
creation : it is a necessity. What is
vice? Vice, and virtue, too, are beau-
tiful in the eyes of the soul. What is
murder? Murder is good. Murder is
a perfectly natural act.” It is clear
from these statements that Spiritism, in
spite of its “theomonistie” churches and
other paraphernalia, leads to infidelity
and immorality. According to Mrs. Wood-
hull, for three successive years elected
president of the Spiritist societies in
America, it is “the sublime mission of
Spiritism to deliver humanity from the
thraldom of marriage.” Dr. Day, of
Montville, Conn., writes: “It is a fact,
and no honest, intelligent Spiritualist
can deny its truth, that nine-tenths of
modern Spiritualists are, either openly
or secretly (as far as they dare), prac-
tically Free Lovers, in the broadest sense
of the word. I am familiar with many
of the most prominent leaders, teachers,
and mediums of Spiritualism, who are
secret agents of Free Love secret circles.”
Spiritism
Sponsors
?&s
The same Dr. Day quotes “a prominent
author and teacher of Spiritualism” as
saying: “Free Love is the central doc-
trine of Spiritualism. The new social
order is a social harmony based upon
passional attractions, or the harmony of
the varied and developed passional or
impulsive nature of man. Attraction is
our only law.” According to Spiritist
doctrine, marriage is not a divine insti-
tution, in which in reality God joins
together one man and one woman, but
it is based on the laws of human nature
and is the result of “natural and spir-
itual affinities.” The two parties united
are not so much united into one flesh as
virtually into one spirit and one soul.
Divorces are to be freely granted when
desired by both parties or even by only
one party. “The marriage vow imposes
no obligation on the Spiritualistic hus-
band.” ( T. L. Harris. )
Modern Spiritism emphatically denies
the fall of man through the temptation
of the devil. This denial is publicly
made by the author of Outlines, the book
from which we quoted above. Others
deny the existence of the devil ; and still
another makes a statement of so blas-
phemous a nature as to make it almost
impossible to repeat it: “Whom, then,”
says he, “can we believe, God or Satan?
The facts justify us in believing Satan.
It was not the devil, but God, who made
the mistake in the Garden of Eden. It
was God, and not the devil, who was the
murderer from the beginning.” This as-
sertion makes any one who has still
some moral feeling shudder and ought
to make any sober-minded man or
woman shun Spiritistic company. —
Mr. Harrison D. Barrett, president of
the National Spiritualists’ Association,
says that Spiritism “steadfastly refused
to accept any religious postulates on
faith and at the outset rejected all
creeds and dogmatic assumptions of
theology.” This is plain enough. Spir-
itism rejects the creed of Christianity
and characterizes the saving doctrines of
Scripture as “dogmatic assumptions.”
By the testimony of its leading expo-
nents, Spiritism is a Christless cult,
opposed alike to Christian doctrine and
morals. It is one of the false teachings
foretold by St. Paul, when he writes to
Timothy: “Now, the Spirit speaketh ex-
pressly that in the latter times some
shall depart from the faith, giving heed
to seducing spirits and doctrines of
devils; speaking lies in hypocrisy; hav-
ing their conscience seared with a hot
iron; forbidding to marry.” 1 Tim.
4, 1 — 3. (See Monson, The Difference,
36—39. )
Spitta, Karl Johann Philipp, 1801
to 1859; studied at the Lyceum in Han-
over and at Goettingen, largely under
Rationalistic influence ; held several
charges as pastor in the kingdom of
Hanover; a very popular poet, writings
dear and happy in style, sweet, flowing,
and melodious; many of his lyrics have
become folk-songs, a number may be re-
garded as hymns, among which : “Ich
und mein Haus, wir sind bereit”; “Wir
sind des Herrn, wir leben oder sterben.”
Spitta, Friedrich, 1852 — 1925; stud-
ied in Goettingen and Erlangen; aetive
as pastor and professor in Strassburg,
later in Goettingen; prominent writer
on liturgies and church music; among
his writings: Liturgische Andacht zum
Luther-Jubilaeum, 1883; Eiti’ feste
Burg; Der Chorgesang im evangelischen
Oottesdienst ; Drei kirchliche Festspiele,
Weihnachten, 0 stern und Pfingsten; Zur
Reformation des evangelischen Kultus;
Das Johanne8evangelium, and other exe-
getical works.
Spittler, Christian Friedrich; b. at
Wimsheim (Wurttemberg) April 12,
1782; d. at Basel, December 8, 1807;
distinguished for his services in behalf
of missions; was called 1801 to Basel
as assistant in the Christentumgesell-
schaft; in 1812 he founded a publishing
house at Basel, in 1834 a lending library;
but in 1841 he limited his establishment
to Bibles,- tracts, and the publication of
the literature of the Christentumgesell-
schaft; in 1840 he established the mis-
sionary institution at St. Chrisehona,
near Basel.
Spohr, Ludwig, 1784 — 1859; studied
principally at Brunswick and under Eck
at St. Petersburg; composed and made
tours while still in his teens; excellent
violinist and teacher; wrote much
sacred music; oratorio, Das Juengste
Gericht.
Sponsors. The persons making the
required professions and promises in the
name of the infants presented for bap-
tism in the Christian Church. It was
an ancient custom to have such persons
present at baptism, and the Lutheran
Church has upheld the custom, prin-
cipally on account of the Anabaptists,
some of whom contended that an adult
could never know whether he were truly
baptized or not. Not only are the spon-
sors to bear witness of the performance
of the act, but they are also to act as
spiritual guardians for the child, if this
becomes necessary and is possible for
them to do. Sponsors should be chosen
only from the number of those who are
in communion with the Church of the
Sprague, William Buell
726 Stapulensls, Jacobus Faber
true faith, that is, of the orthodox Lu-
theran Church. It is understood that
the sponsors make the promises not in
their own name, but in that of the child
whom they represent, the latter becom-
ing subsequently responsible. In the
case of mere witnesses, not members of
the faith to which the congregation con-
cerned belongs, the questions ordinarily
addressed to the sponsors are omitted.
Sprague, William Buell, 1796 to
1876; compiler, biographer; h. at An-
dover, Conn.; pastor at West Spring-
field, Mass. ( Congregational ) , Albany
(Presbyterian) ; d. at Flushing; wrote
Annals of the American Pulpit, etc.
Sprecher, Samuel; b. 1810, d. 1905;
brother-in-law and supporter of S. S.
Schmucker; president of Wittenberg
College 1849 — 84; president of Lutheran
General Synod at the time of the seces-
sion of the General Council; in his
earlier days a strong advocate of the
Definite Platform (q. v. ), but in later
life admitted “that such alterations of
the creed are undesirable.”
Spurgeon, Charles Haddon, 1834 to
1892; celebrated English preacher; b. at
Kelvedon; son of Independent minister;
joined Baptists 1851; pastor in London
1854; trained young preachers at his
pastors’ college; preached in Metropol-
itan Tabernacle (seating 6,000) from
1861; opposed baptismal regeneration;
withdrew from Baptist Union' 1887, al-
though remaining a Baptist; d. at Men-
ton, France. Annual volumes of sermons
from 1856; The Treasury of David, Lec-
tures to My Students, etc.
Staake, W. H., lawyer, prominent
member of Lutheran General Council ;
b. 1846; member of various boards and
treasurer of the General' Council 1876 to
1918; d. July 30, 1924.
Stall, Sylvanus, Lutheran preacher,
author, publisher, 1847- — 1915; educated
at Gettysburg, Union, and General Theo-
logical seminaries; pastor 1874 — -9; as-
sociate editor of Lutheran Observer 1890
to 1901; of Stall’s Lutheran Year-book
and Historical Quarterly; author of
devotional works and books on sexual
hygiene (Purity Series).
Stabat Mater. The musical form or
setting of the well-known Latin hymn
by Jacoponus da Todi (d. 1306), the
subject being the crucifixion of Christ,
sung during Passion week in the Roman
Church; ancient setting is still in use,
but many composers have since written
music, especially Palestrina, Pergolesi,
and Rossini, the compositions now being
in use not only on the Feast of Seven
Dolors, but also, in the form of a can-
tata, in Protestant circles.
Stainer, Sir John, 1840 — 1901; chor-
ister at St. Paul’s in London; studied
under Bayley, Steggall, and Cooper; held
several positions as organist, that at
St. Paul’s for sixteen years; professor
of music at Oxford in 1889, having -held
a similar position before at the Royal
College of Music; edited church-music
works; wrote instruction -books ; pub-
lished oratorios, among which The Cruci-
fixion is best known.
Stange, Karl; b. 1870; 1895 Privat-
dozent at Halle; professor extraordinary
at Koenigsberg in 1903; professor of
systematic theology at Greifswald in
1904; now at Goettingen; modern posi-
tive theologian.
Stanger. See Blumhardt.
Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn, 1815 — 81;
Anglican; b. in Cheshire ; ordained 1839 ;
canon of Canterbury 1851; professor of
church history, Oxford, 1856 — 64; dean
of Westminster 1864; favored union of
Church and State; liberal in religious
matters and leader of Broad Church
party; traveled and wrote much; d. in
London. Life of Thomas Arnold; Memo-
rials of Westminster Abbey; etc.
Stanley, Sir Henry Morton, Anglo-
American explorer; b. January 28, 1841,
near Denbigh, Wales; d. May 10, 1904,
in London. Stanley, who was a news-
paper correspondent in later life, was
sent by the New York Herald in 1869
to find Livingstone in Africa, which he
accomplished on November 10, 1871, at
Ujiji, on Lake Tanganyika. He explored
the Congo 1872 — 77, opening the way for
the establishment of the Congo Free
State and thus for religious missions.
He was also instrumental in calling mis-
sionaries to Uganda (1875).
Staupitz, Johann von; led in found-
ing the University of Wittenberg in
1502; as head of the Augustinians lie
urged Bible study; discovered Luther,
comforted him, made him his successor
at Wittenberg in 1512; left Luther’s
cause in 1519; abbot of the Benedictine
cloister of St. Peter at Salzburg in 1522;
d. 1524.
Stapulensis, Jacobus Faber, promi-
nent Protestant of France; b. 1455,
d. 1536; his education comprehended a
thorough training in the classics ; he
promoted Aristotelian philosophy, advo-
cated a better exegesis of Scriptures,
translated the Bible, and prepared the
way for Calvin and Fare]; edited the
Church Fathers; wrote commentaries on
Holy Scripture.
Stuck, Johann Priedrieh
727
Steiinle Synod
Starck, Johann Friedrich; b. 1680;
d. 1756 as pastor at Frankfort-on-the-
Main ; was a mild, practical Pietist after
Spener’s model; his chief work is his
Daily Handbook, perhaps the most widely
used prayer-book in the Lutheran Church.
Starke, Christoph; b. 1684, d. 1744;
studied at Halle; pastor and teacher at
Neunhausen; chief pastor at Driesen;
chiefly known for his Synopsis, a theo-
logico-homiletic commentary upon the
Bible, of great homiletic value.
Starke’s Synopsis. Homiletic com-
mentary on the whole Bible by Christoph
Starke ( q . v.) and other theologians (10
vols. ) . Has an abundance of good, prac-
tical material given in concise form. Val-
uable for the preacher’s library.
States of the Church, The, or The
Papal States. Formerly a territory in
Central Italy, running, roughly, from
the mouth of the Po to the mouth of the
Tiber, under the immediate sovereignty
of the Pope; since 1870 annexed to the
kingdom of Italy. The origin of the tem-
poral power of the Pope dates back to
the transaction between Stephen III
(sometimes called Stephen II, since his
predecessor Stephen died three days after
his election) and Pepin the Short of
France, by which the Pope conferred
upon Pepin the coveted crown of the
Franks, and Pepin, in turn, beat back the
assaults of the Lombards, who threat-
ened the city of Rome, and bestowed the
conquered territory upon the Pope (754).
This “Donation of Pepin” marks the be-
ginning of the temporal sovereignty of
the Roman Pontiffs. It was an event big
with historical consequences. The his-
tory of the Papal States forms an in-
tricate and highly diversified chapter in
the religious and political development
of Europe. We can notice here only
a few of its salient features. During
the moral degeneracy of the papacy in
the 9th and 10th centuries the papal pos-
sessions, indeed the papal office itself,
became a prey of warring factions, which
forgot all dignity and decency in the
mad scramble for power and position.
By the middle of the 11th century the
papal jurisdiction was not recognized
beyond the city of Rome and its imme-
diate vicinity. During its conflict with
the empire the papacy did not succeed
in greatly strengthening or extending its
temporal power. The “Babylonian Cap-
tivity” at Avignon in France meant
a practical surrender of temporal rule
in Italy. During this period the States
of the Church were seized by petty ty-
rants, who ruled in their own name. On
their return to Rome the Popes were
obliged to reestablish their temporal au-
thority, a task which was not completed
until the end of the 16th century. Tem-
porarily destroyed by Napoleon, the Pa-
pal States were restored by the Congress
of Vienna (1815). The odious clerical
administration with its oppressive taxa-
tion, its discrimination against the laity
(excluded from all higher offices), and
other grievances led to an insurrection
in 1831 and 1832, promptly crushed, how-
ever, by Austrian troops. The policy of
Pius IX seemed at first to augur better
times, but his concessions did not satisfy
the radical party. A revolution broke
out in Rome in 1849. Pius was compelled
to flee, but returned in the following year
under the protection of the French. The
last stage in the history of the Papal
States is connected with the unification
of Italy under a single ruler. As early
as 1860 all of the Pope’s dominions, with
the exception of Rome and adjacent ter-
ritory, had been incorporated into the
new kingdom. When the troops of Napo-
leon III were removed in 1870, Victor
Emmanuel entered Rome, made it the
capital of united Italy, and the States
of the Church disappeared from the map.
Stations of the Cross. A series of
14 images, or pictures, representing in-
cidents (some legendary) of the Passion,
usually ranged at intervals around the
walls of Roman churches. One of the
most popular Roman devotions consists
in passing from station to station with
certain prayers and meditations. The
indulgences thus gained are not speci-
fied, but are understood to be remark-
ably great.
Statistics, Ecclesiastical. That
branch of church history which presents
the outward condition and membership
of a given church-body at some particu-
lar time.
Stedingers. Frisians of the lower
Weser, who, because they revolted against
the oppression of nobles and priests, were
nearly extirpated by a crusade sanctioned
by Pope Gregory IX in 1234.
Steele, Anne, 1716 — 78; daughter of
a Baptist clergyman; published Poems
on Subjects Chiefly Devotional ; a lead-
ing hymn-writer; wrote, among others:
“Lord of My Life”; “To Jesus, Our Ex-
alted Lord.”
Stegmanri, Josua, 1588 — 1632; stud-
ied at Leipzig, adjunct to the philosoph-
ical faculty; pastor at Stadthagen; pro-
fessor of theology at Rinteln; wrote,
among others: “Ach bleib mit deiner
Gnade.”
Steimle Synod. See Hew York, Ger-
man Synod of.
Stelnbach, Ch, P.
728
Stlgmattiatlon
Stelnbach, Ch. F.; a pioneer pastor
of the Missouri Synod; held pastorates
at Liverpool, O., Sheboygan and Milwau-
kee, Wis., and Fairfield Center, Ind. ;
d. 1883.
Steinhausen, Wilhelm, 1854 — 1025;
German painter; exponent of realism,
but with a sympathetic touch; his use
of prints from stones paved the way for
a new popular art in Germany; much of
his work in series, such as “The Birth
of Christ,” but also individual paintings :
"Emmaus”; “John the Baptist”; “The
Sermon on the Mount.”
Steinle, Eduard, 1810 — 86; German
painter, one of the so-called “Nazarenes,”
school of Overbeck; rich imagination,
tendency toward the symbolical; much
work in sepia and crayon; frescoes in
Cathedral of Cologne.
Stellhom, F. W., “preeminently the
scholar of the Ohio Synod”; b. Octo-
ber 2, 1841, in Hanover, was educated at
Fort Wayne and St. Louis; Lutheran
pastor in St. Louis 1865 — 7, in De Kalb
Co., Ind., 1867 — 9; professor in North-
western College, Watertown, 1869 to
1874, at Fort Wayne 1874 — 81. In 1881,
as a result of the predestination contro-
versy, he severed his connection with the
Missouri Synod and accepted a position
in the college and seminary of the Ohio
Synod at Columbus. He was the presi-
dent of the seminary 1894 — 1900 and
dean since 1903. Stellhorn was editor,
for a number of years, of the Lutherische
Kirchenzeitung, and of the Theologische
Zeitblaetter since 1881. Author of com-
mentaries on the historical books of the
New Testament, Romans, and the Pas-
toral Epistles ; Greek Lexicon. Died
March 17, 1919.
Stephan, Martin; b. August 13,
1777, in Stramberg, Silesia; studied
theology at Halle and Leipzig; pastor
of the church at Haber, Bohemia ; a year
later, of the Bohemian St. John’s Con-
gregation, Dresden, preaching also in
German. While Rationalism dominated
the pulpits of Dresden, “he preached the
Gospel, having experienced its power in
his own soul,” and multitudes flocked
to hear him. By reason of his under-
standing of the genuine Gospel and of
his psychological insight he also excelled
as a spiritual adviser, able to comfort
and strengthen the stricken conscience
and doubting heart. His activity thus
transcended the limits of his parish. He
it was who through his straight Lu-
theran Gospel advice brought peace to
the soul of C. F. W. Walther in his stu-
dent days. He became the counselor of
a nnmher of nastors who cluncr to the
old Lutheran faith, and in the course of
time he became their spiritual leader.
His long-cherished plan of emigrating to
a land of freedom was finally, in 1836,
when the oppression was growing un-
bearable, accepted by them and their
people. In 1838 came his suspension
from office (the charges against him,
however, had not been proved) and the
emigration. The doctrinal errors, which
had gradually, at first imperceptibly,
been vitiating his theology and his fall
from grace, in consequence of which he
was deposed from office in Perry Co.,
Mo., in 1839, have been set forth else-
where. (See Missouri Synod.) Some-
what later he was in charge of a congre-
gation near Red Bud, 111., where he died
February 22, 1846.
Stephan, M., son of the preceding;
b. July 23, 1823, in Dresden, Saxony;
studied at Concordia College, Altenburg,
Mo.; studied architecture in Dresden;
was encouraged by Dr. Walther and
others to prepare for the ministry ; grad-
uate of Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
1853; first charge, Theresa, Wis.; at
one time assistant pastor to Dr. Sihler
and instructor in secular branches in
the Fort Wayne Beminary; last charge
in Bremer Co., Iowa; d. January 16,
1884. He furnished the plans for a num-
ber of churches.
Stephen I of Rome, 253 — 7 ; was the
great opponent of Cyprian ( q. v . ) in the
question of heretical baptism, maintain-
ing that the validity of the Sacrament
depended not on the officiating person,
but solely on the institution of Christ
and on the administration in conformity
therewith.
Steuerlein, Johann, 1546—1613;
studied law; town clerk of Wasungen;
later secretary in chancery at Meinin-
gen; finally mayor; noted poet, excel-
lent musician ; wrote, among others :
“Das alte Jahr vergangen ist.”
Stier, Ewald Rudolf, 1800 — 62;
studied at Berlin and Halle; pastor and
superintendent at various places, last at
Eisleben; deeply interested in Biblical
study; edited polyglot Bjble together
with Tlieile; wrote: “Wir sind vereint,
Herr Jesu Christ.”
Stigmatization. The appearance, on
the bodies of certain persons, of wounds
resembling those received by Jesus from
the crown of thorns, the nails, and the
spear. The first person reported to have
been so marked was Francis of Assisi
(see Francis, St.), who, in 1224, is sup-
posed to have received the marks, or
stigmata, in hands, feet, and side from
a seraDh while keeDinsr a fortv-dav fast
Sfllllngrtteet, Edward
Stoeokliarfit, geortf
726
on Mount Alvernus, in the Apennines.
Since then 80 or more cases of stigmati-
zation have been reported, some only
partial, others complete. Those affected
were usually monastics of hyperascetic
tendencies, and about five-sixths were
women. The stigmata are supposed to
he accompanied with intense suffering.
The presence of these marks has, in some
eases, been attested by large numbers of
reputable witnesses. The question of
their causation is another matter. Many
Roman Catholics consider them minftcu-
lous. In some instances deliberate fraud
has been proved, while in others there
is no evidence of dishonesty. Among the
various theories that have been ad-
vanced, two may be mentioned: the one
holding that the mind, under abnormal
conditions (as in hypnosis) can bring
about such phenomena on the body; the
other, that the stigmatics, in a state of
ecstasy or hysteria, unconsciously or
half-conseiously inflicted the stigmata
on themselves.
Stillingfleet, Edward, 1635 — 99; An-
glican prelate; b. at Cranborne; rector;
dean of St. Paul’s; bishop of Worcester;
d. at Westminster. Apologetic (Rational
Account of the Grounds of the Protes-
tant Religion), controversial, and meta-
physical writings.
Stobaeus, Johann, 1580 — 1646; stud-
ied under Eccard at Koenigsberg; also
attended university; cantor at the cathe-
dral school; later Kapellmeister ; impor-
tant composer of church music ; published
Gantiones Racrae.
Stocker, John; nothing definite known
of his life; contributed nine hymns to
the Gospel Magazine during 1776 and
1777, among which: “Gracious Spirit,
Dove Divine.”
Stockmann, Ernst, 1634 — 1712; b. at
Luetzen; at time of his death Oberkon-
sistorialrat und Kirchenrat at Eisenach;
wrote: “Gott, der wird’s wohlmachen.”
Stoecker, Adolf ; b. 1835, d. 1909 ; court
preacher at Berlin 1874 — 90; organizer
of city mission work in Berlin 1877 ; of
the Christian Socialist Party 1878, de-
manding government protection for the
workingman ; of the Evangelical Socialist
Congress 1890; of the Free Ecclesiastical
Socialist Conference 1897 ; encountered
considerable opposition ; harmed his cause
by anti-Semitic propaganda.
Stoeckhardt, Georg; b. February 17,
1842, at Chemnitz, Saxony; received his
preparatory education in the Latein-
schule at Tharandt and the Fuersten-
schule at Meissen; studied theology at
Erlangen and Leipzig 1862- — 6; tutor at
a ladies’ seminary, Tharandt, 1866 — 70;
assistant pastor of a German Lutheran
church at Paris; for three months at
the Sedan hospital 1870 — 1 ; private tu-
tor in Old and New Testament Exegesis
at Erlangen and, at the same time, teacher
of religion in the Gymnasium of that
city 1871 — 3; took the degree of Lie.
Theol. (Leipzig) ; pastor of the church
at Planitz, Saxony, 1873 — 6, making the
acquaintance of Pastor Ruhland of the
Free Church congregation and of the
theological literature of the Missouri
Synod. As his protest against the in-
differentism and unscriptural practise
of the state church (the pastors were
refused the right, for instance, of sus-
pending impenitent sinners from Com-
munion; gross errorists were retained
in office ) remained unheeded, he re-
nounced his connection with the consis-
tory (of the 181 pastors who had begun
the fight only Stoeckhardt and Pastor
Schneider fought to the end) and, on be-
ing suspended, resigned from his office.
With a part of his congregation he joined
the Saxon Free Church, becoming second
pastor of the church at Niederplanitz
1876 — 8, together with Pastor Ruhland
founded the Freikirche, the organ of the
Free Church (for his articles on the apos-
tasy in the state church he was, in 1879,
sentenced to eight [four] months’ im-
prisonment), and prepared a number of
boys for college. In 1878 he became pas-
tor of Holy Cross Church, St. Louis, and,
having since 1879 lectured on Old and
New Testament Exegesis at Concordia
Seminary, was elected professor in 1887.
In 1903. Luther Seminary, Hamline, Minn.,
created him a Doctor of Divinity. D. Jan-
uary 9, 1913. — Stoeckhardt was an exe-
gete of the first rank. Coupled with his
great learning, his familiarity with the
original languages, etc., and his logical
mind was his firm belief in the verbal
inspiration of the Scriptures and his
childlike acceptance of all the teachings
of Scripture, his great love of the re-
vealed truth. He permitted nothing but
the text to influence his thought, Con-
centrating all the powers of his believing
heart and mind on the written Word, he
obtained a wonderful grasp of the deep
thoughts of the Spirit, and he had the
rare gift of unfolding them in concise,
clear, convincing language. Besides his
exegetical articles in Lehre und Wehre
he wrote commentaries on Romans, Ephe-
sians, First Peter, Haiah 1 — 12, Ausge-
waehlte Psalmen, and Biblische Ge-
schichte. His mastery in exegesis made
him the forceful preacher he was. “His
sermons are full of the marrow and
substance of Scripture, meat y, solid,
Stoicism
730
Strauss, David Friedrich
well-compacted.” He wrote Passions-
predigten, Adventspredigten, (inode urn
(inode (on the Gospel pericopes), and
contributed most valuable material,
such as the Studies on the Pericopes, to
the Homiletic Magazine. The Missouri
Synod owes much to him; his exeget-
ical ability and love of the truth of
Scripture made him one of the leaders
with Walther, in the controversy on
election and conversion and in the other
battles the Church was, and is, engaged
in, such as for verbal inspiration. In
line with the article written on his ac-
cession to the chair of Exegesis: “How
Can and Should Each Individual Lu-
theran Lend His Aid toward the Preser-
vation of the Pure Doctrine by the
Church?” he labored, by word and pen
(his doctrinal articles in Lehre und
Wehre, in Lutheraner and in the synod-
ical reports), to conserve this most pre-
cious treasure of the Missouri Synod;
and he admirably succeeded in impress-
ing upon both his students and his read-
ers his exegetical method, his loving rev-
erence for the written Word.
Stoicism. Greek school of philosophy,
founded ca. 300 B. C. by Zeno of Cyprus,
who taught in a stoa, i. e., portico, at
Athens. It holds a materialistic view of
the universe and a pantheistic conception
of God. Its chief characteristic, however,
lies in the field of ethics. In opposition
to contemporaneous Epicureanism it
maintained that the supreme aim in life
is not pleasure, but virtue, or living in
harmony with nature. The greatest vir-
tues are practical Wisdom, bravery, tem-
perance, justice. In consequence it
teaches self-control, a complete suppres-
sion of all passions. Though Stoicism re-
sembles certain Christian elements, it is
fundamentally different. Its ethics, like
Pharisaism, is based on egoism and self-
sufficiency; it boasts of its own merits
and is without knowledge and need of
grace. It has no compassion for the op-
pressed and weak and, if obstacles prove
insurmountable, advocates, as the final
resort, suicide. Moreover, as suscepti-
bility to the contrast between the pleas-
ant and unpleasant is a part of our true
human nature, the Christian ideal is not
sublime indifference to pain and pleas-
ure, not the repression of all emotions
and impulses, but rather their sanctifi-
cation.
Stolberg, Anna von, wife of Count
Heinrich of Stolbe^, to whom tradition,
though not well founded, ascribes the
hymn "Christus, der ist mein Leben,”
written ca. 1600.
Stole. See Yestments, R. C.
Stolee, Michael Olaf J. ; b. 1871 in
Norway; emigrated to America 1886;
graduate of St. Olaf College and United
Norwegian Church Seminary (1900);
studied in Paris and at the University
of Christiania; missionary in Madagas-
car 1901; professor at United Norwe-
gian Church Seminary 1911, Luther
Theological Seminary 1917.
Stone, Samuel John, 1839 — 1900;
educated at Oxford; clergyman in Estab-
lished Church; published a number of
poetical works, many hymns attaining
a wide popularity, among them “The
Church’s One Foundation.”
Storr, Gottlob Christian, b. 1746 at
Stuttgart, d. there 1805 as court preacher
and consistorial councilor; founder of
the so-called Older Tuebingen School of
Theology, Biblical supranaturalist; op-
ponent of Sender's theory of accommo-
dation, by which divine revelation is to
be explained according to modern critics.
Stoss, Veit, ca. 1440 — 1533; German
wood-carver ; figures known for their
grace; but they lack naturalness; his
entire style affected; among his more
pretentious creations: altar of Mary in
the church at Cracow.
Strack, Hermann Lebrecht; b. 1848;
d. — ; professor in Berlin; positive
theologian of the Prussian Union; wrote
Einleitung in das Alte Testament ; with
0. Zoeckler editor of Kurzgefasster Kom-
mentar zu den heiligen Schriften, etc.
Straits Settlements. See Malaya „
British.
Strasen, Karl J. A. ; graduate of
Practical Seminary, Fort Wayne; served
a congregation at Collinsville, 111., till
1859; then called to Watertown, Wis.,
where he was pastor over forty years;
favorably known throughout the Mis-
souri Synod as president of the North-
western (Wisconsin) District; d. 1909.
Strauss, David Friedrich; b. 1808
at Ludwigslust, Wurttemberg; d. there
1874; radical Rationalist, who applied
Hegel’s pantheistic and materialistic
philosophy to religion and theology;
studied at Tuebingen under F. C. Baur
[q.v.); for a while vicar, then repetent
at Tuebingen. His Leben Jesu appeared
in 1835, written when he was twenty -
seven. In this work he advanced the
so-called “mythical” theory of the Gospel-
narrative of the life of Christ, in which
ho assumed a gradual development of
the Christian religion, analogous to
heathen mythology, without any inten-
tional fabrication on the part of the
apostles. This work created an immense
sensation. In later life he put forth
Streokfnss, Friedrich
731 Student Volunteer Movement
even more advanced radical views, espe-
cially in Der alte und der neue Olaube.
Streckfuss, Friedrich; b. Septem-
ber 7, 1852, in Van Wert Co., 0.; grad-
uate of Concordia College, Fort Wayne,
and Concordia Seminary, St. Louis
(1874); pastor at Young America,
Minn.; 1892 professor of Latin in the
Proseminary and of Symbolics in the
Seminary at Springfield; d. there
April 14, 1924.
Streissguth, W. ; b. 1827, d. 1915;
educated at Basel; pastor of Swiss col-
ony, Green Co., Wis. ; joined Wisconsin
Synod 1854; pastor at Milwaukee, Fond
du Lac, St. Paul, Kenosha ; president of
Wisconsin Synod 1804 — 7.
Strong, Augustus Hopkins, 1836 to
1922; Baptist; b. at Rochester, N. Y. ;
pastor; professor of theology; president
of Rochester Theological Seminary 1872
to 1912; d. at Pasadena, Cal.; wrote:
Systematic Theology ; Great Poets and
Theology; etc.
Strong, Nathan, 1748 — 1816; edu-
cated at Yale; Congregational minister
at Hartford; greatly interested in mis-
sions; prominent in American hymnol-
ogy; wrote: “Swell the Anthem, Raise
the Song.”
Strophe. A unit, or verse-group, in
poetry, arranged in a certain order,
which is usually repeated several times,
especially in every stanza of a hymn,
called so (literally, turning) because the
chorus in an ancient drama turned back
toward the center of the stage at the end
of each stanza, or strophe.
Stub, Hans Gerhard; b. February 23,
1849, at Muskegon, Wis.; studied at
Cathedral School (Bergen, Norway), Lu-
ther College, Concordia College (Fort
Wayne) ; graduated at Concordia Semi-
nary, St. Louis, 1872; pastor in Min-
neapolis; professor of Luther Seminary
1878 (studied two years at Leipzig), at
Luther College (and pastor at Decorah,
Iowa) 1896, at Luther Seminary 1900 to
1917 ; vice-president of Norwegian Synod
1905; president 1910; of the Norwegian
Lutheran Church of America 1917. First
president of the National Lutheran Coun-
cil ; preached opening sermon at the
Eisenach World Conference 1923. Editor
of Evangelisk Luthersk Kirketidende,
Teologisk Tidsskrift; author of Naade-
valget, Mod Frimureriet, Udvalgelsen, etc.
In the election and conversion contro-
versy he took a leading part on the side
of the Synodical Conference. Subse-
quently he upheld the Madison Theses
(?• v. ) . Knighted by King Haakon VII.
Received the title of LL, D, from Luther
College 1924, of D. D. from Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis, 1903.
Stubnatzi, Wolfgang Simon; b. 1829
at Fuerth, Bavaria; sent over by Pastor
Loehe 1847; studied in the Fort Wayne
Seminary; pastor at Coopers Grove, 111.,
1849; assistant of Dr. Sihler 1862; pas-
tor of Immanuel Church, Fort Wayne,
1868; visitor, vice-president, and presi-
dent of the Central District; d. 1880.
Student Volunteer Movement for
Foreign Missions (S. V. M. F. M. ) . The
S. V. M. F. M. goes back to the first Inter-
national Conference of Christian college
students held at Mount Hermon, Mass.,
1880. At the adjournment of the con-
ference about 100 of the participants
had declared themselves “willing and de-
sirous, God permitting, to become foreign
missionaries.” This was owing, to a
great extent, to the earnest efforts of
R. P. Wilder, Tewsksbury, and Clark.
Wilder and J. S. Forman were sent on a
tour to the colleges of the United States
with a view to interesting the student-
bodies in the new movement. In Decem-
ber, 1888, a society was formed for the
purpose of doing more efficient work in
this direction, which adopted the above
name. The purpose of the movement is
expressed in the following sentences :
“1. To awaken and maintain among all
Christian students of the United States
and Canada intelligent and active inter-
est in foreign missions; 2. to enroll a
sufficient number of properly qualified
student volunteers to meet the successive
demands of the various missionary boards
of North America; 3. to help all such
intending missionaries to prepare for
their life-work and to enlist their co-
operation in developing the missionary
life of the home churches; 4. to lay an
equal burden of responsibility on all stu-
dents who are to remain as ministers and
lay-workers at home, that they may
actively promote the missionary enter-
prise by their intelligent advocacy, by
their gifts, and by their prayers.” The
declaration of the movement for all mem-
bers is: “It is my purpose, if God per-
mit, to become a foreign missionary”;
and only those students of higher insti-
tutions of learning are eligible who will
make that declaration. The declaration,
however, is not a binding promise, but an
expression of earnest intention to serve
if the Lord does not interpose insur-
mountable obstacles. “This declaration
is not to be interpreted as a ‘pledge,’ for
it in no sense withdraws one from the
subsequent guidance of the Holy Spirit.
It is, however, more than an expression
of mere willingness or desire to become
Stump, Jos.
732
Stylites
a foreign missionary. It is the state-
ment of a definite life-purpose, formed
under the direction of God. The person
who signs this declaration fully purposes
to spend his life as a foreign missionary.
Toward this end he will shape his plans;
he will devote his energies to prepare
himself for this great work; he will do
all in his power to remove the obstacles
in the way of his going; and in due time
he will apply to the Board to be sent
out.” The slogan of the Volunteer
Movement is : “The evangelization of
the world in this generation.” Its mem-
bers are solicited from the colleges and
universities of the United States and
Canada. This marks the movement as
interdenominational and unionistic. Its
activities are directed toward the stu-
dents in and out of educational institu-
tions. Secretaries visit colleges and uni-
versities, lecture on missions and give
instructions regarding them, form foreign
mission student classes and direct their
work, always seeking contact with the
individuals. Intimate relations with the
Y. M. C. A. and Y. W. C. A. in colleges
and cities are maintained. The Intercol-
legian constantly keeps the movement be-
fore the student-bodies and the Christian
churches. Also much other literature
bearing on foreign missions is published.
At stated times district conventions are
held, in which specially prepared pro-
grams are followed, the meetings lasting
as long as ten days. Quadrennially na-
tional gatherings are conducted, in which
outstanding and peculiarly fitted men
deliver addresses. Missionaries from all
over the world participate in these meet-
ings with prepared addresses and reports.
The propaganda work of the society has
been eminently successful, more than six
thousand members, male and female, hav-
ing gone into the foreign field, serving
their respective churches. — The S. V. M.
is a recruiting and not a sending society.
The movement has spread to England
(1892), to the Continent, and to Asia.
A World’s Student Christian Federation
was formed, comprising some 2,500 Chris-
tian Associations, with 175,000 members.
The official organs are the Student
Volunteer and the Student Movement.
The Office of the S. V. M. F. M. is at
25 Madison St., New York City.
Stump, Jos.; educator; b. 1866; edu-
cated at Columbus and Philadelphia ;
professor at Chicago Lutheran Seminary
1915 — 20; at Fargo, N. Dak., since 1921,
then at Minneapolis; author of an ex-
planation of Luther’s Catechism, a Life
of Melanchthon, etc.
Sttipdists. See Russian Sects,
Sturm, Beata, alias Tabea, Acts 9, 36;
b. December 17, 1682, at Stuttgart; d. Jan-
uary 11, 1730. In her youth she was
blind for about two years. Although her
eyes were weak, she read the Bible through
thirty times. She had a good memory
and could repeat a sermon almost word
for word. She studied the writings of
Luther and confessed that no one had so
beautifully preached Christ to her and
made so much of Him as Luther had
done. She visited widows and orphans,
the poor, sick, and needy, and especially
such as were in spiritual trouble. She
would deprive herself of necessities in
order to give to others.
Sturm, Johannes; b. 1507, d. 1589;
a German educator. Impressions re-
ceived while attending the school of the
Brethren of the Common Life ( q. v . ) at
Liege, influenced him in his organization
of the Gymnasium at Strassburg, 1537,
which he conducted for nearly forty
years. His aim of education was piety,
knowledge, eloquence. The curriculum
of the school was entirely classical and
therefore somewhat narrow. Cicero and
Demosthenes were especially imitated.
Sturm’s strength lay in his ability to
organize and in his mastery of rhetoric
and style. His ideas concerning organ-
ization and subject-matter Were influen-
tial in shaping the school system of the
German states; his course of study,
slightly amplified, was adopted in the
higher schools, the Gymnasien. Through
his relation with Bueer he embraced the
Protestant faith.
Sturm, Julius Karl Reinhold, 1816
to 1896; studied theology at Jena; held
various positions as tutor, later as pas-
tor, for many years at Koestritz; d. at
Leipzig; one of the most important of
modern German sacred poets; from his
many collections of poems a number
have passed into hymnals as hymns of
the Church, but most of them belong to
the category of sacred lyrics.
Sturm, Leonhard Christoph, 1669
to 1729; German architect, whose ideas,
as brought out in his writings on archi-
tecture, were of deciding influence in the
art of church-building in Protestant cir-
cles of Germany.
Stylites (Pillar Saints ). Hermits
who withdrew from the world by taking
up their abode on the top of a pillar.
The first and most famous was Simeon
Stylites, who lived on a pillar near An-
tioch for thirty years (430 — 59). He
found many imitators, especially in
Syria and Palestine, among them sev-
eral women. A railing kept the hermits
from falling from their lofty perches,
Suarez, Francis
733
Suicide
and food was brought up a ladder;
sometimes a titay hut protected them.
The practise never found favor in the
West, but there were stylites among the
Ruthenian monks as late as 1526.
Suarez, Francis, 1548 — 1617; Spanish
Jesuit; author of Defensio Eidei Catho-
licae, e^c., directed against James I of
England and vindicating the right of the
Pope to depose kings. He also published
an elaborate commentary on the works
of Thomas Aquinas and numerous other
works.
Sublapsarians (or Infralapsarians ) .
A name given to those of the moderate
Calvinists who held the view that God
did not decree to create a part of man-
kind unto damnation, as the Supralap-
sarians hold, but, viewing mankind as
fallen, decreed to withhold His grace
from the greater number, the reprobate
(Decrees of Synod of Dort ; Westminster
Confession ) .
Succop, H. H. ; b. 1845 in Pitts-
burgh, Pa,; graduate of Concordia Col-
lege, Fort Wayne, and Concordia Semi-
nary St. Louis; pastor at Sebringville,
Ont., Can., 1869; of St.John’s Church,
Chicago, 1875; president of the Illinois
District, vice-president of 'the Missouri
Synod; a forceful preacher, a wise pas-
tor; he stood high in the councils of
Synod; Concordia Seminary, St. Louis
conferred on him the title of D. D.;
d. 1919.
Sudan (Soudan). A vast country
south of Egypt, controlled partly by
France, partly by England. Area, esti-
mated, 2,000,000 sq. mi. Population, ca.
3,400,000, chiefly Negroes and Arabs.
Islam is the prevailing religion. Mis-
sions by Sudan United Missions, Amer-
ican United Presbyterians, Church Mis-
sion Society, Roman Catholic Church.
See Egypt; also following article.
Sudan, Anglo-Egyptian. A vast
country in Africa, immediately west of
Abyssinia, under joint British and Egyp-
tian sovereignty. Area, 1,014,400 sq. mi.
Population, ca. 5,012,400; Arabs and
mixed Negro and Nubian races of Mo-
hammedan faith. Missions by American
United Presbyterian Church, British and
Foreign Bible Society, Church Mission-
ary Society, Sudan United Missions.
Statistics: Foreign staff, 354; Chris-
tian community, 41,006; communicants,
16,457.
Suffragan. A diocesan bishop is
called a suffragan (elector) of his arch-
bishop or metropolitan. The title is also
applied to a titular bishop who, assists
a diocesan bishop.
Suffrages. A short intercessory
prayer, petition, or call, particularly
one introduced into the Litany, as the
Response of the people: “We beseech
Thee to hear us, 0 Lord,” in the Major
Litany.
Sufism. Name of mystic-theosophical
movement in Tslam, whose oldest adher-
ents wore garments of wool (Arabian,
suf). From ascetic beginnings in the
8th century it gradually developed into
pantheism. Produced extensive litera-
ture. Found chiefly in Persia. Its
propaganda recently spread to England
and America.
Suicide. The act of designedly de-
stroying one’s own life. To constitute
suicide, in a legal sense, the person must
be of the years of discretion and of a
sound mind, or, as Black (Law Diction-
ary) puts it: “Suicide is the wilful and
voluntary act of a person who under-
stands the physical nature of the act and
intends by it to accomplish the result of
self-destruction.” A Michigan decision
states: “Suicide is the deliberate termi-
nation of one’s existence while in the
possession and enjoyment of his mental
faculties. Self-killing by an insane per-
son is not suicide.” — The evident reason
why suicide is a transgression of the
Fifth Commandment and a felony in the
sight of the law is that no person is the
absolute owner of his body and life either
in the sight of God or before the State.
God alone has the right to terminate the
existence which He called into being, and
the state demands that none of its citi-
zens become felons. This attitude with
respect to suicide is the result of the
revelation of the will of God; for it is a
fact that many heathen have either been
indifferent to the problem of suicide or
openly advocated its use. Thus suicide
was treated as venial by the Romans,
and it was esteemed a virtue, in certain
cases, by the Stoic and Epicurean phi-
losophers. To this day certain forms of
suicide are regarded as highly virtuous
in Japan and other heathen countries. —
Christian countries generally take the
stand that suicide is inexcusable, Eng-
land holding those who commit suicide
as sane and responsible, unless there be
clear evidence to the contrary. There is
a certain measure of lenience evident,
however, also in Christian countries, as
various antichristian philosophies gain
in favor. While it is a fact that suicide
is often the result of insanity, the verdict
that a person committing the felony was
in a state of unsound mind is all too
readily concurred in. With the breaking
Jowp of the feeling of responsibility
Sullivan, Arthur Seymour
734
S un day- School
toward God and the growing sense of
pride on the part of many intellectuals,
the horror of suicides is wearing off.
“The most Striking feature to be con-
sidered in this connection is the increased
percentage of suicides in the city. This
is most probably due to the intensity of
its social, professional, and business life.
. . . The sharp reverses incident to this
high pressure not infrequently so de-
throne the reason as to lead to self-
destruction. Another important factor
leading to the same result is the dissi-
pation incident to city life. The dissipa-
tion appears in the extremes of high liv-
ing or poverty. And there is no denying
the fact that intoxicants of every de-
scription play no unimportant part in
sapping the life-blood or in firing it with
a daredevil recklessness that leads to vice
and infamy and ultimately to suicide.”
Sullivan, Arthur Seymour, 1842 to
1900; studied at London under Bennett
and Goss, at Leipzig undpr Moscheles and
Hauptmann; conductor and composer of
high rank ; among his cantatas : The
Prodigal Son.
Sulpicians. A congregation of secu-
lar priests, not bound by vows, founded
in 1642. They conduct theological semi-
naries, among them several in the United
States. Sulpicians have spiritual direc-
tion of the students at the Catholic Uni-
versity at Washington.
Sulu Islands (Jolo Islands ) . Part of
the Philippine Island group in the West-
ern Pacific. Dependencies of the United
States of America since December 10,
1898, following the Spanish-American
War. Formerly under Spain since 1542.
Area, 1,029 sq. mi. Population, ca. 50,000.
Mohammedanism is the prevailing reli-
gion. Missions have not found a footing.
Sulze, E., German liberal pastor and
architect of the last century, whose views
concerning the Protestant church-build-
ing were of some influence ; he advocated
as his ideal a Gemeindehaus, but made
no great impression.
Sumatra. Island of the Dutch
(Netherlands) East Indies, Sunda group.
Area, 161,000 sq. mi. Population, ca.
4,000,000; Malays, Hindus, Chinese.
Aboriginal natives still exist in the in-
terior; they are animists. Buddhism is
outranked by Islam. The island was
first visited by Europeans in 1449. For
missions and statistics see Java.
Summa. A term used frequently in
the Middle Ages to apply to an elabo-
rate, detailed, and all-embracing system
of science and philosophy, with its moral
and ethical principles derived partly
from the ancient philosophers, especially
Aristotle, partly from the Bible, as in
the Summa Theologioa of Aquinas (q. v.).
Sunday ( Liturgical ). The celebration
of Sunday, which clearly goes back to
apostolic times (1 Cor. 16, 2; Rev. 1, 10),
is, in the Lutheran Church, performed
entirely in the nature of sacramental
and sacrificial worship. Matins are
rarely observed, except on festival days,
such as Christmas and Easter. The
chief service of the day is the Morning
Service, or Worship, with the sacra-
mental acts of the reading and preaching
of the Word and with the sacrificial acts
of prayer, both in the liturgy proper
and in the hymns sung by the entire
congregation. The complete service in-
cludes the celebration of the Holy Com-
munion, not as a sacrificial, but as a
sacramental act; for the Eucharist be-
longs to the means of grace. In most
congregations either the session of the
Sunday-school or the period devoted to
instruction in the Catechism, to meet
the needs of the adult members of the
congregation, articulates with the morn-
ing service. The sessions of the Sunday-
school, particularly, are so arranged as
to be combined with, and be preparatory
to, regular worship with the preaching
of the Word. The evening service, com-
monly known as Vespers (Evensong),
although held a little later in the eve-
ning than the service of the same name
in the Catholic Church, is commonly
regarded as a service of secondary posi-
tion, though full of the finest possibil-
ities for spiritual edification, whether
considered from the sacramental or from
the sacrificial side.
Sunday. See Sabbath.
Sunday-School. An organized insti-
tution under the auspices of the Church
to teach religion to those who would
otherwise be without such instruction.
Its beginning may be traced back to the
last half of the 18th century, when the
humanitarian awakening and the relig-
ious revival of that period directed at-
tention to, and aroused interest in, the
destitute and neglected children of the
street. Griffith Jones in Wales, (1737
to 1761), Kindermann in Bohemia
(1773), Hannah Bell near London
(1769), and others established schools
for children. The school of Hannah Bell
is said to have been the first organized
English Sunday-school. As to America,
there are numerous accounts of gather-
ings of children on Sunday for formal
instruction in churches: 1665 at Rox-
bury, Mass.; 1674 at Norwich, Conn.
J. Wesley mentions “the catechizing of
Sunday-School
735
S mi day- School
children” 1737 in Savannah, Ga. In En-
gland Robert Raikes ( q. v . ) , though not
the founder of the Sunday-school, became
its first great propagandist. Like others
before him he gathered destitute chil-
dren to instruct them on Sunday “in
reading and the church catechism.”
While Raikes was working in the north
and west of England, William Fox, a
Baptist deacon, was endeavoring to in-
terest his brethren in London in a plan
by which “all the children of the poor
might receive a Scriptural education by
being taught to read the Bible.” By
1800 there were many Sunday-schools in
all parts of England. They were in-
tended for children whose education was
otherwise neglected. Designed primarily
to give the rudiments of a general edu-
cation, they were non-denominational,
had paid teachers, and were usually con-
ducted independently of churches. In
the United States conditions were very
different; there was less need of such
schools for destitute children, nor did
the non-denominational feature of the
Raikes schools appeal to many churches.
Hence there developed a distinctive type
of Sunday-school in America. It became
a church institution, each denomination
having its own Sunday-school, whose
sole purpose was to teach religion, which
was not taught in the public schools;
it was to embrace “all classes of the
community,” and its teachers rendered
voluntary service. The Sunday-school
has seen its most remarkable growth in
the United States. From a few scat-
tered schools in 1786 they increased
until 1922 to about 200,000 in the
United States and Canada, with an en-
rolment of 20,760,000. The reason for
this marvelous growth is chiefly this,
that because the state schools do not
teach religion, the Sunday-schools be-
came the sole agency for the direct re-
ligious instruction of the young in all
those denominations which have no paro-
chial schools (q.v.), as the Lutheran,
the Catholic, and some Dutch Reformed
churches have, although also in these
churches we now find a goodly number
of Sunday-schools. The Synodical Con-
ference reports 2,143 Sunday-schools,
with 215,687 pupils, for the year 1920.
From its beginning the American Sunday-
school was fostered by special Sunday-
school societies and unions. Denomina-
tional organizations followed. The first
national convention was held in New
York in 1832. The Religious Education
Association, organized in 1903, took an
active interest in the work of the Sun-
day-schools and particularly urged the
application of educational principles.
The Interdenominational Sunday-school
Council, consisting of representatives of
various Protestant Sunday-schools and
publishing societies, was organized in
1911 to secure denominational coopera-
tion, to effect better correlation of their
work, particularly as to publication of
lesson material. • — The Sunday-school
curriculum developed very slowly. At
first the Bible was used for teaching
reading and the catechism for memoriter
work. Gradually the Bible became the
subject of study, and question books on
the Bible lessons were issued. From
1892 to 1900 the so-called “uniform”
lessons were in use; later on graded
lessons were introduced. However, many
of the graded curricula show a reaction
against the old, but sane method of in-
doctrinating the young. The Bible is
treated merely as an instrument for pro-
moting “spiritual life,” as though such
a thing were possible without firm con-
victions based on clearly understood
teachings of the Gospel. The course of
study often ceases to be exclusively
Scriptural, as extra-Biblical subjects are
frequently introduced. — Sunday-schools
are usually divided into graded classes,
ranging from the infant class to the
adult Bible class, each class having its
own teacher. After a liturgical opening
service the lesson for the day is either
briefly presented and explained by the
superintendent, whereupon the teachers
take their classes and question the chil-
dren concerning the lesson, offering such
additional explanation as may be neces-
sary; or the teachers at once proceed to
take charge of their classes, relating and
explaining the lesson and questioning
the pupils; they also help the little ones
to commit Bible verses to memory and
hear them recite what they have learned.
Then all classes again join in the close
of the service. While there are a few
paid superintendents and organizers, the
majority of teachers render voluntary
service. Due credit must be given them
for their devotion to the cause; yet the
entire Sunday-school system is very
often seriously handicapped by the lack
of competent teachers. To overcome this
difficulty, many congregations have in-
troduced teachers’ meetings, in which
the lesson for the next Sunday is fully
explained and methodical hints are
given. An effort has also been made to
organize training-classes for Sunday-
school teachers. A beginning of cor-
respondence instruction has been made,
and teacher training manuals are pub-
lished. Conditions are better in those
Sunday-schools where pastors and teach-
ers of parochial schools take charge of
Sunday-School
736
Suttee
the classes. Another drawback is the
lack of time. The amount of time for
instruction does not average over thirty
minutes a week. To get through the
required mathematics of the New York
City schools at the same rate, it would
take forty-one years. Thirty to forty
minutes for one lesson period is long
enough, provided the child receives one
such lesson every day. But every edu-
cator will admit that with one thirty-
minute lesson period a week in any
study not very much can be accom-
plished. Yet religious instruction and
education is so important for the present
and future well-being of the child that
Christian parents should not be satisfied
with a mere Sunday-school instruction
for their children. Attendance and
study are optional; hence irregular at-
tendance and lack of application to
study on the part of the children also
accounts for the small results in Sunday-
school teaching. The lessons are too far
apart, the children lose interest, and do
not work for their Sunday-school lessons
as they do for their school lessons. For
these reasons observing religious edu-
cators have pronounced the Sunday-
school a failure. It has a noble purpose,
and the devotion of its teachers is to be
highly recommended, but for causes in-
herent in the system it does not produce
the desired results; it cannot give ade-
quate religious instruction, much less
a religious education. To make up for
this deficiency of the Sunday-school,
some would introduce religious instruc-
tion into the public school ; others
would have children excused some time
during the week from school to enable
them to attend religious classes in their
churches. The only scheme, however,
that fully answers the purpose is the
Christian day-school (see Parochial
school). While many religions educa-
tors are beginning to see the deficiency
of the Sunday-school and are casting
about for better means properly to take
care of the rising generation, most con-
gregations are content with only a Sun-
day-school. It is a serious mistake of
far-reaching consequences for Lutheran
congregations to give up or forego the
parochial school for a Sunday-school.
The harvest of the Sunday-school was
not very encouraging in other denomina-
tions, and also with the Lutheran Church
it will not build the Church as the paro-
chial school has done. Originally de-
signed for destitute children, who other-
wise receive no religio.us instruction
whatever, the Sunday-school will always
be a useful missionary institution in
gathering children who may eventually
be won for the parochial school and very
often will be won for the Church.
Sunday-School Unions. American
Sunday-school Union, organized 1824
( q.v .) ; the Sunday-school Union of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, organized
in New York in 1827; the Protestant
Episcopal Sunday-school Union; the
Massachusetts Sabbath-school Society,
organized in Boston, 1832, by representa-
tives of the Congregational churches of
New England; the Butch Reformed
Sunday-school Union, organized in New
York about 1850; the Foreign Sunday-
school Association of New York, organ-
ized in 1804, incorporated 1808; and
in Great Britain such organizations as
the Society for Promoting Sunday-
schools in the British Dominions, organ-
ized in London in 1785; the London
Sunday-school Union, organized in 1803;
the Church of England Sunday-school
Institute; the Ragged Sunday-school
Institute; the Wesleyan Methodist Sun-
day-Bchool Union.
Sunday, William Ashley (“Billy”),
1803 — ; b. at Ames, Iowa; professional
baseball player; revivalist 1890 and
Presbyterian minister 1903; sometimes
religious buffoon, again impressive Chris-
tian preacher; accepts free-will offerings.
Sunnites (from Arabian sunna, “tra-
dition”). Name of the larger of the two
main divisions of Mohammedanism ( q . v).
They are the orthodox branch, holding
to the Koran and to tradition, while the
Shiites (q.v.) are considered the hete-
rodox.
Supralapsarians. Name given to
those who held this tendency of thought
in the varieties of Calvinism, that elec-
tion underlies the decree of the Fall it-
self, and that the decree of the Fall is
a means for carrying out the decree of
election.
Surinam. See Dutch Guiana.
Surplice. See Vestments, R. C.
Suso, Henry, 1300—66; 'because of
his poetic language and symbolism called
the Minnesinger of Mysticism; was a
representative of ethical or practical
mysticism like Tauler and Rusbroek, but
not a pantheist like his teacher Eckhart.
Susquehanna Synod of Central
Pennsylvania. See United Lutheran
Church.
Suttee ( Sanskrit, sati, “virtuous” ) .
Name given in India to a widow who
voluntarily immolates herself on the
funeral pyre of her deceased husband;
also to the rite itself. . Forbidden in
British territory since 1829 and now
extinct.
Sverdrup, Georg
Sweden
737
Sverdrup, Georg; b. 1848 in Nor-
way; d. 1907; graduate of Christiania
University 1871; studied at the univer-
sities of Erlangen and Paris; professor
at Augsburg Seminary, Minneapolis,
1874; its president 1876; president of
the Lutheran Free Church 1894 — 7 ;
editor of several papers; author of
many books and articles; not ordained
as pastor.
Swaziland. See Africa, South.
Swedish Missionary Societies ( Euro-
pean ) : 1 ) Swedish Missionary Society
(Svenska Missionssdlskapet ) , founded
January 6, 1835. Works chiefly among
Finns and was united with the 2) Evan-
gelical National Missionary Society
(Den Evangeliska Fosterlandstiftelsen ),
founded 1856, which consists of a large
number of minor societies. Headquarters
at Stockholm. In 1863 a seminary was
established at Johannelund, near Stock-
holm. Missions in India and Africa.
3) The Swedish Church Mission (Svenska
Kyrkens Mission), Stockholm, founded
1874, a state institute, headed by the
Archbishop of Upsala. It has all the
characteristics of a corrupt state church.
During the World War and afterwards
this mission administered the Leipzig
Missions in India. Fields: China, In-
dia, Africa. There are many additional
missionary societies in Sweden.
Swensson, Carl A., 1859 — 1903; edu-
cator, author, political leader, the out-
standing figure among Swedish-Amer-
icans in the 19th century; b. 1859 in
Jamestown, N. Y. ; educated at Augus-
tana Seminary; pastor at Lindsborg,
Kans., and founder of the Lutheran
Bethany College there in 1881; organ-
ized educational work among the Swedes
and gave tone and direction to their
spiritual thought; educated the Middle
West in music through the institution
of the Messiah Festival in 1882; presi-
dent of the General Council 1893 — 5;
also active in politics, member of the
Kansas Legislature; d. at Los Angeles,
Cal., 1903.
Sweden. Conversion to Christianity.
In 829 Swedes came to Charles the Great
and begged for missionaries. Anskar,
a Frank, was sent; he was successful at
Birka and after two winters returned to
report. Made Archbishop of Hamburg,
he sent Ardgar and returned himself,
848 — 50. Sigurd of England brought
Christianity to the northern part of
Sweden. After 1150 King Erik led a
crusade to bring Christianity to Finland,
and in 1164 an archbishopric was erected
at Upsala, and a crusade was made to
Estland, another once more to Finland,
Concordia Cyclopedia
and still another to Karelia. Against
much opposition clerical celibacy was
now introduced. The famous Brigitta
did much good (d. in 1373). The Uni-
versity of Upsala was founded in 1477.
Lutheran Church. Olaus Petri studied
under Luther 1516 — 8, began his work
at Strengnaes in 1520, and won Arch-
deacon Laurentius Andreae, who made
Lutheranism known to Gustavus Vasa,
who made himself king after Chris-
tian II had perpetrated the Blood Bath
of Stockholm in 1520. The Reichstag
of VeBteras, in 1527, decreed: “God’s
Word is to be preached purely and
clearly.” Petri published Luther’s
prayer-book in 1626, Sweden’s first re-
formatory writing, also the Swedish
New Testament, and the first hymn-book,
ten hymns. In 1529 he got out the
Church-book, in 1530 the Postil and the
Catechism, in 1531 the Swedish Order
of Service. In 1631 Petri’s brother, Lau-
rentius, who had studied at Wittenberg,
was made the first Lutheran archbishop.
Both brothers got out the whole Swedish
Bible in 1541. A generation of staunch
Lutheran preachers for Sweden was edu-
cated at Rostock under Chytraeus. Gus-
tavus Adolphus plunged into the Thirty
Years’ War to save Lutheranism in Ger-
many and at the same time cared for
the missions in Lapland and in America,
on the Delaware. Lutheranism was
flourishing; preaching and teaching in
pulpit and press, in church and school,
was carried on vigorously. In 1649 the
Formula of Concord was introduced.
During the Age of Rationalism great
havoc was wrought also in Sweden. The
“Awakening” was led by H. Schartau and
C. O. Rosenius (q.v.), one of the leaders of
the pietistic Laesare (Readers, of the Bible
and Luther; see also Waldenstroem)
and resulted in the founding of the
Evangelical Fatherland Society (1856),
which has its own ministers, lay preach-
ers, and foreign missionaries. When
this society grew lax on the question of
the inspiration and authority of the
Scriptures, the Bibeltrogna Taenner
(Bible-loving men) organized (1910 — 1),
who stand for confessional Lutheranism.
These and other movements resulted in
the establishment of a number of “free”
congregations. — Since 1860 there is par-
tial, since 1870 full religious liberty.
The Established Church is divided into
twelve bishoprics, that of Upsala, the
archbishopric, being held since 1913 by
N. Soederblom, a Liberal of the extreme
type. In 1922 the bishops received the
proposals made by the Lambeth Con-
ference, 1920, of “intercommunion” be-
tween the Anglican and Swedish churches
47
Swedenl»orgians
738
Swedenborgians
“with deep and sincere satisfaction.”
— Population, 5,904,292; Lutherans,
5,803,000 (1921). In 1910 there were
24,715 Protestant Dissenters, Baptists,
Methodists, and 3,070 Roman Catholics.
Reformed and Romanists. King
Eric XIV, 1560 — -8, corresponded with
Calvin, and in 1563 the Calvinists pre-
sented a creed. Archbishop Petri, in
1566, wrote in defense of Lutheranism
and in his Church Order of 1571 routed
Calvinism. The wife of John III, 1569
to 1592, Katherine Jagellonica, was a
staunch papist, and the first Jesuit came
into Sweden in 1574, and the king tried
to mediate with his “Red Book.” The
Lutherans were aided by Duke Carl, the
youngest son of Gustavus I. The Pope
opposed the king, and the king perse-
cuted the Lutherans till his death. In
1593 the Council of Upsala rejected the
“Red Book” and also Calvinism and
strengthened Lutheranism. Sigismund,
son of John III, also king of Poland,
would make Sweden Catholic by fraud
and force, but was defeated in the battle
of Stangebro, in 1598, by Duke Carl,
now King Carl IX, and Lutheranism
was strengthened by the staunch Arch-
bishop Olaus Martini against the Cal-
viniising king. Young Gustavus Adol-
phus was the first to give Lutheranism
an assured place in the state, in Decem-
ber, 1611.
Swedenborgians. Followers of the
doctrines of Emmanuel Swedenborg,
Swedish scientist and theosophist. He
was born 1688 at Stockholm, son of a
Lutheran court chaplain, and reared
amid pious influences. He studied at
the University of Upsala, devoted him-
self to scientific, especially mineralogical,
engineering, and physiological, research,
was appointed assessor of the Board of
Mines 1716, elevated to the nobility
1719, and traveled extensively in En-
gland and on the Continent at various
times. His scientific achievements were
extraordinary. He proposed theories
and worked on inventions which were
far in advance of his time. His im-
portant scientific works are : Opera
Philosophica et Mineralia, 1734; Oeco-
nomia Regni Animalis, 1740 — 1; Reg-
num Animate, 1744. In middle age, as
the result of alleged visions, he discon-
tinued his scientific endeavors and de-
voted himself to theology, resigning his
government position in 1747. He as-
serted that in 1743 God had opened his
sight to the view of the spiritual world
and that from that time on he was given
the privilege of conversing with spirits
and angels and to receive revelations of
divine mysteries. The result of these
revelations was a new theological system,
in which he attacked or rejected every
fundamental Christian doctrine, particu-
larly the Trinity, vicarious atonement,
and salvation by faith alone. He taught
that God is one divine person, namely,
Jesus Christ, who is the incarnation of
Jehovah and in whom there is a trinity
of essence, called Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit, and that these stand for divine
love, divine wisdom, by which love mani-
fested itself, and divine operation and
are related to one another in God as
soul, body, and action in man. Redemp-
tion consists in this, that Jehovah be-
came incarnate and by vanquishing
temptations and by His suffering sub-
jugated eternally the “hells,” the ene-
mies of the human race, thereby liberat-
ing mankind, and now holds these
enemies in subjection in the heart of
every man who will cooperate with him
by faith and obedience. Justification
means applying this redeeming work to
those who believe in, and are obedient
to, Him. Therefore good works are nec-
essary to salvation. Another funda-
mental doctrine is that regarding Scrip-
ture and its interpretation. Certain
Biblical books have a twofold sense,
literal and spiritual, and are written
according to a uniform law, called that
of “correspondences,” or analogy between
spiritual and natural things. Sweden-
borg was chosen by God to reveal this
spiritual, inner, symbolical sense to the
world. This revelation of the spiritual
sense by him constitutes Christ’s second
coming, the “clouds” (Matt. 24, 30)
being the literal, the “power and great
glory” the internal sense. Through his
revelations also was established the
“New Church,” prophesied in Rev. 21,
and dating from 1757. In that year the
old Apostolic Church, founded by Christ,
came to an end, the final Judgment took
place, and the holy city, New Jerusalem,
descended from heaven. Swedenborg
also taught many other unscriptural
doctrines. He denied original sin and
the literal sense of the story of the Fall.
Conversion is merely an act of man, who
has a free will in spiritual things even
before conversion. Like the Reformed
Church he denied that the Sacraments
are means of grace and that Christ’s
body and blood are present in Holy Com-
munion. There is possibility of salva-
tion for those who have no knowledge of
Christ. At death, man’s soul goes to the
world of spirits, which is intermediate
between heaven and hell, and then, after
a certain period, the length of which
depends on the life led on earth, passes
either to heaven or to hell. But there
Sivete, Henry Barclay
739
Switzerland
is no resurrection of the body. Sweden-
borg’s theosophical writings are numer-
ous, the most important being Arcana
Coelestia, an exposition of the spiritual
sense of Genesis and Exodus in eight
volumes (London, 1748 — 56), and The
True Christian Religion, Containing the
Universal Theology of the New Church
(Amsterdam, 1771). He had no inten-
tion of organizing a new Church; but
his views found adherents, especially in
England, where two Anglican ministers,
Hartley and Clowes, translated his
works. In 1783 his followers met for
the first time in London, and in 1787
the New Jerusalem Church was formally
organized. The movement soon spread
to many other English cities. In 1921,
75 societies and 6,700 members were re-
ported in England. The first Sweden-
horgian society in America was founded
in Baltimore, 1792, and in 1817 the Gen-
eral Convention of the New Jerusalem
in the U. S. A. was organized. In 1916
they reported 108 societies and 6,352
members. Their theological school is at
Cambridge, Mass., and their periodicals
are the New Church Review, Boston, and
the New Church Messenger (ibid.). In
1890 a considerable number withdrew
from the General Convention and adopted
the name “The General Church of the
New Jerusalem.” They stand for a
stricter adherence to Swedenborg’s doc-
trines and principles. While all Sweden-
borgians regard their founder as a “di-
vinely illuminated seer and revelator,”
the General Church regards his theolog-
ical writings as “divinely inspired and
thus the very Word of the Lord.” They
reported 15 societies and 733 members
in 1916. Their headquarters are Bryn
Athyn, Pa., where their school is located
and their organ, New Church Life, is
published. There are also societies in
Canada and throughout the British Em-
pire, in most countries of Europe, in
South America, Africa, and Japan. In
Wurttemberg, Germany, Immanuel Tafel
(d. 1863) was particularly active.
Swete, Henry Barclay, 1835 — 1917;
Anglican; textual critic; b. at Bristol;
priest 1859; rector; professor at King’s
College, London, 1882; Cambridge 1890;
d. at Hitchin; author of The Old Testa-
ment in Greek; edited the Septuagint, etc.
Swift, Jonathan, 1667 — 1745; Dean
(Anglican; St. Patrick’s, Dublin, 1713);
greatest English satirist. His Tale of
a Tub (1704), story of three brothers
(Peter = Romanists, Martin = Angli-
cans, Jack = Dissenters), making altera-
tions in three new coats (Christian
truth) bequeathed to them by their
father in his will (Bible), with instruc-
tions for wearing them.
Switzerland. Christianity was first
introduced into Switzerland by St. Gall,
a native of Ireland and a pupil of Co-
lumban, ca. A. D. 610. Induced by the
persecution which consequently arose,
the colaborers of St. Gall left Switzer-
land for Italy. St. Gall alone remained,
he being too ill to be removed. Retiring
to a sequestered spot with a few adher-
ents, he built the monastery of St. Gall
in the canton called by the same name.
After his death his scholars, together
with other monks of Ireland, carried on
his work until the whole country was
subjected to Romanism. The Reforma-
tion secured a hold in Switzerland in
1516, and from that time till 1526
Zurich, which was entirely German, was
the center of reformational activity.
From 1526 to 1532 the Reformation
movement was communicated from Berne,
which was both German and French, and
extended to the center of Switzerland.
In 1532 Geneva became the focal point
of the reformational propaganda. The
reform movement in Switzerland owes its
beginning and success mainly to the work
of Ulrich Zwingli (q.v.). Beginning in
1516, after having been greatly influ-
enced by Humanism, he began to ex-
pound the Gospel as preacher in the
Abbey of Einsiedeln. The influence of
his enthusiastic teaching was soon ex-
tensively felt, so that already in 1522
Erasmus estimated “those who no longer
adhered to the See of Rome” in the
cantons at about 200,000 persons. As
the Reformation spread, changes in the
mode of worship were introduced. In
1523 the Council of Zurich required that
“the pastors of Zurich should rest their
discourses on the words of Scripture
alone.” Soon the abolition of images in
churches followed; the clergy was no
longer prohibited from marrying, and in
1525 the Mass was superseded by the
simple ordinance of the Lord’s Supper.
Meanwhile the Reformation had spread
to Appenzell and Schaffhausen and other
parts of the near-by cantons. In 1530, at
the Diet of Augsburg, when the Augs-
burg Confession was presented, the Swiss
theologians presented their own confes-
sion, drawn up by Bucer, known as the
Tetropolitan Confession (from the four
towns it represented, viz., Constance,
Strassburg, Lindau, and Memmingen).
The two confessions differed mainly with
regard to the real presence of Christ in
the Lord’s Supper, which the Lutheran
theologians affirmed and Zwingli denied.
Meanwhile the five Romish cantons de-
termined to check the further progress
Switzerland
740
Syllabus of Plus IX
of the Reformation by force of arms.
The Protestant cantons formed a con-
federacy and by resolution, adopted at
Aargau May 12, 1531, instituted a strict
blockade of the five Romanist cantons.
Hereupon, goaded on by the consequent
famine and its attendant miseries, these
cantons determined on war and entered
the field on October 6, 1531. The first
engagement, which took place at Rappel,
October 11, 1531, proved most disastrous
to Zurich and fatal to Zwingli, who was
slain in the battle. After the death of
Zwingli the Swiss Reformation centered
at Geneva, where William Farel at first
proclaimed its tenets about 1532. Ban-
ished from the city, he was soon recalled,
and in 1535 the council of the city pro-
claimed its adherence to the Reformed
doctrines. In 1530 John Calvin arrived
in the city, and on July 20, 1539, the
citizens permanently abjured popery and
professed Protestantism, after a struggle
in which Calvin and Farel had been
banished. In 1541, however, Calvin re-
turned, making Geneva the center of his
activity. He framed a civil code for
Geneva, and under him Geneva became
a republic, firmly established, governed
by an oligarchy, pervaded by an eccle-
siastical spirit, and renowned in the his-
tory of the world. Thus Geneva became
the center of the Reformed Church.
After the death of Calvin (1504) the
Catholic reaction was felt also in Switzer-
land. For many years the Roman Cath-
olic power seemed to predominate in the
country. Towards the close of the 17th
century the struggle between the two
religious parties assumed an open char-
acter, and in 1703 the Catholic and the
Protestant cantons took up arms against
each other. For several years a civil
war was carried on, until at last, in
1712, the Protestants gained a decisive
victory at Villmergen, completely rout-
ing the Catholics.
Since that time the majority of the in-
habitants of Switzerland are Protestants.
The present constitution of Switzerland
grants complete and absolute liberty of
conscience and of creed, free worship is
guaranteed, civil marriage is compul-
sory, and subsequent religious services
are optional. The cantons have the right
to maintain peace and order among the
different religious communities and to
prevent encroachment of ecclesiastical
authorities upon the rights of citizens.
All bishops must receive the approval of
the federal government, and the liberty
of press, petition, and association is
guaranteed, although Jesuits and all re-
ligious orders and associations which are
affiliated with them are prohibited. In
the last century much work has been
done by the Presbyterians, Baptists, and
Methodists. Of these bodies the Meth-
odists and Baptists are the most numer-
ous. Besides the Reformed State Church,
the Free churches of French Switzerland,
constituting the three bodies of Geneva,
Voud, and Neuchatel, deserve notice.
Theological instruction is given by the
theological faculties of Zurich, Berne,
Basel, Lausanne, and Geneva, and by the
academy of Neuchatel. As in Germany,
so also in Switzerland, Modernism or
Liberalism has gained a firm foothold in
most of the institutions of learning.
Syllabus and Encyclical of Pius IX.
On the 8th of December, 1864, Pius IX
issued an encyclical letter, Quanta Cura ,
in which he denounces modern heresies
and errors that threaten the foundations
of the Church and of civil society. In
his instructions to the bishops of the
Church he exhorts them to teach that
“kingdoms rest on the foundation of the
Catholic faith” that it is the chief busi-
ness and glory of the civil government
“to protect the Church” and to resist
any encroachment upon her liberty. Com-
bined with these Hildebrandian views
the Pope expresses the utmost confidence
in the powerful intercession of the Vir-
gin on behalf of the welfare of the
Church. — To the encyclical is added the
Syllabus of Errors (eighty in number,
possibly in imitation of Epiphanius,
d. 401), a document characterized by
Schaff as “a strange mixture of truth
and error, ... a protest against atheism,
materialism, and other forms of infidel-
ity, . . . but also a declaration of war
against modern civilization and the
course of history for the last three hun-
dred years.” We insert a few of the
“errors” which the Syllabus condemns :
“Error” 15: Liberum ouique homini est
earn amplecti ac profiteri religionem,
quam rationis lumine quis ductus veram
putaverit; i. e., the Syllabus condemns
the right of private judgment and lib-
erty of conscience. “Error” 18: Prote-
stantismus non aliud est quam ■ diversa
verae eiusdem Christianae religionis
forma, in qua aeque ac in Ecclesia
Catholica Deo placere datum est ; i. f .,
the Syllabus explicitly condemns Prot-
estantism as a religion in which it is
impossible to please God. “Error” 24 :
Ecclesia vis inferendae potestatem non
habet, neque potestatem ullam tempo-
ralem directam vel indirectam; i. e., the
Syllabus implicitly declares that the
Church may legitimately resort to force
and coercion to attain her ends. (Would
the papacy, if feasible, restore the In-
quisition?) “Error” 55; Ecclesia a
Syllabus of Errors, Papal
741
Synergistic Controversy
Statu, Statusque ab ecclesia seiungendus
cst ; i. e., the Syllabus condemns the
American principle of separation of
Church and State. “Error” 77 : Aetate
hac nostra non amplius expedit religio-
ne.m Catholicam haberi tamquam unicam
status religionem, ceteris quibuscumque
cultibus exclusis ; i. e., the Syllabus de-
clares that none but the Catholic religion
has any right to existence in the state.
The Syllabus would do credit to any
medieval Pope.
Syllabus of Errors, Papal. See Syl-
labus and Encyclical of Pius IX.
Symbolical Books of the Lutheran
Church are her confessional writings as
found in the Book of Concord ( q. v . ) .
A symbol is a sign, a badge, a confession,
a creed; and so a Christian symbol is
a confession of faith to make known a
Christian from non-Christians. Augus-
tine calls a symbol a rule of faith, short
in words, but great in thoughts. Cyp-
rian was the first to call the baptismal
confession a symbol, and in time the
term was applied to the three Ecumenic
Creeds; and it was most natural for the
Lutherans to call their confession their
symbol. While the Lutheran Confessions
are technically the symbol of a particular
Church, they are in reality truly ecu-
menic and catholic. The Lutheran sym-
bol is set for the defense of the Gospel,
simply warding off Roman and Reformed
errors. And so the Confessions are sub-
scribed because they agree with Scrip-
ture, and not only in so far as they agree
with Scripture. These Symbolical Books
do not supersede the Scriptures, but
simply set forth Scripture doctrine and
bar all who teach not the teachings of
the Scriptures. “According to the Scrip-
tures” is the only principle of the Lu-
theran Church.
Symbolics. That branch of theolog-
ical knowledge which treats of the origin,
rise, nature, and contents of those public
confessions of the Church in which a
summary of her doctrines is presented.
Comparative Symbolics is the study of
the various creeds, particularly of Chris-
tian bodies, in comparison with the con-
fessions of the several churches.
Synagog. The Jewish place of wor-
ship and the only place of religious as-
sembly since the destruction of the
Temple; a large assembly-room with the
ark and the platform, or pulpit, and
usually a special gallery for women.
Syncretism. Both a tendency and a
movement, according to its etymology
( synkretizein ) meaning “to be strong to-
gether,” “to stand united,” although it
was later derived from synkerannymi,
“to mix up.” Syncretism is practically
a synonym of unionism, for it signifies
the perverse attempts to combine unlike
and irreconcilable elements in the in-
terest of a false union. The term is ap-
plied chiefly to three syncretistic contro-
versies: 1) that of 1645- — 56, during
which years Georg Calixt ( q . v.) pro-
posed an amalgamation of strict Bible
doctrine, or sound Lutheranism, with Re-
formed doctrine; 2) that of 1661 — 9,
when Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of
Brandenburg tried to silence the Lu-
theran clergy in their attack on Reformed
errors, one of those losing their positions
on account of his refusal to accept the
pledge being Paul Gerhardt (q. v . ) ;
3) that of 1675 — 86, when Abraham
Calov made his final stand against the
syncretism of Calixt and his colleagues.
The syncretistic notions of the 17th cen-
tury gained in power, the practical re-
sult of the movement being seen in the
United Evangelical Church of Germany
and America and in the wave of malig-
nant unionism which is sweeping through,
not only Reformed circles, but also some
Lutheran church-bodies.
Synergistic Controversy. In the
second edition of his Loci, in 1535, Me-
lanchthon, in conversion, taught three
cooperating causes: 1) God’s Word,
2) the Holy Ghost, 3) man’s will not
resisting the Word of God. Following
Erasmus, he ascribed to man a faculty
to apply himself to the grace of God
(working together with God — synergein )
and put the statement into the Interim
in 1548. It did not cause much alarm at
this time; but when Pfeffinger, in 1555,
taught the same, only more boldly, and
was upheld by Major, Eber, and Crell,
then Stolz, Amsdorf, Flacius, and others
publicly opposed the error. The error
was condemned in the Weimar Confuta-
tion Book of 1558 — 9, which Prof. Vik-
torin Strigel and Pastor Huegel con-
demned, for which they were jailed by
Duke John Frederick of Saxony. The
matter was debated at Weimar August
2 — 8, 1560, when Strigel held that in the
will of the unregenerate there was a
latent power cooperating toward con-
version; which, of course, all loyal Lu-
therans promptly condemned. The Book
of Confutation was now carried out so
rigorously, that the autocratic Duke
John Frederick, by a Gonsistorial Order
of July 8, 1561, deprived the ministers
of the right to excommunicate and vested
it in a consistory at Weimar. Flacius
protested in the name of liberty of con-
science and the Church, where only
Christ and His Word may decide, where-
upon followed, December 10, 1561, the
Synodical Conference
742
Synodical Conference
prompt expulsion of Flacius, Wigand,
Musaeus, and Judex from Jena. Strigel
was reinstated after signing a rather
ambiguous declaration. Forty pastors
would not sign the document and were
promptly exiled. In 1567 Duke John
William became the ruler, and he dis-
missed the Philippists (the followers
of Philip Melanchthon) and recalled the
loyal .Lutherans, all but Flacius, who in
the heat of debate at Weimar had as-
serted original sin was not an “accident,”
but of the “substance” of man. This
controversy was formally ended in Ducal
Saxony by the Final Report and Decla-
ration of the Theologians of both uni-
versities of Leipzig and Wittenberg
(1571). Here Luther’s monergism was
upheld and Philippian synergism con-
demned. The Formula of Concord , in
Articles I and II, rejects the extremes of
Strigel and Flacius, and teaches that
man is purely passive in the instant of
conversion and after that, of course, co-
operates with the Holy Ghost. If man
spurns the means of grace, he is lost
through his own fault.
Synodical Conference of North
America, The Ev. Luth., is a federa-
tion of synods comprising at the present
time the Synod of Missouri, Ohio, and
Other States, the Joint Synod of Wis-
consin and Other States, the Slovak Ev.
Luth. Synod of America, and the Nor-
wegian Ev. Luth. Synod. It is the second
largest body of Lutherans in America. It
acknowledges the canonical books of the
Bible as the Word of God and stands
squarely on the Confessions of the Lu-
theran Church, membership in it depend-
ing on the full and honest adherence to
them in doctrine and practise. Its pur-
pose is: to express and confess the unity
of the Spirit existing in the constituent
synods; to give mutual aid and assist-
ance towards the strengthening of their
faith and confession; to promote, and
preserve over against all disturbances,
the unity in doctrine and practise; to
bring about concerted action in the com-
mon cause; to work towards the geo-
graphical delimitation of the synods
wherever feasible; and to unite all Lu-
theran synods of America into one or-
thodox American Lutheran Church. It
is a federation, not a merger, of synods,
being, in the main, merely an advisory
body; the synods retain their full sov-
ereignty, have full control of their edu-
cational, benevolent, and missionary ac-
tivities, the Colored Mission alone being
conducted by the Synodical Conference as
such, and pass finally on the admission
of new members and the alliance with
other bodies on the part of any of the
constituent synods. But while the synods
are thus externally, but loosely, united,
they are internally knit together by the
closest and firmest ties, the unity of the
Spirit. The power of an advisory body
applying the Word of God is as great as
the power of His Word. The fraternal
supervision as exercised in this body on
the basis of the Word is very strict, most
friendly, and most effective, and the in-
fluence proceeding from their united and
unflinching stand for the Truth is im-
mense. — Voting members are all pas-
tors and lay delegates elected by their
respective synods as their representa-
tives ; advisory members, all present
standing members of the synods and all
those who have served in the previous
meeting of their synods as delegates of
a congregation. Each synod is entitled
to at least four representatives, further
representation being determined by the
size of the voting membership. There is
an equal number of clerical and lay rep-
resentatives. The stated meetings were
formerly held annually, since 1879 bien-
nially. Doctrinal discussions take up the
greater part of the time.
History. A federation of synods on the
basis of a straight acceptance of the Lu-
theran Confessions had always been
aimed at by the lovers of the American
Lutheran Church. Dr. Walther proposed
in 1856 that free conferences be held
“with a view towards the final realiza-
tion of one united Ev. Luth. Church of
North America.” Representatives from
the Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania, and
Missouri synods met for this purpose in
the years 1856 to 1859 (54 clerical and
19 lay representatives being present at
the first conference) ; but no permanent
organization was effected. The General
Council, organized in 1866 (1867) as a
protest against the un-Lutheran position
of the General Synod, proving to be lack-
ing in consistent Lutheranism (its atti-
tude regarding altar- and pulpit-fellow-
ship, the lodge question, and Chiliasm
revealing its laxity and unionistic spirit;
see Four Points), Missouri, Ohio, and
the Norwegian Synod refused to join,
and shortly Wisconsin, Minnesota, Illi-
nois, and, later, Michigan withdrew. At
conferences, held in 1867 and after, be-
tween representatives of Missouri and
Ohio, in 1868 between Missouri and Wis-
consin, in 1869 between Missouri and
Illinois, and repeatedly between Missouri
and the Norwegians, the various synods
found themselves in harmony. In 1870
the Joint Synod of Ohio, at the instance
of its Eastern District, appointed a com-
mittee to confer with similar committees
of synods occupying the same confes-
Synodical Conference
743
Synodical Conference
sional position for the purpose of effect-
ing a closer union. Representatives of
the synods of Ohio, Missouri, Wisconsin,
Illinois, and the Norwegian Synod met
twice in 1871 and adopted a draft for
the proposed union, declaring that the
organization of a new general body along
strictly confessional lines, free from all
unionistie and lax practises, was neces-
sary for the preservation and spread of
Lutheran unity; and July 10 — 16, 1872,
at Milwaukee, the Synodical Conference
was organized and held its first conven-
tion, the synods represented at the con-
ferences of 1871, together with Minne-
sota, forming the federation. Officers:
Prof. C. F. W. Walther (Missouri), presi-
dent ; Prof. W. P. Lehmann ( Ohio ) , vice-
president; Rev. P. Beyer (Missouri),
secretary; Mr. J. Schmidt (Ohio), trea-
surer. In the interest of the preservation
of the unity of the Spirit the convention
of 1876 ordered that the reports of the
proceedings of the various synods and
districts be exchanged, passed upon by
committees, and laid before the Synod-
ical Conference at the next convention.
The same convention advised that all the
synods without delay take the necessary
steps towards organizing state synods,
uniting in one organization all congre-
gations of the Synodical Conference
within the respective state or territory.
It also advised its synods to establish
one common pastors’ seminary, to take
the place of all existing seminaries; the
same with regard to the teachers’ semi-
naries. As a result of these overtures
the Concordia Synod of Virginia, which
had joined in 1870, became a district of
the Ohio Synod in 1877, the Illinois
Synod was consolidated with the Illinois
District of the Missouri Synod in 1879
(1880), and the Missouri Synod organ-
ized the districts of Illinois, Iowa, Ne-
braska, and Kansas to become, eventu-
ally, state synods. This project, as well
as that relative to the common semina-
ries, was later abandoned. The situation
arising from the overlapping of the ter-
ritory of the synods, however, still calls
for a closer amalgamation. The contro-
versy on election and conversion brought
on in 1881 (1882) the withdrawal of the
Ohio Synod. Those refusing to go with
Ohio formed the Concordia Synod, which
belonged to the Synodical Conference
from 1882 to 1886, when it merged with
the Missouri Synod. In 1883 the Nor-
wegian Synod withdrew, hoping thereby
the sooner to adjust the difficulties in its
midst arising from the controversy, but
maintained fraternal relations with the
Synodical Conference until 1912, when it
adopted the Madison Theses of union.
The Norwegian Synod of the American
Ev. Luth. Church, formed by those who
disagreed with the Madison Theses, joined
the Synodical Conference in 1920. The
English Synod of Missouri joined in 1888,
merging with the Missouri Synod in
1911. The Michigan Synod, formerly of
the General Council, joined in 1892 and
the Nebraska District Synod in 1906 (see
Joint Synod of Wisconsin) . The Slovak
Ev. Luth. Synod joined in 1908. — Origi-
nally the Synodical Conference was over-
whelmingly German ; at present it is
probably 00 per cent. English. The pres-
idency of the Conference has been held!
by Prof. C. F. W. Walther, Prof. W. F.
Lehmann (Ohio), Rev. H. A. Preus (Nor-
wegian), Prof. P. L. Larsen (Norwegian),
Rev. J. Bading (Wisconsin). Present
officers: Rev. C. Gausewitz (Wisconsin),
president; Prof. L. Fuerbringer, D. D.
(Missouri), vice-president; Rev. H. M.
2orn (Missouri), secretary; Mr. A. Gruett,
treasurer.
The doctrinal position of the Synodical
Conference, its unfaltering adherence to
God’s Word and the Lutheran Confes-
sions and its earnest desire to live up
to them in practise, is still its chief mark
of distinction. For the doctrine taught
in its midst see the doctrinal articles in
this volume, also Missouri Synod, Doc-
trinal Position, and Hoenecke’s and Pie-
per’s dogmatics. Its orthodoxy, a matter
of faith and conscience, of living and
loving obedience to God’s Word, de-
termines its attitude towards other
churches. Abhorring the spreading of
false doctrine as the most grievous sin,
pronounced disobedience to God, it ab-
hors unionism in any form: it will not
tolerate false doctrine in its own midst
and cannot maintain fraternal relations
with such as tolerate errorists and per-
sistent upholders of unscriptural, un-
Lutheran church practises in their midst.
Loving God’s Word and the Lutheran
Confessions, it is anxious to establish
fraternal relations with all who are of
the same mind and, where doctrinal
differences stand in the way, to remove
them by coming to an agreement in the
truth. That was the purpose of the Free
Conference of 1856 and later, of the offer
of the founders of the Synodical Con-
ference, in 1871, to continue colloquies
with the older general bodies, of the In-
tersynodical Conferences in 1903 — -0, and
of the conferences being held since 1917
between committees appointed by the
synods of Missouri and Wisconsin, on the
one hand, and of Ohio, Iowa, and Buf-
falo, on the other. — Staunchly combat-
ing all forms of unionism, the Synodical
Conference is an uncompromising foe of
Synodical Conference
744
Synodical Conference
the lodges and of the ecclesiastical or-
ganizations which tolerate them. These
secret oath-bound societies of a religious
character, Freemasonry and the orders
patterned on it, practise the foulest kind
of unionism in that they join together in
their religious exercises professed fol-
lowers and outspoken enemies of Jesus.
The Masons and others having redoubled
their efforts to gain a foothold in its con-
gregations, the Synodical Conference is
waging war on them with increasing
vigor.
The Colored Missions are the chief
practical work engaged in by the Synod-
ical Conference, and this joint work of
the synods also serves as a bond of union.
The sixth convention (1877), upon mo-
tion of Rev. H. A. Preus, of the Norwe-
gian Synod, resolved to begin a mission
among the religiously neglected and for-
saken Negroes of the land (then number-
ing approximately 6 million, with about
one million having church connections;
to-day, according to the last census,
10,463,013). Pastors J. F. Buenger and
C. F. W. Sapper and Mr. J. Umbach, all
of St. Louis, constituted the first Mission
Board. The first missionary, John Fred-
erick Doescher, visited Memphis, Tenn.,
organized a Sunday-school in Little Rock,
Ark., and in “Sailors’ Home” in New
Orleans, and explored several of the
Southern States — Louisiana, Mississippi,
Alabama, Florida, and Georgia. July 3,
1878, Rev. Frederick Berg, a graduate of
the St. Louis Seminary, organized the
first colored Lutheran congregation of
the Synodical Conference in Little Rock.
In November, 1880, Rev. Nils J. Bakke,
a Norwegian, a graduate of St. Louis,
took up the work in New Orleans. There
are now five organized congregations in
New Orleans. (Rev. Bakke remained a
faithful and efficient worker in the Col-
ored Missions up to his death, May 8,
1921, serving in various fields and in
various capacities, such as president of
Immanuel Lutheran College, in Greens-
boro, N. C., Director of Missions, and
General Publicity Secretary.) The re-
quests of the colored people themselves
led to the establishment of the stations
at Meherrin, Va. (1883), Yonkers, N. Y.
(1907), Springfield, 111. (1881), and at
quite a number of other places. Early
in 1891 the Alpha Synod of North Caro-
lina, which had been organized May 8,
1889, appealed to President H. C. Schwan
for assistance in its work. Before the
Civil War Lutheran planters provided
somewhat for the spiritual wants of their
slaves; but after the Emancipation even
this ceased in most instances. The min-
istration of the few, more or less igno-
rant, colored Lutheran preachers did not
answer. Four of them were ordained by
the North Carolina Synod. (See Alpha
Synod.) The appeal was answered by
the Mission Board of the Synodical Con-
ference. Missionary Bakke was trans-
ferred to North Carolina, arriving in
Concord September 18, 1891. The work
soon took on large dimensions. It was
extended to South Carolina (Spartan-
burg) in November, 1913, and late in
December, 1915, following an appeal by
Teacher Rosa J. Young, of Rosebud, Wil-
cox Co., Ala., into the Black Belt of
Alabama, where upwards of 1,700 souls
have since been gained. Northern cities
with colored missions are St. Louis
(1904), Philadelphia (1919), Cincinnati
(1922), and Chicago (1924). In 1925
the Mission Board took over the work
which had been begun in and near Los
Angeles, Cal. In 1903 two institutions
of higher learning were founded for the
training of colored pastors and teachers,
the seminary at Springfield having up
till then, in a limited way, served this
purpose: Immanuel Lutheran College
(theological, normal, and high school de-
partments), Greensboro, N. C. (having at
present 103 students and 6 white profes-
sors), and Luther College, New Orleans,
which was closed at the end of the
school-year 1925. Alabama Luther Col-
lege, Selma, Ala., a teachers’ training-
school, was opened in the fall of 1922 ;
it has an enrolment (1926 — 27) of 33 fe-
male students with four colored instruc-
tors. In Louisiana and in the south-
eastern field two annual conferences are
held and in Alabama one, while the pas-
tors in Alabama meet every two months.
The first General Conference met in
1922; it may later function as a synod.
The colored Lutherans are being trained
for self-government. The Synodical Con-
ference publishes since 1879 the Mis-
sionstaube (first editor, F. Lochner;
present editor, Christopher F. Drewes,
since 1911) and the Lutheran Pioneer
(first editor, Prof. R. A. Bisclioff ; pres-
ent editor, F. J. Lankenau, since 1913)
in the interest of the Colored Missions.
The Colored Lutheran (editor, Superin-
tendent George A. Schmidt) serves more
particularly the needs of the colored con-
gregations. Since 1898 the cause of
Colored Missions has a special represen-
tation in each synod and District. Prog-
ress of the Colored Missions: In 1887
the mission had 3 missionaries, 5 sta-
tions, about 300 souls; ten years later,
18 stations, 1,400 souls; ten years later,
30 stations, 1,900 souls; in 1926 it had
a Director of Missions (Christopher F.
Drewes, since 1917), 1 colored and 2 white
Synod of Dort
745
Synods, Extinct
superintendents, 10 professors (4 col-
ored), 2 colored matrons, 34 missionaries
(19 colored), besides 1 white assistant,
19 male teachers (2 white) and 1 white
and 47 colored lady teachers (the day-
school has naturally been one of the chief
factors in the work of the Colored Mis-
sions), 03 congregations and 8 preaching-
places, 5,123 souls, 2,893 communicant
members, 680 voting members, 51 schools
with 3,103 pupils, 3,392 Sunday-school
pupils. Contributions by the colored
people in 1926, $32,658.91, an average of
$11.17 per communicant member. An-
nual expense of the Colored Missions at
present, $200,000. Value of property,
approximately $300,000. — The Synodical
Conference has deserved well of the colored
people (a Southern church paper wrote:
“Many of our people will tell you that
the Lutheran Negroes, taking them all
around, are the best we have”), of its
own members (affording them the oppor-
tunity for mutual helpfulness in guard-
ing the purity of doctrine, stimulating
their Lutheran consciousness and zeal,
and heartening them in their battles for
sound Lutheranism), and of America and
the Lutheran Church in general (as Dr.
M. Reu [Iowa] says: “Our American
people, rapidly undergoing decay both
in their political and religious life, need
so healthy and powerful a leaven as the
great Missouri Synod with its million of
souls, and the Synodical Conference with
1,300,600 souls. Our Lutheran Church
in America needs this leaven in order
that she might retain her Lutheran
characteristics, overcome the influences
of sectarianism and lodgery, and defeat
the dogma of exclusive privileges for
state education. We need such an or-
ganization in order that the Lutheran
Church may faithfully adhere to her
principles: by grace alone, Christ alone,
by faith alone, excluding also the most
subtile forms of synergism”).
Synod of Dort. A synod convened by
the States General of the Netherlands at
Dort, November 13, 1618, and adjourned
May 9, 1619. Origin. The opposition of
Arminius to the Augustinian and Cal-
vinistic doctrines on predestination gave
rise to a hitter controversy. In 1610, in
Five Articles, the Arminians presented a
petition to the States of Holland and
West Friesland, which was called a Re-
monstrance, in consequence of which they
were called Remonstrants. This synod
met to discuss these views, which they
condemned. — Organization. The synod,
when organized, consisted, first, of the dep-
uties from the States, who properly con-
stituted the national synod, numbering
39 ministers, 5 professors, and 18 ruling
ol rj ora • OOUATkI IxT r\f Od. ^A1*01 r»tl djwinnn
The States General were represented by
lay commissioners. The only Protestant
kingdom in Europe that sent deputies
was Great Britain. Besides these and
the divines of the United Provinces there
were delegates from Switzerland, the
Palatinate, Hessen, and Bremen. The
Lutheran churches were not represented,
and no delegates from France were
present. — Proceedings. During the 22d
session the Remonstrants were told that
they could merely express their opinions,
and the synod would pronounce judg-
ment. Episcopius, in an elegant speech,
defended the Arminian doctrine, and the
Remonstrants then successively sub-
mitted written statements in defense of
each of the Five Articles. When asked
to put their objections to the confession
in writing, they at first refused, but
finally complied. At the 57th session the
Remonstrants were expelled from the
Synod. — Decisions. In the 125th session
it was voted that the Five Articles of the
Remonstrants were contrary to the doc-
trine of the Reformed Church and that
their objections to the confession and the
catechism were not supported by the
authority of Scripture. The final deci-
sion was expressed in the form of canons,
which were adopted and signed by all
at the 136th session. The doctrine of
absolute predestination was maintained.
For about two centuries the decisions of
the Synod of Dort were the basis of the
Reformed Church in Holland.
Synods. See Councils.
Synods, Extinct (see also sub voce).
(Note. “Extinct Synods” does not mean
that the synods so designated have in
every case gone out of existence, but
simply that they no longer exist under
that name. A number of smaller bodies,
which in most cases were only temporary
organizations pending the formation of
permanent bodies, have not been listed.)
Alpha Synod of the Ev. Luth. Church of
Freedmen in America (United Synod,
South), 1889 — 92. Augsburg Synod (In-
dependent), 1876 — 1902. Canada, Synod
of Central (General Council), 1908 — 25.
Chicago Synod (G. C.), 1895 — 1920. Con-
cordia Synod (of Virginia, Joint Ohio),
1865 — 1920. Concordia Synod (of Penn-
sylvania, Synodical Conference), 1882 to
1886. Concordia Synod (of the West),
1862 — 64. Franckean Synod (New York,
General Synod), 1837 — 1908. Hartwick
Synod (New York, G. S.), 1830—1908.
Holston Synod (Tennessee and Virginia),
1860 — 1922. Illinois Synod I (G. S. and
Syn. Conf.), 1846 — 75. Illinois, German
Synod of (see Wartburg Synod), Illi-
nois, Synod of Central (G. S.), 1867—97;
inm on xn: — : .. o j .. r i — a — i — j
Syria
746
Talmiul
Southern (G.S.), 1897—1901. Illinois,
Synod of Northers (G.S.), 1851—1920.
Illinois, Synod of Southern (G. S. ), 1856
to 1920. Indiana Synod I (Ind.), 1835
to 1859. Indiana Synod II (G. C. ),
1871 — 75. Indiana, Synod of Northern
(G. S.), 1855 — 1920. Indianapolis Synod
(Ind.), 1846 — 52 (?). Immanuel Synod
(Ind.), 1885 — 1921. Kentucky Synod
(G. S.), 1854 — 65. Maryland and Vir-
ginia, Synod of (G. S.), 1820 — 29. Mary-
land and the South, German Synod of
(G. S. ) , 1874 — 76. Melanchthon Synod
(G. S.), 1857 — 69. Miami Synod (in
Ohio, G. S. ), 1847 — 1920. Michigan
Synod I, 1840 — 46. Michigan Synod II,
1860 — 1919. New Jersey, Synod of
(G. S.), 1859 — 72. New York and New
Jersey, Synod of (G. S. ) , 1872 — 1908.
New York, Synod of, I (G. S. ) , 1867 — 72.
New York, German Synod of (Steimle
Synod), 1866 — 72. Ohio, The Synod and
Ministerium of English (G. S.), 1836 — 58.
Ohio, Synod of East (continuing the
Synod and Ministerium of English Ohio),
1858 — 1920. Ohio and Other States, The
German Synod of (see Augsburg). Ohio,
English District Synod of (G. C. ) , 1857
to 1920. Olive Branch Synod (in In-
diana, G. S.), 1848 — 1920. Pennsylvania,
Synod of Central (G. S. ) , 1855 — 1923.
Southwest, Synod of the (G. S.), 1846 to
1856. Steimle Synod (see New York,
German Synod of). Susquehanna Synod
(in Pennsylvania, G. S. ) , 1867 — 1923.
Tennessee Synod (Ind., Un. Syn. South,
U. L. C.), 1820 — 1921. Tennessee, Synod
of Middle (G. S.), 1879—1904. Union
Synod (in Indiana, G. C.), 1859 — 71. Vir-
ginia, Synod of East (G. S. ) , 1826—50.
Virginia, Synod of Central, 1847 — .
Virginia, Synod of Western (see Synod
of Southwestern Virginia). Virginia,
Synod of Southwestern (G. S. ), 1842 to
1922. West, Synod of the (G. S. ) , 1834
to 1852 ( ?). West, Mission Synod of the
(Franckean), 1866. Wittenberg Synod
(in Ohio, G. S.), 1847—1920.
Syria (an abbreviation of the name
Assyria, or, more probably, an adapta-
tion from the Babylonian Suri, an Ara-
mean tribe in Northern Mesopotamia) is
the name originally applied by the
Greeks to the entire region extending
from the Caucasus to the Levant. The
Homan province of Syria, dating from
65 B. C., extended from Egypt to the
Euphrates, its eastern boundary running
from the Gulf of Suez past the southern
end of the Dead Sea, thence to Palmyra
and the Euphrates. In its modern and
more restricted sense the term Syria de-
notes the tract of fertile land ca. 400 miles
long and from 70 to 100 miles broad
stretching along the eastern shore of the
Mediterranean Sea. Under Turkish rule
Syria comprised an area of 114,500
sq. mi. In Syria, Arabs, Syrians, Turks,
Greeks, Jews, Druses, Maronites, all UHe
the Arabian Language. Islam is the
dominant religion. Since the World War
Palestine is a British Mandate and Syria
a French Mandate. The estimated area
of Palestine is 9,000 sq. mi. Population,
755,858, of whom 589,564 were Moham-
medans, 83,794 Jews, 73,036 Christians,
and the remainder of other religions.
Syria has an estimated area of 60,000
sq. mi., with a population of 2,981,863.
Missions in Syria (French Mandate) are
conducted by a large number of churches
and societies. Statistics: Foreign staff,
218; Christian community, 3,915; com-
municants, 3,739. For the importance of
Syria in the religious history of mankind
and for statistics on Palestine see Pal-
estine.
Syrian Christians in India. See
Missions.
Syrian Orthodox Church in U. S.
Under the supervision of, and, in doctrine
and polity, in harmony with, the Russian
Orthodox Church in the United States.
Statistics, 1916: 25 congregations, 11,591
members, 30 priests.
T
Tabernacle. The receptacle, or shrine,
often richly ornamented, in which the
pyx, monstrance (qq. v.), etc., are kept
in Roman churches. It is usually placed
on the high altar or above it. A red
lamp is kept burning before it.
Tabula rasa, literally, a blank waxed
tablet; a term used by Stoics (see Stoi-
cism) and later by Locke (q. v.) and
other sensationalists (see Sensational-
ism) for the soul, which at birth is
a blank, without innate ideas, upon which,
in the course of time, ideas are imprinted
by experience. Opposed to doctrine of
original sin. See Empiricism.
Tahiti Islands. See Society Islands.
Talmage, Thomas DeWitt, 1832 to
1902; pulpit orator (rather sensational) ;
b. at Bound Brook, N. J. ; Dutch Re-
formed pastor; later Presbyterian pas-
tor in Brooklyn, N. Y., 1869 — 94; Wash-
ington (d. there) . Author.
Talmud (neo-Hebrew, “learning,” “in-
struction”). A compendium of Jewish
law, consisting of two main parts, the
Tanganyika Territory
747
Taoism
Mislina, and its commentary, ttie Ge-
mara. The original source of the Jewish
law is the Pentateuch; but as this was
definitely fixed and the continually chang-
ing conditions, especially during the post-
exilic period, called for new decisions and
laws, a rabbinical supplement to the Pen-
tateuch, orally transmitted, grew up. This
material, called Mishna (neo-Heb., “repe-
tition”), was sorted and reduced to writ-
ing about the beginning of the third cen-
tury A. D. by Rabbi Judah, “the Prince.”
It is written in post-Biblical Hebrew and
has six parts, which contain laws on
1 ) agriculture, 2 ) Sabbaths and festivals,
3 ) marriage and divorce, 4 ) civil and
criminal cases, 5) sacrifices, 6) Levitical
purity. During the following centuries
the development of the traditional law
continued, and the Mishna, in turn, be-
came the text of a still more extended
commentary in the Jewish academies of
Palestine and Babylonia. This exposi-
tion, called Gemara (Aramaic, “comple-
tion”), contains, besides the subjects
treated in the Mishna, a heterogeneous
collection of information on philosophy,
history, natural sciences, geography, ar-
cheology, astronomy, medicine, art, com-
merce, etc., in short, an encyclopedia of
the knowledge of those centuries. Ac-
cordingly, the Talmud is not a lawbook
in the modern sense, in which laws are
definitely and concisely stated, but rather
a legal source book, an archive, which
contains untold opinions and happenings,
more or less closely connected with Jewish
law. There are two recensions of the Tal-
mud, the Palestinian, “Talmud Yeru-
shalmi,” written in West Aramaic and
completed ca. 370 A. D., and the much
more important Babylonian, “Talmud
Babli,” written mainly in East Aramaic
and completed a century later. The dis-
cussions in the Talmud, which, in so far
as they are interpretations of the Penta-
teuch, belong to the Midrash (exposition
of the Old Testament) literature of the
Jews, may be classified into two main
elements, the halaoha, which deals ex-
clusively with the Law, and the hag-
gadah, the illustrative, ethical, historical,
biographical, legendary material. See
Jews.
Tanganyika Territory, formerly Ger-
man East Africa. Taken by the British
during the World War. The Ruanda and
Urundi districts were mandated to Bel-
gium, the Kionga Triangle to Mozam-
bique (Portuguese East Africa), and the
remainder to the British Empire. Head-
quarters of the British section are at
Dar-es-Salaam. Total area of the British
mandate, 365,000 sq. mi. Population in
1921, 4,122,000 Bantus, with about 2,500
whites. Missions by the Evangelical Lu-
theran Augustana Synod (former work
of Leipzig Mission, taken over 1922) and
other bodies. Statistics: Foreign staff,
176; Christian community, 41,831; com-
municants, 16,693.
Taoism. One of the three great re-
ligions of China, traditionally founded
by Lao-tse (Latinized, Laocius), Chinese
sage and elder contemporary of Confu-
cius, b. ca. 600 B. C., d. ca. 520 B. C. Lao-
tse is the reputed author of a small book
of 5,000 characters, called Tao-Teh-King,
which is the chief source of our knowl-
edge of early Taoism. This system was
at first merely philosophical, and only
after six or seven centuries did it de-
velop into a religion. It is mystical and
quietistic and based on the idea of the
tao, a term practically untranslatable,
but variously rendered “nature, reason,
way.” Tao is the highest being, the pri-
mary cause of the physical as well as of
the moral world. All true virtue con-
sists in being one with the Tao. Hence
it is the highest goal of human develop-
ment. He who in self-effacement, lack of
desire and meditation, strives to under-
stand the Tao will not perish in death,
but find salvation. In sharp contrast to
the conservative Confucius, who upheld
the principles of filial piety and obedi-
ence to authority and whose chief aim
was the welfare of the state, Lao-tse’s
system had to do with the individual and
aimed to achieve the happiness and im-
provement of mankind, not through civil
and social rules of conduct, but by mak-
ing the individual pure and sincere. While
Confucius demanded fulfilment of those
duties upon which the structures of the
state, society, and family rest, Lao-tse
advocated gentleness, moderation, mod-
esty, and love for one’s fellow-men. Char-
acteristic are his maxims : “He who over-
comes other men has force, but he who
overcomes himself is mighty”; “recom-
pense injury with kindness.” Taoism ex-
perienced further development at the
hands of Lao-tse’s disciples, of whom the
most noted was Chwang-tse, who lived
in the fourth century B. C. After Chwang-
tse the system began to degenerate, espe-
cially through the influence of Chang-tao-
ling of the first century A. D., who is
recognized as the founder of modern Tao-
ism. It also was strongly influenced by
Buddhism ( q . v . ), which was introduced,
into China in the first century A. D. Tao-
ism is now characterized by a mass of
superstitions, magic, occult practises, and
a quest for the elixir of immortality. Be-
sides the metaphysical Buddhism and the
ethical Confucianism ( q . v.) it has be-
come the naturalistic religious system of
Tappan, William Bingham
748
Taylor, James Hudson
China. The highest god in its pantheon
is San-Ching, “The Three Pure Ones,”
a triplicate form of Lao-tse, correspond-
ing to the triplicate representation of
Buddha as past, present, and future. The
second highest god is Yii Hwang Shang
Ti, who rules over the affairs of the
world. Other gods are the stars, espe-
cially the five planets, the dragon-king,
who is a personification 'of water, gods
of the various professions and callings,
and innumerable evil spirits, that keep
the superstitious people in a continuous
state of terror. Imitating Buddhism,
Taoism introduced temples, a priesthood,
and a monastic system. Its head is a de-
scendant of Chang-tao-ling, who by Euro-
peans is called the “Taoist pope” and by
the natives “Master of Heaven.” He re-
sides in the province Kwangsi. While
the educated classes despise Taoism for
its superstitions, it has a great hold on
the masses. However, all uneducated
Chinese are syncretists and follow what-
ever appeals to them in the three re-
ligions.
Tappan, William Bingham, 1794 to
1849 ; first in business, then secretary of
the American Sunday-school Union; li-
censed as preacher in Congregational
Church; among his hymns: “There Is
an Hour of Peaceful Rest.”
Targums. See Bible Versions.
Tarnow, Paul; b. 1502, d. 1633 as pro-
fessor at Rostock. Wrote On the Holy
Ministry, against Rome; On the Holy
Trinity, against Socinus; a commentary
on the Gospel of St. John. His conten-
tion that the absolution must not be
spoken categorically, but hypothetically
(“If thou believest”), was pretty gener-
ally repudiated as conflicting with the
doctrine of justification, making faith
tiie cause of forgiveness. — Johann Tar-
now, nephew of Paul; b. 1586, d. 1629 as
professor at Rostock ; stood for the gram-
matico-historical method of exegesis over
against the dogmatic method; wrote
a number of commentaries on the Old
Testament; championed religious tolera-
tion by the state.
Tasmania. The smallest state in the
commonwealth of Australia. Area, 26,385
sq. mi. Population, 216,700. The aborig-
inal population died out, mostly through
wars with English immigrants, before
any mission-work was done among them.
Tate and Brady. Published, and prob-
ably wrote, A New Version of the Psalms
of David, Fitted to the Tunes Used in
Churches, by N. Tate and N. Brady, 1696,
in which : “To God Be Glory, Peace on
Earth.”
Tatian, 110 — 72; Apologist and Chris-
tian philosopher; pupil of Justin Mar-
tyr, whom he met at Rome ca. 150. His
To the Greeks is a mordant and scathing
denunciation of Greek mythology and
philosophy. His Diatessaron (harmony
of the four gospels) proves that the
four canonical gospels were in use in
the middle of the second century. To-
ward the end of his life he became in-
volved in Gnostic aberrations besides de-
manding ascetic abstinence in Christian
life.
Tauler, Johann, a German mystic;
h. in Strassburg ca. 1300; d. 1361. When
fifteen years old, he entered the order of
the Dominicans, studying theology at
Cologne. As a result of the controversy
between Emperor Louis IV and Pope
John XXII, Tauler, with his order, was
banished from Strassburg; but he re-
turned three and a half years later. He
was reputed to be the greatest preacher
of his time, his sermons, exhibiting his
piety, sincerity, and warmth of feeling,
having a marked influence on his contem-
poraries and winning the commendation
and regard of Luther, lie wrote The
Book of Spiritual Poverty. See also
Mysticism.
Tausen ( Tagesoen ), Hans; b. 1494.
Vice in the cloister drove him to Witten-
berg in 1519. Professor and pastor at
Copenhagen; twice exiled. Bishop of
Rite in 1541 (d. there). The reformer
of Denmark, he gave his country the Lu-
theran Confession, the Danish Bible, the
Danish language in the church service,
the Lutheran hymnal, and the Lutheran
school.
Taverner, Richard; b. 1505; trans-
lated the Augsburg Confession and the
Apology in 1536; got out the first En-
glish Lutheran dogmatics in 1538, before
there was one in German; two editions
of the Bible and two editions of the New
Testament; the first English Lutheran
postil, a translation of the sermons of
Sarcerius orCorvinus; in 1552 Eward VI
licensed him to preach; d. 1575.
Taylor, James Hudson, founder of
China Inland Mission; b. at Barnsley,
England, May 21, 1832; d. at Changsha,
China, January 3, 1905. After studying
medicine for some years, he offered his
services to the China Evangelization So-
ciety and was sent out September 15,
1853. Worked in China with various
missions 1854 — 60. Returning to En-
gland 1860 for five years, he published
China; Its Spiritual Need and Claim.
In 1866 he left for China with sixteen
other men. Taylor accomplished a great
deal of work as Director of the Mission,
Taylor, Jeremy
740 Teaching of Twelve Apostles
traveling extensively and lecturing. La-
ter he returned to Switzerland. On a last
visit to China he unexpectedly passed
away.
Taylor, Jeremy, 1613 — 67; English
Chrysostom; b. at Cambridge; rector;
champion of Church (Anglican) and
king; educator of Prince of Wales;
appointed, 1660, to a bishopric in Ireland
(d. there). Holy Living; Holy Dying;
Worthy Communicant.
Taylor, Thomas Bawson, 1807 — 35;
studied at Airedale Independent College ;
pastor of Congregational church at Shef-
field, England; tutor at Airedale Col-
lege; his popular hymn: “I’m But a
Stranger Here, Heav’n Is My Home.”
Taylor, William, American Meth-
odist Episcopal missionary; b. in Rock-
bridge Co., Va., May 2, 1821 ; d. at Palo
Alto, Cal., May 18, 1902; for many
years an itinerant missionary and evan-
gelist in Australia (1862), India, Africa,
and Central and South America. Hav-
ing been ordained “Bishop of Africa” at
the age of sixty (1884), he attempted
to found a self-supporting industrial
mission in Africa (Liberia, Angola,
Kongo) with a large following of male
and female evangelists, most of whom
wore unfit for the work. The project
was visionary and proved a distinct
failure. Later his missions were taken
over by the Methodist Episcopal Church,
which placed Bishop Hartzell in charge.
Teachers in Christian Day-Schools.
There is but one office in the Church, the
ministry of the Word, Acts 6, 4, to which
men are called through the local con-
gregation by God himself, Acts 20, 28.
As this office must minister to the entire
Hock, Christians may divide the work,
calling men to minister especially to the
lambs, the children. Thus the calling
of a teacher in Lutheran parochial
schools grew out of the ministry of the
Word, and though limited in its sphere
and functions, it is similar to that of
a pastor. Hence it is God who through
the congregation calls also the teacher;
his is a divine calling. While, indeed,
rooted in the one ministry of the Word,
the office of a teacher as a separate and
distinct branch of said ministry is not
a divine, but an ecclesiastical institu-
tion, inasmuch as Christian congrega-
tions must not by divine command
branch off certain work from the min-
istry and thus create this office, but they
may do so in Christian liberty if circum-
stances demand it. In order to do the
work for which they are called, i. e., to
feed the lambs, teachers assume also
other duties, instructing children in all
the common school branches (secular
knowledge ) . In this part of their work,
considered separate and distinct from
their religious duties, their calling dif-
fers not from that of teachers in public
schools. But they teach these branches,
and they teach them well, in order to
have opportunity to teach the Word of
God and to educate the children accord-
ing to Christian principles. Their secu-
lar work is subservient to their religious
work, and it is the latter that gives to
their calling its real character. Called
by God, teachers should consider them-
selves called for life and not for selfish
and frivolous reasons desert their calling
and take up a secular vocation. It is
absolutely necessary for teachers in
Christian schools to be true Christians
themselves, filled with fervent love of
Christ and the children; conscientiously
to continue in the Word of their Master ;
to be competent to teach, not only re-
ligious subjects, but also the common
secular branches; to be diligent stu-
dents, avoiding distracting side-lines,
living and laboring solely for their high
calling, able disciplinarians and Chris-
tian pedagogs, who by precept and ex-
ample truly educate their pupils. Faith-
fulness in all things pertaining to their
calling is required of every teacher.
While their work is hard and not always
fully appreciated, it is nevertheless a
most glorious work, and their labors are
never in vain, but bring fruit unto
eternal life.
The Teaching of the Twelve Apos-
tles, or, according to another (probably
original) title, The Teaching of the Lord
through the Twelve Apostles to the Gen-
tiles, i. e., Gentile Christians, known to
Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius,
Athanasius, and other ecclesiastical
writers, but then lost until rediscovered
by Bryennios in Constantinople and pub-
lished by him in 1883, is one of the most
important documents of the subapostolic
age, which throws light on the beliefs,
usages, and organization of the early
Christian churches. In form it is a
church manual, containing a hortatory
address (with less probability a sum-
mary of catechetical instruction) to can-
didates for Christian baptism (chaps.
1 — 6 ) ; precepts regarding the celebra-
tion of baptism (chap. 7), prayer and
fasting (chap. 8), the celebration of the
Eucharist (chaps. 9. 10) , the treatment
and discrimination of apostles ( i . e.,
traveling missionaries), prophets, teach-
ers, bishops, and deacons (chaps. 11 — 15);
finally an exhortation to vigilance in
view of the Lord’s coming (chap. 16).
The authorship, date, and place of com-
Te Deum
750
Temptation
position are vexed questions, into which
space forbids us to enter. We shall
merely add the opinions of three scholars
concerning the date. Bryennios places
the Didache (Teaching) between 120 and
160; Zahn, ca. 110; Harnack, 120 — 165,
though inclining toward the former.
Te Deum. One of the great canticles
of the Christian Church, used to this
day at matins; authorship hot definitely
determined, the chief contenders for the
honor being Athanasius and Ambrosius.
See also Canticles.
Tegner, Esaias; b. 1782 at Kyrke-
rud, Sweden; d. 1846 as bishop of
Wexio; Sweden’s greatest poet; not
without influence in church affairs.
Templars, Knights. A religious and
military order of the Middle Ages.
Bounded in 1119 by Hugues de Payens
and Geoffrey de Saint-Adftmar. Its mem-
bers first took the name Knights of
Christ, but later were called Knights of
the Temple. The discipline of the
Templars was rigid and austere, but the
order’s fame and independence of action
attracted many recruits. In time the
conceit and arrogance of the Knights,
together with their secret practises,
opened the door for all manner of sin-
ister suspicions, leading in 1311 to the
arrest of its last Grand Master, Philip
De Molay, and of 140 Knights by Philip
the Fair, the unscrupulous king of
France. Following a confession ex-
tracted by infamous tortures, De Molay
and a large number of Knights were
burned at the stake. Pope Clement V
decreed the abolition of the order in
1312. See also Freemasonry .
Temporal Power. By the Edict of
Milan (321), Constantine enabled the
Church to hold property. The Roman
church especially profited by this per-
mission and by degrees became the
largest landowner in Italy, besides hold-
ing considerable estates in other lands.
Rome and the surrounding portions of
Central Italy came to be known as the
Patrimony of Peter. When Pepin de-
feated the Lombards, he gave the Pope
the exarchate of Ravenna and thereby
laid the foundation of the Church State.
Charlemagne confirmed and enlarged the
donation, laying the deed on the tomb
of Peter, Christmas Day, 800. Thus the
Popes became secular princes, though at
first they were vassals of the Carlovin-
gians. The checkered history of the
States of the Church through the Middle
Ages cannot be traced here. From the
15th to the 18th century their history is
largely that of a number of Italian fam-
ilies from which the Popes were chosen.
Napoleon I abolished the temporal power,
but the Congress of Vienna (1814) re-
stored it. In 1860 the greater part of
the Pope’s dominions fell to the new
kingdom of Italy; in 1870, a few months
after the proclamation of infallibility,
the citizens of Rome voted for annexa-
tion to Italy, and the Pope’s temporal
power came to an end. Romanists have
not ceased to lament this event, and the
Pope still bears himself as the poor
“prisoner of the Vatican.” See also
States of the Church.
Temptation. The act of tempting a
person to commit an act contrary to the
will and Law of God, more particularly,
every motive that incites man, especially
the Christian, to sin. The connotation
of the word leads one to the inquiry for
a tempter, one whose chief function lies
in the field of temptation. The Bible
plainly refers to such a person. It dis-
tinctly speaks of the devil as the tempter,
who sought to lead the Lord Jesus
astray. Matt. 4, 3. St. Paul warns the
Thessalonians : “Lest by some means the
Tempter have tempted you and our labor
be in vain.” 1 Thess. 3, 5. Thus also, in
writing to the Corinthians, the apostle
says: “That Satan tempt you not for
your incontinency.” 1 Cor. 7, 5. — An-
other factor in temptations is man’s own
evil nature, the Old Adam, the innate
lust, of which St. James writes: “Every
man is tempted when he is drawn away
of his own lust and enticed.” Jas. 1, 14.
— • In connection with this fact the word
tempt (temptation) is used of man in
the act of withstanding God, of putting
Him to a test, as with the object of
finding out how long He would endure
taunts and challenges. Jesus Himself
quotes, over against the insinuation of
the devil, the words of Deut. 6, 16: “Ye
shall not tempt the Lord.” Matt. 4, 7 ;
Ljike4, 12. Peter rebukes Sapphira for
her conspiracy against the Lord: ‘‘How
is it that ye have agreed together to
tempt the Spirit of the Lord?” Acts
5, 9. St. Paul warns the Corinthians:
“Neither let us tempt Christ.” 1 Cor.
10,9. — If we compare these and other
passages of Scriptures, we find that the
word for tempt really means to prove or
to test, to try out for the purpose of
establishing a fact. The idea of an in-
citement to sin is added in the case of
all evil attempts, of all efforts to entrap
some one into some false move. The re-
sult anticipated does not, of course, nec-
essarily follow, but it must be kept in
mind for the sake of a proper under-
standing of the warnings uttered by the
Lord. Thus even an act innocent in
itself may become the cause of stumbling
Tenebrae
751
Tertullian
to others and thus of temptation. —
From all this it is evident in what sense
we are to understand the words Gen.
22, 1 : “God did tempt Abraham.” This
is clearly not said of an incitement to
evil, for with regard to that St. James
emphatically states: “Let no man say
when he is tempted [namely, to commit
sin], I am tempted of God; for God
cannot be tempted with evil, neither
tempteth He any man”; but the text
speaks of a proving, or testing, of the
faith of Abraham, the object of the test
being partly to find out the certainty
of Abraham’s trust, partly to strengthen
him in his firm confidence. — The appli-
cation of this discussion is clear. It
requires that Christians avoid all occa-
sions for temptation to evil, thereby
taking from the devil and his assistants
the opportunities for working mischief,
that they sincerely pray the Sixth Peti-
tion : “Lead us not into temptation,”
and that they abstain from all acts
which may cause others to be tempted,
to stumble and fall. At the same time
the words of James hold true: “Blessed
is the man that endureth temptation;
for when he is tried, he shall receive the
crown of life.” Jas. 1, 12.
Tenebrae. The matins and lauds on
Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and the
Great Sabbath, so called on account of
the opening words Tenebrae factae sunt,
sung in memory of the darkness during
the suffering of Christ; lights and
candles are gradually extinguished.
Tennessee Synod. See Synods, Ex-
tinct, and United Lutheran Church.
Tennessee, Synod of Middle, came
out of the Kentucky and the Southern
Illinois synods in 1878, consisted of about
twenty small congregations, and be-
longed. to the General Synod. Its pas-
tors joined the Olive Branch Svnod in
1894.
Terminism. The teaching of a lim-
ited term of grace accorded to man as
an individual. The doctrine is not iden-
tical with that of hardening of the heart
(see Sin) or with that of the unpardon-
able sin (see Sin, Unpardonable) ; it
assumes that God has from eternity fixed
a day beyond which the individual will
not respond to the operations of the
Holy Spirit, or that every person has a
special day of visitation. The Termi-
nistic Controversy involved the entire
Lutheran Church early in the 18th cen-
tury. Terminism was defended by the
Pietists, who claimed such texts as Matt.
3, 7tf.; 7,21; 20,1—16; 2 Pet. 2, 20;
Ileb. 6, 4 ff. The orthodox dogmaticians
emphasized that God desires the salva-
tion of every man during his entire life
and that an abbreviated day of grace is
due to the self-hardening of the heart
against the means of grace. They based
their opposition to Terminism on Luke
23, 40 ff.; Rom. 5, 20; Is. 65, 2. Ter-
minism has also been taught by the
Quakers.
Territorial System. The theory of
church government which assumes that
temporal rulers have by virtue of their
office the right to govern the Church, to
regulate its affairs, to banish persons
guilty of heresy and forbid the introduc-
tion of new creeds. The territorial sys-
tem was formulated at the close of the
17th century, but even in the minds of
its most ardent defenders never included
the sovereign’s right to impose his own
belief upon his subjects, to dictate in
matters of religion. See Polity, Eccle-
siastical; Collegiate System.
Terry, Milton Spenser, 1840 — 1914;
Methodist Episcopal ; b. at Coeymans,
N. Y. ; pastor near New York City; pro-
fessor of Hebrew and Old Testament Ex-
egesis at Garrett Biblical Institute 1884.
Author.
Tersanctus. See Canticles.
Tersteegen, Gerhard, 1697—1769;
classical training in Latin school at
Moers; worked as silk -weaver; later re-
ligious teacher, strongly mystical; im-
portant hymnological work Geistliches
Blumengaertlein ; hymns reflect his re-
ligious tendency.
Tertiaries. Several Roman religious
orders, besides having rules for monks
and nuns, have a so-called Third Rule
(hence tertiaries), under which the laity
can join these orders. Tertiaries may be
a) regular, living in convents, under
simple vows, or b) secular, living in the
world, bound only by a solemn promise.
Some tertiaries wear the habit, the
majority only the scapular (q. v.), of
their order and, possibly, a girdle. They
are bound to definite prayers and obser-
vances, to which certain indulgences are
attached. Any Romanist may join a
third order, but not more than one. The
number of tertiaries cannot be given, but
the Franciscans, the most numerous,
number probably two and a half million
throughout the world. Tertiaries con-
tribute greatly to the power and prestige
of the Roman Church.
Tertullian, the father of Latin the-
ology and one of the greatest teachers
of the early Church ; b. at Carthage
ca. 150; received a thorough training in
ancient literature and philosophy; dis-
tinguished as an advocate and rheto-
Teschner, Melchior
752
Theater
rician ; embraced Christianity between
his thirtieth WBd fortieth years; some
time later j dined the Montanists, whose
principles appealed to his rigid austerity
and asceticism; d. between 220 and 240.
Tertullian was a man of rare genius and
originality, keen, witty, sarcastic, and
always intensely in earnest. A man of
strong convictions and violent temper, he
wields a vigorous pen. The determined
foe of all worldly wisdom, he is the an-
tithesis of Origen and asks scornfully,
“What has Christ to do with Plato, Jeru-
salem with Athens?” His theology cen-
ters about the Pauline doctrine of sin
and grace. His numerous writings fall
into three classes: apologetic, polemic,
and ethical. Among his apologetic works
the Apologeticua against the heathen is
preeminent, a great plea for religious
liberty. Supplementary to it is De Tes-
timonio Animae. His polemics are di-
rected chiefly against the Gnostics, be-
sides including various tracts against
particular errors ( Against Praxeas, On
the Resurrection, etc.). Ascetic writings :
On Prayer, On Penance, On Patience,
De Spectaculis, etc. Finally, Tertullian
wrote various treatises in vindication of
Montanism.
Teschner, Melchior, ca. 1015 cantor
in Fraustadt, later pastor in Ober-
prietschen; composed tune to Herber-
ger’s “Valet will ich dir gcbcn.”
Tetragrammaton. See Shem-ham-
mephorash.
Tetrapolitan Confession. The con-
fession of faith, also called Confessio
Suevica and Argentinensis, presented to
the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 by the
representatives of the cities of Con-
stance, Lindau, Memmingen, and Strass-
burg. In form and contents it differs
from the Augsburg Confession by em-
phasizing Zwingli’s views of the Lord’s
Supper.
Tetzel (Diez), Johann; b. between
1450 and 1460, d. 1519; the well-known
Dominican friar and hawker of indul-
gences, whose unscrupulous effrontery in
recommending the merits of his wares
called forth Luther’s protest and chal-
lenge and thus became the immediate
occasion (not cause) of the Reformation.
Teutonic Knights. An order of
knighthood originating as a brotherhood
during the siege of Acre (1191), but
converted into a military order in 1198.
Under its vigorous Grand Master Her-
man von Salza (1210 — 39) the order
was engaged in the Christianization of
the heathen Prussians along the Baltic.
For a century a constant struggle with
the Lithuanians and Poles marked the
history of the order, till ifhe Knights’
decisive defeat at the battle of Tannen-
berg in 1410 led to the order’s decline.
Secularized in 1526, with headquarters
at Mergentheim, the order was abolished
by Napoleon in 1809, its property being
confiscated.
Texas Synod. See Synods, Extinct,
and United Lutheran Church.
Textual Criticism. See Biblical
Textual Criticism.
Thanksgiving Day. A festival cel-
ebrated in the United States, pursuant
to a proclamation of the President and
of the governors of the several States,
on the last Thursday in November. Al-
though first celebrated by the Pilgrims
out of gratitude for their remarkable
deliverance when famine seemed to bo
staring them in the face and observed
more or less regularly since the time of
Washington, the custom of setting the
day aside for the purposes of worship
has become universal only since the Civil
War.
Thayer, Joseph Henry, 1828 — 1901;
Congregational Biblical scholar; b. in
Boston; professor at Andover and Har-
vard; d. at Cambridge. Translated
Winer's and Buttmann's New Testament
grammars and Orimm’s-Wilke’s Claris.
Theater. The form of amusement or
recreation offered by the theater has
been the object of discussion in the
Christian Church from the beginning.
Since the theaters of the early centuries
were largely devoted to spectacles of
cruelty, brutality, and lust, the Church
Fathers were unanimous in their denun-
ciation of the theater. During the early
Middle Ages the theater was largely a
negligible quantity, as far as the Church
was concerned. Somewhat later, with
the earliest signs of the revival of learn-
ing, interest in the plays by Terence and
Plautus became noticeable in certain sec-
tions, and Hroswitha wrote her plays
after the model of these Latin play-
wrights. The modern drama had its
origin in the liturgy of the late Medieval
Church, in the form of the Miracle Plays.
Somewhat later, the Mystery Plays
(q.v.) and the Moralities made their
appearance, after which it was but a
step to the early Shakespearian drama.
The theater could undoubtedly be a
power for good in the world, not only
on account of the possibilities for inno-
cent amusement and healthy recreation
which may be connected with the stage,
but also on account of the information
which may be given in a most appealing
way and on account of the artistic ap-
preciation which may be stimulated.
Theater
753
Theater
Nor can it be doubted that there are
plays, both in tragedy and in comedy,
both in sketches and in more elaborate
productions, both in the spoken play and
in movie performances, which a Chris-
tian may see and appreciate with a good
conscience. For that reason it is to be
deplored all the more that the theater
business of our days has sunk to a level
which makes it almost impossible for
a consistent Christian to take an active
interest in the stage or in the perfor-
mances which are generally given. The
entire system, from the grand opera of
the cultured to the burlesque of the
rabble, is infected with rottenness. The
fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Com-
mandments are not only broken contin-
ually, they are shattered and annihilated
by the open transgressions which are
flaunted in the face of the theatergoing
public. The poison may enter the minds
of the audience *in various ways. Very
often it is the fact of indecent exposure,
of presenting entire limbs and parts or
the whole body in the nude, usually ac-
companied by some suggestive glance,
gesture, or act. There is the factor of
outright indecent acts, violent caressing,
clinging, hugging, or petting, holding on
the lap, etc. There is the factor of sug-
gestion, when the interior of houses of
ill fame are shown, the acts preceding
or following being intended to give both
the cue and the direction to the thoughts
of the audience. In all these and in
other eases the satisfaction which the
great majority in the audience feels is
not due to the esthetic appreciation of
beauty, but that of sexual satisfaction,
of mental gratification or masturbation.
These facts are generally known and
deplored, not only by clergymen and
social workers, but also by educators of
national fame. Of the burlesque theater
of our days Professor O’Shea writes:
“In this connection mention should be
made of the gaiety or burlesque theater
in spreading vice. The chief character-
istic of the shows presented in them is
lewdness of speech, in song and espe-
cially in the dance. Women who are
reading these lines would probably not
be admitted to the burlesque theaters in
their respective communities, but they
can gain some notion of what goes on
within by observing the bill-boards in
front of these places. A burlesque per-
formance is built around the suggestion
of sexual vice. The actors are for the
most part gathered out of the red-light
and tenderloin districts, and they aim to
suggest in dress, song, and dance what
they practise in the brothel.” ( Mental
Development and Education, 216.)
Concordia Cyclopedia
With regard to the movie theaters and
their pictures, the information which
was given at various times in the past
with regard to the losing propositions
of clean shows indicates the trend of
the times. The following press-clipping
speaks for itself : “Movieitis, in its more
virulent form, is apt to produce serious
consequences, especially in young folks.
Its effects are seen in disordered imag-
inations, vitiated tastes, nervous irrita-
bility, while frequently it is evidenced
by a general lack of interest in clean
and wholesome recreations. Teachers
complain of listlessness and dulness on
the part of pupils afflicted with this ail-
ment, and physicians attribute not a
little of the alarming increase in defec-
tive vision among boys and girls to its
presence. Perhaps its most serious con-
sequences are to be observed in the false
and distorted views of life it so fre-
quently engenders among them. Evi-
dences of this are to be found from time
to time in juvenile experiments in crime,
in a flippant disrespect and irreverence
for fundamental moral principles, and
in dwarfed and perverted views of court-
ship and the marital relation.” ( Watoh -
man-Examiner, 1921.) The following is
a list, collected at random, of some of
the films which were some time ago en-
joying exceptional popularity on the
screen throughout the land : “Why Trust
Your Husband? The Fruits of Desire;
The Woman of Pleasure; His Temporary
Wife; Playthings of Passion; My Hus-
band’s Other Wife; A Bachelor’s Chil-
dren; Experimental Marriage; The
Flame of Passion; My Unmarried Wife;
Sex Lure; Flaming Youth; Flames of
the Flesh; Lawless Love; His Bridal
Night; The Evil Women Do; For Hus-
bands Only.” Examples could be multi-
plied indefinitely.
Not even the legitimate stage and the
opera are safe in these days of degen-
eracy. Many an Elizabethan drama,
even many an early Victorian play, may
be read easily enough as literature, but
when it is placed on the stage, the dif-
ference between reading with a view to
appreciation and between hearing and
seeing is partly that of the personality
of the actors, partly that of the sugges-
tiveness of gestures and acts, together
with a voluptuous background. A Chris-
tian who might otherwise have some true
recreation from seeing a clean play is
often prevented from doing so with a
good conscience, partly because sugges-
tiveness is hardly ever absent on the
modern stage, partly because the fact
that the great majority of plays of every
kind are badly tainted clings to the
48
The1>eaiiifl, Adam
754
Theology, Nainral
theater and makes it impossible for him
to enjoy even that which in itself may
be innocuous. He is guided by^H vords
of Scripture to “avoid even the appear-
ance of evil.” 1 Thess. 5, 22. A Christian
will also remember the words of the
apostle : “All things are lawful unto
me, but all things arc not expedient."
1 Cor. 6, 12. And again: “Give none
offense, neither to the Jews nor to the
Gentiles nor to the Church of God.”
1 Cor. 10, 32.
Thebesius, Adam, 1590 — 1652; b. at
Seifersdorf, studied at Wittenberg; at
time of his death pastor in Liegnitz;
known for his gift of fervent prayer;
wrote: “0 grosser Schmerzensmann.”
Theism, in opposition to atheism, gen-
eral term for any kind of belief in God,
embracing the various forms of mono-
theism and polytheism. In a more re-
stricted sense, in opposition to deism and
pantheism (qq. v.) , a monotheistic belief
in a personal God, who is not only the
Creator, but also the Preserver and Ruler
of the world.
Theiss, Johann Wilhelm. See Ros-
ter at end of book.
Theodicy. The vindication of God’s
justice in dealing with mankind and of
His wisdom in governing the world. The
word dates back to the celebrated essay
by this name, published by Leibniz in
1710, hut has since been used as a more
general term for the rational argument
in defense of divine love, wisdom, and
justice. Its particular purpose is to
demonstrate the righteousness of God
with reference to sin and to physical evil
(suffering) existing in the world and to
show that, in spite of sin and other evils,
God appears in the creation and govern-
ment of the world as the highest Wisdom
and Goodness. See Leibniz.
Theodore of Mopsuestia, ca. 350 to
428 ; an exegete of the Antiochian School ;
made bishop of Mopsuestia, in Cilicia,
ca. 392; wrote commentaries on almost
all the books of Scripture; but his ra-
tionalistic mode of interpretation and
the odium his pupil Nestorius brought
upon his name later led to his condemna-
tion in the Tria Capitula, a judgment
confirmed by the Council of Constanti-
nople in 553. The Three Chapters con-
demned the writings of Theodore of Mop-
suestia, of Theodoret of Cyprus, and a
letter of Ibas.
Theodoret, bishop of Cyrus in Syria;
a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia, but
avoided the rationalistic tendencies of
his teacher; besides commentaries on
the Old Testament he wrote an Ecclesias-
tical History, a continuation of that of
Eusebius. Becoming involved in the Nes-
torian and Eutychian controversies of
his time, he was deposed by the Robber
Synod of Ephesus in 449, but reinstated
by the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
D. ca. 457.
Theodosius I, surnamed the Great;
b. ca. 346. Elevated to the purple by
Gratian, he became Emperor of the East,
repelling the Gothic invasion along the
Danube. Baptized in 380 as a Trinita-
rian, he promulgated various edicts
against Arianism and other heresies and
summoned the second General . Council
(381) to supplement the labors of Nicea.
Living for some years at Milan, he en-
joyed the friendship of its bishop, St. Am-
brose. When, in 390, he ordered the mas-
sacre of Thessalonica, Ambrose refused
him permission to enter the church at
Milan, readmitting him to the Sacrament
only after the performaifce of public pen-
ance. Theodosius was sole emperor for
four months before his death in 395.
Theologie, Deutsche. See German
Theology.
Theology. In the abstract or narrow,
that is, proper, sense a practical, God-
given quality, by which a person may
understand, accept, expound, impart to
others, and defend, the truth of Scrip-
tures as containing the way of salvation.
In its wider, concrete sense, the entire
body of knowledge pertaining to the un-
derstanding and exposition of the Bible.
This knowledge is commonly divided into
four groups: 1) exegetical theology, which
includes Biblical isagogics and the his-
tory of the canon and translations, her-
meneutics and textual criticism, exegesis
of the Old and the New Testament, and
a study of modern translations; 2) sys-
tematic theology, which embraces dog-
matics or doctrinal theology, the study
of the symbolical books, moral philos-
ophy and Christian ethics, and often also
apologetics and polemics; 3) historical
theology, which includes church history
and archeology with its various periods,
the history of dogma and confessions, and
patristics; 4) practical theology, with
subdivisions of pastoral theology and
church polity, catechetics, homiletics, dia-
conics and missions, liturgies and hym-
nology, and Christian art and architec-
ture. — As a branch of doctrinal theol-
ogy, in the narrower sense of the term,
the doctrine of the essence and attributes
of God.
Theology, Natural. That man has
a natural knowledge of God is clearly
taught Rom. 1, 19 ff. ; Acts 14, 16 f.; 17,
26 ff., and is not contradicted by texts
Tlieophylaot
755
Theosophy
which declare that natural man does not
“know” God,\Eph. 2, 12; Gal. 4, 8. Only
the Spirit of \God is able to impart that
knowledge of\the Supreme Being which
man must have in order to be saved. Yet
the light of reason is sufficient to estab-
lish not only the existence, but also such
attributes as the power, the wisdom, and
the justice of God, by induction and de-
duction, to the satisfaction of the human
mind, which bears the idea of God within
itself and naturally demands of, and dic-
tates to, itself and other rational minds
some recognition of the first fundamental
truths of natural theology. Of course,
the religions of the heathen world and
the books of ancient and modern philos-
ophers also bear witness to the truth
that human reason in its present natural
state is woefully depraved. The apostle
teaches that the mind of natural man is
vain, his understanding darkened, his
heart hardened, insensible to impressions,
that the god of this world has blinded
the minds of them which believe not.
Mph. 4, 17 f. ; 2 Cor. 4, 4. God’s hand-
writing in nature bears with it a natural
conviction, while the power of Scripture
is supernatural, effecting in the heart of
the reader a spiritual discernment and
divine assurance of the truths therein
set forth. 1 Cor. 2, 7 ff. See Apologetics.
Theophylact, archbishop of Achrida
and Metropolitan of Bulgaria in 1078;
wrote commentaries on the minor prophets
and on the greater part of the New Testa-
ment; d. ca. 1107.
Theosophy. The Theosophic Society,
or the Occultists, was organized in New
York, in 1875, by Madame Blavatsky, the
chief idea apparently being an amalga-
mation of Christianity and Buddhism,
to which end she and her followers had
been studying tlieArian and other Eastern
literature, religion, and sciences, also in-
vestigating the unexplained laws of na-
ture and the psychical powers of man.
The promoters of the cult promise a clear
insight into the immaterial, spiritual
world and power to perform miracles,
one of their aims also being the universal
brotherhood of humanity without distinc-
tion of race, creed, or color. That the
cult is blasphemous is evident even from
this summary, and we may summarize
its antagonism to Christianity under three
points. First, theosophy is pantheistic.
Its founder, Madame Blavatsky, says :
“We believe in a universal divine prin-
ciple, the root All.” Theosophy rejects
a personal God. It believes that God is
made up of everything. Horse and star
and tree and man are parts of the theoso-
phist’s god. Secondly, theosophy teaches
reincarnation. It says that we have three
souls, an animal soul, a human soul, and
a spiritual soul. The animal soul be-
comes, after a while, a wandering thing,
passing into other human beings. The
soul keeps wandering on and on and may
have innumerable different forms. It is
simply the old Hindu doctrine of the
transmigration of souls, slightly refined
to suit European and American tastes.
In a country where lizards and cows are
not worshiped it would hardly do to try
to proselyte people to the Hindu faith
that they or their children may be reborn
as lizards, cats, or cows! Hence, theos-
ophy confines reincarnation to the human
race. The third main point of theosophy
in its antagonism to the Christian re-
ligion is the doctrine of the so-called
“karma,” or the “doctrine of conse-
quences.” It was the doctrine of Buddha
and of Robert Ingersoll. It is the old
heathen fatalism in its barest form. Ac-
cording to the “karma,” men are under
the merciless law of cause and effect to
the extent that it is useless to repent;
for there is no one to forgive. It is all
a question of consequence, that’s all.
Hence there is no place for prayer, re-
pentance, and forgiveness in the theo-
sophic system.
In Madame Blavatsky’s Key to Theos-
ophy, a kind of catechism, written evi-
dently for simple - minded Christian
people, she makes use of the following
dialog: “Do you believe in God?” An-
swer: “That depends on what you mean
by the term.” “I mean,” says the in-
quirer, “the God of the Christians, the
Father of Jesus, and the Creator, — the
Biblical God of Moses, in short.” An-
swer : “In such a God we do not believe.”
According to the same text-book theoso-
phists profess to believe “in a universal
divine principle” (p. 61). Other quota-
tions from the Key, in which the un-
christian character of theosophy is re-
vealed, are the following : Question : “Do
you believe in prayer, and do you ever
pray?” Answer: “We do not. We act
instead of talking.” This is at least con-
sistent, since prayer presupposes a per-
sonal and living God. Question : “Then
you also reject resurrection in the flesh?”
Answer : “Most decidedly we do.” Theos-
ophy denies that there is eternal reward
or eternal punishment (p. 108). It re-
jects the vicarious atonement of Jesus
and the remission of sin (p. 196). It is
an antichristian cult. Doctor Talmage
once said of this sect: “The most won-
derful achievement of the theosophists is
that they keep out of the insane asylum.”
Anna S. Besant, having previously used
some dupes in a similar manner, has
Theses, tnther's Muety-rive 756
Theses, Luther's Ninety-Five
lately introduced to the world, and par-
ticularly to America, the “New Messiah,”
a Hindu by the name of Krishnamurti,
who is considered the “Vehicle of the
World Teacher,” and the World Teacher,
according to a published address of Mrs.
Besant, is “what the Christian means
when he speaks of Him who held the
office of the Christ.” Theosophy evidently
is one of the means used by Satan in
these last days of the world to lead many
into destruction and condemnation. Cp.
Monson, The Difference.
Theses, Ninety -Five, of Luther.
1. Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, in
saying: “Repent ye,” etc., intended that
the whole life of believers should be peni-
tence. 2. This word cannot be understood
of sacramental penance, that is, of the
confession and satisfaction which are
performed under the ministry of priests.
3. It does not, however, refer solely to
inward penitence; nay, such inward peni-
tence is naught unless it outwardly pro-
duces various mortifications of the flesh.
4. The penalty thus continues as long as
the hatred of self — that is, true inward
penitence — continues ; namely, till our
entrance into the kingdom of heaven.
5. The Pope has neither the will nor the
power to remit any penalties, except
those which he has imposed by his own
authority or by that of the canons. 6. The
Pope has no power to remit any guilt,
except by declaring or warranting it to
have been remitted by God, or at most
by remitting cases reserved for himself;
in which cases, if his power were de-
spised, guilt would certainly remain.
7. God never remits any man’s guilt,
without at the same time subjecting him,
humbled in all things, to the authority
of His representative, the priest. 8. The
penitential canons are imposed only on
the living, and according to them no bur-
den ought to be imposed on the dying.
9. Hence the Holy Spirit acting in the
Pope does well for us, in that, in his de-
crees, he always makes exception of the
article of death and of necessity. 10. Those
priests act wrongly and unlearnedly,who,
in the case of the dying, reserve the ca-
nonical penances for purgatory. 11. Those
tares about changing the canonical penal-
ties into the penalty of purgatory surely
seem to have been sown while the bishops
were asleep. 12. Formerly the canonical
penalties were imposed not after, but be-
fore absolution, as tests of true contri-
tion. 13. The dying pay all penalties by
death and are already dead to the canon
laws and are by right relieved from them.
14. The imperfect soundness or charity
of a dying person necessarily brings with
it great fear, and the less it is, the greater
the fear it brings. 15. This fear and hor-
ror are sufficient by themselves, to say
nothing of other things, to constitute the
pains of purgatory, since it is very near
to the horror of despair. 16. Hell, pur-
gatory, and heaven appear to differ as
despair, near-despair, and peace of mind
differ. 17. With souls in purgatory, seem-
ingly, it must needs be so, that, as horror
diminishes, charity increases. 18. Nor
does it seem to be proved, by any reason-
ing or any Scriptures, that they are
outside of the state of merit or of the in-
crease of charity. 19. Nor does this ap-
pear to be proved that they are sure and
confident of their own blessedness, at least
not all of them, though we may be very
sure of it. 20. Therefore the Pope, when
he speaks of the plenary remission of all
penalties, does not mean simply of all,
but only of those imposed by himself.
21. Thus those preachers of indulgences
are in error who say that, by the indul-
gences of the Pope, a man is loosed and.
saved from all punishment. 22. For in
fact he remits to souls in purgatory no
penalty which, according to the canons,
they would have had to pay in this life.
23. If any entire remission of all penal-
ties can be granted to any one, it is cer-
tain that it is granted to none but the;
most perfect, that is, to very few. 24. Hence;
the greater part of the people must needs 1
be deceived by this indiscriminate and
high-sounding promise of release from
penalties. 25. The same powers which
the Pope has over purgatory in general,
every bishop has in his own diocese, and,;
in particular, every curate in his own;
parish. 26. The Pope acts most rightly
in granting remission to souls, not by the’
power of the keys (which is of no avail*
in this case), but by way of suffrage, 1
27. They preach human doctrine who say
that the soul flies out of purgatory as
soon as the money thrown into the chest
rattles. 28. It is certain that, when the
money rattles in the chest, avarice and
gain may be increased, but the suffrage
of the Church depends on the will of God
alone. 29. Who knows whether all the
souls in purgatory desire to be redeemed
from it, according to the story told of
Saints Severinus and Paschal? 30. No
man is sure of the reality of his own
contrition, much less of the attainment
of plenary remission. 31. Rare as is atrue
penitent, so rare is one who truly buys
indulgences, that is to say, most rare.
32. Those who believe that through let-
ters of pardon they are made sure of
their own salvation will be eternally
damned along with their teachers. 33. We
must especially beware of those who say
that these pardons from the Pope are
Theses, Luther’s Ninety-Five 757 Theses, Luther’s Ninety-Five
that inestimable gift of God by which
man is reconciled to God. 34. For the
grace conveyed by these pardons has re-
spect only to the penalties of sacramen-
tal satisfaction, which are of human ap-
pointment. 35. They preach no Christian
doctrine who teach that contrition is not
necessary for those who buy souls out of
purgatory or buy confessional licenses.
36. Every Christian who feels true com-
punction over his sins has plenary remis-
sion of pain and guilt, even without let-
ters of indulgence. 37. Every true Chris-
tian, whether living or dead, has a share
in all the benefits of Christ and of the
Church, given him by God, even without
letters of indulgence. 38. The remission,
however, imparted by the Pope is by no
means to be despised, since it is, as I have
said, a declaration of divine remission.
39. It is a most difficult thing, even for
the most learned theologians, to exalt be-
fore the people the great riches of indul-
gences and, at the same time, the neces-
sity of true contrition. 40. True contri-
tion seeks and loves punishment, while
tire ampleness of pardon relaxes it and
causes men to hate it or at least gives
them occasion for them to do so. 41. Apos-
tolic pardons ought to be purchased with
caution, lest the people falsely suppose
that they are to be preferred to other
good works of charity. 42. Christians
should be taught that it is not the mind
of the Pope that the buying of indul-
gences is to be in any way compared with
works of mercy. 43. Christians should
be taught that he who gives to a poor
man or lends to a needy man does better
than if he buys indulgences. 44. For by
a work of charity, charity increases, and
man becomes better, while by means of
indulgences he does not become better,
but only freer from punishment. 45. Chris-
tians should be taught that he who sees
any one in need and, passing him by,
gives money for indulgences is not pur-
chasing the indulgence of the Pope, but
calls down upon himself the wrath of
God. 46. Christians should be taught
that, unless they have superfluous wealth,
they are bound to keep what is necessary
for the use of their own households and
by no means to lavish it on indulgences.
47. Christians should be taught that, while
they are free to buy indulgences, they
are not commanded to do so. 48. Chris-
tians should be taught that the Pope, in
granting indulgences, has both more need
and more desire that devout prayer should
be made for him than that money should
be freely paid. 49. Christians should be
taught that the Pope’s indulgences are
useful if they do not put their trust in
them, but most hurtful, if through them
they lose the fear of God. 50. Christians
should be taught that, if the Pope knew
of the exactions of the preachers of in-
dulgences, he would rather see the Ba-
silica of St. Peter burned to ashes than
that it should be built up with the skin,
flesh, and bones of his sheep. 61. Chris-
tians should be taught that the Pope, as
is his duty, would rather, if necessary,
sell the Basilica of St. Peter and give of
bis own money to those from whom the
preachers of indulgences extract money.
52. Vain is the hope of salvation through
letters of indulgence, even if a commis-
sary, — nay, the Pope himself, — were to
pledge his own soul for them. 53. They
are enemies of Christ and of the Pope
who, in order that indulgences may be
preached, condemn the Word of God to
utter silence in their churches. 54. Wrong
is done to the Word of God when in a ser-
mon as much time is spent on indulgences
as on God’s Word, or even more. 55. The
mind of the Pope cannot but be that, if
indulgences, which are a very small mat-
ter, are celebrated with single bells, single
processions, and single ceremonies, the
Gospel, which is a very great matter,
should be preached with a hundred bells,
a hundred processions, and a hundred
ceremonies. 56. The treasures of the
Church, whence the Pope grants indul-
gences, are neither sufficiently named or
known among the people of Christ. 57. It
is clear that they are at least not tem-
poral treasures; for these are not so
readily lavished, but only accumulated
by many of the preachers. 68. Nor are
they the merits of Christ and of the
saints; for these, independently of the
Pope, are always working grace to the
inner man and the cross, death, and hell
to the outer man. 59. St. Lawrence said
that the treasures of the Church are the
poor of the Church; but he spoke accord-
ing to the use of the word in his time.
60. We are not speaking rashly when we
say that the keys of the Church, bestowed
through the merits of Christ, are that
treasure. 61. For it is clear that the
power of the Pope alone is sufficient for
the remission of penalties and of reserved
cases. 62. The true treasure of the Church
is the Holy Gospel of the glory and grace
of God. 63. This treasure, however, is
deservedly most hateful because it causes
the first to be the last. 64. But the trea-
sure of indulgences is deservedly the most
acceptable because it causes the last to
be the first. 65. Hence the treasures of
the Gospel are nets wherewith of old they
have fished for men of means. 66. The
treasures of indulgences are nets where-
with they now fish for the means of men.
67. Those indulgences which the preachers
Theses, Luther’s Ninety-Five 758
Theses, Madison
loudly proclaim to be the greatest graces
are seen to be truly such as regard the
promotion of gain. 68. Yet they are in
reality in no degree to be compared with
the grace of God and the piety of the
Cross. 69. Bishops and curates ought to
receive the commissaries of apostoli,c
pardons with all reverence. 70. But they
are still more bound to open their eyes
and ears lest these men preach their own
dreams in place of the Pope’s commission.
71. He who speaks against the truth of
apostolic pardons, let him be anathema
and accursed. 72. But he, on the other
hand, who is seriously concerned about
the wantonness and licenses of speech of
the preachers of pardons, let him be
blessed. 73. As the Pope justly thunders
against those who use any kind of con-
trivance to the injury of the traffic in
pardons, 74. Thus, indeed, much more, it
is his intention to thunder against those
who, under the pretext of granting in-
dulgences, use contrivances to the injury
of holy charity and of truth. 75. To think
that papal indulgences have such power
that they could absolve a man even if, —
to mention an impossibility, — he had
violated the Mother of God, is madness.
76. We affirm, on the contrary, that pa-
pal indulgences cannot take away even
the least of venial sins as regards its
guilt. 77. The saying that, even if St. Pe-
ter were now Pope, he could grant no
greater graces, is blasphemy against St.
Peter and the Pope. 78. We affirm, on
the contrary, that both he and any other
Pope has greater graces to grant, namely,
the Gospel, powers, gifts of healing, etc.
1 Cor. 12, 6. 9. 79. To say that the cross
set up among the insignia of the papal
arms is of equal power with the cross of
Christ is blasphemy. 80. Those bishops,
curates, and theologians who allow such
discourses to have currency among the
people will have to render an account
for this. 81. This license in the preach-
ing of pardons makes it no easy thing,
even for learned men, to protect the rev-
erence due to the Pope against the cal-
umnies or, at all events, the keen ques-
tioning of the laity. 82. For instance:
Why does not the Pope empty purgatory
for the sake of most holy charity and of
the supreme necessity of souls, — this be-
ing the most just of all reasons, — if he
redeems an infinite number of souls for
the sake of that most perishable thing,
money, to be spent on building a basil-
ica — - this being a very slight reason ?
83. Again: Why do funeral masses and
anniversary masses for the deceased con-
tinue, and why does not the Pope return,
or permit the withdrawal of, funds be-
queathed for this purpose, since it is
wrong to pray for those who are already
redeemed ? 84. Again : What new kind of
holiness of God and the Pope is it to per-
mit an impious man and an enemy of
God, for money’s sake, to redeem a pious
soul, which is loved by God, and not
rather to redeem this pious soul, which
is loved by God, out of free charity, for
the sake of its own need? 85. Again:
Why is it that the penitential canons,
long since abrogated and dead in them-
selves, in very fact and because of non-
use, are still redeemed with money,
through the granting of indulgences, as
if they were still valid. 86. Again: Why
does not the Pope, whose riches are at
this day more ample than those of the
wealthiest of the wealthy, build the one
Basilica of St. Peter with his own money
rather than with that of poor believers?
87. Again: Why does the Pope grant in-
dulgences to those who, through perfect
contrition, have a right to plenary remis-
sions and indulgences? 88. Again: How
much greater would be the benefit accru-
ing to the Church if the Pope, instead of
once, as he does now, would bestow these
remissions and indulgences a hundred
times a day on any one of the faithful?
89. Since it is the salvation of souls,
rather than money, that the Pope seeks
by granting indulgences, why does he
suspend the letters and indulgences
granted long ago, since they are equally
efficacious? 90. Repressing these scruples
and arguments of the laity by force alone
and not solving them by giving reasons
for so doing is to expose the Church and
the Pope to the ridicule of their enemies
and to make Christian men unhappy.
91. If, then, indulgences were preached
according to the spirit and mind of the
Pope, all these questions would be re-
solved with ease; nay, they would not
exist. 92. Away, then, with all those
prophets who say to the people of Christ,
“Peace, peace!” though there is no peace.
93. Blessed be all those prophets who say
to the people of Christ, “The cross, the
cross,” and there is no cross. 94. Chris-
tians should be exhorted to strive to fol-
low Christ, their Head, through pain,
death, and hell; 95. And thus to enter
heaven through many tribulations rather
than in the security of peace.
Theses, Altenburg; Thirteen, see
articles.
Theses, Madison, or the Madison
Agreement. A series of propositions or
articles of agreement adopted at Madi-
son, Wis., in 1912, and intended as a
basis of union between the various Nor-
wegian Lutheran church-bodies of Amer-
ica. The text is as follows: “1) The
Theses, Madison
759
Theses, Madison
Synod and United Church Committees
on Union acknowledge unanimously and
without reservation the doctrine of Pre-
destination, which is stated in the Elev-
enth Article of the Formula of Concord
(the so-called ‘first form of the doctrine’)
and in Pontoppidan’s Explanation (Sand-
hed til Cudfrygtighed) , Question 548
(the so-called ‘second form of the doc-
trine’ ) . 2 ) Whereas the conferring
church-bodies acknowledge that Art. XI
of the Formula of Concord presents the
pure and correct doctrine of God’s Word
and the Lutheran Church regarding the
election of the children of God to salva-
tion, it is deemed unnecessary to church
union to construct new and more exten-
sive theses concerning this article of
faith. 3) But since, in regard to the
doctrine of Election, it is well known
that two forms of the doctrine have been
used, both of which have been recognized
as correct in the orthodox Lutheran
Church, viz., that some, with the Formula
of Concord, make the doctrine of Elec-
tion to comprise the entire salvation of
the elect from the calling to the glo-
rification (cf. Thorough Explanation,
Art. XI, §§ 10 — 12) and teach an election
‘to salvation through sanctification by
the Spirit and faith in the truth,’ while
others, like Pontoppidan, in consonance
with John Gerhard, Scriver, and other
acknowledged doctrinal fathers, define
Election specifically as the decree of final
glorification, with the Spirit’s work of
faith and perseverance as, its necessary
postulate, and teach that ‘God has or-
dained to eternal life all those who from
eternity He foresaw would accept the
proffered grace, believe in Christ, and
remain steadfast in this faith unto the
end’; and since neither of those two
forms of doctrine, presented in this wise,
contradicts any doctrine revealed in the
Word of God, but lets the order of sal-
vation, as otherwise presented in God’s
Word and the Confession of the Church,
remain entirely intact and fully acknowl-
edged, — we find that this fact ought
not to be divisive of church unity, nor
ought it disrupt that unity of Spirit in
the bond of peace which God wills should
obtain between us. 4) Since, however,
during the doctrinal controversy among
us, words and expressions have been used
— rightly or wrongly attributed to one
party or the other — which seemed to the
other side a denial of the Confession of
the Church or to lead to such denial, we
have agreed to reject all erroneous doc-
trines which seek to explain away the
mystery of Election (Formula of Con-
cord, Art. XI, §§ 39 — 44) either in a
synergistic manner or in a Calvinizing
way; in other words, we reject every
doctrine which either, on the one hand,
would rob God of His honor as the only
Savior or, on the other, would weaken
man’s sense of responsibility in respect
of the acceptance or rejection of God’s
grace. 5) On the other hand, we reject:
a) The doctrine that God’s mercy and
the most holy merits of Christ are not
the sole reason for our election, but that
there is also in ourselves a reason for
such election, for the sake of which God
has ordained us to eternal life; b) the
doctrine that in election God has been
determined by, or has taken into account,
or has been actuated by, man’s good
conduct, or by anything which man is
or may do or omit to do, ‘as of himself
or by his own natural powers’; c) the
doctrine that the faith in Christ which
is indissolubly connected with election is
wholly or in part a product of, or de-
pendent upon, man’s own choosing, power,
or ability; d) or that this faith is the
result of a power and ability imparted to
man by the call of grace, and therefore
now dwelling in, and belonging to, the
unregenerate man, to decide himself for
grace. 6) On the other hand, we reject:
a) The doctrine that in election God acts
arbitrarily and without motive and picks
out and counts a certain arbitrary num-
ber of indiscriminate individuals and
ordains these to conversion and salva-
tion, while passing by all the others;
b) the doctrine that there are two dif-
ferent kinds of will regarding salvation
in God, one revealed in the Scriptures
in the general order of salvation, and
another, differing from this and unknown
to us, which relates only to the elect
and imparts a deeper love, a more effec-
tive call from God, and a larger measure
of grace than are brought to him who
remains in unbelief and condemnation ;
c) the doctrine that, when the resistance
which God in conversion removes from
those whom He saves is not taken away
in others, who finally are lost, this dif-
ferent result finds its cause in God and
in a differing will of salvation in His act
of election; d) the doctrine that a be-
liever can and ought to have an absolute
assurance of his election and salvation
instead of an assurance of faith built
upon the promise of Cod and joined with
fear and trembling by the possibility of
falling from grace, which, however, by
the mercy of God, he believes will not
become a reality in his case ; e ) in a
summary, all views and doctrines regard-
ing Election which directly or indirectly
come into conflict with the order of sal-
vation and do not give to all a full and,
therefore, equally great opportunity of
Thiele, Gottlieb A.
760
Thirty-Nine Articles
salvation, or which in any manner would
invalidate that word of God which de-
clares that ‘God will have all men to be
saved and come unto the knowledge of
the truth,’ in which gracious and merci-
ful will of God all election to eternal life
has its origin. On the basis of the above
Agreement the Committees on Union me-
morialize their respective church-bodies
to adopt the following resolution :
‘Whereas our Confessions determine that
“to the true unity of the Church it is
sufficient that there be agreement in the
doctrine of the Gospel and in the ad-
ministration of the Sacrament” ; and
whereas our former committees, by the
grace of God, have attained unity in the
doctrines concerning the Calling, Con-
version, and, in general, the Order of
Salvation, and we all confess as our sin-
cere faith that we are saved by grace
alone, without any cooperation on our
part; and whereas the negotiations of
our new committees have led to a satis-
factory agreement concerning the doc-
trine of Election and to an unreserved
and unanimous acknowledgment of the
doctrine of Election which is presented
in the Formula of Concord, “Thorough
Explanation,” Art. XI, and in Pontop-
pidan’s Fandhed til Qudfrygtighed, Ques-
tion 548, — now, therefore, be it resolved
that we declare hereby that the essential
unity concerning these doctrines which
now is attained is sufficient to church
union. May Almighty God, the Father
of our Lord Jesus Christ, grant us the
grace of His Holy Spirit that we all may
be one in Him and ever remain steadfast
in such Christian and God - pleasing
union ! Amen.’ ” — The position of the
Norwegian Synod’s committee was stated
as follows at the various district conven-
tions of 1912, which ratified the commit-
tee’s report : “Question 1 : Is there any-
thing in paragraph one ( § 1 ) which is es-
sentially different from paragraph three
(§3) of the ‘Agreement’? Answer: No.
Question 2: If we accept paragraph one
( § 1 ) , do we thereby accept the so-called
second form of the doctrine? Answer:
In the first paragraph no form is ac-
cepted, but the doctrine contained in two
forms. The Norwegian Synod’s commit-
tee accepts without reservation the first
form of the doctrine as that of Scripture
and the Confessions, but can nevertheless
recognize as brethren those who hold the
second form as seen in the light of the
subsequent paragraphs of the ‘Agree-
ment.’ ”
Thiele, Gottlieb A.; b. 1834; edu-
cated at Halle; missionary of Wisconsin
Synod 1864; pastor in Wisconsin until
elected professor at Milwaukee Seminary
1887; resigned 1900; pastor in West
Allis, Wis.; d. 1919.
Thilo, Valentin, 1607 — 62; studied
at Koenigsberg and Leyden; professor of
rhetoric in Koenigsberg 1632, colleague
of Simon Dach ; wrote : “Mit Ernst,
o Menschenkinder.”
Thirty-Nine Articles. The confes-
sion of faith of the Church of England
and substantially also the creed of the
Protestant Episcopal Church in the
United States. As early as 1549 Cran-
mer drew up and circulated a series of
articles which were designed “to test the
orthodoxy of preachers and lecturers in
divinity.” These were objected to by
Hooper, who took issue especially with
the expression that “the Sacraments con-
fer grace.” About this time three promi-
nent reformers from the Continent were
staying in England: John ft Lasco, or
Laski, as preacher in London; Bucer, as
theological lecturer at Cambridge; Peter
Martyr, as professor at Oxford. The in-
fluence of these men, who were of the
Reformed type and who represented the
Reformed doctrine, was felt especially in
the revision of the Prayer-book and of
the Thirty-nine Articles , with regard to
which they were consulted to a greater
or less extent. On the settlement of doc-
trinal points, Cranmer also consulted
Calvin and Bullinger, and thus Reformed
influence came to prevail. In 1549 an
Act of Parliament was passed authoriz-
ing the king to appoint a commission of
32 persons to enact ecclesiastical laws,
and under this act a commission was ap-
pointed in 1551, among the members of
which were Cranmer, Ridley, Hooper,
Coverdale, Peter Martyr, and Justis
Hales. As a basis for the new confes-
sion, Cranmer laid before this body a
series of thirteen articles, taken chiefly
from the Augsburg Confession. On No-
vember 24, 1552, “42 articles” were laid
before the royal council, and in March,
1553, before Convocation. The prepara-
tion of these articles was chiefly the
work of Cranmer and Ridley, the Augs -
burg Confession being both basis and
guide. Immediately after their publica-
tion, Edward VI died (July 6, 1553).
Under Queen Mary, Cranmer and Ridley
were beheaded, and Gardiner and the
papists took their places. In 1558 Mary
died, and soon after the accession of
Elizabeth Matthew Parker was made
Archbishop of Canterbury (1559). One
of his tasks was to restore and recast
the Forty-two Articles. Expunging some
parts and adding others and making free
use of both the Augsburg Confession and
the Wurttemberg Confession, he placed
Tholnok, F. A. G>.
761
Thomas Ahuinag
the revised draft before the Convocation,
which made some minor alterations and
finally adopted 38 articles (1562- — 3),
the 29th being omitted during printing.
In 1566 the bill was brought into Parlia-
ment for confirmation. Although passed
by the Commons, it was dropped by the
Lords. In 1571 the Convocation revised
the Articles of 1562, and in the same
year an act was passed by which, “for
the avoiding of diversities of opinion and
for the establishing of consent touching
true religion,” all ecclesiastical persons
were obliged to subscribe to them. In
1628 an English edition was published
by royal authority, to which is prefixed
a declaration of Charles I. The Thirty-
nine Articles give prominence to the dis-
tinctive tenets which sever the Church
of England from that of Rome. They
assail the supremacy of the Pope, the
asserted infallibility of the Church of
Rome and of the General Councils, the
enforced celibacy of the clergy, the denial
of the cup to the laity, transubstantia-
tion, and five out of the seven alleged
sacraments, purgatory, relics, the wor-
ship of images, and finally works of
supererogation. In many points the
Thirty-nine Articles lack both clearness
and distinctness, so that both Calvinists
and Arminians have claimed them in
their favor. Although the views on the
Sacraments are evidently meant to ex-
press Calvinistic doctrine, here, as in
other places, the Confessions, rising as
a compromise between Lutheran and
Calvinistic views, lack clearness. Assent
to the Articles is required from every one
who aspires to the office of clergyman in
the English Church.
Tholuck, Friedrich August Gott-
treu; b. at Breslau 1799; d. at Halle
1877 ; studied at Breslau and under Me-
ander in Berlin; converted to faith in
Christ as his personal Savior especially
through his intercourse with Baron von
Kottwitz ; professor at Berlin ; professor
at Halle and preacher to the university;
wrote commentaries on John, Romans,
and Hebrews, also a number of histor-
ical works, and was a contributor to
Hengstenberg’s Kirchensieitung . He fa-
vored the Prussian “Union,” fought the
rationalismus vulgaris in rationalistic
Halle, but was bitter against the Lu-
theran Orthodoxie. He won many stu-
dents over from Gesenius and Weg-
scheider for Christ — the “Students’
Father.”
Thoma, Hans, 1839 — 1924; with Geb-
hardt and Steinhausen exponent of mod-
ern German realism, but with a great
deal of charm and feeling; one of his
earlier paintings '“Christ and Nicode-
mus”; two of his latest paintings “The
Sinking Peter” and “The Risen Christ
and Mary Magdalene,” notable for ex-
quisite detail work and fine coloring.
Thomas a Kempis, 1379—1471;
a German mystic; b. in Kempen, near
Cologne. His true name was Haemmer-
ken (Malleolus). A member of the order
of the Brethren of the Common Life
(q. v . ), he entered the monastery of
Mount St. Agnes near Zwolle, where he
spent seventy-one years in cloistral se-
clusion. His best-known work is his
De Imitatione Christi, which, in general
a product of Mysticism, has won the ap-
proval of the Roman Catholic Church
and from a somewhat different viewpoint
has appealed to a large number of Prot-
estants. It has four chapters : “Ad-
monitions Useful for a Spiritual Life,”
“Admonition Concerning the Interior
Life,” “Concerning the Holy Commu-
nion,” “Of Interior Consolation.” There
is, indeed, much in this book that is
beautiful and true. The apparent sin-
cerity and singleness of heart of the
author, the admonitions to a holy life,
always striking a responsive chord in
the Christian heart, the fact that the
book is saturated with the Scriptures,
and the undoubted tendency of many
Protestant readers to understand what
they read in the light of their better
Christian knowledge — all this serves to
explain the evident popularity of this
book during more than four centuries.
But it is, after all, a product of Roman
Catholic theology; for Thomas it Kempis
was admittedly under the influence of
Thomas Aquinas, the recognized dogma-
tician of the Roman Catholic Church.
He stresses sanctification without direct-
ing the sinner to the doctrine of justifi-
cation, demands the practise of complete
self-denial for the purpose of meriting
salvation, and, though speaking of
Christ’s sacrifice for the sins of the
world, fails to point out that by faith
alone Christ’s merits are appropriated
unto the sinner. Thus the book is anti-
Scriptural in its concepts and Thomas
ft Kempis withal a true son of Rome.
Thomas Aquinas (Doctor Angelicus),
“Prince of Scholastic Theologians.” B. ca.
1226 near Aquino, a town between Rome
and Maples, he became a member of the
Dominican order in 1243, studied under
Albertus Magnus at Cologne, and was
appointed instructor there in 1248. He
now began to publish his first works,
commentaries on the ethics and the phi-
losophy of Aristotle. In 1252 he was
sent to Paris, where he and his friend,
the Franciscan Bonaventura, obtained
their degree of doctor. In 1261 Urban IV
Thomas Christiana
Tillotson, John
tea
called him to Italy to teach in Rome,
Bologna, and Pisa. Until his death
Aquinas enjoyed the highest esteem in
the Church. His scholars called him the
“Angelic Doctor,” and the Dominicans
were zealous in the defense of his doc-
trines. He wrote extensively on Cath-
olic doctrine and morals, and his works
enjoyed a high reputation for clearness
and completeness. His Summa Theolo-
giae remains to this day the standard
authority in the Roman Church, opposed
only by the Scotists of the Franciscan
order and by a school of Jesuit theology.
Death came suddenly to Aquinas while
he was on the way to a council at Lyons
(1274). He was canonized in 1323 and
proclaimed a “Doctor of the Church” in
1567.
Thomas Christians. See India and
Missions.
Thomas, John, English physician and
founder of Christadelphians ( q. v. ) ;
b. 1805 in London; came to America
1832; joined Disciples of Christ, but
believing that all churches taught false
doctrines, left that denomination, pub-
lished his own views, and organized his
followers, whom he called Christadel-
phians; d. 1871 in New York.
Thomas, W. H. Griffith, 1861 — ;
Anglican; b. in England; priest 1885;
vicar of St. Paul’s ; principal of Wycliff
Hall, Oxford; professor of Old Testa-
ment Wycliff College, Toronto, 1910;
author ; conservative theologian.
Thomasius, Christian; b. 1655, d. 1728
at Halle; studied philosophy and juris-
prudence; at first Privatdozent at Leip-
zig; because of satirical criticism of
theologians and scholars banished from
the university; through Elector Fred-
erick III of Brandenburg called to Halle
in 1690; external contact with the pie-
tism of Spener and Francke did not in-
fluence him internally; one of the fore-
most pioneers of Enlightenment ( q . v.)
and the exponent and advocate of Ter-
ritorialism in church polity; opposed
punishment for witchcraft and the appli-
cation of torture. See also Territorial
System.
Thomasius, Gottfried; b. 1802, d. at
Erlangen 1875; positive Lutheran theo-
logian; studied at Erlangen, Halle, and
Berlin ; spent seventeen years as pastor
at different places; in 1842 called to Er-
langen as professor of dogmatics, where
he exerted great influence also as uni-
versity preacher; his chief work, Christi
Person und Werk, marred by his kenotic
error. See Kenosis.
Thomists. See Scholasticism.
Thorn, Massacre of. The judicial
murder of ten of the leading citizens of
the Protestant city of Thorn, in Poland,
in 1724. Enraged by the insolent bear-
ing of the Jesuit students on the occasion
of a religious procession, a Protestant
mob stormed and destroyed the Jesuit
college of the town, though without en-
dangering human life. The responsibility
for the act was charged by the Jesuits
upon the city authorities, and the legal
proceedings that followed issued in the
death penalty against the accused.
Thorwaldsen, Albert Bartholomew,
1770 — 1845; greatest Danish sculptor;
studied at Copenhagen, where he gained
the first gold medal in sculpture; then
in Rome, where he came under the in-
fluence of Canova; many subjects from
classical mythology, but also “Christ and
the Twelve Apostles,” “Come unto Me,”
“St. John Preaching in the Wilderness,”
and “The Angel of Baptism.”
Thring, Godfrey, 1823 — 1903, edu-
cated at Oxford; held a number of posi-
tions, as clergyman; published a number
of poetical works; among his hymns:
“Jesus Came, the Heav’ns Adoring”;
“Lord of Power, Lord of Might.”
Thrupp, Adelaide. Contributed one
hymn to Joseph Thrupp’s Psalms and
Hymns, namely: “Lord, who at Cana’s
Wedding-feast.”
Tiara. See Pope.
Tibet ( Thibet ) . Country in Central
Asia, under Chinese sovereignty. Area,
estimated, 463,200 sq. mi. Population,
ca. 2,000,000, of Mongolian stock. Bud-
dhism, in the form of Lamaism, is the
dominating religion. Missions have been
repeatedly essayed, e. g., by Moravians,
Scandinavian Alliance, Christian and
Missionary Alliance, but all without
appreciable success.
Tibet, Religion of. See Lamaism.
Tiepolo, Giovanni Batista, 1692 to
1769; Italian painter, last of Venetian
school; modeled himself after Paul
Veronese; very productive, rich in
color, clear in drawing; noted for his
Old Testament pictures.
Tierra del Fuego. See South Amer-
ica, Argentina.
Tietze, Christoph, 1641 — 1703; stud-
ied at Altdorf and Jena; pastor at
Laubenzedel, then at Henfenfeld, finally
chief pastor at Hersbruck; wrote: “Ich
armer Mensch, ich armer Suender” ;
“Was ist unser Leben.”
Tillotson, John, 1630 — 94; Anglican
prelate; b. at Sowerby; rector; dean
of St. Paul’s; archbishop of Canterbury;
Tintoretto
763
Tolstoy, Count I,eo
d. in London. Famous preacher; com-
bated deism and Catholicism without
much success because himself a latitudi-
narian.
Tintoretto, real name Jacopo Robusti,
1518 — 94; devoted student of antique
sculpture and anatomy; rose to high
fame; very productive; most of his
compositions at Venice, among them
“The Crucifixion”; produced some out-
standing paintings.
Tischendorf, Konstantin; b. 1815,
d. at Leipzig 1874; most noted for his
researches of the Greek New Testament
text; found, February' 4, 1859, the Codex
Sinaiticus, a manuscript of the New Tes-
tament of the middle or end of the 4th
century, in the convent at Sinai (now
in Petrograd) ; became more and more
conservative toward the end of his life,
as seen especially in his pamphlet, When
Were Our Gospels Written t
Tithing. The tithe is the tenth part
of one’s income given as a religious
offering. In the Old Testament the tithe
was commanded by God Himself. Moses
ordained that “all the tithe of the land,
whether of the seed of the land or of the
fruit of the tree, is the Lord’s; it is
holy unto the Lord.” Lev. 27, 30. There
were two (or three) sorts of tithes: the
tithe paid to the Levites and priests,
Num. 28, 26. 27, and that paid for the
Lord’s feasts, Deut. 14, 22 if. (and per-
haps a third tithe every third year for
the poor, if this tithe has not already
been included in the second, Deut. 14,
28. 29 ) . In times of religious depression
the people neglected to pay tithes. Mai.
3, 7 — 12. In the New Testament tithing
is not enjoined; for this would be con-
trary to the Christian liberty which the
child of God enjoys under the Christian
dispensation. Thereby it is, however,
not said that the Christians of the New
Testament should not pay any tithes;
but if they do so, it must be done volun-
tarily. Individual Christians even to-
day pay tithes to the Lord. The average
contribution of Christians to-day falls
far short of the tenth part of their in-
come.
Titian, or Tiziano Vecellio, 1477 to
1576; distinguished Italian painter and
head of the Venetian School ; equally
notable in landscape and in figure paint-
ing, in sacred and in profane subjects,
in ideal heads and in portraits, in fres-
coes and in oils; among his paintings
“Assumption of the Virgin”; “The
Death of St. Peter the Martyr”; “Christ
in the Garden.”
Titius, Christoph. See Tietze.
Tobago Island. See Trinidad.
Togo. A former German colony in
West Africa. Area, 33,659 sq. mi. Pop-
ulation, approximately 1,100,000. After
the World War mandated to France and
Great Britain.
Tokens of Remembrance. Small
leaflets, folders, or booklets, also plaques
finished in an artistic manner, such as
tokens of confirmation, given by pastors
or sponsors in remembrance of the day
of confirmation.
Toland, John, English Deist; b. 1670
near Londonderry, Ireland; at first
Catholic; at the age of sixteen converted
to Protestantism; published Christian-
ity Not Mysterious, 1696, which marked
beginning of controversy between Deism
and orthodoxy; d. 1722 near London.
Toledo, Council of. Of the various
synods and councils held at Toledo, in
Spain, which was a prominent ecclesias-
tical city in the early centuries, that of
the year 447, with its first pronunciation
of the doctrine of the Trinity and the
emphasis of the procession of the Holy
Spirit from the Father and the Son (see
Mlioquc Controversy ) , and that of 589,
when Recared I went over to the ortho-
dox Church and induced a considerable
number of his people to deny Arianism
(q.v.), and when Arianism was con-
demned in thirteen canons, are the most
important.
Toleration. Edict of Joseph II. An
edict promulgated in 1781 and granting
(with certain restrictions) freedom of
worship to the Lutheran and Reformed
churches of Austria. See Joseph II and
Josephinism ; Roman Catholic Church,
History of.
Tolstoy, Count Leo, Russian author;
b. 1828 near Tula, Central Russia; 1851
to 1856 army officer, taking part in
Crimean War; after that lived on fam-
ily estate; during last part of life re-
nounced use of his wealth and lived
as peasant; excommunicated by Holy
Synod 1901; d. 1910. After writing a
series of novels, among them War and
Peace and Anna Karenina, he devoted
himself to theological studies. He re-
jected the doctrines of the Trinity, deity
of Christ, atonement, original sin, as
well as all claims of Orthodox, Roman,
and Protestant churches and found the
essence of Christianity in the Sermon
on the Mount, laying special emphasis
on “Resist not evil.” Matt. 5, 39. In-
stitutions of civilization based on force,
e. g., prisons, police, army, navy, are im-
moral. Though he loved his people
passionately, his views are a curious
mixture of truth and error, mysticism,
fatalism, pessimism, Socialism, Main
Tonga Islands
764
Torre y, Reuben Archer
religious works: Critique of Dogmatic
Theology, 1882; Four Gospels Ha/rmon-
ized and Translated, 1882; What I Be-
lieve, 1884; The Kingdom of God Is
within You, 1893.
Tonga Islands, otherwise Friendly
Islands, under the protectorate of Great
Britain, consist of some 150 small
islands southwest of Samoa. Area, 385
sq. mi. Population, 23,000. Missions
were attempted as early as 1797 by the
L. M. S. The Wesleyans gained a foot-
ing in 1882. After the acceptance of
Christianity by Chief Taufaahan the
evangelization of the islands made rapid
progress. Friction between the king and
the Wesleyans led to the establishment
of the Free Church of Tonga. The king
(George) died in 1893, generally re-
spected. The natives are now Christians.
Anglicans and Roman Catholics have
also entered.
Tongues, Gift of. The New Testa-
ment contains references to the appear-
ance of the gift of tongues, not only at
Pentecost, but in connection with the
conversion of Cornelius, in connection
with the advent of the Holy Ghost at
Ephesus, and in connection with the
church at Corinth. It has been a much-
discussed question whether the speaking
in tongues of Acts 2, 4 ff. ; 19, 46 and
that of 1 Cor. 14 were the same phenom-
enon. At any event, both the gift of
speaking in tongues which the speaker
had never learned and the gift of speak-
ing in unknown tongues (unknown to
the audiences) were given for a purpose
in the days of the early Church, being,
like the miracles of apostolic days, a
witness to the supernatural origin of
Christianity. As that first age came to
its close, the extraordinary gifts dis-
appeared, one by one, from common use.
With the barriers of paganism broken
down, it was sufficient that the Spirit
of God should bear witness with the
spirits of those who were saved by faith
in that One who was lifted between the
heavens and the earth. John 16, 13;
Epli. 4, 21. He “shall bring all things
to your remembrance” that Christ has
spoken. John 14, 26, He testifies of
Jesus and His power to save. He con-
victs of sin. He witnesses to the fact
of a new birth. He gives power and
strength. He affords leadership and
guidance. He cleanses and purifies. The
gift of tongues has been claimed by
fanatics of every age: the Shakers, the
Irvingites, the Mormons, the Pentecostal
Church, the Assembly of God, Holy
Rollers, Full Gospel Mission. The gift
is generally manifested in a crowd and
in a scene of confusion and tumult. In
no case is there substantial evidence of
any sort that the persons who claimed
to speak by inspiration in other lan-
guages actually used other languages.
The testimony is universally that of the
person who claimed to have spoken in
“other tongues” or of interested wit-
nesses. Whenever men of any linguistic
knowledge have investigated the phenom-
ena, they have united in testifying that
the language spoken was indeed un-
known. These tongues are (in every
case that has come under critical ob-
servation) a jargon language, composed
of sounds an exact classification of which
it is impossible to make.
Tonsure ( Latin, tondere, “to shear” ) .
A round shaven spot on top of the head,
which distinguishes the Roman clergy
from the laity. It may be conferred on
boys as early as the eighth year as a
preparation for receiving holy orders.
The tonsure increases in size as the cleric
advances in dignity, the simple tonsure
having a diameter of about one and a
fourth inches, that of priests somewhat
over three inches. Monastic tonsures
are larger and sometimes leave only a
circle of hair. Tonsures must be re-
newed monthly.
Toplady, Augustus Montague, 1740
to 1778; educated at Westminster and
Dublin; at first pastor in Church of
England, later in Chapel of French Cal-
vinists in London; strongly Calvinistic,
often impulsive and reckless; but some
of his hymns and poetical pieces very
devout; wrote, among others, “Rock of
Ages.”
Torkillus, Reorus, holds the distinc-
tion of being the first Lutheran pastor
to labor within the present limits of the
United States; b. in Sweden 1599; came
to New Sweden on the Delaware with
the second expedition in 1639 (according
to Johnson, in 1640) ; ministered to the
colonists at Fort Christina (Wilming-
ton) until his death, September 7, 1643,
leaving his congregation in charge of
Campanius (q.v.)-, lies buried under
the “Old Swedes’ Church” at Wilming-
ton, the oldest Protestant church-build-
ing in the United States.
Torrey, Reuben Archer, 1856 — ;
Congregationalist; b. at Hoboken, N. J. ;
pastor in Ohio and Minnesota; super-
intendent of Moody Bible Institute 1889
to 1908 and pastor in Chicago; evan-
gelistic tour of the world, especially of
Great Britain and America; dean of
Bible Institute, Los Angeles, 1912; be-
lieves in the inerrancy of Scripture,
divinity and atonement of Christ, etc.;
Totemism
76S
Tract Societies
prolific writer, but with Chiliastic ten-
dencies.
Totemism, from totem, an Ojibway
Indian word. An ethnological phenom-
enon found in its fullest development
among North American Indians and ab-
origines of Australia. Also found among
Bantus of Africa, Dravidian peoples of
India, and in Melanesia, with isolated
eases elsewhere. Its characteristic fea-
tures are as follows. Tribes are sub-
divided into clans. Each clan has as-
sumed as an emblem a totem, which may
be a species of animal, as bear, wolf,
kangaroo, tortoise, or, less frequently, of
plants, or, rarely, of an inanimate object,
as sun, moon, cloud, rain, wind. Each
member of the clan believes himself in-
timately related to the species or object
which gives the clan its name, and in
some cases the totem is considered the
ancestor of the clan. The totem is an
object of respect and, as every animal
or plant of the particular species is con-
sidered a kinsman, friend, and ally of the
clan and the clan members identify them-
selves with the totem, it must not be
injured or killed, except in self-defense,
nor, as a rule, eaten. The clan members
owe one another mutual protection. In
some instances exogamy is a concomitant
feature of totemism, that is, men are not
permitted to marry women of the same
clan. No satisfactory explanation of the
origin of totemism has as yet been given.
The totem-poles of the Indians along the
northwestern American coast are posts
into which heads of animals and men
are carved, with the totem at the top.
Totenfest, Commemoration of the
Dead. A special Sunday, usually the
last Sunday of the church-year, devoted
to the remembrance of those who have
died in the course of the year. In the
time of Augustine the special offerings
and acts of charity done in the name of
the dead on that day were thought to
lie of value to the deceased. Much of
the superstitious belief concerning this
festival has been concentrated on All
Souls’ Day. The Lutheran Church, where
it has retained a day for the commemo-
ration of the dead, has eliminated all
superstitious features. Still, its obser-
vance is not proper, its establishment
being due to sentimental reasons. It is
contrary to the spirit of the church-year*
Tract Societies. The history of the
publication and dissemination of relig-
ious tracts dates back to the time of the
Reformation and even to the time before
the invention of printing. One of the
opponents of the Reformation is quoted
as having said: “The Gospelers of these
days do fill the realm with so many of
their noisome little books that they be
like to the swarms of locusts which did
infest the land of Egypt.” The Society
for Promoting Christian Knowledge was
established in England in 1701. The
Rev. John Wesley, in 1742, printed and
circulated religious tracts. The Society
for Promoting Religious Knowledge
among the Poor was organized in 1760.
Similar societies were founded in Edin-
burgh and Glasgow in 1756. In 1782
Wesley organized a Society for the Dis-
tribution of Religious Tracts among the
Poor. Wesley said: “Men wholly un-
awakened will not take the pains to read
the Bible. They have no relish for it.
But a small tract may engage their at-
tention for half an hour and may, by the
blessing of God, prepare them for going
forward.” Such tracts were published
by this society as Ten Short Sermons,
Tokens for Children, A Word to a
Swearer, A Word to a Drunkard, etc.
About 1790 Hannah More appeared as
a writer of popular tracts, such as that
entitled William Chip. During the first
year of her work she distributed two
million tracts. These attempts paved
the way for tract societies along broader
and better organized lines. In 1799 the
Religious Tract Society of London was
organized by the Rev. George Burder,
Joseph Hughes, and others. As a result
of the work of this organization the
British and Foreign Bible Society came
into existence. Other tract societies of
Great Britain are: The Religious Tract
and Book Society of Scotland, dating
back to 1793; the Stirling Tract Enter-
prise, founded in 1848; the Dublin Tract
Society ; and the Monthly Tract Society
of London, organized 1837. — Many tract
societies are found in other countries of
Europe, India, China, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, West Indies,
Canada, and the United States. In the
United States such tract societies as the
following were organized : Massachu-
setts Society for the Promotion of Chris-
tian Knowledge, 1803; Connecticut Re-
ligious Tract Society, 1807 ; Vermont
Religious Tract Society, 1808; The
Protestant Episcopal Tract Society, 1809;
New York Religious Tract Society, 1812;
Evangelical Tract Society, Boston, 1813;
Albany Religious Tract Society, 1813;
New England Tract Society, 1814; Re-
ligious Tract Society of Philadelphia,
1815; Religious Tract Society of Balti-
more, 1816; New York Methodist Tract
Society, 1817 ; Baptist General Tract
Society, 1824; American Tract Society,
Boston, 1823; American Tract Society,
New York, 1825; New York Tract So-
Tractariauftsm
766
Tradition
ciety, 1827 ; New York City Mission
and Tract Society, 1864; Willard Tract
Society, Boston, 1866; Monthly Tract
Society of the United States, New York,
1874. The New England Tract Society,
organized in 1814, became in 1823 the
American Tract Society, with headquar-
ters in Boston. In 1878 this was merged
in the American Tract Society, which
had been organized in New York as early
as 1825, thus doing away with the con-
fusion which arose from having two
societies of the same name. The Baptist
General Tract Society, organized in
Washington in 1824, was transferred to
Philadelphia and in 1840 became the
American Baptist Publication Society.
The New York Methodist Tract Society,
organized in 1817, later became incor-
porated as the Tract Society of the
Methodist Episcopal Church. — The
American Tract Society has a large
establishment in Nassau Street, New
York. It has, in the course of years,
put out tons of tracts, periodicals, vol-
umes of biography, history, and helps to
Biblical study, especially in English, but
also in German, French, Spanish, Italian,
Portuguese, Swedish, Welsh, Dutch, Dan-
ish, Finnish, and Hungarian. The so-
ciety has become distinguished for its
work of colportage. The dissemination
of the Gospel-truth by means of tracts
is to be commended.
Tractarianism, sometimes called the
Oxford Movement, is the name given to
the Catholic revival in the Church of
England which commenced at Oxford in
1833 by the publication of Tracts for
the Times. The leaders of the movement
were John Keble and John Henry New-
man. At a meeting of several of the
clergy of the Church of England, Rev.
Newman suggested the idea of the Tracts
for the Times, which was adopted. Dur-
ing the following eight years ninety
tracts were published. The general
teaching of the Tractarians included
ajmstolic succession, baptismal regenera-
^b>, confession, the real presence, the
■jMfhority of the Church, and the value
of tradition. In 1843 Newman resigned
his incumbency in the state church of
England and was received into the Ro-
man Church in September, 1845. With
his secession, Tractarianism came to an
end. The effects of the movement were :
1 ) a revival and strengthening of the
High Church section of the Established
Church; 2) increase of learning, piety,
and devoutness among the clergy ;
3 ) establishment of sisterhoods and
other religious and charitable institu-
tions; 4) development of ritual, as
symbolic of Catholic doctrine; 5) a large
secession of English clergy and laity to
Rome. See also Oxford Tracts.
Tractus. A sequence or anthem sub-
stituted for the Hallelujah after the
Gradual, especially in the Roman liturgy,
for the time between Septuagesima and
Easter Eve; not treated antiphonally,
but sung as a solo.
Tradition. The Roman Church (also
the Greek) claims that the Bible does
not contain all that belongs to faith and
discipline, but that some matters were
passed down from Christ and the apos-
tles by word of mouth and were not
committed to writing till later ages. The
Council of Trent (Sess. IV) declares that
it “receives and venerates with an equal
affection of piety and reverence all the
books of the Old and the New Testa-
ments, ... as also the said traditions, as
well those appertaining to faith aB to
morals.” To this Pandora’s box of tra-
ditions the Roman Church appeals for
justification of those doctrines and prac-
tises which no sleight of exegesis can
deduce from the Bible, such as the doc-
trines of purgatory, indulgences, venera-
tion of saints. It guards against the
difficulties that must arise from conflict-
ing and unfavorable tradition by reserv-
ing to itself the right to declare author-
itatively what is, and what is not,
trustworthy tradition. Jesuit theology
defines that “tradition is what has been
taught as such in the Church of Rome.”
The matter is still further simplified
under the infallibility dogma. Pius IX
declared, “I am tradition,” and wrote
the archbishop of Cologne that the fact
that a dogma is defined by the Pope is
sure and sufficient proof for all that it
is founded in Scripture and tradition,
In other words, both Scripture and tra-
dition are disfranchised in the Roman
Church, and the Pope casts their votes
as he will. — Tradition, as far as it is
authentic, is not without value or in-
terest, but it is of purely human author-
ity and therefore cannot be ranged with
the divine Word. Romanists operating
with such passages as 2 Thess. 2, 15,
where the word refers to Paul’s own
preaching, are guilty of a most trans-
parent blunder. They may, however, be
justly referred to Matt. 15, 1 — 9 and
Mark 7, 7—13 whenever, from tradition,
they uphold what is either contrary to
tfie Bible or foreign to it. The strictures
which Jesus there applies to Jewish tra-
dition apply with equal force to Romish
tradition, for the cases are exactly par-
allel. The sanctions invoked and the
arguments advanced are the same, and
in both cases the adherence to tradition
has corrupted the divine truth.
'f'raiiuciani&m
Transmigration of Sonia
Traducianism. The teaching that
the soul of the individual is not a new
creation, but is derived from the parents.
While not distinctly stated in Scripture,
it is preferred to the doctrine of Crea-
tionism, (q.v.), as on the latter sup-
position it is difficult to account for the
transmission of sin (natural depravity,
original sin) from parents to offspring.
Training of Children. To train is
to raise to a requisite standard, as of
skill, knowledge, conduct, by protracted
and systematic instruction and practise.
Physical training consists in a series of
carefully arranged bodily exercises, reg-
ularly repeated, aims to develop the body
and to improve the physical condition in
general. It is very necessary for chil-
dren and should receive some attention
in all schools (Rechlin’s Manual). Vo-
cational training, which aims to prepare
for a certain vocation, or profession, lies
not within the sphere of the common
school, but usually sets in later. Intel-
lectual training aims to develop the in-
tellect, the thinking and reasoning facul-
ties of the child, and is one of the chief
objects of instruction. Instruction im-
parts knowledge, which may also be ob-
tained by mere memoriter work. Chil-
dren are very apt to work that way.
Memory should, therefore, be trained
from early youth. The teacher must at
once begin to train also the intellect;
he must not merely present facts and
results to be memorized, but through
questions lead the child to think about
the why and how and wherefore. Such
thought questions will train the intel-
lect. Catechism, arithmetic, and gram-
mar afford excellent opportunity for
intellectual training. Moral training, in
the wider sense, includes the training
of children in good manners by precept,
example, and habituation, so that at
home and in public they conduct them-
selves properly as well-bred children.
Put special emphasis must be placed on
moral training in its stricter sense, in-
asmuch as it molds and strengthens
character (Education). Moral training
is a concerted effort so to impress the
child by precept, example, and habitua-
tion that in its life it is ruled by certain
moral principles. A Christian moral
training or education aims to strengthen
the central principle of Christian char-
acter, faith, and to lead the child so that
it habitually manifests this faith in joy-
ful obedience to God’s Word. Childhood
is the formative period in life; the
deepest and most lasting impressions are
then made on mind and character. Every
reform movement, therefore, which is to
insure lasting results must begin with
the child. “Train up a child in the way
he should go, and when he is old, he will
not depart from it.” Prov. 22, 6. The
boy is father of the man; the man will
be what he was trained to be in child-
hood; the moral character of the next
generation depends upon the moral train-
ing the children of our day receive.
Hence the responsibility of all educators,
the necessity of Christian training, and
the importance of Christian day-schools.
Training-Schools for Teachers. See
Normal Schools.
Transmigration of Souls, or Me-
tempsychosis. The doctrine that the soul
at death passes into another body, that
of a human being, animal, or plant. This
widely prevalent belief is based on an
animistic conception of nature (see
Animism ) . If not only human beings,
but also animals, plants, and inanimate
objects have souls, these various forms
of existence must be on the same plane
and therefore may be interchangeable.
Metempsychosis is one of the most prom-
inent features of the religions of India,
where it has a distinctly ethical and
religious character. They teach that a
man is reborn to expiate sins committed
in previous lives. Thereby the soul is
purified until it finally returns to God,
its Source. This doctrine is not found in
the Rig-Veda,, but made its appearance
in India with the rise of Brahmanism
(q.v.). The latter teaches that at death
the soul is reincarnated immediately
either in a higher or lower state than
it previously had, depending upon the
deeds, whether good or evil, committed
in previous existences. The six orthodox
systems of Brahmanic philosophy have
each their own doctrine as to how sal-
vation, i. e., release from the continuous
round of rebirths with its concomitant
suffering, may be obtained. As Bud-
dhism (q.v.) denies the existence of the
soul, it also theoretically denies metemp-
sychosis, but teaches what practically is
the same thing, namely, that man’s
karma (q.v .) , i. e., his character entities,
or the ethical consequences of his deeds,
migrate and determine the state of
future existences and finally end in
nirvana ( q. v. ) . It is not definitely
known whether or not the Egyptians
believed in transmigration. Herodotus
asserts that they did, but no text has
thus far been found to support the asser-
tion, though the belief in metamorphosis,
that is, the magical change from human
to animal form, Was quite prevalent in
Egypt and forms the subject of several
chapters of the Book of the Dead. In
Greece, metempsychosis was taught by
the Orphics, Pythagoras and his school,
Transcendentalism
768 Trench, Richard Chenevix
Empedocles, and also by Plato, according
to whom the soul must migrate through
human and animal bodies for 10,000
years until it returns to the Deity, its
Source. Aristotle rejected the doctrine,
but it is found again in Neoplatonism,
in the teachings of several Gnostic sects
and of the Manicheans, and in the Tal-
mud and the Kabbala. The Talmudists
taught that, as God had created only
a certain number of Jewish souls, these
had to be reincarnated again and again,
sometimes even in the bodies of animals.
The doctrine was also held by the Celtic
Druids and early Teutons and is found
to-day among savage and barbarian
peoples in many parts of the earth. It
is a fundamental doctrine in modern
Theosophy. As this belief is totally at
variance with divine revelation, it has
always been rejected by the Christian
Church. Not identical with metempsy-
chosis, but related to it, is totemism
(q.v.) as well as the belief in metamor-
phosis. That human beings can be
changed to animals is a widely current
belief ( e . g., Circe turning men into
swine) and was found especially among
the old Germanic peoples. Numerous
evidences of this belief are found in Ger-
man and Scandinavian folk-lore ( e. g., in
Grimm’s Maerchen) . The old Germanic
peoples called a man turned into a wolf
a werewolf and one changed into a bear
or other wild beast a berserker. Lyean-
thropy is the term applied to this form
of metamorphosis.
Transcendentalism. Term applied
to the idealistic philosophy of Kant,
which attempts to explain the possibility
of having knowledge of principles that
transcend human experience. Applied
also to certain religious, philosophical,
and social teachings current in New En-
gland in the thirties and forties of the
19th century and centering in Ralph
Waldo Emerson (q.v.), who with several
others organized the Transcendental Club
(1836).
Transubstantiation. See Lord’s
Supper.
Transvaal, formerly the South Afri-
can Republic, a province in the Union
of South Africa within the British Em-
pire. Area, 110,450 sq. mi. Population,
2,985,837, of which 1,500,000 are natives
of African strain. The country was
taken from the Boers and annexed by
the British in 1902. Missions by the
Hermannsburg Mission (1857); the
Berlin Mission (1859); Wesleyan Meth-
odists (1871) ; Anglicans 1877. See
Africa, South.
Trappists (Order of Reformed Cister-
cians). A monastic order, stricter than
even the Carthusians, originating in a
Cistercian reform by Abbot de RancS
at the monastery of La Trappe in Nor-
mandy (ca. 1664). The monks rise at
two o’clock and devote eleven hours to
prayer and masses and five hours to
manual labor. From their two daily
meals, meat, fish, and eggs are rigidly
excluded. They may speak to superiors,
but never among themselves except by
signs. At night unbroken silence must
reign. There are 71 Trappist monasteries
with 4,000 members. Gethsemane Abbey,
in Kentucky, is the best-known of three
abbeys in this country.
Trautmann, Philipp Jakob; b. 1815
in Rhenish Bavaria; sent to America by
Pastor Loehe 1845; pastor in Dan-
bury, 0.; became a member of the Mis-
souri Synod at its first convention; pas-
tor in Adrian, Mich., 1850; retired 1882,
repeatedly supplying vacancies; d. 1900.
Travelers of America, Order of
United Commercial. This is a secret
fraternal beneficiary association, founded
in 1888 at Columbus, O. The order is
composed of a supreme body (Supreme
Council), state bodies (Grand Councils),
and local or subordinate bodies (Sub-
ordinate Councils ) . At present there are
29 Grand Councils, covering the entire
United States and Canada, and 583 Sub-
ordinate Councils, with a membership
of 189,430. A souvenir issued on the
occasion of the national convention at
Natchez, Miss., May, 1913, claims that
“the Order of United Commercial Trav-
elers of America is the only secret so-
ciety in the world composed exclusively
of members of one craft,” refers to the
order as the “commercial travelers’ ma-
sonry” (p. 9), and states that “meetings
of subordinate councils are held once or
twice a month for conferring the secret
work” (p. 11). The order has an “inner
circle,” called Ancient Mystic Order of
Bagmen of Bagdad, which was founded
in Cincinnati in 1892, with Subordinate
Guilds, reporting to the Imperial Guild
at Cincinnati. This order, too, has a
secret ritual (p. 15). On festive occa-
sions the members wear a uniform re-
sembling those of Turkish soldiers (p. 35),
Headquarters : Columbus, O.
Trench, Richard Chenevix, 1807 to
1886; Archbishop of Dublin (Anglican);
b. at Dublin; educated in England; pro-
fessor of New Testament exegesis at
Cambridge; dean of Westminster; arch-
bishop ; d. in London ; poet and scholar ;
wrote: New Testament Synonyms, etc.
Trent, Canones et Deereta
769
Trotasendorf, Valentin
Trent, Canones et Deereta. The of-
ficial resolutions of the Council of Trent,
the first general church council of the
Romish sect after the death of Luther,
held 1546 — 63. These resolutions repu-
diated practically all points of Gospel-
teaching. especially that of the justifi-
cation of a poor sinner by grace alone,
and definitely established the status of
the Church headed by the Pope of Rome
as of a sect, a fact which had first be-
come apparent at the Diet of Augsburg
in 1530. A good English edition of the
Canons and Decrees of the Council of
Trent is that by Waterworth. See also
following article.
Trent, The Council of. Convened,
with long interruptions, between 1545
and 1563. Counted by the Roman Cath-
olic Church among the ecumenical coun-
cils. Strictly speaking, it was nothing
more than a Roman synod, as neither the
Protestant nor Greek sections of Chris-
tendom were represented. Nor was it
even fairly representative of the Cath-
olic Church of Europe, since the greater
number of its members were Italian prel-
ates. Nevertheless the Council of Trent
is the most important assembly in the
history of the Latin Church. It marked
the beginning of the Roman Catholic
sect. It is the official answer to the
Protestant Reformation. It took stock
of the vast accumulation of doctrinal
Catholic heritage and stamped it with
the seal of final authority. It marked
off the domain of traditional Catholicism
as holy ground and pronounced an anath-
ema upon the wild steppes of heresy.
The last act of the council was a double
curse upon all heretics (anathema cun-
clis haereticis). Charles V, totally mis-
understanding the issues involved, fondly
hoped the council would bring about a
reconciliation between Catholics and
Protestants. Instead, it fixed an im-
passable gulf between them. Besides
formulating Catholic dogma, it intro-
duced wholesome disciplinary reforms,
which had long been recognized by
serious Catholics (including Adrian VI,
who “died of the papacy”) as a crying
necessity. An important result of the
council was a distinct increase in papal
power. The supremacy of councils or
of the collective episcopate, for centuries
a thorn in the flesh of the papacy and
still represented by a party at Trent,
gave way to the simpler theory that the
supreme authority resides in the person
of the Roman Pontiff. Chiefly under
Jesuit influence, the Council took the
stand that papal confirmation was nec-
essary for the validation of its decrees.
Thus jt is seen that the Council of Trent
Concordia Cyclopedia
pointed straight to the Vatican Council
of 1870, when papal infallibility was
formally promulgated as a dogma of the
Church. It also authorized the Pope to
draw up a list of books deemed unsound
and heretical. This resulted in the
famous Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(Index of Prohibited Books), which has
been steadily increasing to the present
day.
Tre Ore. In the Catholic Church the
three hours from 12 noon to 3 in the
afternoon on Good Friday, during which
the deepest silence is observed in com-
memoration of Christ’s suffering on the
cross. A procession is usually held, espe-
cially in large churches.
Tressler, V. J. A., 1866 — 1923; prom-
inent in the General Synod of the Lu-
theran Church and its president 1917 — 8;
held chair at Ansgar College, Wittenberg
College, and Hamma Divinity School.
Treves, Holy Coat of. See Holy
Coat of Treves.
Tridentine Creed. See Profession of
Faith.
Trinidad (and Tobago ), an island in
the West Indies, forming with Tobago a
British crown colony. Discovered and
named by Columbus 1498. Area, 1,863
sq. mi. Tobago, 114 sq. mi. Population,
in 1920, 391,278, mostly of Spanish and
Negro mixture. Missions by a number
of churches. Statistics: Foreign staff,
88; Christian community, 115,966; com-
municants, 20,913.
Trivium. See Liberal Arts.
Trisagium, or Seraphic Hymn. The
hymn of the Communion liturgy follow-
ing the Preface, based upon the song of
the seraphim, Is. 6, 3, but enlarged by
the greeting of the great Hallel, Ps. 118,
25. 26.
Troeltsch, Ernst, German Protestant
theologian; b. 1865 at Augsburg, taught
at universities of Goettingen, Bonn, Hei-
delberg, and since 1908 professor of Sys-
tematic Theology, Berlin, successor to
Pfleiderer; one of the founders of the
religionsgeschichtliche school ; d. 1925.
Troparia. See Hymn.
Trotzendorf ( Friedland ), Valentin;
b. 1490, d. 1556; one of the great Prot-
estant Schoolmen of the Reformation
period; studied under Luther and Me-
lanchthon; became rector of the Latin
school at Goldberg, Silesia, 1531. Under
his direction the school became very
famous and attracted hundreds of stu-
dents. It was purely humanistic ; Latin,
Greek, and Religion were the only sub-
jects of instruction; the use of any lan-
49
Tru her, Primus
770
Turkey, Republic of
guage but Latin in conversation was pro-
hibited. A series of calamities broke up
the school in 1554.
Truber, Primus; b. 1508; preached
in German and Wendish, or Slovenian,
at Laibach; had Wendish Catechisms
and commentaries printed in Germany
and thus founded Protestantism in
Krain; twice exiled; d. in Wurttemberg
1586.
Trumbull, Henry Clay; b. at Ston-
ington, Conn., 1830, d. 1903; American
author and clergyman in the Congrega-
tional Church; army chaplain during
the Civil War; 1875 editor of the Sun-
day-school Times; wrote: War Memories
of an Army Chaplain; The Knightly
Soldier; Principles and Practise, etc.
Tschackert, Paul Moritz Robert,
b. 1848, d. at Goettingen 1911; followed
Tholuck in theology; 1889 professor of
Church History at Goettingen; prolific
writer; together with Bonwetsch edited
Kurtz’s Kirchengesehichte ( 13th and 14th
edition ) .
Tucher, Gottlieb von, 1798 — 1877;
judge of Supreme Court at Munich,
1856 — 68; greatly interested in liturgies;
published Kirchengesaenge der beruehm-
testen aelteren italienischen Meister and
Schatz des evangelischen Kirchengesangs.
Tucker, Miss Charlotte Maria;
b. May 8, 1821, at Barnet, England;
d. December 2, 1893, at Amritsar, India.
After having been a successful writer of
stories, she went to India at the age of
fifty-four as a missionary (1875), defray-
ing her own expenses, laboring first at
Amritsar, later at Batala, among the
Mohammedans. She was one of the
pioneer workers in the zenana-mission.
Already before going to India, she had
acquired the Urdu (Hindustani dialect)
and used it like an Oriental. Also in
India she was a prolific author. Her
Pearls of Wisdom, explanatory of the
Lord’s Parables, was circulated through-
out India.
Tuebingen Bible. See Pfaff’s Bible.
Tuebingen School. Two groups of
theologians are known by this term, the
older and the later. The leader of the
former was G. C. Storr. It upheld a Bib-
lical supernaturalistic theology over
against the then prevailing rationalism,
especially the principles of Kant. — The
later school has as its founder and main
representative P. C. Baur. His followers,
though exhibiting many important dif-
ferences, were Eduard Zeller, Albert
Schwegler, Reinhold Koestlin, Volkmar,
Hilgenfeld, Holsten, D. F. Strauss, and,
for a time, also Albrecht Ritschl. (For
characteristics of this school see Baur.)
The claim has been made that its de-
structive criticism gave rise to earnest
researches of the New Testament canon
and the history of the early Christian
Church. However, the harm done by it
is incalculable. It has undermined Chris-
tianity in the minds of many. Theodore
Zahn says of it: “These critics cause
everything to dissolve in clouds.” Hav-
ing gone to unbelievable extremes, the
school has long been on the decline, yet
its pernicious influences are only too
clearly observable in modern theology.
Tunic. A sacklike vestment with slits
for head and arms ( sometimes with
sleeves), worn by bishops and subdeacons.
The dalmatic is just like it.
Tunis. A French protectorate in North
Africa; one of the former Barbary States
under the sovereignty of Turkey. Capi-
tal, Tunis. Area, ca. 50,000 sq. mi.
Population, in 1921, 1,095,090, among
them 1,937,834 Arabs and Bedouins, the
remainder being Europeans and Jews.
Islam is the dominant religion. Prot-
estant missions, as in all French posses-
sions, are greatly hampered. Algeria
borders on Tunis to the west and is also
a French protectorate. In Algeria and
Tunis missions are conducted by a num-
ber of churches and societies. Statistics:
Foreign staff, 135; Christian community,
285; communicants, 80.
Turkey, Republic of, formerly the
Ottoman Empire. Since the World War
stripped of much of its former territory.
It is not yet possible to delimit its exact
dimensions. Turkey embraces Asia Mi-
nor, Southeastern Europe, Constantinople,
and parts of Arabia and Anatolia. Area,
approximately, 494,538 sq. mi. Popula-
tion, estimated : in Europe, 1,000,000; in
Asiatic Turkey, 13,867,000. Capital, Con-
stantinople; population, in 1924, 880,998.
National capital, Angora; population,
35,000. Missions in Turkey in-Europe
by the American Bible Society, Ameri-
can Board, American College for Girls,
Robert College, Seventh-day Adventists,
Foreign Division Y. W. C. A., British and
Foreign Society, Friends’ Armenian Com-
mission. Statistics: Foreign staff, 138;
Christian community, 2,258; communi-
cants, 747. Missions in Turkey-in-Asia
by tbe American Board, Apostolic In-
stitute Konia, Presbyterian Church in
U. S. A., Reformed Presbyterian Church,
Deutscher Hilfsbund fuer Christliches
Liebeswerk im Orient. Statistics: For-
eign staff, 127 ; Christian community,
13,041 ; communicants, 3,240. The offi-
cially established and recognized religion
Tntdett, Lawrence
771
Tyndall, John
in Turkey is Mohammedanism. However,
other forms of worship are tolerated by
the state. Non-Mohammedan sects, rep-
resented especially in Constantinople, are
the Latins, or Catholics, Orthodox Greeks,
Armenians, Armenian Catholics, Chal-
dean Catholics, Nestorians, Syrian Cath-
olics, Melchites, Jews, Bulgarian Catho-
lics, and Maronites, these bodies, as a
rule, having at their head a Patriarch,
generally residing at Constantinople.
However, the nominal Christians number
only 7 per cent, of the total population.
Since the World War, under the repub-
lic, the various Patriarchs are regarded
as performing functions purely ecclesias-
tical. The political status of Turkey,
with her heterogeneous population, is so
indefinite that the whole position of the
church-bodies is now fluid. See Greek
Church.
Tuttiett, Lawrence, 1825 — 97 ; edu-
cated at King’s College, London; turned
from medical profession to ministry,
holding several positions ; among his
hymns : “Father, Let Me Dedicate All
This Year to Thee.”
Twenty-Five Articles. The Twenty-
five Articles of the Methodist Episcopal
Church are in substance the Articles of
the Church of England, with the omis-
sion of the 3d, 8th, 13th, 15th, 17th, 18th,
20th, 21st, 23d, 26th, 29th, 33d, 34th,
36th, and 37th. The Articles in their
present form are a modification of those
originally framed for the Church by Wes-
ley and were adopted with the liturgy at
the Christian Conference of 1784. Since
then minor changes have been made, but
none affecting the doctrine. Whereas the
Articles of the Church of England are
mainly Calvinistic, the Twenty-five Ar-
ticles of Methodism are Arminian.
Twesten, August Detlef Christian;
b. 1789, d. 1876; mediating theologian,
Schleiermacher’s successor; professor at
Kiel and Berlin; defender of the Union.
Two-Seed-in-the-Spirit Predestina-
rian Baptists. This organization was
founded by Daniel Parker, the most
virulent opponent of the organized work
of the churches, who from 1826 to 1829
set forth in certain pamphlets the pecu-
liar doctrine from which this body de-
rived its name. This may be stated as
follows : The essence of good is God ; the
essence of evil is the devil. Good angels
are emanations from, or particles of,
God ; evil angels are particles of the
devil. When God created Adam and
Eve, they were endowed with an emana-
tion from Himself, or particles of God
were included in their constitution.
Satan, however, infused into them par-
ticles of his essence, by which they were
corrupted. In the beginning God had ap-
pointed that Eve Bhould bring forth only
a certain number of offspring; the same
provision applied to each of her daugh-
ters. But when the particles of evil
essence had been infused by Satan, the
conception of Eve and of her daughters
was increased. They were now required
to bear the priginal number, who were
styled the seed of God, and an additional
number, who were called the seed of the
serpent. The seed of God constituted a
part of the body of Christ. For them the
atonement was absolute; they would all
be saved. The seed of the serpent did
not partake of the benefits of the atone-
ment and would all be lost. All the
manifestations of good or evil in men
are but displays of the essence that has
been infused into them. The Christian
warfare is a conflict between these es-
sences. Thus the doctrine of Parker is
not only absolutely fatalistic, but con-
tains elements of dual Gnosticism. In
their church government they are thor-
oughly independent. While individuals
may contribute to benevolences, organized
benevolence does not exist. Neither Sun-
day-schools nor young people’s societies
or societies of any kind are recognized
as legitimate. In consequence of their
missionary inactivity their numbers are
rapidly decreasing, the report of 1916
showing only 35 ministers, 55 churches,
and 679 members.
Tyndale, William; b. ca. 1485. Un-
able to translate the New Testament in
all England, he probably went to Wit-
tenberg. He “reproduced in English Lu-
ther’s German Testament,” which was
smuggled into England early in 1526;
in the same year he printed his Prolog
to the Epistle to the Romans, a para-
phrase of Luther’s famous work ; in
1528 The Parable of the Wicked Mam-
mon and The Obedience of a Christian
Man; in 1532 The Exposition of the Ser-
mon on the Mount. Held Reformed doc-
trine concerning the Lord’s Supper.
Burned at Vilvorde in 1536.
Tyndall, John, British physicist;
b. 1820 in County Carlow, Ireland; pro-
fessor at Royal Institution, London, since
1853; made many visits to Switzerland
to study glaciers; retired 1887; d. 1893
in London. Together with Darwin and
Huxley a noted exponent of the evolu-
tionary theory. Popularized Spencer’s
materialistic and agnostic views on re-
ligion.
TTgantla Protectorate
772
Ult ram on tanisui
U
Uganda Protectorate, in East Af-
rica, north of Lake Victoria Nyanza,
a British protectorate since 1894. Area,
110,000 sq. mi. Population, in 1921,
3,200,000. Christian missions were in-
troduced through Henry Stanley, by
whom the C. M. S. was called in 1875.
Alexander Mackay was the real founder
of the mission. Violent persecutions
were encountered under King Mwanga,
fostered by French Roman Catholic
priests. An Anglican bishopric lias been
established. Missions by the British and
Foreign Bible Society, Church Mission-
ary Society, Africa Inland Mission. Sta-
tistics: Foreign staff, 112; Christian
community, 145,617; communicants,
36,963.
Ulide, Fritz von, 1848 — 1924; Ger-
man painter, exponent of radical realism,
with a tendency toward Socialistic inter-
pretation; very original in the concep-
tion of his paintings, making the Biblical
characters, especially Christ, appear in
the conditions and circumstances of the
present; among his paintings: “Suffer
the Children”; “Holy Night”; “Come,
Lord Jesus, Be Our Guest.”
Uhlhorn, Johann Gerhard Wil-
helm; b. 1826, d. 1891; well-known
Lutheran preacher and theologian ; court
preacher at Hanover 1855; member of
consistory 1866; abbot of Loccum 1878;
published Geschichte der christlichcn
Liebestaetigkeit, 3 vols., 1882 — 90;
Kampf des Christentums mit dem Uei-
dentum 1874.
Ulfilas (Wulfilas) . The first bishop
of the Goths, a Germanic tribe, at that
time having its home along the north-
western shore of the Black Sea, near the
mouth of the Danube; b. ca. 310; d. 383
at Constantinople. A Christian from his
youth, since his mother was a member
of the Church, he was trained for the
ministry in Constantinople, being made
bishop in 341, and did yeoman’s service
in the conversion of the Gothic people ;
at first an adherent of the Nicene Creed,
he turned Arian in 360; his most noted
work that of the translation of the Bible
(with the Exception of the Four Books
of the Kings) into Gothic, the first
translation of the Bible into any Ger-
manic tongue, his work following the
original quite slavishly. See Bible Ver-
sions,
Ullmann, Karl; b. 1796, d. 1865;
professor at Halle and Heidelberg; prel-
ate or representative of the Evangelical
Church in the upper chamber; favored
union between Lutheran and Reformed
churches in Baden; opposed Rational-
ism; editor of Thcologische Htudien und
Kritiken.
Ulrich von Hutten. Humanist,
writer, friend of Luther in the early
days of the Reformation; b. 1488,
d. 1523; descendant of a noble Frankish
family; eager for education and cul-
ture; studied at the University of
Cologne and became a prominent clas-
sical scholar; wrote early satirical
pamphlets against Ulrich von Wurttem-
berg; after 1517 active in the interest
of freeing Germany from the incubus of
the Roman Curia, the humanistic side
being most prominent in his efforts;
after the disputation at Leipzig (q.v.)
he openly espoused the side of Luther,
but his zeal was often of the fleshly
kind, and he was inclined to carry out
his designs by force of arms; obliged to
flee under the ban of the emperor, lie
sought various places of refuge, finally
at Zurich, where Zwingli befriended him
till his early death.
Ultramontanism. The theory of the
Italian party ( ultra montes, lieyond the
mountains, i.c., the Alps) in the Roman
Catholic Church which favored papal
supremacy as opposed to Gallicanism,
or the theory that the final authority
resides in the collective episcopate. It
contemplates, in its widest reach, a
politico-ecclesiastical government under
the immediate and irresponsible control
of the papacy, a universal Christian
(i. e., Catholic) society under the Pope’s
sovereign dominion. Ultramontanism is,
therefore, the implacable foe of all in-
dividualism, freedom, and tolerance, of
all separatism and independence, and
particularly of the Protestant Reforma-
tion. The theory has never been realized,
not even in the Vatican Council of 1870.
It has a long history. Its roots may be
traced to the imperial idea in pagan
Rome, the emperor being world-priest
and world-monarch in one person. When
Rome became Christian and the Church
was modeling her organization on that
of the empire, the bishops of Rome, as
the metropolis, were not slow to recog-
nize, to their own advantage, an analogy
between their position and that of the
civil ruler. With the abolition of the
imperial office (476 A. D.) they fell heir
to much of the emperor’s power. The
scheme of ultramontanism (if we may
use the term at this stage) was fully
worked out in the notorious forgery
known as the Donation of Constantine
llmhreit, »<’. W. K.
773
Untgenltns
(see Constantine, Donation of). The
restoration of the empire under Charle-
magne (crowned by the Pope in 800)
proved to be the source of endless com-
plications and conflicts between the rival
claims of Pope and emperor, resulting,
in the end, in the triumph of the papacy,
that is to say, of the ultramontane
theory. Such Popes as Gregory VII, In-
nocent TIT, and others were virtually
world rulers, who wielded both the civil
and the spiritual sword as their legit-
imate right. Boniface VIII, arrayed
with sword, crown, and scepter and
greeting the thronging pilgrims in Rome
with the words: “I, I am emperor”
(Kgo, ego sum . imperator), represents
the pinnacle of medieval ultramontan-
ism. But these claims were persistently
contested and never fully realized. The
rise of modern states with a pronounced
national consciousness has completely
destroyed the Pope’s temporal power,
without (so far as may he seen) the
hope of revival. On the other hand, in
its spiritual aspect, ultramontanism,
iifter many ups and downs (Febronian-
ism, Jansenism, Gallicanism, Josepliin-
ism [qq. ■».] ) , has been pushed forward
to its logical conclusion in the dogma of
papal supremacy and infallibility of the
year 1870. But in the light of modern
papal utterances the comprehensive ideal
of a theocratic rtgime, including civil
and religious sovereignty, is by no means
abandoned. Ultramontanism does not
adjust itself to historic development.
Umbreit, Friedrich Wilhelm Karl;
b. 1705; d. 1800 as professor at Heidel-
berg; mediating theologian with super-
naturalistic tendencies; wrote a number
of commentaries on Old Testament books
and on Romans.
Unam Sanctam. A papal bull issued
in 1302 by Boniface VIII from the Lat-
eran, in defiance of Philip the I’air of
France, who with his people had set him-
self against the secular pretensions of
the Papal See. The bull lays down dog-
matic propositions on the unity of the
Church, the position of the Pope as
supreme head of the Church, and the
duty of "every creature” to submit to
the Pope in order to belong to the Church
and to obtain salvation. Boniface as-
serted that both swords, spiritual and
secular, are under the control of the
Church, the spiritual wielded by the
clergy in the Church, the secular em-
ployed by the hand of civil authority
for the Church, but under the direction
of the spiritual power. That the tem-
poral power is independent was called
a Manicliean heresy. This bull met with
violent opposition on the part of the
king and Parliament of France, but the
principles it advocated have never been
renounced by the papal court.
Unction, Extreme. The seventh sac-
rament of the Roman Church, extreme
unction, is administered to those who
are dangerously ill and are expected to
die, usually after they have received Com-
munion. The officiating priest anoints
the sick person with holy oil [q.v.) on
the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, hands,
feet, and reins (the last omitted with
women), saying: “By this holy unction
and by His most tender mercy may the
Lord forgive thee whatsoever thou hast
committed by sight” (“by hearing,” etc.).
If the patient recovers, the rite may be
repeated when he is again critically ill.
Extreme unction is said to “confer grace,
remit sin, and comfort the sick” (Coun-
cil of Trent, Sess. XIV, can. 2); espe-
cially, to give strength to resist the devil
( Catcohismus Rom, arms, IT, fi. 14. 3). —
Romanists quote Jas. 5, 14. 15 as the in-
stitution of this sacrament, — a pas-
sage that gives no token of having so
solemn a mission, does not speak of
preparation for death, lays all emphasis
on the prayer of faith, and refers to the
anointing with oil, as does Mark 0, 13,
for bodily healing. Rome remains true
to itself to the last and ushers its ad-
herents out of the world bidding them
trust in a human figment, working eac
opere operate (see Opus Opcratum) , in-
stead of directing them to the all-suffi-
cient and all-comforting merits of Christ.
Unfederated Malay States. See
Malaya, Uritish.
Ungava. See Canada.
Uniates. Several bodies of Eastern
Christians, both in Europe and Asia,
who, while in communion with Rome,
are permitted to retain certain tradi-
tional local peculiarities in discipline
and worship. As a rule, they employ
their native language in their liturgies,
celebrate the Eucharist under both kinds,
allow their priests to marry once, and
have a body of canon law of their own.
Unigenitus. Bull issued by Clem-
ent XI in 1713 against the Jansenist
Pasquier Quesnel, whose commentary on
the New Testament, though warmly
approved by the French clergy, did not
meet with the favor of the Jesuits.
From this work are extracted one hun-
dred and one propositions, which the
bull condemns as “false, captious, ill-
sounding, offensive, scandalous,” etc., etc.
The propositions are not verbal citations
from Quesnel’s book, but doctrinal theses
Unio Mystica
774
purporting to represent his theological
standpoint. Some of these sentences are
put in an exaggerated form, others are
clearly patristic, and still others are
thoroughly Biblical. The bull pronounces
a general condemnation upon all. A few
are here inserted: Jcsu Christi gratia,
principium efficaas boni cuiuscumque
generis, necessaria est ad omne opus
bonum (The grace of Jesus Christ, the
efficacious principle of every kind of
good, is necessary for every good work ) .
Fides est prim, a gratia el fons omnium
aliarum (Faith is the first gift of grace
and the source of all the others). Intcr-
dicere Christianis leotionem, sacrae Scrip-
turae, praesertim Evangelii, est inter-
diecre usum luminis filiis lucis et facere,
ut patiantur specicm, quandam exoom-
municationis (To forbid Christians to
read Holy Scriptures, especially the
Gospel, is to forbid the children of light
the use of the lamp and to make them
suffer a species of excommunication).
Many of the French clergy, including the
archbishop of Paris, protested against
the bull and appealed to the decision of
a general council. But: Roma locuta,
causa finita (Rome has spoken, the mat-
ter is settled).
Unio Mystica. The marvelous in-
dwelling of the Holy Spirit and of the
entire Triune God in the hearts of the
believers by faith, according to which the
Spirit of adoption is sent into the hearts
of the children of God, Gal. 4, 6 ; Rom.
8, 15, whereby they are sealed and have
been given the earnest of their redemp-
tion, 2 Cor. 1, 22;' Eph. 1, 13. 14, also
wisdom and revelation in the knowledge
of their Savior, Eph. 1, 17 ; according to
which, however, they have received the
still more mysterious blessing of having
the Father and the Son come unto them
and make their abode in the believers,
John 14, 23.
Union of South Africa. A union,
within the British Empire, of the prov-
inces Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Trans-
vaal, and 'the Orange Free State, effected
May 31, 1910. Area, 473,089 sq. mi.
Population, in 1921, 0,928,580: 1,519,488
whites, 5,409,092 colored, 4,697,813 Bantu
natives, 165,731 Asiatics, 545,548 mem-
bers of other races. Very little mission-
work was done by the Dutch in the 17th
century. The Moravians sent George
Schmidt in 1737, but his stay was short.
In 1792 the Moravians again took up
operations and with more success. The
S. P. G. came in 1819, gradually enlarg-
ing its work. The South African Society
for Promoting the Extension of Christ’s
Kingdom was formed in 1799, The
L. M. S. took up work in 1811. In 1810
Robert Moffatt came. Quite a number
of American, British, and Continental
missions are now operating in the Union
and in the neighboring British Bechuana-
land, Basutoland, and Swaziland; among
these the Hermannsburg Mission, the
Mission of the Hannoeversche Ev.-Luth.
Freikirche, the Norwegian Schreuder
Mission, and other Lutheran Missions.'
In addition 18 South African missionary
agencies are doing mission-work. Sta-
tistics: Foreign staff, 1,934; Christian
community, 947,229 ; communicants,
409,370.
Union Synod of the Evangelic (sic)
Lutheran Church was organized in No-
vember, 1859, by former members of the
defunct Indiana Synod (I). Its purpose
was to unite all Lutherans in Indiana
into one synod. Fraternal relations
were at first maintained with the Joint
Synod of Ohio, under the leadership of
E. S. Henkel, president; but later efforts
to unite with it failed because of the
laxity of the Union Synod. In 1859 it
was a member of the General Synod.
In 1869 it resolved to join the General
Council, but dissolved in 1871. Its pastors
helped to form the Indiana Synod (II)
of the General Council, which in 1895
became the Chicago Synod. At one time
or other 17 pastors and 27 congregations
were connected with the Union Synod.
Unionism. Religious unionism con-
sists in joint worship and work of those
not united in doctrine. Its essence is an
agreement to disagree. In effect, it de-
nies the doctrine of the clearness of
Scripture. It would treat certain doc-
trines as fundamental or essential and
others as non-essential to Christian
unity — ■ a proposition which could be
defended on only one of two premises:
that God either was unable to reveal His
will and mind in such a manner as not
to be misunderstood or was not willing
so to reveal Himself. In the former case
the wisdom of God is attacked; in the
second, His goodness. A Christian who
believes that God has clearly spoken
through the prophets and apostles and
through the Lord Jesus Christ cannot be
a unionist. The indifferent and pacifist
stand of the unionist is condemned in
all those texts which bid us beware of
false prophets and to be separate from
those who deny the truth. Titus 1,
13. 14; 1 Tim. 2, 12; 6, 14; 2 Tim. 3, 5;
6, 3 — 5; Matt. 7, 15; Jer. 23, 28; Acts
20, 29; Rom. 16, 17; 1 John 4, 1; 2 John
10. 11. In the light of these texts all
joint ecclesiastical efforts for religious
work (missionary, educational, etc.) and
Unionism
775
Unionism
particularly joint worship and mixed
(promiscuous) prayer among those who
confess the truth and those who deny
any part of it, is sinful unionism. If
we hold to the doctrine of the clearness
of Scripture, such compromise of the
truth cannot be tolerated, nor can it be
defended by the plea that religious dif-
ferences, after all, rest upon misunder-
standing. When the Lutheran and Re-
formed theologians held a conference at
Wittenberg to find a basis for union,
Luther addressed Melanchthon as follows
( 1536 ) : “In the first place, it will never
do to admit that the whole controversy
is based on misunderstanding. While
this has often been said by our opponents
and probably will be said again, it is
simply not true as concerns ourselves,
nor is it true regarding our opponents.
To say that it was all a mistake would
be a poor settlement, unworthy of so
important a matter. In the second
place, it will not serve to make any com-
promise for the sake of union. A com-
promise is in itself untruthful because
its purpose is to unite things which are
mutually opposed. Moreover, if a com-
promise is once accepted, consciences be-
come so unsettled that they will finally
believe nothing at all.” — - Upon this
clear and powerful utterance of the Re-
former the theologian Rudelbaeh (Refor-
mation, Imthertum und Union) remarks
as follows : “When the difference is
clearly understood and when controversy
goes to every necessary length, we may
conclude that there is a true love of
union. The more careless we are in stat-
ing the differences and the more anxious
to hide the sores, the farther removed
we are from that unity of the Spirit
which is the innermost essence of all
true union.” The necessity of polemics
and controversy as over against a re-
ligious pacifism, which demands peace
at any price, was set forth by Luther on
another occasion in the following terms-.
“The Christian minister must not only
be a pastor who instructs his flock how
they may be true Christians, but must
also battle off the wolves lest they attack
the sheep and seduce and destroy them
with false doctrine. The devil is never
at rest. But there are to-day many
people who believe that the Gospel
should be preached, but that we must
not raise our voices against the wolves
and preach against high churchmen.
But even if I preach correctly and shep- *
herd the flock with sound doctrine,
I neglect a duty if I do not warn the
sheep against the wolves. For what kind
of builder would I be if I were to pile
up masonry and then stand by while
another tears it down? The wolf does
not object to our leading the sheep upon
good pasture; — the sheep that have
been fattened are the more eagerly
sought by him ; — what he cannot tol-
erate is that the watchdogs stand on
their guard, ready to give him battle.”
In his Conservative Reformation, Dr. C.
P. Krauth, the General Council leader,
remarked: “A Church which contends
for nothing either has lost the truth or
has ceased to love it. Warfare is pain-
ful, but they whose errors create the
necessity for it are responsible for all
its miseries.”
The striving for greatness in numbers
and influence is a fruitful source of
unionistic movements. Such emphasis
upon externals will inevitably lead to
the conclusion that the strength of the
Church resides in organization and in
the joining of great numbers. Dr. Loy
(Lutheran, Ohio Synod), in his discus-
sion of the Augsburg Confession, has
rightly said: “An external union of all
Christian churches into one grand uni-
versal Christian Church on earth is in-
deed neither necessary nor possible.
Every thought of that kind conflicts
with the idea of the Church presented in
Scripture as a spiritual kingdom of
Christ, over which He reigns and which
is composed only of true believers, who
are known only to Him. It is not nec-
essary that there should be such an ex-
ternal union, because the Lord does His
saving work by means of His appoint-
ment, which can be effectually adminis-
tered whenever two or three are gathered
together in His name, and to the efficacy
of which larger numbers and union with
other congregations can add nothing. All
the powers of the Church for the accom-
plishment of its saving purposes are as
fully committed to a little country con-
gregation in its confession of Christ and
its possession of His Word and Sacra-
ments as to the largest and most influ-
ential city churches. Even Lutherans
are enticed upon the wrong road when
they are induced to lay great stress upon
their numbers and to fancy that their
union in larger organizations will give
them more power. The power for all
legitimate purposes of the Church lies in
the means of grace. Numbers may give
us prestige and in that respect give us
larger opportunity to ply these means.
But it is an erring and disloyal thought
that any concession in regard to the
purity of the Word and Sacraments
which might increase the number of be-
lievers, who alone constitute the Church,
is permissible. A little company can do
more by fidelity to the Lord and His
United Baptifita
776 United Evangelical ClinrcU
Gospel and a faithful plying of these
means in season and out of season,
through evil and through good report,
than could that company increased ten-
fold by a surrender to the liberal senti-
ment of men who cannot brook the
exclusiveness of Christianity in its
teaching that Christ can save and only
Christ shall rule the congregation of the
saved,” See Bible, Polemics, Prayer,
Syncretism, Freemasonry and the various
fraternal orders.
United Baptists. During the latter
part of the 18tli and the early part of
the 19th centuries a considerable number
of Separate Baptists and those who were
known as Regular Baptists, claiming to
represent the original English Baptists,
combined under the name of United
Baptists. Gradually, as they came into
closer relations with the larger Baptist
bodies of the North and South, many
United Baptist churches gave up their
distinctive organization and enrolled
with other Baptist bodies. However, the
name United Baptist still appears on the
minutes of many associations whose
churches are enrolled with the Baptists
of the Northern or of the Southern Con-
vention, chiefly with the latter, and there
are some that retain their distinctive
position. In doctrine the United Bap-
tists hold that salvation is wholly by
grace and in no sense of works; yet that
it is conditioned upon performance of
the requirements of the Gospel which,
they claim, is to be preached to all men;
and as all men are bidden to repent, it
necessarily follows that all men are
given ability to repent, being led to re-
pentance by the goodness of God, or, on
the other hand, being led to rebellion
and resistance by the devices of Satan;
but that in either case it is as the in-
dividual inclines his ear and heart or
yields himself to obedience. — In polity
the United Baptists are strictly congre-
gational. In 1916 they had 254 organ-
izations, 22,097 members, and 701
scholars in 17 Sunday-schools.
United Brethren. Church of the
United, Brethren in Christ (Old Consti-
tution). A German Methodist organiza-
tion, often called Otterbeinians, after
Otterbein, the founder, organized 1800.
In 1889 'the organization divided into
“Radicals” and “Liberals.” Two parties
developed with the growth of the Church
of the United Brethren in Christ. One
held closely to the original constitution ;
another sought to change it to meet what
they considered the necessity of changed
conditions. At the General Conference,
1841, four points were emphasized: the
slavery question, secret societies, changes
in the confession of faith, and changes
in the constitution. The slavery ques-
tion disappeared after the Civil War,
but the others came to the front, and
the last two became specially prominent.
In 1885 the General Conference set aside
the constitutional provisions for change
by pronouncing them impracticable and
arranged for another constitution under
the pretext of amending the constitu-
tion. The minority recorded a protest,
but the majority proceeded to appoint
a commission, which drafted an amended
constitution. The General Conference of
1889 accepted the results and pronounced
the revised constitution in force. The
minority held that the constitution of
1841 was still in force, and that they
were the true United Brethren Church.
Litigation regarding property ensued,
but these legal contentions have passed,
and fellowship is again established. — On
doctrinal and moral questions the Church
holds to the strict interpretation of the
early laws of temperance, connection
with secret orders, and participation in
aggressive warfare. Its polity is Meth-
odistic and is in accord with that of the
United Brethren in Christ (New Consti-
tution). Mission-work is conducted by
a general l>oard, called Domestic, Fron-
tier, and Foreign Missionary Society, of
which each annual conference is a
branch, and by the Woman’s Missionary
Association, which is auxiliary to the
society. The principal foreign mission
work of the society is in the Imperreli
country. West Africa. In 1916 the de-
nomination had two colleges, one at Hun-
tington, Ind., the other at Albion, Wash.,
and a Chinese school at Portland, Oreg.
The number of young people’s societies
is 220, with a membership of 5,800.
These societies support a medical mis-
sionary in Africa. The Church owns a
printing-plant at Huntington, Ind., from
which a denominational organ, a mis-
sionary monthly, and Sunday-school
periodicals are issued. — Statistics,
1921: 391 ministers, 483 churches,
20,286 communicants.
United Evangelical Church. This
denomination, as a separate ecclesiastical
body, dates from the year 1894. Before
this time it was a part of the Evangel-
ical Association, which was organized
1800 under the evangelistic labors of
Jacob Albright (Albrecht) in Eastern
Pennsylvania. The division that resulted
in the organization of the new church-
body was due to differences of opinion
as to what were considered principles of
church polity and official acts affecting
the claims of a large minority of the
United Lutheran Church
777
United Lutheran Church
ministers and members of tbe associa-
tion. Seven annual conferences, with
from (SO, 000 to 70,000 members, who
were designated the minority, entered
a protest against what they regarded as
an “abuse of the powers conferred by the
discipline and usurpation of powers in
violation of the discipline.” The division
thus centered in the power of the Gen-
eral Conference and that of the bishops.
Their views and differences were largely
discussed in connection with the suspen-
sion of Ilisliop Dubs. Since their protest
availed nothing, in due time a separate
organization was effected with articles
of faith and a discipline in strict accord
with the doctrine and spirit of the dis-
cipline of the Church. On October 10,
1894, the former members of the East
Pennsylvania Conference met in conven-
tion and organized as East Pennsylvania
Conference of the United Evangelical
Church. 'They called a General Confer-
ence to meet in Naperville, 111., Novem-
ber 29, 1894, where, on the following day
the conference declared itself to be the
first “General Conference of the United
Evangelical Church.” Since then a move-
ment hag been effected towards reunion
with the Evangelical Association, and
while the two bodies are not organically
united, practical union of fellowship has
been effected. In doctrine the United
Evangelical Church is Arminian, as its
confession of faith, formulated in 25 ar-
ticles, differs but little from the teach-
ings of the Methodist Church. The doc-
trine of the “Dubs Party,” or “D.ubsites”
(the other party being called Escherites),
is contained or set forth in Doctrines
and Discipline of the United Evangelical
Church, formulated by the General Con-
ference of 189// and in The Christian
Catechism of the United Evangelical
Church, by John Kaechele. In polity the
Church resembles the Methodist Episco-
pal Church, although the local congre-
gations are self-governing in their tem-
poral affairs. At the annual conferences
and the General Conference there is
equal clerical, and lay representation.
The ministers are appointed for one year,
with the privilege of reappointment to
the limit of a five-year term. The for-
eign mission work of the Church is under
the supervision of its board of missions
and is confined to the province of Hunan,
China. Its higher educational work at
home is represented by two institutions.
The Keystone Leagues of Christian En-
deavor number 511, with a membership
of 19,121. — Statistics, 1921: 519 minis-
ters, 918 churches, 90,096 communicants.
United Lutheran Church in Amer-
ica, The. This body was organized No-
vember 15, 1918, in New York. It was
the outcome of the union celebration of
the Quadricentennial of the Reformation
by the General Synod, the General Coun-
cil, and the United Synod of the South
(_qq.v.). A joint committee of ministers
and laymen had been appointed by these
three bodies and other synods to arrange
an adequate program for that event.
For years before that time there had
been an interchange of delegates and co-
operation in various endeavors, such ns
the common order of worship, a common
translation of Luther’s Small Catechism,
a new hymn- and service-book ; intcr-
synodical organizations, such as the Lu-
ther League, the Lutheran Rrotherhood,
the Women’s Missionary Society, the
National Lutheran Commission for Sol-
diers’ and Sailors’ Welfare, etc. Rut
the immediate impetus for the merger
came from the laymen on the Quadri-
centennial Committee, who on April 18,
1917, in Philadelphia, presented a propo-
sition to form an organic union. The
Hon. John L. Zimmermann brought in
the proposition, which was seconded by
Dr. E. Clarence Miller. This came as a
surprise to the clerical members of the
committee. “Both Dr. Jacobs and Dr.
Schmauck were opposed to so sudden a
welding together of the bodies before the
bodies themselves could have had an op-
portunity to move in the matter. Rut
the die was cast.” A general plan of
union was drawn up, and a constitution
was prepared by a joint committee. The
plan for the merger was accepted by the
General Synod in Chicago, June 20, 1917,
by the General Council in Philadelphia,
October 24, 1917, and by the United
Synod in the South in Salisbury, N. C.,
November 11, 1917. The constitution
was also approved by the general bodies
and referred to the constituent synods
for action. All the synods took favorable
action, with the exception of the largest
of them' all, the Swedish Augustana
Synod of the General Council. This
synod, on June 13, 1918, at Minneapolis,
refused to enter the merger. The merger
meeting was held in New York, Novem-
ber 14—18, 1918. Dr. F. H. Knubel, the
chairman of the National Lutheran Com-
mission for Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Wel-
fare, a member of the General Synod, be-
came the president, Dr. M. G. G. Scherer,
president of the United Synod in the
South, the secretary, and E. Clarence Mil-
ler, LL. D., of Philadelphia, a member of
the General Council, the treasurer. The
following synods entered the merger: Of
the former General Synod ( founded
1820) : Maryland (1820), West Pennsyl-
vania (1825), East Ohio (1836), Alle-
United Lutheran Church
778
United Lutheran Church
ghany (1842), East Pennsylvania (1842),
Miami (1844), Wittenberg (1847), Olive
Branch (1848), Northern Illinois (1850),
Central Pennsylvania (1853), Iowa
(1855), Northern Indiana (1855), South-
ern Illinois (1856), Central Illinois (1867),
Pittsburgh (1847), Susquehanna (1867),
Kansas (1868), Nebraska (1871), Wart-
burg (1875), California (1891), Rocky
Mountain (1891), German Nebraska
(1891), New York (1908), West Vir-
ginia (1912) ; a total of 24 synods, 1,438
pastors, and 364,072 confirmed members.
Of the former General Council (founded
1867): Pennsylvania Ministerium (1748),
New York Ministerium (1786), Pitts-
burgh (1845), Texas (1851), District
Synod of Ohio (1857), Canada (1861),
Chicago (1871), Northwest (1891), Man-
itoba (1897), Pacific (1901), New York
and New England (1902), Nova Scotia
(1903), Central Canada (1909) ; a total
of 13 synods, 1,059 pastors, and 340,588
confirmed members. Of the former United
Synod in the South (founded 1886) :
North Carolina (1803), Tennessee (1820),
South Carolina (1824), Virginia (1829),
Southwestern Virginia (1842), Missis-
sippi (1855), Georgia (1860), Holston
(I860) ; a total of 8 synods, 257 pastors,
and 53,226 confirmed members. This
made a grand total of 45 synods, 2,754
pastors, 3,747 congregations, and 757,886
confirmed members. In 1920 the Slovak
Zion Synod was added. The number of
synods on the roll has. been reduced by
the merging of several synods on over-
lapping or contiguous territory. In 1925
the United Lutheran Church, by its stat-
istician, Rev. G. L. Kieffer, reported 36
synods, 2,967 pastors, 5,353 congrega-
tions, 1,328,903 baptized members, 918,707
confirmed members, and 681,484 commun-
ing members. — Other synods were in-
vited to join the merger; but Iowa,
which had maintained friendly relations
with the General Council for fifty years,
found itself at the parting of the ways ;
Ohio, which had been represented on the
Quadricentennial Committee, refused to
enter on account of the failure of the
proposed constitution to make declara-
tions concerning pulpit- and altar-fellow-
ship and secretism. — As its doctrinal
basis the United Lutheran Church
adopted the canonical Scriptures of the
Old and New Testaments as the inspired
Word of God, the three ecumenical creeds
and the unaltered Augsburg Confession
as the correct exhibition of the faith and
doctrine of the Ev. Luth. Church, and the
remaining confessions as in harmony
with one and the same Scriptural faith.
All district synods are pledged to the
same basis. The constitution says that
the synods alone shall have the power of
discipline (Art. VIII, sec. 6), taking the
responsibility from the general body for
what some of the pastors, laymen, or
congregations may teach or practise, and
unanimity in questions of doctrine and
practise is not required (Art. XII, sec. 4).
Larger powers are conferred on the gen-
eral organization than in any other body
of Lutherans in this country (Wentz,
p. 323 ) . Legislative powers are vested in
the biennial conventions of the delegates
from the constituent synods. These
powers are absolute in certain matters.
— THe United Lutheran Church took a
leading part in the Lutheran World Con-
gress at Eisenach, Germany, in 1923.
In 1919 the Lutheran (General Council),
the Lutheran Church Work and Observer
(General Synod), and the Lutheran Vis-
itor (United Synod South) were merged
into the Lutheran, with Dr. G. W. Sandt
as editor-in-chief.
Brief historical sketches of the synods
composing the U. L. C. follow.
a. Alleghany By nod, organized Septem-
ber 9, 1842, in Holliday sburg, Pa., by
12 pastors and 10 lay delegates. Ter-
ritory: western slope of the Alleghany
Mountains in Pennsylvania. Belonged
to the General Synod and shared its
doctrinal position and with it entered
the United Lutheran Church in 1918.
Statistics, 1925: 81 pastors, 148 congre-
gations, 21,389 communicants.
b. Canada Synod, organized July 21,
1861, in Vaughan, Ont., by the Canada
Conference of the Pittsburgh Synod,
which had been established 1853 through
the missionary efforts of Rev. G. Bassler
and Rev. C. P. Diehl. It first belonged to
the General Synod, but was one of the
synods forming the General Council in
1867. Its organ, since 1869, was Luthe-
risches Kirchenblatt. Most of its pas-
tors came from the Kropp Seminary. It
began mission-work in Manitoba in 1888.
In 1911 a theological seminary was es-
tablished at Waterloo, Ont. A college
was added at the same place in 1915.
In 1918 the Canada Synod entered the
United Lutheran Church. In 1925 it
numbered 48 pastors, 75 congregations,
and 12,493 communicants.
c. Canada, Bynod of Central, organized
November 11, 1908, at Toronto, is the re-
sult of English missionary activity in
Canada on the part of the General
Council. It supports, together with the
Canada Synod, the seminary at Water-
loo, Ont. It entered the United Lutheran
Church in 1918. In 1925 it numbered
18 pastors, 17 congregations, and 1,388
communicants.
United Lutheran Clitircii.
United Lutheran Church
77&
d. California Synod. The General
Synod started work in California in 1886
through Rev. O. C. Miller. The Califor-
nia Synod was organized in San Fran-
cisco April 2, 1891, by eight pastors and
four lay delegates, representing six con-
gregations. The German pastors at first
contemplated a separate synod, but after-
wards united with the California Synod.
With the General Synod it joined the
United Lutheran Church in 1918. In
1925 it numbered 54 pastors, .34 congre-
gations, and 4,703 communicants.
e. Georgia Synod. Organized July 20,
1860, by four pastors and four lay dele-
gates. Its congregations consist largely
of descendants of the Salzburgers, who
settled near Savannah in 1734. Its ter-
ritory includes Florida. It took part in
the organization of the General Synod
in the Confederate States in 1864, of
the United Synod in the South in 1886,
and entered the United Lutheran Church
in 1918. In 1925 it numbered 22 pas-
tors, 37 congregations, and 3,212 com-
municants.
f. Holston Synod. Organized Decem-
ber 29, 1860, in Sullivan Co., Tenn., by
11 pastors and 16 congregations of the
Tennessee Synod located in Tennessee
and Western Virginia, on account of the
distance from the rest of the synodical
churches. It shared with its mother
synod its doctrinal basis, but repudiated
its peculiar notions as to theological
seminaries, incorporation, and synodical
treasuries. From 1867 to 1872 the Hol-
ston Synod belonged to the General
Synod, South; from 1874 to 1886 to the
General Council; from 1886 to 1918 to
the United Synod in the South, yielding
to the demand of union rather than
unity, and with it entered the United
Lutheran Church. In 1922 it merged
with the Synod of Southwestern Vir-
ginia and the Synod of Virginia into
the Lutheran Synod of Virginia. At the
time of this merger it numbered 8 pas-
tors, 25 congregations, and 846 commu-
nicants.
g. Illinois Synod (II) of the United
Lutheran Church. Formed by the merg-
ing of the synods of Southern, Central,
and Northern Illinois (formerly of the
General Synod) and part of the Chicago
Synod (formerly of the General Coun-
cil). In 1925 it numbered 126 pastors,
135 congregations, and 20,553 communi-
cants.
h. Iowa Synod of the United Lutheran
Church. Organized out of the Iowa Con-
ference, September 3, 1855, by seven pas-
tors, some of them formerly of the
Franckean Synod. It entered the Gen-
eral Synod 1857. In 1866 a number of
pastors seceded to form the Mission
Synod of the West. It entered the
United Lutheran Church in 1918. In
1925 it numbered 26 pastors, 30 congre-
gations, and 4,808 communicants.
i. Kansas Synod of the United Lu-
theran Church. Organized November 5,
1868, at Topeka, Kans., by six pastors
and five laymen; entered General Synod
in 1869. Western Theological Seminary
and Midland College are in its territory,
which also includes part of Missouri.
In 1918 it entered the United Lutheran
Church. In 1925 it numbered 46 pas-
tors, 41 congregations, and 4,813 com-
municants.
j. Manitoba Synod of the United Lu-
theran Church. Organized July 16, 1897,
through the efforts of the German Mis-
sion Board of the General Council. Ter-
ritory: Western Canada. Since 1912 it
has maintained a college at Saskatoon,
Sask. In 1918 it entered the United Lu-
theran Church. In 1925 it numbered
36 pastors, 58 congregations, and 4,777
communicants.
k. Maryland Synod of the United Lu-
theran Church (originally Maryland and
Virginia, etc.). Organized October 11,
1820, at Winchester, Va., by 11 pastors,
among them Dr. Daniel Kurtz, the first
president of the General Synod, Benj.
Kurtz, D. F. Schaeffer, Chas. Phil. Krauth,
and seven lay delegates. Only eleven
days later this synod helped to organize
the General Synod at Hagerstown, Md.
It was the only synod connected with
the General Synod for the ninety-eight
years of its existence. The Maryland
Synod furnished an unusually large
number of the leading men in the Gen-
eral Synod and the General Council;
besides those already mentioned: S. S.
Sclimucker, Sam. Spreeher, Chas. Porter-
field Krauth, Ezra Keller, Milton Valen-
tine, F. C. Schaeffer, F. W. Conrad, W.
A. Passavant, Chas. A. Hay, E. J. Wolf,
J. A. Seiss, J. A. Brown, C. A. Stork,
John G. Morris, H. L. Baugher, C. F.
Heyer. It was among the sons of the
Maryland Synod that “American Luther-
anism” found some of its warmest ad-
vocates. S. S. Schmucker was the author
of the “Definite Platform” and Benj.
Kurtz its champion. But when the
Synod as such refused to sanction the
“Definite Platform” ( q . 1 ).), Kurtz and his
friends organized the Melanchthon Synod
in 1857. After Kurtz’s death the two
synods were reunited. In 1874 a number
of German pastors left and formed the
German Synod of Maryland and the
South (q.v.). The Maryland Synod was
very active in the establishment of Get-
tysburg Seminary (1826), of Pennsyl-
tin! ted Outlier an Church
780
tnited Lutlieran Church
vania (now Gettysburg) College (1832),
and of the Missionary Institute at Selins-
grove, Pa. (1853, now Susquehanna Uni-
versity). In 1918 the Maryland Synod
entered the United Lutheran Church. In
1925 it numbered 123 pastors, 140 con-
gregations, and 29,151 communicants.
l. Michigan Synod (III) of the United
Lutheran Church. Formed June 10,
1920, by the Synod of Northern Indiana,
formerly of the General Synod, and part
of the Chicago Synod, formerly of the
General Council. Territory: Michigan
and Northern Indiana. Weidner Insti-
tute, Mulberry, Ind., is in its territory.
In 1925 it numbered 60 pastors, 85 con-
gregations, and 8,131 communicants.
m. Mississippi Synod of the United
Lutheran Church. Organized July 25,
1855, by pastors of the South Carolina
Synod who had begun work in Missis-
sippi ca. 1846. It entered the United
Synod in the South in 1886 and with it
the United Lutheran Church in 1918. It
is the smallest Synod in the U. L. C.,
numbering in 1925, 5 pastors, 14 congre-
gations, and 391 communicants.
n. Nebraska Synod of the United Lu-
theran Church. Organized September 1,
1871, in Emmanuel Church (now Kountze
Memorial, the largest congregation in
the U. L. C. ), at Omaha, Nebr., after
Dr. H. W. Kuhns of the Alleghany Synod
and others had been doing mission-work
since 1856. It joined the General Synod
in 1875 and with it entered the United
Lutheran Church in- 1918. In 1925 it
numbered 49 pastors, 57 congregations,
and 7,830 communicants.
o. Nebraska, German Synod of, of the
United Lutheran Church. Organized
July 24, 1890, by the German pastors of
the Nebraska Synod; joined General
Synod 1891. Territory included also
Kansas, Missouri, Colorado, and the Da-
kotas. Organ, jointly with Wartburg
Synod: Lutherischer Zionsbote. At first
its ministerial supply came from the
Chicago Seminary of Dr. Severingliaus,
later from the Western Seminary (Dr. J.
L. Neve), and since 1913 from its own
Martin Luther Seminary at Lincoln,
Nebr. It entered the United Lutheran
Church in 1918. In 1925 it numbered
84 pastors, 95 congregations, and 9,264
communicants.
p. New York, Ministerium, of, the sec-
ond Lutheran Synod organized in the
United States, held its first recorded
meeting in Albany, N. Y., October 23,
1786, in Ebenezer Church, which had
been dedicated the day before. Dr. John
C. Kunze, Muhlenberg’s son-in-law, was
the leading spirit. Of the ten pastors
who labored in the territory of the new
synod only two were present besides
Dr. Kunze, namely, Heinrich Moeller, of
Albany, and Samuel Schwerdfeger, of
Feilstown, and of the 25 congregations
only two were represented, New York by
John Bassinger and Albany by John
Gayer. The doctrinal basis of the New
York Ministerium was the same as that
of the mother synod, to which the three
original members had belonged until
1794, when the New York Ministerium
adopted the revised constitution of the
Pennsylvania Ministerium, in which the
Lutheran Confessions were ignored,
though the pastors were usually ex-
pected to promise fidelity to them. The
second meeting of the Ministerium was
not held until 1792. At the time of
Kunze’s death, 1807, it numbered about
14 pastors and 44 congregations. Under
the second president, Dr. F. H. Quitman,
who was an extreme rationalist, the
Ministerium discarded everything dis-
tinctively Lutheran except the name.
When Dr. I'l. L. Hazelins became presi-
dent, 1828, he tried to lead the synod
back to confessional Lutheranism. But
Methodistic measures had been intro-
duced by the majority of pastors to
the neglect of indoctrination, and the
churches began to languish. In 1820 the
New York Ministerium assisted in the
founding of the General Synod, but with-
drew after the first meeting and did not
join it again until 1837. In the mean
time the period of the crassest unionism
became also a period of inner dissension.
A number of pastors and churches in
Central New York, in 1830, formed the
Hartwick Synod, which joined the Gen-
eral Synod in 1831. In 1859 the pastors
in New Jersey were dismissed and or-
ganized the New Jersey Synod. In the
mean time the influx of German pastors
caused the New York Ministerium to be
found on the side of those who contended
for the Confessions; the Augsburg Con-
fession was formally recognized in 1859;
and when the General Synod, in 1864,
admitted the un-Lutheran Franckean
Synod (an offshoot of the Hartwick
Synod), the New York Ministerium with-
drew and in 1867 helped to organize the
General Council. This caused the loss of
two-fifths of its pastors and churches
and the formation of the English Synod
of New York, which, in 1872, united with
the New Jersey Synod. In those days
almost every congregation of the Min-
isterium maintained a Christian day-
school, but several attempts to establish
a teachers’ seminary failed. Hartwick
Seminary (founded 1797) had been lost
to the English Synod of New York. An
United Lutheran Church
781
United Lutheran Church
educational institution established at
Newark, N. Y., in 1871 failed four years
later. Wagner Memorial College at
Rochester was founded in 1883 and re-
moved to Staten Island (Greater New
York) in 1918. The Ministerium gave
the Philadelphia Seminary its active
support from the beginning. The official
organ was her Lutherisehe Herold (since
1872). Beginning about 1875, a dispute
arose in regard to the relation of the
congregations to the synod, as a result of
which the Ministerium lost some of its
largest churches: St. Matthew’s (the
oldest Lutheran church in America), Im-
manuel, and St. Luke’s, New York,
St. Mark’s, Brooklyn, and others, most
of which united with the Missouri Synod.
In 1902 there was another exodus of the
English element, which formed the New
York and New England Synod, but re-
mained in connection with the General
Council. This left the Ministerium a
purely German body, but of late years
many congregations have become bilin-
gual. With the majority of the General
Council synods the New York Ministe-
rium entered the United Lutheran Church
in 1918. In 1925 it numbered 148 pas-
tors, 141 congregations, and 49,456 com-
municants.
q. New York Synod (II). Formed 1908
by a merger of the Hartwick, Franckean,
and New York and New Jersey synods.
Its territory covered New York, New
Jersey, and the New England States. It
was numerically one of the strongest
bodies in the General Synod, with which
it entered the United Lutheran Church
in 1918. Since that time it is cooperat-
ing with the New York Ministerium and
the New York and New England Synod
( formerly of the General Council ) with
a view toward organic union. The New
York Synod in 1925 numbered 143 pas-
tors, 157 congregations, and 25,080 com-
municants.
r. New York and New England Synod
of the United Lutheran Church. Organ-
ized September 23, 1902, at Utica, N. Y.,
by the English-speaking pastors of the
New York Ministerium. Territory in-
cludes also New Jersey. It entered the
General Council in 1903 and has had a
rapid growth. In 1918 it entered the
United Lutheran Church. In 1925 it
numbered 77 pastors, 67 congregations,
and 21,191 communicants.
s. . North Carolina, Synod of. This
oldest Lutheran synod in the South was
organized at Salisbury, N. C., May 2,
1803, by four pastors, among them Paul
Henkel and C. A. G. Storch, and 14 lay
delegates. In its early days it embraced
the churches in South Carolina, South-
western Virginia, and Tennessee. Owing
to the great “crossing” over the Appa-
lachians, this synod extended its in-
fluence into Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois.
In the “Articles of Synod” no mention
is made of the Lutheran Confessions.
Unionism and Methodistic measures were
rampant in the first half of the 19th
century. The plan of the Pennsylvania
Ministerium for a General Synod was
warmly supported by the leaders of the
North Carolina Synod, notably by Sho-
ber, a former Moravian. Its un-Lu-
theran position and the part it played
in the formation of the General Synod
caused the withdrawal of the Henkels
and others and the formation of the Ten-
nessee Synod in 1820. Out of the North
Carolina Synod there came the South
Carolina Synod, in 1824; the South-
western Virginia Synod, in 1841 ; and
the Mississippi Synod, in 1855. Luring
the Civil War the North Carolina Synod
left the General Synod and in 1864
helped to organize the General Synod of
the Ev. Luth. Church in the Confederate
States and, in 1886, the United Synod of
the South. The North Carolina Synod
.maintained the North Carolina Collegi-
ate Institute (since 1853) and Mount
Amoena Female Seminary (since 1859)
at Mount Pleasant, N. C., and, since the
merger with the Tennessee Synod, Lenoir
(Lenoir-Rliyne) College, at Hickory,
N. C. (founded 1891). The North Caro-
lina Synod entered the United Lutheran
Church in 1918. On March 2, 1921, it
merged with the Tennessee Synod, which
had seceded from it a century before
and in the mean time grown larger than
the mother synod, into the United Synod
of North Carolina of the U. L. C. At the
time of this merger it numbered 57 pas-
tors, 76 congregations, and 11,382 com-
municants.
t. North Carolina, United Ev. Luth.
Synod of. Formed by the merger of
the old North Carolina Synod with the
Tennessee Synod, from which it had
been separated for more than a century,
March 2, 1921. In 1925 this synod re-
ported 110 pastors, 193 congregations,
and 18,989 communicants.
u. Nova Scotia Synod of the United
Lutheran Church. Organized July 7,
1903, at the 75th meeting of the Nova
Scotia Conference of the Pittsburgh
Synod, by 6 pastors and 24 congrega-
tions. It belonged to the General Coun-
cil since 1903 and with it entered the
United Lutheran Church in 1918. In
1925 it numbered 7 pastors, 30 churches
(some of them dating back to the middle
of the 18th century), and 1,493 commu-
nicants.
United Lutheran Clmreh
782
United Lutheran Church
v. Northwest, English Synod of the.
Organized September 22, 1891, at St. Paul,
Minn., by pastors who had worked under
the Home Mission Board of the General
Council, of which Dr. Passavant was
chairman. The leaders in the work were
Dr. G. H. Trabert, A. J. D. Haupt, Dr. G.
H. Gerberding, Dr. W. K. Frick, and Dr.
R. F. Weidner. Its territory extended
from the Great Lakes to the Pacific. Its
educational interests centered in the Chi-
cago Seminary. In the early days there
was considerable friction between it and
the Augustana Synod, which preferred
to take care of its own English work.
It entered the United Lutheran Church
in 1918. In 1925 it numbered 82 pas-
tors, 72 congregations, and 14,547 com-
municants.
w. Ohio Synod of the United Lutheran
Church. Formed November 3, 1920, by
a merger of the East Ohio ( 1836, Gen-
eral Synod), Miami (1844, General
Synod), and Wittenberg (1847, General
Synod) synods and the District Synod
of Ohio (1857, General Council). In
1925 it numbered 216 pastors, 287 con-
gregations, and 42,703 communicants.
x. Pacific Synod of the United Lu-
theran Church. Organized September 26,
1901, by ten pastors of the Synod of the
Northwest living west of the Missouri
River. In 1910 it founded a theological
seminary at Portland, Oreg., which was
later removed to Seattle, Wash., with
Dr. J. C. Kunzmann as its head. In
1918 it entered the United Lutheran
Church. In 1925 it numbered 32 pas-
tors, 30 congregations, and 1,919 com-
municants.
y. Pennsylvania, Ministerium of, “the
mother synod of the Lutheran Church in
America.” Founded by H. M. Muhlen-
berg in 1748. It was the outgrowth
of “the United Congregations,” which
had called Muhlenberg to America in
1742. The first meeting was held in the
new St. Michael’s Church, Philadelphia,
Pa., August 26, 1748. The six pas-
tors present were H. M. Muhlenberg, Pe-
ter Brunnholtz, Johann Nikolaus Kurtz,
Johann H. Schaum, Christoph Hartwig
(of New York), and the Swedish provost
Sandin. The ten congregations: Phila-
delphia, Germantown, New Providence
(The Trappe), New Hannover (Falck-
ner’s Swamp), Upper Milford, Saccum,
Tulpehocken, Nordkiel, Lancaster, and
Earlingstown, were represented by twenty-
four delegates and the entire church
council of the Philadelphia church.
Muhlenberg was the Senior Ministerii
and the leading spirit till his death.
The confessional basis of the synod was
“the Word of God and our Symbolical
Books.” Ministers were divided into li-
censed and ordained pastors and cate-
chists. The laymen had no vote until
1792. A common liturgy, modeled after
that of the London churches, was used
from the beginning; but it lost much
of its Lutheran character by the revision
of 1786. After 1754 “the Ministerium
was practically dead, until revived in
1760” by the Swedish provost Wrangel.
The first formal constitution was adopted
in 1778, when the number of pastors had
increased to 18. In the revised consti-
tution of 1792, which was in force for
two generations, “all confessional tests
vanish.” Much emphasis is laid on Ger-
man. Beginning with the 19th century
the pastors of the Ministerium followed
the westward trend of settlements, and
missionary operations were extended into
Maryland, Virginia, western Pennsylva-
nia, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
New conferences were formed, which later
developed into synods. In 1820 the
Pennsylvania Ministerium helped to or-
ganize the General Synod; but the fear
of synodical authority caused it to with-
draw in 1823. This action caused the
loss of the congregations west of the
Susquehanna and led to the formation of
the Synod of West Pennsylvania in 1825.
Sympathy with the aims of the General
Synod caused a similar exodus in the
eastern part of the State in 1841, result-
ing in the Synod of East Pennsylvania.
In spite of the indifferentism and lack
of Lutheran consciousness (caused, in
part, by the large parishes, union
churches of Luthasgm and Reformed, in
which “everything was in common, ex-
cept the pastor and the Communion ser-
vice”) the Pennsylvania Ministerium held
aloof from the revivalism rampant in
the middle of the century and proved to
be more conservative than most of the
Lutheran synods of the day. In 1841
“Father” C. F. Heyer was sent to India
as the first foreign missionary of the
Lutheran Church in America. In 1853
the Pennsylvania Ministerium reunited
with the General Synod. But when the
great controversy over the “Definite Plat-
form” ( q. v. ) broke out soon afterwards,
members of the Ministerium, e. g., W. J.
Mann and Chas. Porterfield Krauth, took
up the defense of the Lutheran Confes-
sions, and when in 1864 the liberal
Franckean Synod was received by the
General Synod, the Pennsylvania Minis-
terium withdrew, established a seminary
in Philadelphia (in opposition to Get-
tysburg), and took a leading part in the
organization of the General Council at
Fort Wayne in 1867. In the same year
Muhlenberg College in Allentown was
United Lutheran Church
783
United Lutheran Church
founded. The Pennsylvania Ministerium
was the first of the Eastern synods to
return to the confessional basis of 1748.
It was the leading synod in the General
Council and, outside of the Augustana
Synod, numerically the strongest. In
1918 it united with the majority of the
General Council in forming the United
Lutheran Church in America. In 1925
it numbered 424 pastors, 574 congrega-
tions, and 134,989 communicants.
z. Pennsylvania, Synod of Central, of
the United Lutheran Church. Organized
at Aaronsburg, Pa., February 21, 1855,
by two conferences of the Synod of West
Pennsylvania, composed of 16 pastors and
57 congregations. It entered the General
Synod in 1855 and was one of the syn-
ods approving the “Definite Platform”
( q . v.) . In 1918 it entered the United
Lutheran Church. On September 5, 1923,
it merged with the Susquehanna Synod
under the name Susquehanna Synod of
Central Pennsylvania. At the time of
this merger it numbered 32 pastors, 88
congregations, and 9,649 communicants.
aa. Pennsylvania, Synod of East. Or-
ganized May 2, 1842, at Lancaster, Pa.,
by nine pastors and two laymen who had
withdrawn from the Pennsylvania Min-
isterium because they wished to unite
with the General Synod, be permitted to
hold revivals, and have greater liberty
in the form of worship, in the use of the
English language, etc. Together with
the General Synod it entered the Merger
in 1918. In 1925 it numbered 148 pas-
tors, 156 congregations, and 31,212 com-
municants.
bb. Pennsylvania, Synod of West.
When the Pennsylvania Ministerium
withdrew from the General Synod in
1823, S. S. Schmucker induced some of
the members of that body located west
of the Susquehanna River to organize
the West Pennsylvania Synod and to
unite with the general body. The or-
ganization took place September 5, 1825,
at Chambersburg, Pa. Twenty-one min-
isters were present and eight absent. In
1842 the Alleghany Synod branched off
and in 1856 the Synod of Central Penn-
sylvania. It merged with the United
Lutheran Church in 1918. In 1925 it
numbered 112 pastors, 158 congrega-
tions, and 33,313 communicants.
cc. Pittsburgh Synod (I), the “Mis-
sionary Synod.” Founded January 14,
1845, in Pittsburgh by eight pastors and
26 congregations. The leading men in
the early days were W. A. Passavant and
G. Bassler. Originally its territory lay
within the western counties of Pennsyl-
vania, but it soon added a district in
Ohio and another in Nova Scotia, and
its missionary activity extended from
Canada to Texas and the Virgin Islands.
Through the influence of Passavant the
synod was especially active in inner mis-
sion work and in the establishment of
institutions of mercy. Thiel College,
Greenville, Pa., established 1870, was
owned and controlled by this synod.
After the disruption of the General
Synod, to which it had belonged since
1853, the large majority of the Pitts-
burgh Synod joined the General Council
and with it entered the United Lutheran
Church in 1918. On November 18, 1919,
the Pittsburgh Synod of 1867 was re-
united with the old Pittsburgh Synod,
which at that time consisted of 7 dis-
tricts, 156 ministers, 196 congregations,
and 38,055 confirmed members.
dd. Pittsburgh Synod (II) was formed
in December, 1867, by 11 ministers and
28 congregations which had left the old
Pittsburgh Synod because it had united
with the General Council and “changed
its doctrinal basis.” It claimed to be
the old Pittsburgh Synod and remained
with the General Synod until the Merger
in 1918. November 18, 1919, it was re-
united with the old Pittsburgh Synod.
At the time of this merger it numbered
3 districts, 90 ministers, 125 congrega-
tions, and 26,711 communicants.
ee. Pittsburgh Synod (III). Formed
November 18, 1919, at Pittsburgh by the
merger of the old Pittsburgh Synod (of
the General Council) and the Pittsburgh
Synod which remained with the General
Synod in 1867. In 1925 it numbered
259 pastors, 316 congregations, and
49,960 communicants.
ff. Rooky Mountain Synod. Efflux of
the Kansas and Nebraska synods of the
General Synod. Organized May 6, 1891,
in Manitou, Colo., by nine pastors and
two laymen. Territory: Colorado, New
Mexico, Wyoming. Merged with the
United Lutheran Church in 1918. In
1925 it numbered 14 pastors, 18 congre-
gations, and 1,374 communicants.
gg. South Carolina Synod. Organized
January 14, 1824, by six pastors and five
laymen, representing 13 congregations.
In 1830 it founded the first theological
institution of the Lutheran Church in
the South at Lexington, now the South-
ern Lutheran Seminary at Columbia,
S. C. Dr. E. L. Hazelius was at the head
of it 1833 — 53. Newberry College was
established in 1856. Dr. John Bachmann,
for 56 years pastor in Charleston, was
the leading spirit in this synod. In 1864
the South Carolina Synod helped to or-
ganize the Ev. Luth. Synod of the Con-
federate States and in 1880 the United
Synod of the South. In 1918 it entered
United Lutheran Cliureli
784
United Lutheran Chureli
the United Lutheran Church. In 1925 it
numbered 59 pastors, 109 congregations,
and 12,935 communicants.
hh. Slovak Zion Synod. Organized
June 10, 1919, at Braddock, Pa., by
19 pastors, most of them recently from
Czechoslovakia, and 32 congregations.
It entered the United Lutheran Church
in 1920. In 1925 it numbered 23 pas-
tors, 34 congregations, and 5,413 com-
municants.
ii, Susquehanna Synod of Central
Pennsylvania. Formed September 5,
1923, by a merger of the Synod of Cen-
tral Pennsylvania and the Susquehanna
Synod. In 1925 it numbered 85 pastors,
166 congregations, and 25,852 communi-
cants.
jj. Susquehanna Synod. Formed of
the Susquehanna Conference of the East
Pennsylvania Synod (organized 1845)
on November 5, 1867, at Montoursville,
Pa. Joined the General Synod in 1867.
Territory: North Central Pennsylvania.
Susquehanna University is within its
territory. It entered the United Lu-
theran Church in 1918 and on Septem-
ber 5, 1923, formed a merger with the
Synod of Central Pennsylvania. At the
time of this merger it numbered 48 pas-
tors, 79 congregations, and 16,413 com-
municants.
kk. Texas Synod of the United Lu-
theran Church. Organized November 10,
1851, at Houston, Tex., by six pastors,
under the leadership of Rev. C. Braun,
who had been sent to Texas by Dr. W. A.
Passavant. In the early days many of its
pastors came from Chrischona, the well-
known missionary institute in Basel. It
accepted the doctrinal basis of the Pitts-
burgh Synod and with it entered the
General Synod in 1853. It was connected
with the General Council from 1868 to
1895, when the great majority voted to
unite with the German Iowa Synod. It
established a college at Brenham in 1891.
The minority continued under the name
of Texas Synod, in 1915 reentered the
General Council, and with it joined the
United Lutheran Church in 1918. In
1925 it numbered 16 pastors, 23 congre-
gations, and 2,736 communicants.
11. Tennessee Synod, The Ev. Luth.,
though never very large, deserves honor-
able mention for having held aloft the
*banner of conservative Lutheranism in
America at a time when other synods
were only nominally Lutheran. It was
founded July 17, 1820, at Solomon’s
Church, Cove Creek, Green Co., Tenn.,
by Paul Henkel and Jacob Zink of Vir-
ginia, Adam Miller, Philip Henkel, and
Geo. Easterly of Tennessee, David Henkel
of North Carolina, and 19 delegates from
congregations in Tennessee. Some of
these men had formerly belonged to the
North Carolina Synod, and Paul Henkel
had been one of the organizers of that
body. The reasons for the, organization
of the Tennessee Synod lay in the fact
that the North Carolina Synod was un-
Lutheran in doctrine and practise. The
Tennessee Synod at first laid great stress
on German, and English-speaking pas-
tors were required to learn that lan-
guage. The organization of the Ten-
nessee Synod was also a protest against
the formation of the General Synod,
which was so ardently advocated by
some of the leading men in the North
Carolina Synod, notably Shober and
Stork. Tennessee regarded the General
Synod as a danger to the autonomy of
the congregations (“one had as much
liberty as the rope permitted”) and ob-
jected to the fact that “the constitution
does nowhere say that the Augsburg
Confession of Faith or Luther’s Cat-
echism or the Bible shall be the founda-
tion of the doctrine or discipline of the
General Synod.” As early as 1816 David
Henkel was preaching the true Lutheran
doctrine with regard to the person of
Christ, the Word, the Sacraments, etc.,
and took a decided stand for a definite
Lutheran faith and practise. Shober and
some of his colleagues bitterly opposed
David Henkel’s practise and ridiculed
his doctrine. As there could be no sat-
isfactory agreement, David Henkel and
his supporters withdrew and formed the
Tennessee Synod. In spite of the fact
that Tennessee was treated with con-
tempt by the North Carolina and other
synods, it invited the members of the
North Carolina Synod for a friendly dis-
cussion of their differences in 1826 and
1827. In the interest of doctrinal clarity
and purity the Tennessee Synod in 1823
and again in 1825 addressed a number
of questions to the Pennsylvania Min-
isterium on Baptism, the Lord’s Supper,
and fellowship with the sects. But it
was treated with contemptuous silence.
Even the Ohio Synod, in which the Ten-
nessee influence was noticeable at first
(Paul Henkel had been among its
founders), resolved that it could not
answer the questions put by the Tennes-
see Synod, “since it is not our purpose in
our meetings to discuss theological ques-
tions.” Finding no response to their
overtures in the other Lutheran synods,
the Tennessee Synod perforce stood alone
in its testimony to the truth of the Lu-
theran Confessions and naturally charged
the older synods with having departed
from the faith. The doctrinal basis of
Untied U fit tier an Clinrcli
785
United Lutheran Church
tJio Tennessee Synod, from the very out-
set, was “the Holy Bible, as the only
rule of matters respecting faith and
church discipline, and the Augsburg
Confession of Faith, as a pure emanation
from the Bible.” To this was added in
1827 : “The book entitled Concordia,
which contains the Symbolical Books of
the Lutheran Church, shall be viewed
as a directory in theology.” In 1866 the
whole Concordia was formally adopted
as the doctrinal basis. The Tennessee
Synod did not regard the Confessions as
a dead letter, but taught and practised
accordingly in the reception of ministers
and congregations. It opposed indis-
criminate altar- and pulpit-fellowship
and membership in secret orders. It
valiantly combated all Romanizing ten-
dencies and Methodistic measures and
laid great stress on the catechization of
the youth and the indoctrination of the
congregations. Luther’s Catechism and
the Augsburg Confession were translated
into English and followed by the whole
Hook of Concord. On their missionary
journeys to the scattered Lutherans of
Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and
Missouri, Paul, Philip, and David Hen-
kel, Jacob Zink, and Christian Moretz
carried this confessional Lutheranism
into the Middle West, counteracting, in
a measure, the influence of the “Gen-
eralists.” The cool attitude of the Ohio
Bynod toward the General Synod was
due, in part, to Tennessee influence, and
the first Lutheran conventions held on
Kentucky soil were brought together by
the “Henkelites.” The Indiana Synod (I),
founded 1835, was organized in opposi-
tion to the Synod of the West, founded
1834 by emissaries of the General Synod.
'I'lie influence of Tennessee is seen also in
the organization of the English Confer-
ence of Missouri, in 1872, by Pastors
Andrew Rader, J. R. Moser, and Polycarp
Henkel. It was but natural that the
strict confessionalism of the Missouri
Synod appealed to Tennessee and that
there was an interchange of delegates
in the middle of the 19th century. Wal-
ther, out of the fulness of his heart,
blessed the faithful publishers of the
Book of Concord at a time when the
“Definite Platform” was in the making.
It was due to the influence of Missouri
that Tennessee, in 1866, acknowledged
the whole Book of Concord as its doc-
trinal basis. — In spite of its orthodoxy
the Tennessee Synod had its weaknesses
and peculiarities. In its early days it
was not always consistent, in that it
admitted Reformed Christians to Lu-
theran altars. It was peculiar in this,
that it opposed incorporation of the
Concordia Cyclopedia
synodical body and of theological sem-
inaries. Though Philip Henkel, together
with Joseph Bell, had conducted a small
institution, called Union Seminary, in
Green Co., Tenn., 1816 — 20, the Tennessee
Synod afterwards discouraged the estab-
lishment of theological seminaries. It
was thought sufficient if aspirants for
the ministry “studied theology with some
able divine.” A general mission treasury
for the purpose of paying traveling mis-
sionaries was considered dangerous, and
funds for widows and orphans of pastors
Were denounced as leading to “worldli-
ness.” Its teachings on the Last Things
and on the Ministry were not clearly
defined. The clergy was divided into
pastors and deacons. — In 1860 the Hol-
ston Synod was formed in Tennessee by
pastors of the Tennessee Synod. Since
that time the Tennessee Synod has had
no members in Tennessee. Concordia
College, Conover, N. C., established 1877
as a high school and presided over by
Polycarp Henkel until 1885, was taken
under the fostering care of the synod in
1883. A theological department was con-
ducted in this school by Prof. J. S.
Koiner, 1886 — 9, and then by Prof. R. A.
Yoder. In 1891 the school was offered
to the English Missouri Synod, which
took it over in 1895 and to which it was
legally deeded in 1905. The synod also
recognized a high school in Dallas, Gas-
ton Co., N. C., as a church school in 1884.
In 1891 Lenoir College was established
in Hickory, N. C. (called Lenoir-Rhyne
since 1924). — The Tennessee Synod re-
fused to take part in the organization
of the General Synod in the South in
1863. But when confessionalism in the
South had advanced sufficiently to sat-
isfy Tennessee, this synod, together with
the IloJston Synod, merged with the Gen-
eral Synod in the South into the United
Synod South in 1886. With this body
the Tennessee Synod entered the United
Lutheran Church in 1918. On March 2,
1921, it lost its identity by merging with
the North Carolina Synod, after a cen-
tury of separation, into the United
Synod of North Carolina. At the time
of this merger it numbered 53 pastors,
138 congregations, and 14,806 communi-
cants.
mm. Virginia, United Lutheran Synod
of (Virginia Synod of the United Lu-
theran Church) . Formed March 17,
1922, by a merger of the old Virginia
Synod (1829), Southwestern Virginia
Synod ( 1842), the Holston Synod (1860),
and some congregations belonging to the
Tennessee Synod. In 1925 it numbered
79 pastors, 149 congregations, and 9,063
communicants.
50
United Lutheran Church
786 U. S., Catholic Church in
nn. Virginia Synod, The Ev. Luth.
Synod of. Organized August 10, 1829,
at Woodstock, Va., by eight pastors and
two lay delegates, mostly from the
Shenandoah Valley. Its doctrinal basis
was the Holy Scriptures and the Unal-
tered Augsburg Confession. It united
with the General Synod in 1839, helped
to organize the General Synod in the
South in 1864 and the United Synod in
the South in 1886. It entered the United
Lutheran Church in 1918. On March 17,
1922, it merged with the Synod of South-
western Virginia and the Holston Synod
under the name, The United Lutheran
Synod of Virginia. At the time of this
merger it numbered 35 pastors, 59 con-
gregations, and 5,918 confirmed members.
oo. Virginia, Synod of Southwestern.
Organized September 20, 1842, by six
pastors who had left the Virginia Synod.
It united with the General Synod in
1843, with the General Synod in the
South in 1864, and with the United
Lutheran Church in 1918. On March 17,
1922, it merged with the Synod of Vir-
ginia and the Holston Synod under the
name of the United Lutheran Synod of
Virginia. At the time of this merger it
numbered 28 pastors, 69 congregations,
and 5,007 confirmed members.
pp. Warthurg Synod of the United Lu-
theran Church ( sometimes called the
German Synod of Illinois) . Organized
at Chicago in 1875 by pastors formerly
belonging to the Central Illinois Synod.
It joined the General Synod in 1877.
Dr. J. D. Severinghaus was the leading
spirit for many years. In the early days
the pastors came chiefly from Breklum,
a theological seminary in Germany ;
later from the seminary established by
Severinghaus in Chicago (1883) and re-
moved to Atchison, Kans., in 1898.
Joint organ with the German Nebraska
Synod: Lutlierisclier Zionsbote. It en-
tered the United Lutheran Church in
1918. In 1925 it numbered 46 pastors,
50 congregations, and 6,254 communi-
cants.
qq. West, Mission Synod of the. Or-
ganized by members of the Western Con-
ference of the B’ranckean Synod and
former members of the Iowa (English)
Synod in 1866, “for the purpose of
Americanizing the Lutherans in Iowa,
Minnesota, etc.” Its doctrinal basis was
that of the Franckean Synod. Ministers
who were in favor of subscribing to the
Augustana as a test of membership were
to be barred. The General Synod ad-
vised the Franckean Synod in 1866 to
dissolve the Mission Synod of the West.
rr. West Virginia Synod of the United
Lutheran Church. Organized through
missionary efforts of the Maryland Synod,
April 17, 1912. It belonged to the Gen-
eral Synod and with it entered the
United Lutheran Church in 1918. In
1925 it numbered 14 pastors* 39 congre-
gations, and 3,287 communicants. See
also Synods, Extinct.
■ United Methodist Church. See
Rryanites.
United Society of Believers in
Christ’s Second Appearing. See
Shakers.
United States, The, Catholic Church
in. For over one hundred years after the
discovery of America the religious his-
tory of the United States is the history
of the Roman Catholic Church, the first
permanent Protestant settlement being
made at Jamestown, Va., in 1607. A col-
ony of Huguenots, who had earlier at-
tempted a settlement in North Carolina,
was atrociously murdered by Menendez,
the founder of St. Augustine. Roman
Catholic history in the United States
may be divided into two periods, namely,
the missionary and the hierarchical, the
former extending to the year 1789, when
Father Carroll was appointed bishop of
Baltimore, and the latter covering the
period from that date to the present dayl
The missionary activity of the Roman
Catholic Church (which we can treat
here only in the most summary way)
eventually embraced nearly all the In-
dian tribes from Maine and the Great
Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, as well as
those in the Southwest (New Mexico,
California, and Texas). Working from
St. Augustine (founded 1565), the first
permanent center of Roman Catholicism
in the New World, the Franciscans and
the Jesuits labored among the Indians in
what is now Georgia, Alabama, and the
Carolinas. This mission flourished until
1763, when Florida was ceded to England
by Spain, and was extinct at the outbreak
of the Revolutionary War. The founding
of Santa Fe (1582) marked the begin-
ning of Roman Catholic missions in New
Mexico. Within a .comparatively short
time whole tribes were won for the
Church. In 1680, however, the natives
rose in revolt, and in a few weeks not
a Spaniard was found in New Mexico
north of El Paso. “The same methods
of compulsion that had been used to
stamp out every vestige of the old re-
ligion were put into use against the
new.” Nor was the reestablishment of
Spanish power attended by a correspond-
ing return of the Indians to the religion
of their conquerors. Only fragments of
these early missions remain. The work
in Texas produced only a scanty harvest.
IT. S., Cailioiie Church in
787
United States of America
The beginnings of the mission in Cali-
fornia are associated with the name of
Father Juniper Serra, the founder of
San Francisco (1776). The work was in
the hands of the Franciscans, who after
sixty years of labor could boast of
twenty-one missions, with a native popu-
lation of 30,000. The declaration of
Mexican independence and the shaking
off of the Spanish yoke dealt the death-
blow to the Californian missions. The
Franciscans were expelled, mission-prop-
erty was confiscated, and the Indians
returned to savage life. In the north
the Jesuit missionaries were active in
Maine (Father Druillettes, “the Apostle
of Maine”) and among the Iroquois of
New York (Father Jogues, tortured and
martyred 1646), the work continuing
until 1713, when the State of New York
was ceded to the English by the Treaty
of Utrecht. The shores of Lake Michi-
gan and Lake Superior were visited as
early as 1641, and some twenty years
later permanent mission-stations were
established at Sault Ste. Marie, Macki-
nac, Green Bay, Ashland Bay, and else-
where. In 1673 Father Marquette floated
down the Wisconsin River, thence down
the Mississippi to the mouth of the Ar-
kansas, and the Jesuits established mis-
sion-stations along the banks of the Fa-
ther of Waters. The Illinois country
was likewise included in their labors,
with missionary centers in Peoria, Ca-
hokia, Kaskaskia, Fort St. Louis, Vin-
cennes, and other points. With the es-
tablishment of English supremacy and
the suppression of the Jesuit order Ro-
man Catholic missions gradually disap-
peared from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to
the Gulf of Mexico. Before passing on
to the second period of Roman Catholic
history in the United States, mention
must be made of the Catholic colony
established in Maryland by Lord Balti-
more in 1632. The liberal policy of pro-
claiming religious liberty “entitles him”
( Baltimore ) , in the words of a Roman
Catholic historian, “to the credit of being
the originator of religious liberty on this
continent.” But it must not be forgotten
that the colony was under the sovereignty
of England and that hence any intoler-
ance toward the Protestants would have
been suicidal folly. Baltimore’s wise
legislation, it is only fair to add, was re-
voked in 1691, and the Catholics were
disfranchised and persecuted until the
Revolution.
The hierarchical period of the Roman
Catholic Church begins in 1789, when
Father Carroll was consecrated bishop of
Baltimore. The establishment of Ameri-
can independence and the severance of
political bonds with England “broke the
connection of the Catholic communities
in the colonies with the Vicar Apostolic
of London.” At this time there were
possibly not' more than 25,000 Roman
Catholics in the United States. Since
then, due chiefly to a torrent of immi-
gration, the growth of this Church has
been astonishing. Bishoprics were es-
tablished in due time at New Orleans
(since 1803 part of the United States),
Boston, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Dubuque,
St. Paul, Milwaukee, Chicago, and other
cities. According to the census report of
1916 the Catholic Church numbers over
15,000,000 adherents. The machinery in
operation to promote her interests in-
cludes some twenty universities, over one
hundred seminaries, two hundred colleges
for boys, seven hundred Sisters’ acade-
mies, forty colleges for women, a vast
number of parochial schools, as well as
an enormous amount of periodical litera-
ture published in English, German,
French, Polish, Bohemian, Italian, and
other languages. The Roman Catholic
Church constitutes one of the most
powerful religious and political forces of
the country. Despite protestations to
the contrary on the part of Catholic
theologians, the traditions and ideals of
Roman Catholicism are plainly at vari-
ance with the genius and the principles
of the American Constitution.
United States of America. Reli-
gious History. The purpose of this ar-
ticle is not so much to give anything
like a detailed account of the numerous
religious groups pursuing their several
ends within the broad limits and the
untrammeled liberties of our country as
to draw attention to some of the out-
standing principles which have guided
the religious development and determined
the religious life of the nation. For over
one hundred years after the discovery of
America the religious history of the
country was the history of the Roman
Catholic Church in this country. Since
this Church has been treated in a sepa-
rate article it will be sufficient here to
refer to that article. See United States,
Catholic Church in. ■ — Turning to the
Protestant colonies, we observe, in the
first place, that some of them, such as
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Mary-
land, owe their origin to European in-
tolerance and persecution. Fugitives for
conscience’ sake laid the foundations of
these commonwealths and contributed
large numbers to the population of the
other colonies. Puritans, Quakers, Hu-
guenots, Presbyterians, Lutherans, Ro-
man Catholics, and others, seeking that
freedom of faith and worship which was
United States of America
788
United States of America
denied them in their native land, emi-
grated to America to breathe the air of
liberty. As to strength and distribution,
it may be added that Puritanism was
dominant in New England, Quakerism
in Pennsylvania, and Episcopalianism in
Virginia and the South. That the Amer-
ican colonists, though in large part fugi-
tives from persecution in Europe, had
not — with some noteworthy exceptions
— grasped the meaning of religious free-
dom is writ in plain and indelible let-
ters over the chapter of colonial his-
tory. Protesting against intolerance in
Europe, they practised it in America.
Advocating the sovereignty of conscience
when under oppression, they ignored its
authority when in power. Non-conform-
ists in the Old World, they insisted on
rigid conformity in the New. Thus the
Puritans of New England established a
theocratic government, which was deemed
the “best form of government in a Chris-
tian commonwealth,” in that it made
“the Lord God our Governor,” gave
“unto Christ His due preheminence,”
and was the form “received and estab-
lished among the people of Israel.” No
one could hold a political office who was
not a member of the Church, that is to
say, of the Puritan establishment. Mem-
bership in a private religious association
was treason against the state and “high
presumption against the Lord.” Roman-
ists, Prelatists, Baptists, Quakers, were
not tolerated. Blasphemy, perjury, adul-
tery, witchcraft, abuse of parents (if the
child was over sixteen years of age),
were punishable by death. Fines, im-
prisonment, the scourge, the stocks, ear-
slitting, nose-boring, etc., were the ap-
proved methods of enforcing discipline
and religious uniformity. The foregoing
applies in a general way to the Puritan
colonies of Massachusetts, Connecticut,
and New Haven, although the penal
codes of the several colonies were not
strictly identical. The colony of New
Amsterdam restricted religious liberty
and, after passing under the power of
England, the Episcopal Church was estab-
lished by law and supported by taxation,
while severe laws were passed against
the Catholics. Pennsylvania also started
with the principle of freedom of con-
science, but from 1693 to 1775 no one
could hold office who did not profess the
orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and re-
ject the Roman Catholic doctrine of
transubstantiation and the Mass as idol-
atrous. Even a man like Benjamin
Franklin submitted to this test when he
entered upon the duties of the various
offices which he held. The first and only
colony established by Catholics was
Maryland, and strange as it may seem,
religious freedom was granted to all
“who believe in Christ,” whether Ro-
manist or Protestant. This enlightened
policy, enacted into a law of the state
in 1649, was reversed in 1691, when
Episcopalianism was forcibly introduced
and the Catholics were completely dis-
franchised. In Virginia the Episcopal
Church was supported by the State.
A law of 1643 expressly prohibited any
person dissenting from the doctrines and
usages of the established church from
preaching and teaching the Gospel within
the limits of the colony. In the Caro-
linas and in Georgia full civil and reli-
gious liberty was granted to all Chris-
tians except the Roman Catholics. There
was no established church. The colony
of Rhode Island, founded by Roger Wil-
liams, who was banished from Massa-
chusetts, deserves special mention, inas-
much as here the spheres of Church and
State were cleanly separated, thus an-
ticipating the principle embodied in the
Federal Constitution. To the latter we
must give a moment’s attention. The
first amendment to the Constitution
(1789) declares that “Congress shall
make no law respecting an establish-
ment of religion or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof.” This means that the
United States Government disclaims any
right of interference in matters of relig-
ion and guarantees absolute freedom of
conscience to every citizen. It means
that the supreme law of the land stands
squarely against the establishment of
any form of state-churchism and the
support of any particular church-body
in preference to others. How wag this
consummation brought about? It rep-
resents the legitimate and inevitable
outcome of the Protestant principle of
liberty and individualism, it reflects the
wisdom of the framers of the Constitu-
tion, and, finally, it grew out of the
exigencies of the situation. Regarding
the first point, Neal, characterized as
an “intelligent historian and careful
writer,” in An Historical Sketch of New
England (1720) says: “Happy people!
as long as Religion and the State con-
tinue on a separate Basis; the Magis-
trate not meedling in Matters of Relig-
ion any further than is necessary for
the Preservation of publick Peace; nor
the Churches calling for the Sword of
the Magistrate to back their ecclesias-
tical Censures with corporal Severities.”
What progress in the direction of liberty
since the witchcraft episode in Salem !
In Virginia the efforts of dissenting
denominations (Presbyterians, Baptists,
Quakers), combined with the powerful
United States of America
789 V. S., Religious Statistics of
\
.advocacy of Thomas Jefferson, resulted
in the disestablishment of the Episcopal
Church before the Declaration of Inde-
pendence. Again, the framers of the
Constitution had learned from history
the folly and the mischief of religious
coercion and persecution, and therefore
they wisely held aloof from any legis-
lation for the control of faith and wor-
ship. Nor could they, under the circum-
stances, have very well done anything
else. When the colonies, after achieving
their independence, coalesced into a na-
tion, they could not grant liberty to one
Church, or sect, to the exclusion of the
rest. “The liberty of all was the best
guarantee for the liberty of each.” Thus
has the American Constitution solved a
problem of the ages. It cut the Gordian
knot by which State and Church had
been intertwined and thus inaugurated
an epoch in the history of legislation.
The separation of Church and State
involves the voluntary principle for the
maintenance of the former. That is to
say, no Church, or sect, may appeal to
the state for special patronage or finan-
cial support. All expenses necessary for
running the Church’s machinery, such
as the erection of seminaries for the
training of the clergy, the payment of
ministers’ salaries, etc., must be met by
voluntary contributions. So far from
being a disadvantage, this system tends
rather to promote liberality and stimu-
late personal interest in the work of the
Church. The experience of a century
and a half has fully justified the Amer-
ican principle of separation of Church
and State. Says the late James Bryce:
“So far from suffering from the want of
State support, religion seems in the
United States to stand all the firmer,
because, standing alone, she is seen to
stand by her own strength.” And again:
“Christianity influences conduct not in-
deed half as much as in theory it ought,
but probably more than it does in any
other modern country.” ( The American
Commonwealth,.) Separation of Church
and State also means the secularization
of public instruction. This, again, has
led some church-bodies, Catholics and
Lutherans, to maintain their own paro-
chial schools in order to provide for the
religious education of their children.
Otherwise the Sunday-school is made to
supply this need as well as it may.
When the colonial period came to an
end (1783), there were about 3,000,000
inhabitants, made up of almost every
branch of Protestantism. There were
few Catholics. Up to 1840 the total im-
migration did not exceed half a million.
After that immigrants came in numbers,
the Germans and the Irish forming the
largest contingents. At present the Ro-
man Catholic Church constitutes about
one-third of the Christian population,
the principal divisions of Protestantism
about one half. The remainder consists
of minor sects, of which there is a be-
wildering variety. Besides, there are
numerous smaller bodies which reject
the ecumenical creeds, such as the Uni-
tarians, Universalists, Swedenborgians,
Christian Scientists, and others. Prot-
estantism is the dominant religious force
of the country.
United States. Summary of Re-
ligious Bodies and Statistics. Unlike
other countries, in which usually one
particular form of confession prevailed,
the United States of North America has
become the home of practically every
denomination and sect in existence. The
Pilgrim Fathers, who landed on Plymouth
Rock on December 25, 1020, and founded
a colony, which became the germ of the
New England States, were the first to
seek a place of refuge on the hospitable
shores of the Western Continent. They
were followed by the Puritans, who, for
reasons similar to those of the Pilgrim
Fathers, came to America and formed
the various Puritan settlements in Mas-
sachusetts. In both these colonies
Church and State were more or less
mingled, the only relation to which these
immigrants were accustomed. The pecu-
liarities of the Puritans of New England
have come down to us in the Congrega-
tionalists, though in the course of time
these have greatly deviated from the doc-
trinal tenets and customs of their fore-
fathers. The early settlers of Virginia
brought with them an episcopal form
of service, and out of this settlement
grew the Protestant Episcopal Church
of this country. The Reformed (Dutch)
Church was the outgrowth of the Dutch
settlement in New York and New Jersey.
The Presbyterian churches of this coun-
try originated from parties and immi-
grants from England, Ireland, and Scot-
land, who settled within the limits of
various colonies. The Baptists originated
among the Puritans and were banished
from their midst. Methodism in this
country w T as propagated by the followers
of Whitefield and Wesley, and their
growth was rapid since their zeal was
great. The Roman Catholics of Mary-
land were from England, those of Florida
from Spain, and those of the lake regions
and the Mississippi Valley from France.
The Quakers originated in England and
found their way among the American
colonists. The Lutherans emigrated
from all parts of Germany and the Scan-
II. S., ReliglottH Statistics of
f90 II. S., Religious Statistics of
dinavian countries, as also from Russia
and Austria.
Among the various Protestant bodies
in our country, the Baptist body is the
largest. It is divided into 17 bodies, the
Northern Convention, the Southern Con-
vention, the National Convention, col-
ored, being by far the, largest. Other
Baptist bodies are the General Six Prin
ciple, the Seventh-day, Free Will (col-
ored), General, Separate, Regular, United,
Primitive, Primitive (colored), Two-Seed-
In-The-Spirit Predestinarian Baptists. In
1921 these 17 bodies totaled 45,995 min-
isters, 59,901 churches, and over 8,000,000
communicants. (According to Ycar-boolc ,
Methodists are larger.)
The Methodist denomination forms the
second largest Protestant church-body
and is divided into fifteen groups, vie:.,
Methodist Episcopal (3,995,037 commu-
nicants) ; the African Methodist Epis-
copal Church ; the African M. E. Zion ;
the African Union Methodist Protestant
Church; the Methodist Protestant; the
Wesleyan Methodist ; the Methodist Epis-
copal South (2,301,844) ; the Congrega-
tional Methodist; the New Congrega-
tional Methodist; the Reformed Zion
Union Apostolic; the Colored Methodist
Episcopal Church; the Primitive Metho-
dists; the Free Methodists; the Re-
formed Methodist Union Episcopal. In
1921 the 15 Methodist bodies reported
8,001,506 communicants.
The third largest Protestant church-
body in the United States is the Lu-
theran, at times ranking as the fourth
body, divided into twenty -two bodies:
I) Missouri Synod; 2) United Lutheran ;
3) General Ohio Synod; 4) Iowa Synod;
5 ) Buffalo Synod ; 6 ) Jehovah Confer-
ence; 7) Augustana Synod; 8) Norwe-
gian Lutheran Church; 9) Lutheran
Free Church; 10) Eielsen’s Synod;
II) Lutheran Brethren; 12) United
Danish Church; 13) Danish Church;
14) Icelandic Synod; 15) Suomi (Fin-
nish); 16) Finnish National Church;
17) Finnish Apostolic Church; 18) Im-
manuel Synod; 19) Joint Wisconsin
Synod; 20) Slovak Synod; 21) Norwe-
gian Synod; 22) Lutheran Negro Mis-
sions. These Lutheran bodies, together
with three independent congregations, in
1921 reported 2,429,561 communicants.
The Presbyterians are . the fourth
largest Protestant body in the United
States, occasionally ranking as the third
body. They are divided into ten bodies:
Presbyterian, U. S. A. (Northern); the
Cumberland (white) ; the Cumberland
(colored) ; the United; the Presbyterian
U. S. A. (Southern); the Associate; the
Associate Synod South; the Reformed
Synod; the Reformed General Synod,
and the Welsh Calvinistic. In 1921
these 10 Presbyterian bodies reported
2,318,342 communicants.
The following religious bodies are given
in approximate alphabetical order;. —
The Adventists in the United States
are divided into five bodies: Advent
Christians, Seventh-day Adventists, the
Church of God, the Life and Advent
Union, and the Churches of God in
Christ. These live Adventist bodies in
1921 totaled 136,579 communicant mem-
bers.
The Dunkards (Brethren) are divided
into several bodies. We mention the Con-
servative Brethren, Old Order Brethren,
and Progressive Brethren, totaling, in
1921, 137,142 communicant members.
The Plymouth Brethren (six groups)
in the same year totaled 13,244 commu-
nicants and the River Brethren (three
bodies ) 5,962 communicants.
The Catholic Apostolic Church (two
bodies) reported 2,768 communicants.
The Eastern Orthodox Catholic Church
is composed of eight bodies: the Arme-
nian Apostolic, the Russian Orthodox,
the Greek (Hellenic) Orthodox, the
Syrian Orthodox, the Serbian Orthodox,
the Roumanian Orthodox, the Bulgarian
Orthodox, and the Albanian Orthodox.
These eight Eastern orthodox Catholic
bodies reported 645,444 communicants.
The Western Catholics of the United
States comprise chiefly three bodies; the
Roman Catholic, the Polish National,
and the American Old Catholic, with
a membership of 15,242,171.
Churches standing in close connection
with one another, but nevertheless form-
ing separate bodies, are: The Assemblies
of God (10,000 communicant members) ;
Christadelphians (3,890 communicants) ;
American Christian Convention (97,084) ;
Christian Union (16,800); the Church
of God and Saints of Christ (3,311 c.*) ;
the Church of God — Weinbrenner
(26,872 c. ); the Churches of God — -
General Assembly (18,248); Churches
of the Living God (colored), three bodies
( 11 , 000 ).
The Church of Christ Scientist, while
not enumerating its communicant mem-
bership, in 1921 reported 1,603 churches
with 3,206 readers.
The Churches of the New Jerusalem
( two bodies, the General Convention and
the General Assembly) have a member-
ship of 9,400 communicants.
There are two bodies of Communistic
societies (Shakers and the Amana So-
ciety), numbering 1,901 communicants.
* (c.) = census of 1910.
IT. S., Religions Statistics of 791
U. S., Religions Statistics of
The Congregational churches in 1920
reported a communicant membership of
819,225 communicants.
The Disciples of Christ are divided
into two bodies, The Disciples of Christ,
having a membership of 1,201,778, and
the Churches of Christ, having a mem-
bership of 317,937. The two bodies
totaled in 1921, 1,519,715 communicants.
The Evangelical bodies are divided
into two groups: the Evangelical Asso-
ciation and the United Evangelical
Church, with a united membership of
213,664.
The Evangelistic Association (15 bod-
ies), having 13,933 members.
The Evangelical Protestant (formerly
German Protestant) Church has 17,962
members. The Evangelical Synod of
North America (formerly German) has
a membership of 274,860 communicants.
The Friends are divided into four
bodies: the Orthodox, the Hicksite, the
Wilburite, and the Primitive, and total
117,391 communicants.
The Jewish congregations have a mem-
bership of 357,135.
The Latter-day Saints, or Mormons,
are divided into two bodies : the
Churches of Jesus Christ in Utah and
the Reorganized Church, having a com-
bined membership of 587,701.
There are three bodies of Scandinavian
Evangelical churches : the Swedish Evan-
gelical Mission Covenant, the Swedish
Evangelical Free Church, and the Nor-
wegian Evangelical Free Church, total-
ing 36,802 members,
Tlie Mennonites comprise many bodies,
of which the following are important:
the Mennonite Church, the Brueder-
gcmeinde ; the Conservative Amish Men-
nonite Gemeinde; the Old Order Amish
Mennonites ; the Church of God in
Christ; the Defenseless Mennonites: the
General Conference; the Brethren in
Christ; the Mennonite Brethren; the
Old Order (Wisler) Mennonites; the
Reformed Mennonite Church; and mis-
cellaneous groups; having in all 82,553
communicant members.
The Moravians are divided into two
bodies: the Moravian Church and the
Union Bohemians and Moravians, with
a membership of 23,745.
The non-sectarian Bible Faith churches
have a membership of 2,946.
The Pentecostal Churches (four bod-
ies) : the Church of the Nazarene, the
Apostolic Holiness Church, the Holiness
Church, the Pentecostal Holiness Church,
in all number 01,973 communicant
members.
The Protestant Episcopal Church is
divided into two bodies : the Protestant
Episcopal Church, with a membership of
1,081,588, and the Reformed Episcopal
Church, with a membership of 11,217.
The Reformed churches in the United
States are divided into three bodies: Re-
formed Church in America, with a mem-
bership of 135,634; the Reformed Church
in the United States, counting 331,369
members, and the Christian Reformed
Church, with a membership of 43,902.
The United Brethren are divided into
two bodies: the United Brethren, with
355,896 members, and the United Breth-
ren (Old Constitution), with 20,286
communicants; in all, 376,182.
Among the various other bodies, men-
tion must be made of : The Salvation
Army, 108,033 communicants; the
Schwenkfelders, 1,336; Social Brethren,
950 (c. ) ; Society for Ethical Culture,
3,210; Spiritualists, 50,000; Temple,
260; Unitarians, 71,110; Universalists,
59,650 (c.) ; independent congregations,
48,673.
The grand total of all churches in the
United States in 1921 was 230,572, with
195,414 ministers and 43,523,206 mem-
bers.
A summary of the statistics of the
churches in the United States in 1921
(not including foreign missions) is given
below : —
Denomination
Adventists
Assemblies of God
Baptists
Brethren (Dunkards)
Brethren (Plymouth)
Brethren (River)
Buddhist Japanese Temples . . .
Catholic Apostolic
Catholic, Eastern Orthodox
Catholic, Western
Christadelphians
Christian American Convention
Christian Union
Church of Christ Scientist . . . .
Ministers
Chut ches
Communicants
1,629
2,911
136,579
700
200
10,000
45,995
59,901
7,825,598
4,057
1,280
137,142
458
13,244
204
122
5,962
34
12
5,639
13
13
2,768
459
491
645,444
22,009
16,811
15,342,171
—
76
3,890
861
1,094
97,084
350
320
16,800
3,206
1,603
—
United Synod in the South
792
United Synod In the Sonth
Denomination
Church of God and Saints of Christ
Church of God ( Winebrenner)
Churches of God, General Assembly
Churches of the Living God (colored)
Churches of the New Jerusalem
Communistic Societies
Congregational Churches
Disciples of Christ
Evangelical
Evangelistic Associations
Evangelical Protestant
Evangelical Synod
Free Christian Zion
Friends
Jewish congregations
Latter-day Saints
Lutherans
Mennonitcs
Methodists
Moravians
Non-sectarian Bible Faith Christians
Pentecostal Churches
Presbyterian
Protestant Episcopal
Reformed
Salvation Army
Schwenkfelders
Social Brethren
Society for Ethical Culture
Spiritualists
Swedish Evangelical
Temple Society
Unitarians
United Brethren
Universalists
Independent congregations
United Synod of the Ev. Luth.
Church in the South. During the
Civil War the Southern synods took um-
brage at certain resolutions passed by
the General Synod in regard to the war
and withdrew in 1803. In 1804, at Con-
cord, N. C., these synods, North Carolina,
South Carolina, Virginia, and South-
western Virginia, together with the
small Georgia Synod, organized the Ev.
Luth. Synod of the Confederate States
of America. After the war (1800) the
name was changed to The General Synod
of the Ev. Luth. Church of the South.
Wlien the confessionalism of this synod
had reached a point satisfactory to the
Tennessee Synod, which had never joined
any general body, and the Holston
Synod, which for some time had been
connected with the General Council, they
entered into an agreement with the Gen-
eral Synod of the South and on June 23,
1880, organized the United Synod of the
South on the doctrinal basis adopted in
Salisbury, N. C., in 1884. This doctrinal
basis was practically that of the Ten-
Communicants
3,311
28.072
18,248
11,000
0,400
1,001
810,225
1,510,715
213.004
17,848
17,902
274,800
0,225
117,301
357,135
587,701
2,429,501
82,553
8,001,500
23,745
2,040
01,973
2,318,342
1,002,805
510.005
108,033
1,330
050
3,210
50,000
30,802
200
71,110
376,182
50,050
48.073
195,414 230,572 43,523,200
nessec Synod since 1800 — all the Con-
fessions of the Lutheran Church. The
adoption of this basis was a triumph for
the confessional fidelity of the Tennessee
Synod, and also for the unflinching tes-
timony of the Missouri Synod, over the
liberalism of Dr. J. Bachmann, who had
for years opposed the confessionalism of
the Tennessee Synod. Yet the actual
conditions prevailing even after the adop-
tion of this sound Lutheran basis be-
tokened a certain indifferentism, and the
practise in regard to lodge and pulpit-
and altar-fellowship did not always
agree with the principles, in spite of
the efforts of the Tennessee Synod to
induce the United Synod to take a de-
termined stand. The North Carolina
Synod, especially, refused to yield, so
that finally Tennessee felt obliged to
compromise. The official organ of the
United Synod was the Lutheran Church
Visitor, — After the United Synod in the
South had cooperated with other Lu-
theran general bodies for some time, not-
ably in the preparation of the Common
Ministers
Churches
101
94
421
525
703
553
200
1 05
128
130
—
10
5,005
5,924
8,209
14,401
1,588
2,440
731
230
34
37
1,136
1,325
29
35
1,340
1,014
721
1,001
8,138
1,721
0,000
13,048
1,751
082
42,055
03,283
151
140
48
01
1,073
1 ,705
14,275
15,818
5,801
7,055
2.222
2,710
3,728
1,117
0
7
10
10
11
7
500
000
530
437
2
2
505
400
2,147
3,770
020
850
207
870
Universalist*
793
Universalists
Service, for which the United Synod
justly claims to he entitled to special
credit, it was but natural that this body
should gladly enter into the Merger of
1018, which resulted in the United Lu-
theran Church in America. The resolu-
tion to do so was passed November 0,
1917, at Salisbury, N. C. — The leading
men in the United Synod wore the Hen-
kels, E. T. Horn, A. G. Voigt, W. H.
Greever, M. G. G. Scherer. — The theolog-
ical seminary of the synod (founded 1830)
is located at Columbia, S. C. Its colleges
are: Newberry, S. C. (founded by the
S. C. Synod 1832), Roanoke College,
Roanoke, Va. (founded by the Va. Synod
1842), Lenoir-Rhyne (founded by the
Tennessee Synod in 1891 and richly
endowed by Daniel Rhyne in 1922),
Hickory, N. C. — Besides the Home Mis-
sion work the United Synod conducted a
mission, jointly with the General Coun-
cil, in Japan. At the time of the Merger
in 1918 the United Synod in the South
consisted of eight synods, 202 pastors,
494 congregations, and 55,473 confirmed
members. See also United Lutheran
Church.
Universalists. Adherents of Univer-
salisin, the belief that God ultimately
will destroy all sin and save the whole
human race. Universalists find the doc-
trine of endless punishment incompatible
with the belief that Truth and Good will
finally he victorious. While Universal-
ism is almost as old as Christianity and
has found many adherents, especially
since the Reformation, the Universalist
denomination is an American organiza-
tion of comparatively modern origin.
I ts founder is John Murray (q.v.) ,
b. 1741 at Alton, England, d. 1815 in
Boston. At first a Methodist, he was
induced by James Relly, a former Meth-
odist preacher in London, to accept Uni-
versalisin. He came to America in 1770,
which year is regarded by the denomina-
tion as the year of its origin. His
preaching resulted in the formation of
societies in New York, Pennsylvania,
and Massachusetts, and denominational
organization was effected 1785. In the
nineties Hosea Ballou (1771 — 1852),
who held more radical views than Mur-
ray, became the recognized leader. In
1803 an anti-Trinitarian creed, the Win-
chester Profession, consisting of three
short articles, was adopted. In 1899
a still shorter statement of Universalist
principles was adopted, which asserted
belief in “the universal fatherhood of
God; the spiritual authority and leader-
ship of His Son, Jesus Christ; the trust-
worthiness of the Bible as containing a
revelation from God; the certainty of
just retribution for sins; the final har-
mony of all souls with God.” Univer-
salists hold that punishment for sin is
the inevitable consequence of sin, “the
wounds, the damage, the shame” in
man’s soul, that its purpose is beneficent,
namely, to deter from further sin, that
the period of probation for the sinners — •
and that means all men — does not end
with this life, but every one after death
will be subject to disciplinary processes
and given an opportunity forever to de-
velop upward and Godward. This con-
tinual upward progress of mankind
toward holiness and perfection is the
fundamental doctrine of Universalism
to-day. With regard to Christ’s person,
work, and redemption, Universalists are
practically Unitarians, and their posi-
tion lias been stated thus: “that Jesus
had the same essential spiritual and
human nature as other men; but that
He was chosen of God to sustain a cer-
tain unique relation on the one hand
toward God and on the other toward
men, by virtue of which He was a revela-
tion of the divine will and character and
a sample of the perfected or full-grown
man.” Consequently the doctrines of
vicarious atonement and justification
through imputation of Christ’s right-
eousness are rejected. Sins are pardoned
when the sinner ceases from sin and
becomes obedient. With regard to other
doctrines there is a great variety of be-
lief; but all Universalists practically
agree on denying original sin, the exis-
tence of the devil, the resurrection of the
body, Christ’s second coming, the final
Judgment, the efficacy of the Sacraments,
and the real presence in Communion.
The denomination, which reported 050
societies and 58,500 members in 1910, is
on the decline. Its greatest strength is
in Massachusetts and New York. The
Universalist Publishing House is at
Boston, where the Universalist Leader
is published. They have three theolog-
ical seminaries, at Canton, N. Y., Tufts
College, Mass., and Chicago. There are
also a number of societies in Canada,
and a mission is carried on in Japan.
In 1831 a number seceded from the de-
nomination and organized under the
name of Universal Restorationists. While
the majority held with Ballou that sin-
ners are punished for their sins only in
this life, the Restorationists believed
that the wicked are punished for a time
also after death. They disbanded 1841.
Mention must also be made of the fact
that there are many adherents of Uni-
versalism outside of the denomination.
Lhiitarians generally hold Universalist
v iews, as do some members of the Re-
tT nivePsitieR
794
Universities
formed churches, particularly among the
liberal Congregationalists.
Universities. Although some of the
schools of the Greeks at the time of their
highest social and cultural development
may well be called universities, such as
the schools of the rhetoricians and philos-
ophers at Athens, at Tarsus, at Alexan-
dria, and elsewhere, since they afforded
a higher training for the mind, which
led to a greater maturity, the term as
now used goes back to the later Middle
Ages, to the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies. It was at this time that certain
cathedral and monastery schools in
large centers of population began to de-
velop into more than local teaching in-
stitutions designed for the training of
parish priests. Thus York and later
Canterbury, in England, had teachers
who attracted students from other parts
of the country. The “university” at this
time was more than a general school;
it was a legal corporation. Organiza-
tions of teachers and students, such as
we find at the end of the twelfth century,
secured for themselves important priv-
ileges. They were corporate bodies,
known as universitates magistrorum et
scholarium and were composed of “facul-
ties” of teachers and “nations” of stu-
dents. But the name universitas, or
university, was soon transferred to the
corps of teachers alone and finally used
to designate the teachers and the build-
ings and other equipment. Of such a
type were the schools, or universities, of
Paris, a famous center for the study of
the liberal arts and of theology, Bologna,
particularly noted for its law courses,
and St. Gall, noted for its courses in
church music and liturgies. Other cen-
ters of learning were Rome, Pavia,
Ravenna, and Oxford. It was not long
before traveling students came to these
places from great distances in order to
hear some noted teacher read and com-
ment on the famous text-books of the
time. — Since the students at these great
centers of learning were regarded as
members of the clergy, they were given
many of the privileges and immunities
pn joyed by the clerics everywhere, to-
gether with others developed by their
organizations by virtue of their being
recognized as guilds. Thus the students
were free from trial by the city author-
ities, many of them were exempted from
duties, levies, imposts, tolls, excises, or
other exactions whatever. Since the
early universities were not tied down to
one location by costly buildings and
equipment and could therefore move al-
most overnight, many cities resorted vir-
tually to competitive bidding in order to
have a university, as in the case of Cam-
bridge. Another very important privi-
lege which the universities obtained was
the right of cessatio, which meant the
right to stop lectures and to go on a
strike as a means of enforcing a redress
of grievances against either town or
church authority. This right is known
to have been used at Oxford in 1209, at
Paris in 1229, and thereafter in numer-
ous cases.
Although the chief universities had at
first been schools distinguished for one
faculty, as noted above, a fully organized
university soon aimed to have the four
great divisions of knowledge represented
in its midst, namely, arts (the successor
of the old cathedral school instruction ) ,
law (including civil and canon law, as
worked out at Bologna), medicine (as
worked out at Salerno and Montpellier),
and theology, the most important of the
four, which prepared learned men for
the service of the Church. Although
this was a gradual development, the
four traditional faculties were well es-,
tablished by the 14th century and con-
tinued as the typical form of university
organization until modern times. Among
the first universities established in line
with this development were Toulouse,
Avignon, Cahors, Grenoble, and Orange in
France, Prague (1348), Vienna (1305),
Heidelberg (1380), Cologne (1388), and
Erfurt (1392) under German jurisdic-
tion. During the next century followed
cathedral and monastery schools in
Wuerzburg (1402), Leipzig (1409), Ros-
tock (1419), Greifswald (1456), Frei-
burg (1457), Basel (1460), Ingolstadt
and Treves (1472), and Tuebingen and
Mainz ( 1477 ) . Outside Germany, uni-
versities were founded at Upsala in 1477,
Copenhagen in 1478, St. Andrews (Edin-
burgh) in 1413, Glasgow in 1450, and
Aberdeen in 1494. Most of these univer-
sities were governed by the masters of
the four faculties, each faculty being
headed by a dean and the entire univer-
sity by a rector, who was originally
elected by all the masters and scholars,
but later by the governing masters alone.
Lectures and residence alike were pro-
vided for in the “colleges,” or university
buildings, whenever possible, both public
and private instruction being given. The
whole course of instruction was shaped
to give proficiency in teaching, and hence
arose the degree of “master” and
“doctor.”
In America the development of higher
education, and particularly that of the
universities, has followed lines of its
own. The historical beginning of higher
education in America is found in the
Universities
795
TTrstnns, Zacharias
grant of 1636 by the General Court of
the Massachusetts Bay Colony, of £400
for the establishment of a college. A few
years later the college received a bequest
from John Harvard of half of his estate
beside half his excellent library. “In
these two transactions appears the dual
economic foundation upon which have
been reared all the institutions of higher
learning in America, namely, the volun-
tary support of the state and private
benefaction. State aid has come in the
form of exemption of property from tax-
ation; the grant of public lands to
educational institutions; appropriations
from the general revenues; the levying
of special taxes or the application of
specified taxes to the support of schools,
colleges, and universities. The private
benefactions have included individual
gifts running from paltry sums to mil-
lions of dollars and concerted movements
for the raising of endowments and other
funds. Perhaps no other phenomenon of
the 20th century will be more significant
than the princely gifts to higher educa-
tion which have marked its first two
decades” (Allison). — Although the
American universities began with the
recognized four faculties and maintained
them for about two centuries, a tendency
developed which tended to draw away
from this rigid division and to afford
greater liberty of choice. One phase
of this tendency developed into the elec-
tive system, which for a while threatened
to disrupt systematic training in all the
professions. Just how far the American
universities have gotten away from the
four-faculty system may be seen from
the list of colleges or schools united
within the organization of almost any
university of the first class. We find
schools like the following listed, each
with its own faculty or staff of in-
structors : college of arts and science
(or sciences), school of agriculture,
school of business and public administra-
tion, school of education, school of en-
gineering, school of fine arts, graduate
school, school of journalism, school of
law, school of medicine, school of mines
and metallurgy, and others. The present
tendency toward raising the standard of
work in the universities is very marked,
and it will probably not be long before
work of real university grade is de-
manded of all candidates for degrees.
The following universities are generally
conceded to belong to the first rank or
division in America: Clark University
(Worcester, Mass.), Columbia Univer-
sity (New York City), Cornell Univer-
sity ( Ithaca, N. Y. ) , Harvard University
(Cambridge, Mass.), Indiana University
(Bloomington, Ind.), Johns Hopkins
University ( Baltimore, Md. ) , Leland
Stanford Jr. University (Palo Alto,
Cal.), Princeton University (Princeton,
N. J. ) , University of California (Berke-
ley, Cal.; southern branch at Los An-
geles), University of Chicago (Chicago,
111.), University of Illinois (Urbana,
111.), University of Iowa (Iowa City,
Iowa ) , University of Kansas ( Lawrence,
Kans. ), University of Michigan (Ann
Arbor, Mich. ) , University of Minnesota
(Minneapolis, Minn.), University of Mis-
souri (Columbia, Mo.), University of
Nebraska (Lincoln, Nebr.), University
of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, Pa.),
University of Wisconsin (Madison, Wis.),
Yale University (New Haven, Conn.).
The list might be lengthened considerably
if one would want to add some of the
newer institutions that are rapidly forg-
ing to the front. A peculiar development
of the last decades is the rise of the
urban universities, such as those of
Syracuse, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Toledo,
Omaha, Nashville, Pittsburgh, Rochester,
Western Reserve University of Cleve-
land, 0., Washington University, of
St. Louis, Mo., and others. — Among not-
able foreign universities not mentioned
above are the following: Amsterdam,
Athens, Berlin, Birmingham, Bonn, Bor-
deaux, Buenos Aires, Calcutta, Chris-
tiania, Copenhagen, Dublin, Erlangen,
Giessen, Goettingen, Grenoble (France),
Halle, Heidelberg, Helsingfors, Inns-
bruck, Jena, Kharkof, Kiel, Koenigsberg,
Lausanne, Leiden, Lifige, Lille ( France ),
London, Madrid, Marburg, Muenster,
Naples, Sheffield, Strassburg, Toulouse,
Tuebingen, Warsaw, Zurich. See also
Colleges, Degrees, Education.
Unpardonable Sin. See Sin, the Un-
pardonable.
Upanishads. See Brahmanism.
Urlsperger, Johann August, Ger-
man theologian and controversialist;
b. 1728, d. 1806; a man of great learning
and an earnest thinker; defended the
evangelical truth against philosophical
and rationalizing theories; founded the
Deutsche Christentumsgesellschaft in
Basel for the advocacy and defense of
the pure doctrine; but the society, to
his disappointment, devoted its efforts
rather to the promotion of true piety
as understood in those days.
Urlsperger, Samuel, German Lu-
theran theologian, 1685 — 1772; father of
preceding, influenced by Francke; pastor
at Augsburg; confidential agent for
Salzburg Colony in Georgia ( q. v . ) .
Ursinus, Zacharias, 1534 — 83; Ger-
man Reformed; b. in Breslau; disciple
Urania, SI.
796
Valentine, Milton
of Melanchthon ; professor of theology
at Heidelberg; together with Olevianus
(disciple of Calvin) wrote Heidelberg
Catechism (publ. 1563); d. at Neustadt.
Ursula, St. A mythical character
around which fantastic legends were
woven in the Middle Ages, the favorite
one representing her as a Christian
princess from Britain, who was massa-
cred at Cologne by the Huns with 11,000
maidens. Intelligent Romanists have
discarded the legend. It has, however,
enabled the city of Cologne to scud an
abundance of relics throughout Christen-
dom and even to India and China.
Ursulines. A religious order of
women, having the sole purpose of edu-
cating young girls.
Uruguay. See South America.
Ussher (Usher), James, 1581 — 1656;
luminary of Irish Church; b. in Dublin;
archbishop of Armagh 1625 — 40; preacher
in England (d. there) ; scholarly writer.
His chronology of the Bible appeared for
a long time in the Authorized Version.
Usury. According to general usage,
the taking of interest in excess of the
rate permitted by law; more strictly,
in agreement with the law of love, the
indiscriminate taking of interest and, in
the strictest interpretation of the term,
the taking of interest in any form. —
The Old Testament clearly distinguishes
between the taking of interest from a
fellow-believer and from one who was
not a member of the chosen people of
God. It was forbidden to an Israelite
to take from a fcllow-Israelite interest
of any kind in return for a loan (Ex. 22,
25—27; Lev. 25, 35—37; Deut. 23, 20),
whether of money or food ; but from one
who was not an Israelite it was per-
mitted to take interest (Deut. 23, 20;
cp. 15, 6; 28, 12). In the New Testa-
ment the question is taken up from the
viewpoint of brotherly love. Taking in-
terest is not specifically forbidden, yet
gratuitous lending is commended, and
where the need of the neighbor requires
it, donating is urged outright. Cp. Luke
6, 34. 35. In the early days of the
Church the taking of interest, especially
in an indiscriminate manner, was re-
proved. It was only from the enemy
that interest could rightfully be taken.
As a general rule, the practise of the
indiscriminate taking of interest was
prohibited to all Christians, without dis-
tinction of persons. — The entire matter
clearly belongs into the category of the
commandment of love and must bo regu-
lated by circumstances. If there is dire
need, the only way to meet the situation
is by an outright gift or by a loan with-
out interest. On the other hand, where
money is desired for the enlarging of
one’s business or for other business ven-
tures, the law of love would demand
that he who has an advantage by virtue
of such loan share the benefit with the
borrower. The law of averages has been
worked out with considerable care in the
case of ordinary business undertakings,
and the law of love will decide the tak-
ing of interest in all cases. In this
connection every Christian is to remem-
ber the words of Scripture : “Thou shalt
open thine hand wide unto him [the poor
brother] and shalt surely lend him suffi-
cient for his need.” Deut. 15, 8. “He
[the righteous] is ever merciful and
lendeth; and his seed is blessed.” Ps.
37, 26. “A good man showeth favor and
lendeth.” Ps. 112, 5. “Give to him that
asketh thee, and from him that would
borrow of thee turn not thou away.”.
Matt. 5, 42. “If ye lend to them of whom
ye hope to receive, what thank have ye?
for sinners also lend to sinners, to re-
ceive as much again. . . . Lend, hoping
for nothing again.” Luke 6, 34. 35. And
both sides of the question are brought
out in Ps. 37, 21 : “The wicked borroweth
and payeth not again ; but the righteous
showeth mercy and giveth.”
Utilitarianism. See Pragmatism.
V
Valdez, Juan and Alfonso De. Re-
formers within the Roman Church,
twins; b. ca. the end of the 15th cen-
tury in Spain, the former dying at
Naples in 1541, the latter at Vienna in
1532. Although both of them had an
opportunity to observe and study the
Lutheran Reformation, they never rightly
and fully entered into its spirit. Al-
though Juan, especially, had an under-
standing of many points of the truth, as
Jiis foremost work, Alfabeto Christiano
(Christian Alphabet), shows, he did not
comprehend the real mystery of iniquity
at the papal court, and his books were
forbidden a few years after his death.
To his school belonged Aonio Paleario’
and Don Benedetto de Mantova ( qq. v. ) .
Valentine, Milton, 1825 — 1906; lead-
ing exponent of the confessional trend in
the Lutheran General Synod; educated
at Gettysburg; pastor till 1866, then
professor at Gettysburg Seminary, pres-
ident of the college for sixteen years;
Valentinos
797
Vatican Connell
from 1884 professor of Systematic The-
ology in the Seminary. His Christian
Theology (1900) makes concessions to
evolutionism, Puritanism, and Reformed
theology.
Valentinus. Gnostic philosopher.
Taught at Rome ca. the middle of the
second century; several times excom-
municated; retired to Cyprus, where he
died ca. 100. His system, reared on a
Platonic background, is a dark, illimit-
able ocean, in which Oriental and Greek
speculation together with Christian
ideas, grotesquely perverted and misused,
are strangely commingled. The Primal
Being unfolds by emanation into thirty
eons, among them the ideal Man, the
ideal Church, and the heavenly Christ
(a Platonic conception). These consti-
tute the Pleroma, or heavenly universe,
as against the Kenoma, emptiness, the
chaotic world of matter. A disturbance
in the cosmic equilibrium necessitated
a restoration. Redemption is therefore
a cosmic process, performed by a re-
deemer who has nothing in common with
Jesus of Nazareth. See Gnosticism.
Valla, Laurentius, an Italian hu-
manist; b. presumably in Rome in 1407.
In his Forgery of the Donation of Con-
stantine he demolished a fraud imposed
upon Christendom for centuries. This,
together with his attacks upon the Vul-
gate’s Latinity, the , apostolic origin of
the Apostles’ Creed, and of Christ’s letter
to Abgarus, led to li is citation before
the Inquisition. Under the liberal Pope
Nicholas V he rose to prominence at
the papal court. D. 1457.
Vanderkamp, John T. ; b. 1747 at
Rotterdam, Holland; d. December 15,
1811, in South Africa; doctor and pio-
neer missionary in South Africa; or-
dained by L. M. S. 1798; sailed to South
Africa in missionary interest on convict
ship; arrived at Cape Town in March,
1799; labored at Great Fish River,
chiefly among Hottentots and Kaffirs;
removed his adherents to Algoa Bay
1802; redeemed many slaves with his
private funds from cruel Boer masters;
broke down much opposition of Euro-
peans in Africa to missionary labors
among the natives and was an eminently
successful missionary.
Vatican. The palace of the Pope at
Rome, situated on the Vatican Hill, on
the right bank of the Tiber. While the
Vatican was a papal residence since the
ninth century, it has been the Pope’s
dliief palace only since about 1370. Pope
after Pope has added to the buildings,
and to the treasures which they contain,
\yith marvelous results. The Vatican
buildings cover about thirteen and a half
acres and contain twenty courtyards,
eight grand staircases, a large number
of chapels, and some thousand rooms,
among them many splendid apartments,
designed and decorated by Michelangelo,
Raffael, and other masters. The Sistine
Chapel, with its frescoes by Michelangelo,
is world-famed. Only about two hundred
rooms are occupied for residential pur-
poses by the Pope, his secretary of state,
and his chief officials and closest atten-
dants. The rest are used in carrying on
the administration of the Church of
Rome and in housing the Vatican Li-
brary, the papal archives, and various
extensive and valuable collections of
antiquities, relics, papyri, inscriptions,
paintings, and statuary. Within the pre-
cincts of the Vatican iH also the famous
Church of St. Peter, one of the world’s
finest structures. In its crypt are the
tombs of PopeH and royalties and the
reputed tomb of St. Peter.
Vatican Council. Convened at Rome
from December 8, 1809, to October 20,
1870, the first so-called ecumenical coun-
cil since that of Trent and thought to bo
the last in the long scries of similar as-
semblies. It derives its chief importance,
from the fact that it proclaimed the
supremacy and infallibility of the Pope
as a dogma of the Church, thereby defi-
nitely settling the question of ecclesias-
tical authority and ending the long de-
bate between episcopal oligarchy and
papal autocracy. Thanks to the cease-
less efforts of the Jesuits, especially
since 1814, the Catholic world was ready,
so to speak, for this final stroke of papal
diplomacy ; for the Vatican Council was
emphatically papal. The Pope (Pius IX)
summoned it (the Council of Trent was
forced upon the papacy) and dominated
it from start to finish, determining the
matters to be discussed, appointing the
theologians and commissions to do the pre-
liminary work, and proclaiming the de-
crees in his own name. In fine, Pius
acted from the beginning on the assur-
ance that the council would vote its own
surrender in favor of papal absolutism.
— The council brought an imposing ar-
ray of hierarchical dignity to the Holy
City, the number of prelates ranging
from 704 at the beginning to 535 on the
18th of July, 1870, when the infallibility
decree was adopted. Pius also, in two
special letters, invited the Protestant
heretics and the Greek schismatics to
return to “the one sheepfold of Christ,”
vainly hoping that the council might be
the occasion of a reunion of Christen-
dom under the egis of Rome. Instead,
the Vatieanum has only widened the
Vatican Connell
798
Verlteek, Cinillo I'rlUoll n
breach and intensified the antagonism. —
According to the papal bull of convoca-
tion the purpose of the council was to
concert measures for the defense of the
faith and the Church against the dan-
gers of Liberalism, rationalism, and in-
fidelity. The prime object, however,
though not specifically mentioned in the
summons, was to put the capstone on
the hierarchical pyramid by making the
Pope the absolute and irresponsible head
of the Church. All the other aims of
the council were comparatively insig-
nificant. Of the four public sessions
that were held (our limits forbid a de-
tailed account of the preliminary pro-
cedure), the first (December 8 ; 1869)
was only a gorgeous ritualistic cere-
mony; the second (January 6, 1870)
was a profession of faith by all the
Fathers before the Pope, followed by “the
episcopal oath of feudal submission to
the papacy” - — a shrewd stroke designed
to prepare the mind of the council for
the main event; the third (April 24,
1870) adopted “the dogmatic constitu-
tion on the Catholic faith”; the fourth
(July 18, 1870) adopted “the first dog-
matic constitution of the Church of
Christ,” including papal primacy and in-
fallibility. The constitution on the faith
is simply a reaffirmation of scholastic
theology, coupled with a condemnation
of modern pantheism, naturalism, and
rationalism. The preamble, which de-
rives these “isms,” as a legitimate fruit,
from the Reformation, encountered oppo-
sition and was toned down somewhat in
form, but left substantially unchanged.
Our chief interest attaches to the con-
stitution on the Church, which in the
last two chapters asserts papq,l abso-
lutism and papal infallibility. As to the
former, the constitution declares that the
Roman Pontiff is entitled, by the ordi-
nance of God, to a complete and imme-
diate jurisdiction in faith, morals, dis-
cipline, and government over all pastors
and people, jointly and severally, through-
out the whole world ( per totum orbem) .
As to infallibility, the Pope declares, first
of all, that it is a divinely revealed
dogma ( divinitus revelatum dogma esse
declaramus ) . This dogma is then defined
as follows: When the Roman Pontiff
speaks ex cathedra, that is, when he
exercises his office as the teacher of the
universal Church in any matter relating
to faith or morals, his definitions (i. e.,
his dogmatic utterances or decisions)
are, by divine assistance ( per assisten-
tiam divinam) , infallibly true, and there-
fore such definitions are authoritative
and irreformable (i. e., irreversible) in
themselves {ex sese) , without requiring
the consent of the Church. This dogma
did not go through without a stubborn
protest on the part of the more liberal
Catholics. Eighty-eight bishops, among
them Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis,
voted against it. But — they all sub-
mitted later on. The Old Catholic move-
ment, which rejects infallibiliHm, did not,
it might be added, emanate from the
ranks of the opposing bishops at the
council.
Veda (Sanskrit, knowledge), name of
earliest Tndo-Germanic literary records
and sacred scriptures of ancient India,
consisting of four collections of hymns,
of which the oldest is the Rig-Veda,
antedating 1000 B. C.
Vedanta Philosophy. See Brahman-
ism, Vedanta Society.
Vedanta Society. A movement, re-
sulting from lectures on Vedanta philos-
ophy, one of the six orthodox systems
of Brahmanic philosophy (see Brahman-
ism), delivered, 1894, in New York, by
Swami Vivekananda (b. 1803 in Cal-
cutta; attended Parliament of Religions,
Chicago, 1893; returned to India 1900;
d. 1902). Organized and incorporated
1898. Grew slowly, with headquarters
in New York and other centers in Bos-
ton, Pittsburgh, San Francisco, Los An-
geles; 340 members in 1906. Then de-
clined, with only three organizations and
190 members in 1916. Claims to have no
purpose of forming new sect or creed,
but to expound Vedanta philosophy,
which is explained as “end of all wis-
dom,” how it may be attained, and to
give philosophic and scientific basis to
religion.
Velasquez, Diego Rodriguez de
Silva y, 1599 — 1660; greatest of Span-
ish painters and one of the greatest of
all nations; superb colorist, excellent
draughtsman, unity of impression;
painted chiefly secular, but also religious
subjects.
Venezuela. See South America.
Veni, Creator Spiritus. The author
of this stately hymn of the Middle Ages
is not definitely known, Charlemagne
and Rhabanus Maurus being mentioned
oftenest; translated by Luther, from
whose version it came into English
( “Come, God Creator, Holy Ghost” ) .
Verbeck, Guido Fridolin ; b. Jan-
uary 23, 1830, at Zeist, Holland; died
March 10, 1897, at Tokio, Japan; joined
Moravians 1846; in America 1852; ap-
pointed missionary to Japan by Re-
formed Church of America 1857 ; in-
structor at Nagasaki; the Imperial
University a result of his work; adviser
Verdi, Giuseppe
700 Vestments, Clerical or Priestly
to Japanese government until 1877 ; ban
against Christianity in Japan lifted
through his influence; instructor in
Union Theological Seminary, Japan.
Verdi, Giuseppe, 1813 — 1901 ; showed
precocious talent; studied at Milan ; or-
ganist and conductor at Busseto; lived
chiefly at Milan and Busseto; operatic
composer; some sacred music, including
a Pater Noster and an Ave Maria, also
a requiem.
Vergerius, Petrus Paulus (or Ver-
gerio Pierpaolo), 1498 — 1565; Italian
reformer; began his career as a prom-
inent lawyer in Venice; devoted himself
to the service of the Church after the
death of his wife; rose rapidly to in-
fluential positions; was delegated to
Diet of Augsburg ( 1530 ) ; sent to Ger-
many ( 1535 ) in the matter of the Coun-
cil at Mantua; conferred with Luther,
whom he called a “beast,” possibly pos-
sessed of a demon; bishop of Capo
d’lstria (1540); excited suspicion by
his conciliatory conduct at Worms
(1540) ; studied the writings of Luther;
broke with Rome in 1545; labored for
some years after his excommunication
(1549) in Southern Switzerland; spent
the last twelve years of his life in the
service of Duke Christopher of Wurttem-
berg; maintained an extensive correspon-
dence; wrote numerous inflammatory
and polemical tracts against the papacy.
Verigin, Peter. See Doukliobors.
Veronica, St. A legendary matron
of Jerusalem, who is said to have given
her liead-clotli to Jesus as He passed her
on the way to Golgotha that He might
wipe the blood and sweat from His face.
The cloth is supposed to have retained
the imprint of His features. Roman
churches at Rome, Milan, and Jaen
(Spain) each have this miraculous cloth.
Verse. In the Bible, the smallest di-
vision of a chapter, consisting usually
of a sentence or phrase or, in poetry, of
two or more parallel lines; in hymnody,
a single metrical line, made up of a num-
ber of accented feet according to a cer-
tain rule.
Versicle. One of a series of short
verses or parts of verses spoken or
chanted alternately by pastor and choir
or congregation, especially those between
the Salutation and the Collect.
Versions of the Bible. See Bible
Versions.
Vespers. In the cycle of Canonical
Hours the second last service of the day,
at present usually combined with Com-
pline in the Roman Church; in the Lu-
theran Church, the evening service, espe-
cially on Sundays and holidays. See
Hours, Canonical.
Vestments, Clerical or Priestly
(especially Roman Catholic). In use
in the Christian Church since the ear-
liest days, the tunica talaris, fashioned
after the common tunic of the period,
being represented as the bishop’s or pres-
byter’s dress in the second century. The
dalmatica was practically an ungirdled
tunic, richly ornamented and worn over
the first. It soon became the distinctive
garment of the deacons, its color being
white and its material linen. The
paenula or casula (chasuble) was orig-
inally a storm cloak of heavy woolen
cloth, with a hole in the center, through
which the head was thrust. Its later
form was circular or elliptical and its
color usually a chestnut-brown. The
pallium scarf was derived from the pal-
lium mantle. It was made of white wool
and ornamented with crosses. In the
Orient, as the omophorion, it was the
badge common to all bishops. In the
Occident the wearing of the pallium was
soon restricted to metropolitan bishops
upon whom the l’ope conferred the dis-
tinction. The stole, or ovarium, was of
white or colored cloth, properly a neck-
cloth. The maniple, originally a napkin
or towel used by deacons, later became
a kind of handkerchief for general use
by the clergy. The amice was a linen
collar worn during Mass; it is now the
priest’s shoulder-cloth. The alb was a
sacrificial robe of white linen or silk,
with brightly tinted silken or golden
border. It is now simply a long, white
garment. The girdle, whose purpose is
obvious, was in general use almost from
the first. There were many other ar-
ticles of Vesting and adornment in the
Middle Ages, but these are the principal
ones. To this day the amice, the alb,
tiie girdle, the maniple, the stole, and
the chasuble are used by Catholic priests
during Mass, also by the clergy of the
Anglican Church during the celebration
of the Eucharist. Luther’s position re-
garding the use of vestments was a very
conservative one, and the Lutheran
Church has never declared against their
use. Nevertheless, they were discarded
more or less rapidly, even the surplice,
the long, white vestment used in the
Anglican Church for all the regular ser-
vices, being cast off. At present only
the black preaching or pulpit gown is
in general use, called by many the cas-
sock, which was originally a long, cloak-
like garment, only the doctors of divin-
ity wearing scarlet. This robe signifies
that the wearer is engaged in the actual
performance of his ministerial calling.
Vestments. Roman Catholic 800
Vlgness, Lanrltz Andreas
It is, properly considered, an academic
vestment and should adhere closely to
this style. The bands worn by the cler-
gyman, as well as the ruffed collar in
use among Scandinavian Lutherans, are
undoubtedly the remains of the ancient
peritrachelium , its significance being the
right to administer the Holy Communion.
Vestments, Roman Catholic. The
following vestments are worn by a priest
at Mass: 1) amice, an oblong linen
cloth about the shoulders; 2) alb, a
white linen vestment with sleeves, reach-
ing from head to foot; 3) cincture, a
belt, usually of linen; 4) maniple, an
ornamental band over the left forearm;
5 ) stole, a narrow strip of fabric, worn
about the neck and crossed over the
breast; 6) chasuble, the outer and chief
vestment, elaborately embroidered, cover-
ing front and back and having an open-
ing for the head. — The cope, a long
cloak open in front, is worn at proces-
sions, vespers, etc; the dalmatic, resem-
bling the alb, is worn by deacons and
bishops; the surplice, or cotta (of white
linen), is the most common outer vest-
ment, used, e. g., in choir or at the ad-
ministration of the Sacraments; similar
to it is the rochet (q.v.).
Vicar Apostolic. A papal delegate,
usually a titular bishop, who is ap-
pointed by the Pope for missionary
regions where the ordinary hierarchy is
not established. Vicars apostolic have
practically the same powers as bishops
in their dioceses. The only vicariates
apostolic in the continental United
States are those of North Carolina and
Alaska.
Vicar-General. A cleric who occu-
pies the highest office in a diocese after
the bishop, being empowered to. exercise
the episcopal jurisdiction in the bishop’s
name and stead.
Vice, New York Society for the
Suppression of. This society was
founded by Anthony Comstock for the
suppression of immoral literature. The
society requests that ministers devote
one service in the month of March to
the cause.
Victor of ( Rome, 190 — 202; staunch
opponent of the Quartodecimanian prac-
tise in the Easter controversy, and prob-
ably the author of a tract against the
playing of dice and all games of chance
(De Aleatoribus) . “It is written in the
tone of a papal encyclical and in rustic
Latin.” See Quartodeciman Controversy.
Victorious Life (Perfectionism).
That a Christian who has fully and
continually embraced the Gospel of
Christ can lead a victorious life, that
is, a life actually free from sin, has been
taught by various persons and parties
within the Christian Church. Thus Ro-
man Catholics have taught that in some
cases, by special provision of God, par-
ticular saints may become so sanctified
as to avoid all sins, offering an obedience
even beyond the demands of the Law.
Likewise Arminians (Methodist Churches
and Evangelical Association ) have taught
a relative perfection, which consists in
the depression of unholy thoughts and
desires. Similarly the Oberlin School
taught that “the beginning of the Chris-
tian life is entire obedience” and that
“the promises of God and the provisions
of the Gospel are such that, when fully
and continually embraced, they enable
the believer to live a life of uninterrupted
obedience.” Above all, however, the doe-
trine of the victorious life, or perfection,
has been accepted by scattered groups
of Christian denominations (Pentecostal
Churches, Holiness Churches) connected
more or less with Methodism, which
zealously advocate entire holiness or
sanctification or perfection in this life,
their theory of perfection being based
upon misunderstanding of Scriptural
passages.
Vigilius, Pope, ca. 537 — 555; was
a deacon in Rome in 531 and represented
the papacy at Constantinople under the
pontificate of Silverius. Leaning towards
the Monophysitic party at Constanti-
nople, he became a protege of Empress
Theodora, through whose influence he
was made Pope in 538. In 545 he was
ordered by Justinian to condemn the
Three Chapters. Rearing the wrath of
the Occident, he at first refused, but sub-
sequently yielded to the emperor’s de-
mands.
Vigils. The night-services held by
persecuted Christians probably led to the
later custom of passing the nights before
great feasts in prayer and worship.
These vigils, or watches, the most noted
of which was the Easter vigil, became
very splendid in the fourth century. By
the 12th century they had degenerated
into occasions of license and were aban-
doned. The name is now applied, in the
Roman Church, to the fast-days before
certain festivals and to the services held
on those days.
Vigness, Lauritz Andreas; b. 1864;
studied at Augustana College and Dixon
College (A.B.); professor at Augustana
College 1886, Highland Park College
1890, Jewell Lutheran College 1894;
principal of Pleasant View Lutheran
College 1895; president of St. Olaf Col-
Vignola, Giacomo flarozzl il i 801
Visitation Nans
lege 1914 — 18; secretary of the Board
of Education of the Norwegian Lutheran
Church of America 1918.
Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi di, 1507
to 1573; Italian architect; one of the
builders of St. Peter’s in Rome, espe-
cially in the construction of the cupolas;
published a book on the orders of pillars.
Vignon, a French artist and archi-
tect; builder of the Madeleine in Paris,
altogether after classical models; temple
surrounded by Corinthian pillars.
Vilmar, August Friedrich Chris-
tian, b. 1800, d. 1808; most prominent
Hessian theologian of the 19th century;
studied at Marburg; passed from doubt
and rationalism to a firm faith in Christ
and the Scripturalness of the Lutheran
Confessions; exerted great influence in
the education of the Hessian clergy as
director of the Gymnasium at Marburg,
superintendent at Kassel, and theological
professor at Marburg; his doctrine on
the Church is Romanizing; wrote: Col-
legium Biblicum.
Vincent de Paul; b. 1576, d. 1600;
Roman priest; at one time a Moslem
slave; devoted his later life to the poor,
especially to French galley-slaves and
the Christian slaves in Barbary ; founded
the Lazarist order and the Sisters of
Mercy.
Vincent, John Heyl, 1832 — ; Meth-
odist Episcopal; b. at Tuscaloosa, Ala.;
pastor in New Jersey, 111. (Joliet, Chi-
cago, etc.); established Sunday-school
papers; editor of Sunday-school publica-
tions of Sunday-school Union; chief or-
ganizer of Chautauqua Assembly 1874;
chancellor of Chautauqua Literary and
Scientific Circle 1878; bishop 1888; res-
ident bishop in Europe 1900; retired
1904; author.
Vincent, Marvin Richardson; b. at
Poughkeepsie, N. Y., 1834; Methodist
Episcopal minister; pastor (Presbyte-
rian) at Troy and New York City;
professor at Union Seminary 1883;
translated Bengel’s Gnomon; published
Word Studies, etc.
Vincent of Lerins, the most famous
disciple of the Semi-Pelagian Johannes
Cassianus; b. in Gaul; became a monk
of the monastery of Lerinum; author
of Gommonitorium pro Oalholicae Fidei
Antiquitate et Universitate, in which he
laid down the proposition that the Cath-
olic faith is, quod semper, quod ubique,
quod ab omnibus est creditum (what
always, what everywhere, what by all
has been believed), a principle upheld by
the Catholic churches to-day; d. ca. 450.
Concordia Cyclopedia
Vinci, Leonardo da, 1452 — 1519;
a universal genius in the plastic and
pictorial arts; in painting he excelled
in the disposition of light and shadow,
founding new laws of composition and
using also the hands as a psychological
commentary; among his pictures are his
“Baptism of Christ” and “The Resurrec-
tion of Christ,” but above all his “Last
Supper,” which has been called “the
grandest monument of religious art.”
Vinet, Alexander Rodolphe, 1797
to 1847; Swiss Reformed, second Pascal;
b. at Auchy, Vaud; professor of French
literature at Basel; professor of theol-
ogy at Lausanne ; led Free Church move-
ment in Vaud; d. at Clarens; Homi-
letics, etc.; hymns.
Virgin Birth. See Incarnation.
Virgin Islands of the United States,
formerly Danish West Indies, bought by
the United States from Denmark for
$25,000,000 in 1917. Discovered by Co-
lumbus in 1494. Area. 132 gq. mi. Popu-
lation, 26,051, chiefly blacks. Education
is compulsory. Missions by several
American Churches, among which United
Lutheran Church in America. Statis-
tics: Foreign staff, 30; Christian com-
munity, 6,703; communicants, 2,988.
Virginia, Synod of. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Virginia, Synod of Central. See
Synods, Extinct.
Virginia, Synod of East. See
Synods, Extinct.
Virginia, Synod of Southwestern.
See Synods, Extinct, and United Lu-
theran Church.
Virginia, Synod of Western. See
Synods, Extinct.
Vischer. See Fischer, Christoph.
Vischer, Peter, 1455 — 1529; German
sculptor, son of a worker in bronze; his
work shows the transition from the
Gothic to the Renaissance forms; at-
tained great fame beyond Nuremberg
and even beyond Germany; his most
celebrated work the tomb of St. Sebaldus
in Nuremberg, which contains seventy-
two figures, besides those of the apostles
and prophets.
Visitation Nuns (Salesian Nuns).
An order founded by Mme. de Chantal,
in 1610, under the guidance of Francis
of Sales. The rule is moderate, but all
property is held in common, even beds,
beads, etc., being changed every year.
The chief activity is the education of
girls, especially of higher Roman Cath-
olic society.
51
Vitrlnga, Campeglns
802
Voakamp, Karl Johannes
Vitringa, Campegius, 1659 — 1722;
Dutch Reformed Old Testament scholar;
b. at Leenwarden; professor of Oriental
languages at Franeker 1681 (d. there) ;
founder of historical exegesis; wrote
Commentary on Isaiah (valuable), etc.
Voes, Heinrich. See Esch, Johann ,
and Voes, Heinrich.
Voetius, Gisbert, 1588 — 1676; most
important Dutch Reformed theologian
17th century; b. at Heusden; preacher
at Ulymen; delegate to Dort; professor
at Utrecht 1634; combated Arminian-
ism ( q . a.), Cocceianism, Descartes’s
philosophy (see Cooceius and Descartes ) ;
d. at Utrecht.
Vogt, Karl, German naturalist; born
1817 at Giessen; professor, ibid., 1847;
dismissed because of political activities;
since 1852, professor of geology, later
also of zoology, at Geneva; died 1895 at
Geneva. Was one of the most zealous
champions of materialism and Darwin-
ism, with all their logical consequences.
Wrote: Koehlerglaube und Wissenschaft ,
1855; Vorlesungen ueher den Menschen,
1863.
Voigt, A. G., theologian and educator
in the Lutheran United Synod South;
b. 1851, studied in Philadelphia, Gettys-
burg, and Erlangen; entered the min-
istry in 1883; pastor in Mount Holly,
N. J., and Wilmington, N. C. ; professor
in Thiel College and the Newberry (S. C.)
Seminary; since 1906 dean of the sem-
inary at Columbia, S. C. ; president of the
United Synod South 1906 — 10; author
of Why Are We Lutherans t Commentary
on Ephesians, Biblical Dogmatics.
Volekmar, Wilhelm Valentin, 1812
to 1887; studied at Marburg; music
teacher at Homberg Seminary after
1835; gifted organ virtuoso; composed
many works, also sacred; published Or-
gels chule and Schule der Celaeufigkeit.
Voltaire. Assumed name of Francois
Marie Arouet, noted French author, his-
torian, philosopher; b. 1694 in Paris;
educated by Jesuits; 1726 — 9 in London,
where he came under the sway of Deism;
1750 — 3 at court of Frederick the Great,
Berlin; since 1758 on his estate near
Geneva; d.,1778 in Paris. Voltaire ex-
erted a great, but pernicious influence.
Though not an atheist, but rather a
Deist, he did not appreciate the truths
of the Gospel. Antagonized by the per-
secuting and privileged Jesuitism domi-
nating France, against which he directed
his “Ecrasez Vinfdme!” (“Crush the in-
famous one!”), he was led to a bitter
hatred against every form of Christian-
ity, which became more and more satir-
ical and blasphemous. By his hostility
against absolutism in State and Church
he helped much to bring about the
French Revolution. Wrote numerous
tragedies, novels, epic poems, historical
and philosophical works. Among the
latter, Dictionnaire Philo sophique, Les
Moeurs et VEsprit des Nations.
Volunteers of America. This or-
ganization, a secession from the Salvation
Army (q. v.), was formed in the spring of
1896 by Mr. and Mrs. Ballington Booth.
From the beginning the organization has
been declared to be an auxiliary of the
Church, and converts have been advised
to unite with churches of their prefer-
ence. In doctrine the Volunteers of
America are in harmony with all essen-
tial points of doctrine as held by the
evangelical churches. Their principles
are stated in the Book of Rules issued
by order of the Grand Field Council. —
The government of the Volunteers of
America is democratic, and the term
“military,” which appears in their Man-
ual, is applied only in the bestowing of
titles, the wearing of uniforms, and the
movement of officers. A post consists of
an officer in charge, assistants, secretary,
treasurer, trustees, sergeants, corporals,
and soldiers. The Commander-in-Chief,
or General, is elected for a term of five
years. His cabinet, or staff, consists of
the vice-president, with title of Major-
General, the secretary, with title of
Colonel, the treasurer, with title of
Colonel, and the regimental officers.—
The different departments of work car-
ried on by the Volunteers of America are
rescue- and prison-work, industrial,
girls’, and children’s homes, hospital and
dispensary work, and “restoration work”
among men and women whose misfor-
tunes or misdeeds have placed them
beyond the pale of good society. Statis-
tics, 1916 : $7 organizations, 16 church
edifices, 10,204 members, 26 Sunday-
schools, with 1,483 scholars. Value of
church property, $226,950.
Voodboism. Name of certain prac-
tises and beliefs current among Negroes
of the West Indies and Southern United
States, brought originally from Africa;
consisting of snake- and devil-worship,
fetishism, dances, incantations, charms,
and, formerly, occasional sacrifice of girl
children, performed by priests or “doc-
tors,” whose services were often employed
to wreak vengeance on some enemy.
Voskamp, Karl Johannes; b. Sep-
tember 18, 1859, at Antwerp. Belgium;
educated at Duisburg and Berlin; in
1884 sent to Canton, China, by the Berlin
Missionary Society; labored in the Fa
Yuen district; home furlough in 1898;
Vows
803
Waldenses
transferred to Shantung 1898; since
1925 connected with the United Lutheran
Church in America. Voskamp is a well-
known and eminently successful mission-
ary and an author of renown. He resides
at Tsingtao, China.
Vows. Rome’s position on religious
vows follows from its teaching on the
subject of “evangelical counsels” (q. v . ).
If God counsels voluntary poverty, obe-
dience, and celibacy as exceptionally
meritorious, then, it is argued, He will
also be pleased if men vow, or promise,
to Him to observe these counsels. Such
vows are made by those entering the
various religious orders. These vows are
sometimes only temporary, but usually
perpetual. They are also classified as
cither solemn or simple, the former im-
plying that an absolute and irrevocable
surrender has been made and accepted,
while the latter are less sweeping (see
Profession of Monks and Nuns). Solemn
vows must always be preceded by simple.
The Pope can dispense from all vows.
The Roman Church attempts to compel
observance of monastic and other vows,
using force if necessary. Luther strongly
and justly condemned the fact that Rome
considers the vow of celibacy binding
even if those who have taken it find, in
more mature years, that they have not
received the gift of continence. 1 Cor. 7, 7.
Vulplus, Melchior, 1560 — 1616; can-
tor in Weimar; published Oantiones
Xacrae, 1603, Kirohengcsaenge und geist-
liche IAeder Dr. Luthers, 1604, and com-
posed a number of tunes.
w
Wacker, Emil; b. May 16, 1839, at
Kotzenbuell; Lutheran pastor; studied
at Copenhagen, Kiel, and Berlin; called
as pastor and rector of the Deaconess
Home at Flensburg 1876; wrote: Dia-
konissenspiegel, Die Laienpredigt und
dcr Pietismus in der lutherischen Kirche,
Der Diakonissenberuf, Bins ist not, etc.
Wackernagel, Karl Eduard Philipp,
1800 — 77; educated at University of
Berlin; master of a school in Berlin,
then at Stettin; professor in Realgym-
nasium at Wiesbaden, then at Elberfeld;
last years of life spent in Leipzig; suc-
cessful teacher, especially noteworthy for
liymnological research embodied in Das
deutsche Kirohenlied, von der acltesten
Zeit bis zu Anfang des 17. Jahrhunderts,
indispensable to students of early Ger-
man hymnody.
Wagner, Anton; b. 1820 at Allen-
dorf an der Lumda, Hessen; came to
America 1849; graduate of Fort Wayne
Seminary; pastor in Watertown, Wis.,
1855, Freistadt, Wis., Pleasant Ridge,
111., of Zion Church, Chicago, 1867 to
1909; d. 1914; pioneer of Missouri
Synod in Chicago.
Wakamba Mission, East Africa,
founded by the Bayerische Gesellschaft
fuer Ev.-Luth. Mission in Ostafrika (Ba-
varian Ev. Luth. Missionary Society)
in 1886 ; taken over by the Ev.-Luth.
Mission zu Leipzig (Leipzig Mission) in
1893.
Walch, Johann Georg; b. 1693,
d. 1755 as professor at Jena; orthodox
Lutheran, though influenced by Pietism;
voluminous writer, especially on histor-
ical subjects, the controversies within
and without the Lutheran Church, and
on the Symbolical Books; his edition of
Luther’s works surpassed all previous
editions in completeness. — His son,
Christian Wilhelm. Franz Waloh, b. 1726,
d. 1784 as professor at Goettingen; his
writings, mostly historical, are tinged
with Supernaturalism, which opposed
Rationalism without fully defending the
Bible.
Waldenses ( Waldensians , Vaudois).
A sect said to have been founded by
Peter Waldo, or Valdes, a rich merchant
of Lyons, ca. 1170. He gave away his
wealth, had a translation made of por-
tions of the Bible into the French Pro-
vence vernacular, preached, and founded
a society for the spreading of the Gospel,
which soon gained many followers, par-
ticularly in valleys of Piedmont and the
adjacent French territory. Here the
Waldenses still have some 13,000 adher-
ents, and, in Uruguay, Argentina, the
United States, Canada, and in their for-
eign missions they number about 12,000.
Being under the papal ban, they were,
for centuries, driven from their homes
or were ruthlessly massacred. In 1848
King Charles of Sardinia granted them
civil and religious liberty. They rejected
purgatory, masses for the dead, indul-
gences, worship of saints, relics, and
images, most church holidays, dedica-
tions and consecrations, and the author-
ity of the hierarchy, including that of
the Pope, whom they declared to be the
Antichrist, and believed the Church to
be the congregation of the elect, that an
unbelieving priest could not validly ad-
minister the Sacraments, and that, be-
sides faith, good works were necessary
to salvation. At first those joining the
Waldensian “fraternity” had to take the
Waldenstroem, Fan! Peter
804
Walther, C. F. W.
threefold oatli of poverty, celibacy, and
obedience to superiors. The “friends,”
or “the faithful,” did not take the vows
of the “brethren” and “sisters,” but
merely accepted the Waldensian doc-
trine. The outstanding characteristics
of the Waldenses were their preaching,
their missionary zeal, and their knowl-
edge of the Bible, especially of the New
Testament. In early times they had
bishops, presbyters, and deacons; but
their church government as well as their
doctrine and practise were modified in
the course of time, and since the Refor-
mation, when they joined the Reformed
party, the Waldenses closely resemble
the Presbyterians in doctrine and polity.
Their Brief Confession of Faith of the
Reformed Churches of Piedmont (1055)
is based on the French Reformed Con-
fessio Gallicana.
Waldenstroem, Paul Peter; b. 1838;
Swedish theologian and educator and
one of the foremost leaders of the Free
Church movement in Sweden; in 1872
he advanced the idea that the reconcilia-
tion through Christ is not of God to us
( denying the wrath of God ) , but of us
to God. Waldenstroem has exerted great
influence both in Sweden and in America.
Wales. In Wales the ancient Celtic
Church, having been founded at a very
early period, was entirely independent
of the Church of Rome. In consequence
the Christian Britains were obliged to
seek refuge in the mountainous district
of Wales, where they gradually dimin-
ished in numbers, ignorance and super-
stition overspreading the entire country.
The Reformation of the lfith century
reached Wales through England. Gospel-
truth spread rapidly among the moun-
taineers, and a simple Scriptural piety
began to reign among them. Later on
ignorance and vice again prevailed, and
both clergy and laity became ignorant
and immoral. The Rev. Griffith Jones
established among them a system of edu-
cation now known as the Welsh Circuit-
ing Schools, by which he accomplished
great good, establishing 3,495 schools, in
which 158,237 pupils were educated.
The majority of the Welsh people are
Methodists.
Walker, H. H., D. D. See Roster at
end of book.
Walker, Jesse, ? — 1835; Methodist
Episcopal; b. in North Carolina; travel-
ing preacher in Tennessee and Kentucky
1802, Illinois 1806; planted Methodism
in St. Louis 1820; among the Indians
1823; d. in Cook Co., 111.
Walker, Williston, 1860 — ; Congre-
gationalist; b. at Portland, Me.; taught
in Bryn Mawr College and Hartford
Seminary; professor of ecclesiastical
history, Yale; wrote: History of Con-
gregational Churches in the United
(Jtates; The Reformation ; etc.
Wallin, Johan Olaf, 1779—1839;
the greatest Swedish liymnist of the last
century; held charges in various cities
of Sweden ; contributed some 1 50 hymns ;
recast the hymn by Spegel : “The Death
of Jesus Christ, the Lord.”
Walther, Carl Ferdinand Wilhelm,
“the most commanding figure in the Lu-
theran Church of America during the
nineteenth century,” was born Octo-
ber 25, 1811, at Langenchursdorf, Saxony.
His father, grandfather, and great-grand-
father had been Lutheran ministers be-
fore him. He received his preparatory
training at home, in the village school,
and in the city school at Hohenstein,
graduated from the Gymnasium at
Schneeberg in 1829, and took up the
study of theology at the University of
Leipzig. “I was eighteen years old when
I left the Gymnasium, and I had never
heard a sentence taken from the Word of
God out of the mouth of a genuine be-
liever. I had never had a Bible nor a
catechism, but merely a miserable Leit-
faden, which contained heathen moral-
ity.” Rationalism held sway also at
Leipzig. Walther was led to believe in
Jesus Christ through an elderly candi-
date, Kuehn, who led the studies and
spiritual exercises of a group of earnest
-students, but whose theology was of a
pronounced pictistic type; through the
wife of Steuerrevisor Barthel, who, when
Walther was at the verge of spiritual
despair, pointed him direct to the grace
of God in Christ; and through Pastor
Stephan, who advised him to lay hold of
the full, free, and unconditional promises
of the Gospel (“a man who, by God’s
grace, saved my soul”). Leaving the
university for one semester on account
of severe illness, he took up the study"
of Luther’s writings in his father’s
library, and employing a second period
of ill health in Perry Co., Mo., in the
same manner, he acquired a thorough
familiarity with the works of the Re-
former. He graduated in 1833, became
a private tutor, and was ordained in
1837 to the ministry at Braeunsdorf-,
Saxony. The local church and the
church authorities were steeped in ra-
tionalism, and since Walther’s firm stand
for the Lutheran Confessions and Lu-
theran practise was met by opposition
and even persecution, he resigned his
pastorate and joined the Saxon emi-
grants. He arrived at St, Logie ip
•Walther, C. F. W.
805
Walther, C. F. W.
February, 1839, and shortly afterwards
he took charge of the pastorate at Dres-
den and Johannisberg in Perry Co., Mo.
He gave his active support to the found-
ing of the log-cabin college at Altenburg
and for a time served as instructor. The
sad task of unmasking the leader of the
Saxon emigrants, M. Stephan, fell to his
lot (he had not been a blind follower of
him and bad refused to swear allegiance
to the “bishop”), and it was he who, in
the ensuing confusion, brought light and
peace to the disturbed consciences of the
people. In eight theses he established
(April, 1841) the Scriptural doctrine of
the Church (see Missouri Synod and
Altenburg Theses), the principles there
laid down being later elaborated by him
in the books: The Voice of Our Oliurch
on the Question of Church and Office
(1852), The Correct Form of a, Local
Congregation Independent of the State
(1893), and The Evangelical Lutheran
Church the True Visible Church on
Earth (1807). In April, 1841, he he-
caine the successor of his older brother,
Otto Hermann, in the pastorate of the
St. Louis congregation and there success-
fully applied the principles set forth in
the three books mentioned. In 1844 be
began, with the financial backing of his
congregation, the publication of the Lu-
theraner, which served to bring together
faithful Lutherans in various sections
of the country. Ill the conferences of
1845 and 1840, in which the question of
organizing a confessional Lutheran synod
was discussed by a number of pastors
and a draft for the constitution drawn
up, Walther took a leading part. Upon
the organization of the Missouri Synod,
in 1847, he was elected its first president,
serving as such until 1850 and again
from 1804 to 1878. On the removal of
the Altenburg college to St. Louis, Wal-
ther was elected professor of theology,
serving in Concordia Seminary from
1850 until his death and retaining gen-
eral supervision over the congregation.
As theological professor and president
and leader of synod he labored indefati-
gably and succeeded in firmly grounding
it on the Word of God and on the Lu-
theran Confessions; nor could he, being
a lover of peace and loving Zion as he
did, refuse to take part, a leading part,
in the controversies thrust upon the
synod. (See Missouri Synod Controver-
sies.) It was a mission of peace which
took him and Wyneken to Germany in
1851 — 2. Pastor Loelie was beginning to
deviate from the Lutheran doctrine of
the Church and the Ministry. The mis-
sion ultimately failed of its purpose. In
1853 Walther and his congregation
founded a Bible society, which imported
the genuine Luther-Bibel and published
the Altenburger Bihelwerk and several
editions of the Bible. Concordia Pub-
lishing House, St. Louis, which later
took over its work, itself owes its origin
largely to Walther’s efforts. At Wal-
ther’s suggestion the Missouri Synod, in
1855, founded Lehre und Wehre, a theo-
logical monthly, edited at first by Wal-
ther, later by the faculty of Concordia
Seminary. At his suggestion, too, free
conferences were held by members of
various Lutheran bodies in 1850, 1857,
1858, and 1859, “with a view towards the
final realization of one united Evangel-
ical Lutheran Church of North America,”
[L. u. If 7 ., II, 4.) He was one of the
representatives of his synod at the col-
loquy with members of the Buffalo Synod
in 1800 and at the colloquy with the
Iowa Synod in 1807. He attended, as
a matter of course, the three conferences
held in 1808 — 9 between representatives
of the Missouri Synod and of the Ohio,
Wisconsin, and Illinois synods, respec-
tively, the convention held by these
bodies in 1871, and the meeting in 1872,
which organized the Synodical Confer-
ence, whose first president he was. In
1871 his Oospel Postil was published, in
1870 Brosamen, in 1882 the Epistle
Postil; later, Festklaenge, Qnadenja.hr,
and a number of other volumes. (“Wal-
ther is a model preacher in the Lutheran
Church. How different the position of
the Lutheran Church would be in Ger-
many if many such sermons were held!”
— Dr. A. Broemel.) In 1872 Walther at-
tended, and furnished the theses for, a
free conference of English Lutherans at
Gravelton, Mo., which developed into the
English Synod of Missouri and Other
States (now English District of the Mis-
souri Synod). In the same year his
Pastoral Theology was published. In
1878 Capital University (Ohio Synod)
conferred upon him the title of Doctor
of Divinity. (He had refused, in 1855,
to accept this title at the hands of the
University of Goettingen, for confes-
sional reasons.) From 1879 on much of
his time was taken up by the controversy
on Election and Conversion. He spent
these latter years of his life, as indeed
all the years of his service in the Church,
in inculcating the doctrines of sola gra-
tia and gratia universalis. His ministry
and his life ended on May 7, 1887. —
His ministry is not ended; in his writ-
ings, comprising, besides the books men-
tioned, his amplified edition of Baier’s
Compendium Theologiae Positivae, two
books on the Law and the Oospel and
others, two volumes of Letters, and in-
Walther, Johann
806
Walther League
numerable pamphlets, articles in the
periodicals, and essays published in the
Synodical Reports, — enough to make a
full-sized “five-foot bookshelf,” — he has
left the Church an inexhaustible store of
Scriptural theology. — Says the Allg.
Ev.-Luth. Kirchenzeitung , of Leipzig:
“His activities were felt as a mighty in-
spiration by the Lutheran Church of all
continents.” Lutheran Observer: “The
principles of pure Lutheranism were from
the first insisted upon by Walther and
his confreres, and to this day the Mis-
souri Synod stands for the most con-
servative type of Lutheranism to be
found in the United States.” Dr. F.
Pieper: “Walther, as respects spiritual
experience, theological learning, logical
acumen, and the gift of presentation,
certainly does not stand behind the
majority of our theologians, and, in our
judgment, he surpasses many of them in
these things.” Walther himself says:
“A pupil of Luther, and, as I hope to
God, a faithful pupil, I have only stam-
mered after this prophet of the last
world all that I have hitherto published
and written.” And he succeeded in im-
planting the Lutheran loyalty to God’s
Word in the hearts of many.
Walther, Johann, 1496 — 1570; singer
in the Electoral Chapel at Torgau; in
1524 summoned to Wittenberg by Luther
to assist him in selecting and setting the
music for his German Mass, Luther writ-
ing the Aecentus, or the part of the offi-
ciating pastor, and Walther the Gon-
eentus, or the responses of the choir and
the congregation. One result of the com-
bined labors of the two men was his
Geistliohe Gesangbueehleyn, the first Lu-
theran choral-book, containing music in
four and five parts for thirty-two Ger-
man hymns (twenty -four by Luther) and
five Latin texts, enlarged editions of this
book appearing in 1537, 1544, and 1551,
later with a companion volume by Rhaw,
with a total of 248 richly harmonized
compositions. In 1534 Walther was ap-
pointed cantor to the school at Torgau;
in 1548, Kapellmeister at Dresden, re-
signing in 1554. He laid the foundation
for the whole future development of Lu-
theran sacred music aird was also a
Iiymn-writer of distinction, ten hymns
being ascribed to him, among them “Der
Braeut’gam wird bald rufen.”
Walther, Johann Gottfried, 1684 to
1748; studied chiefly under J. C. Bach in
Erfurt; organist at Erfurt, then at
Weimar, where he was later court musi-
cian; his greatest work Musikalisohes
Lexikon ; stands next to Bach as master
of choral variations for organ.
Walther League. An international
organization of Lutheran young people
within the Synodical Conference. A call
was issued inviting the young people’s
societies of our churches to send repre-
sentatives to a meeting held in Trinity
Church, Buffalo, N. Y., May 20 — 23, 1893.
As a result there was organized the Gen-
eral Alliance of Young People’s and
Young Men’s Societies of the Synodical
Conference, which soon, in honor of the
founder of the Missouri Synod, who had
advocated organized work among the
confirmed youth, was officially called the
Walther League. This organization did
not grow very rapidly at first; for in
1910, seventeen years after its organiza-
tion, the League numbered only sixty-
nine societies. After that, however, when
the work of the League was better under-
stood, it grew rapidly, and now (A. D.
1925) the League numbers 1,117 senior
and 234 junior societies in 33 districts
of the United States and Canada, the
League being represented in almost forty
States. The purpose of the League is
expressed in its motto: Pro Aris et
Foots ( For Altars and for Hearths, or,
For Church and for Home ) . More ex-
plicitly stated, its purpose is to assist in
keeping our young people within the
Church, to promote Christian love and
fellowship, to make intelligent and ener-
getic church-workers, to encourage the
support of charitable endeavors and mis-
sion-work, etc. The League gives special
attention to the study of the Bible and
for this purpose issues The Bible Stu-
dent, a Bible study quarterly for young
people, adult classes, and the home. The
Concordia Junior Messenger, published
by Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis,
Mo., is edited also in the interest of the
junior members of the Walther League
and by special arrangement carries Wal-
ther League material. — The first young
people’s societies in the Missouri Synod
were almost exclusively young men’s or-
ganizations, whose chief purpose was the
support of young men who were prepar-
ing for the ministry. This work has not
only been continued by societies of the
Walther League, but several districts of
the Walther League have pledged them-
selves entirely to support missionaries
in foreign fields, thereby increasing the
love for foreign mission work. The
League is paying much attention to the
establishing of so-called hospices for the
purpose of caring for Lutheran young
men and women who come to strange
cities, and also for the purpose of look-
ing after the welfare of Lutheran stu-
dents who are attending various colleges
apd universities throughout the country,
Walther, Michael
807
War
Hospice homes have been established at
Buffalo, Chicago, Los Angeles, Milwau-
kee, New York, Omaha, St. Louis, Sioux
City, and Washington. In 650 cities
there are hospice secretaries (printed
list in Walther League Messenger) , who,
upon request, will meet young people
coming to their cities and, if possible,
procure room and board in private fam-
ilies. The new Ev. Luth. Sanitarium at
Wheat Ridge, Colo., has been built by
moneys collected by Walther Leaguers.
On .July 1, 1923, a Walther League
Camp, consisting of 110 acres with a
three -quarter -mile frontage on Lake
Michigan, was opened at Arcadia, Mich.
A course of lectures is given daily during
the summer months and good advantages
for recreation (boating, bathing, and
fishing) are offered. In the interest of
its work the Walther League publishes
the Walther League Messenger (Vol. 33,
1 925 ) . Other summer camps have since
been opened. The national headquarters
are at Chicago. During the World War
the Walther League sent messages of en-
couragement to our soldiers and sailors,
raised thousands of dollars for them, and
paid for the printing and distribution
of more than a quarter of a million of
Lutheran hymnals, prayer-books, and
copies of the New Testament. The Wal-
ther League has an Executive Board, a
Service Department, a Hospice Commit-
tee, an Educational Department, an En-
tertainment Committee, a Committee on
Bible Study, and a Committee on Mis-
sions. The 34tli annual convention was
held at Baltimore, Md., July, 1920, Pres-
ident A. A. Grossmann presiding.
Walther, Michael; b. 1593, d. 1862
as Superintendent-General in Celle ;
author of an excellent exposition of the
catechism, of the Officina Biblica (isa-
gogics), and the Harmonia Biblica.
Walther, Wilhelm Markus; b. 1846;
d. 1925; positive Lutheran theologian;
pastor at Cuxhaven; professor of Church
History at Rostock; wrote very exten-
sively on the Reformation, Luther,
German medieval translation of the
Bible, etc.; also against A. Harnack’s
Wesen des C'hristentums ; Lehrbuch der
Bymbolik.
Walton, Brian, 1600 — 61; Anglican;
Biblical scholar; b. in Yorkshire;
rector; bishop of Chester 1660; d. in
London. Editor of London Polyglot ,
6 folio vols. 1654 — 7 (most complete and
scholarly polyglot).
Wandersleben, Martin, 1608 — 68;
b. at Wassertalheim, at time of his
death superintendent at Woltershausen ;
wrote: “Heut’ fangen wir in Gottes
Nam’n.”
Wangemann, Hermann Theodor;
b. March 27, 1828, at Wilsnack, Ger-
many; d. June 18, 1894; rector and
assistant pastor at Wollin, 1845; direc-
tor of Seminary at Kammin 1849; direc-
tor of Berlin Missionary Society 1865;
visited Africa 1866 — 7 and again 1884 to
1885. A voluminous writer on mission-
topics.
War. A contest between nations and
states (international war) or between
parties in the same nation or state (civil
war), carried on by force of arms and
resorted to either for purposes of ad-
vantage or of revenge. — Wars are
spoken of very frequently in the Bible;
in fact, the entire history of the children
of Israel, from the time of the conquest
of Canaan until the Exile, is chiefly an
account of battles and wars, the reign
of Solomon being the only period of re-
lief of any length during all those cen-
turies. With regard to the Canaanitish
nations, which occupied the territory
promised to Abraham and his descen-
dants by the Lord, He Himself decreed
a war of extermination upon them. It
was also the Lord who commanded the
children of Israel to punish the idolatry
of the nations east of the Jordan by a
war of extermination, the tribes under
the leadership of Sihon and Og thus
being wiped out. During the centuries
that Israel and Judah were independent
nations, both as a united people and
as a divided kingdom, they were obliged
to wage war against, or to defend them-
selves against invasions from, practically
every nation in that part of the world,
the Egyptians, the Ethiopians, the
Libyans, the tribes of the deserts toward
the south, the Edomites, the Moabites,
the Ammonites, the Syrians, the Philis-
tines, the Assyrians, the Chaldeans, and
others being named as enemies who
sought the destruction of the people of
the Lord. That many of these wars were
just wars, undertaken with the full con-
sent of the Lord, appears from His con-
sent or His direct command, as when
David time and again inquired of the
Lord whether he ought to attack his
enemies. That some of the wars were
such as were sent by the Lord as a form
of punishment upon a reprobate and
disobedient nation is clear from Deut.
28, 49 ff. and from the many examples in
the history of the people of the Lord
when He permitted their enemies to
harass them. Reasons for such wars are
the contempt of the Word of God, Lev.
26,25; 1 Kings 8, 33; 2 Kings 3, 3; the
shedding of innocent blood, Judg. 9, 1 ;
2 Sam. 12, 9. 10; avarice and unright-
eousness, Amos 9, 1; Micah 2, 1; false
War
808
Wauhtngion, Booker T.
ambition and pride, Is. 13, 1 ff. From
the New Testament it appears that wars
are a scourge of the Lord, whether they
are justified or unjustified; for wars
and rumors of wars are spoken of in
such a connection. Matt. 24, 6.
Formerly, wars were largely waged at
the will of despotic monarehs; at the
present time, wars usually arise, in the
first instance, from disputes concerning
territorial possessions and frontiers, un-
just dealings with the citizens of one
state by another, questions of race and
sentiment, jealousy of military prestige,
or mere lust of conquest. Civil wars
arise from the claims of rival competi-
tors for the supreme power in a state or
for the establishment of some important
point connected with civil or religious
liberty. In all cases the object of each
contending party is to destroy the power
of the other by defeating or dispersing
his army or navy, by the occupation of
some important part or strategic points
of his country, such as the capital, or
the principal administrative and com-
mercial centers, or the ruin of his com-
merce, thus cutting off his powers of
recuperation in men, money, and mate-
rial. An international or public war can
be authorized only by the sovereign
power of the nations, and previous to
the commencement of hostilities it is
now customary for the state taking the
initiative to issue a declaration of war,
which usually takes the form of an ex-
planatory manifesto addressed to the
neutral states. An aggressive, or offen-
sive, war is one carried into the territory
of a hitherto friendly power; and a de-
fensive war is one carried on to resist
such aggression. Certain laws, usages,
or rights of war are recognized by inter-
national law. By such rights it is allow-
able to seize and destroy the persons or
property of armed enemies, but not to
kill non-belligerents, to stop up all their
channels of traffic or supply, and to ap-
propriate everything in an enemy’s
country necessary for the support or
subsistence of the invading army. On
the other hand, though an enemy may
lawfully be starved into a surrender,
wounding, except in battle, mutilation,
and all cruel and wanton devastation
are contrary to the usages of war, as
are also the bombarding of a defenseless
town, firing on a hospital, or torture to
extort information from an enemy.
Failure to observe these rules places a
belligerent under the stigma of infamy
and may cause otherwise neutral nations
to take up arms against an enemy guilty
of such practises.
The attitude of the Christian with re-
gard to the subject of war is plainly
given in Scriptures, especially in the
Fourth Commandment and the passages
which pertain thereto. The entire mat-
ter is well expressed in Article XVI of
the Augsburg Confession, which states :
“Of civil affairs they [our Churches]
teach that lawful civil ordinances are
good works of God and that it is right
for Christians to bear civil office, to sit
as judges, to judge matters by the im-
perial and other existing laws, to award
just punishments, to engage in just
tears, ” etc. (Gone. Trigl., 51.) It is,
therefore, likewise clear that a soldier or
a sailor is in a calling which is not ob-
jectionable to the Lord.
Warfield, Benjamin Breckenridge,
1851 — 1921; Conservative Presbyterian
theologian; b. at Lexington, Ky.; pro-
fessor of New Testament Literature and
Exegesis at Allegheny, Pa., 1878; pro-
fessor of Didactic and Polemic Theology
at Princeton 1887 ; d. at Princeton. Ed-
ited Presbyterian and Reformed Review;
published: Divine Origin of Bible, 1882;
Inspiration, 1882; Introduction to the
Textual Criticism of the New Testament,
1886; etc.
Warneck, Gustav Adolf; b. atNaum-
burg, near Halle, March 6, 1834; d. at
Halle, December 26, 1910. Served pas-
torates at Raitzscli, Dommitseh, Rothen-
schirmbach; was inspector of missions
at Barmen; retired in 1896 and was
made honorary professor of missions at
Halle. He founded the Saxon Provincial
Missionary Conference in 1879, was sec-
retary of the committee of German mis-
sions 1885 — 1901, and founded the All-
gemeine Missionszeitschrift (1874), being
its editor many years. He was a volu-
minous writer on mission topics. His
chief books are: “Abriss einer Oeschichte
der protestantischen Missionen von der
Reformation bis auf die Oegemvart
(Leipzig) and Evangelisohe Missions-
lehre ( 3 vols. ) .
Warneck, Johannes, son of Gustav
Warneck; b. 1867 at Dommitseh, Ger-
many; missionary of the Rhenish Mis-
sionary Society at Bataklandan, Sumatra,
1892 — 1906; inspector at Barmen 1908;
instructor in theological seminary at
Bethel 1912; writer on missions.
Wartburg Synod. See United Lu-
theran Church.
Wasa, Gustav. See Qustav Wasa.
Washington, Booker Taliaferro;
b. near Hales Ford, Va., 1858; d. 1915;
son of a mulatto slave and a white man;
studied at Hampton Normal and Agri-
cultural School, Va., and other schools;
later appointed instructor at Hampton;
■Water, Holy
809
Weimarisclies Bibelwerk
organized Tuskegee (Ala.) Normal School
1881, where he did much work for the
elevation of the Negro race.
Water, Holy. In the early Middle
Ages, people took home baptismal water
for various superstitious purposes. This
led, in both the Greek and the Roman
churches, to the blessing of water outside
of baptism. In Roman churches the cere-
mony takes place every Sunday. The
priest exorcises salt and water, prays
over them, and mingles them in the name
of the Trinity. The water is then used
for a variety of purposes. It is placed
in a font at the church-door, sprinkled
over the audience before High Mass, used
to bless candles, etc., and taken home by
the people. Miraculous virtues are as-
cribed to it. It is supposed to cure
diseases of body and mind, remit venial
sin, deliver from infestations of the devil,
make fields fertile, chase the plague,
break up storms, etc. The superstitious
ceremony of blessing the water, since it
has neither divine command nor promise,
is an infraction of the Second Command-
ment and, essentially, a form of witch-
craft.
Watson, Richard, 1737 — 1816; An-
glican; b. at Haversham, Westmoreland;
professor of chemistry; rector; bishop
of Llandaff ; d. at Calgarth Park ; wrote :
Apology for Christianity (against Gib-
bon) ; Apology for the Bible (against
Paine) ; etc.
Watts, Isaac, 1674 — 1748; eldest sou
of a respected Non-conformist; prom-
inent as a dissenter all his life; showed
poetical ability in early youth; studied
at Southampton and at Stoke-Newing-
ton; wrote Hymns and Spiritual Songs;
was ordained pastor in 1702 and, in spite
of great bodily infirmities, held office till
his death; published various theological
and philosophical works and more than
four hundred hymns, of which the best
known are: “Behold the Glories of the
Lamb”; “There Is a Land of Pure De-
light”; sometimes called “Father of En»
glish Hymnody.”
Webb, Thomas, 1724 — 96; Meth-
odist; b. in England; soldier in Amer-
ica; joined the Methodists 1765; lay
preacher in New York City, etc., and
Portland, England, at outbreak of Revo-
lution; d. in Portland; pioneer of Meth-
odism in America.
Weber, Karl Maria von, 1786 — 1826;
inherited musical talent developed very
early; studied under Heuschkel and
Michael Haydn; noted concert pianist
and composer; founder of German Ro-
mantic School; some sacred music.
Wegelin, Josua, 1604 — 40; studied
at Tuebingen ; pastor at Budweiler ;
diaconus at Augsburg; compelled to
leave due to decree of restitution; finally
pastor at Pressburg; wrote “Auf Christi
Himmelfahrt allein.”
Wegscheider, Julius August Lud-
wig; b. 1771, d. as professor at Halle
1849. His Institutiones Theologiae Chris-
tianae Dogmatioae is considered the
standard dogmatic work of rationalism.
According to him a supernatural revela-
tion was impossible.
Weidenheim, Johann. Circumstances
of his life not known, except that Tie
lived at the end of the 17th century;
hymn “Herr, deine Treue ist so gross”
commonly ascribed to him.
Weidner, Revere Franklin; leading
educator and author in the Lutheran
General Council; b. 1851 in Pennsylva-
nia; educated at Muhlenberg College
and Philadelphia; pastor at Phillips-
burg, N. J., at the same time teaching
English and logic at Muhlenberg until
1877 ; pastor of St. Luke’s, Philadelphia,
1878 — 82; then professor of Dogmatics
and Exegesis at Rock Island till 1891.
His main work was done as professor of
Dogmatics and Hebrew Exegesis and as
president of Chicago Seminary, 1891 to
1915. He did much to develop the Chi-
cago Seminary and was a prolific writer,
not only reproducing German theological
works in English, but also writing various
exegetical and dogmatic works himself.
D. January 5, 1915.
Weigel, Valentin; German mystic;
b. 1533 at Grossenhain, Saxony; since
1567 Lutheran pastor at Zschopau; died
there 1588. Though apparently irre-
proachable in ministerial office, he was
at heart, as transpired after his death,
completely at variance with the teach-
ings of his Church. His tlieosophic,
pantheistic system, according to which
the church dogmas are merely an ex-
ternal allegorical cloak for deeper truths,
had adherents for several centuries
(W eigelianer) .
Weimarisches Bibelwerk ( Ernesti-
nische Bibel, Nuemberger Bibel, Kur-
fuerstenbibel) . Annotated Bible by John
Gerhard, Glassius, Dilherr, and other
theologians. Not critical or controver-
sial, but very good popular commentary.
Has instructions how to read and under-
stand the Scriptures, table to read the
Bible in one year, chronology, topical in-
dex, and “helps.” New edition prefaced
by Dr. C. F. W. Walther. First published
in 1640.
Wei nil re ii n or, Johann
810
Wesley, ChaTlea
Weinbrenner, Johann, 1797 — 1860;
b. at Glade Valley, Md.; pastor (German
Reformed) ; left Reformed Church 1825;
organized Church of God 1830 (revivals,
washing of feet, immersion) ; d. at Har-
risburg, Pa.
Weingaertner, Sigismund; preacher
said to have lived near Heilbronn or at
Basel, beginning of 17th century; hymn
“Auf meinen lieben Gott” ascribed to
him; but there are still doubts concern-
ing authorship.
Weise, Christian, 1642—1708; b. at
Zittau; 1076 professor of rhetoric and
politics at Weissenfels; 1678 rector of
the Gymnasium, at Zittau; poems show
simplicity and depth; wrote “Ach seht,
was ich fuer Recht und Licht.”
Weiss, Johannes, b. 1863, d. 1914;
professor of New Testament Exegesis at
Marburg ; theologian of the left wing of
the Ritschlian school; applied Well-
hausen’s theory to the New Testament.
Weiss, Karl Philipp Bernhard;
b. 1827, d. 1918; father of the preced-
ing; professor at Koenigsberg, Kiel,
Berlin; also consistorial councilor;
theologian of the Prussian Union; pro-
lific writer on the New Testament, espe-
cially commentaries, notably in Meyer’s
Commentary ; his writings are not free
from the taint of higher criticism.
Weisze, Michael, ca. 1480 — 1634;
took priest’s orders; for a time monk in
Breslau; abandoned convent after read-
ing some of Luther’s writings; later
preacher to the Bohemian Brethren at
Landskron in Bohemia; rated by Luther
as an excellent German poet; wrote,
among others, “Lob sei dem allmaech-
tigen Gott”; “Christus ist erstanden”;
“Nun lasst uns den Leib begraben.”
Weiszel, Georg, 1590 — 1635; studied
at Koenigsberg and at a number of other
universities; 1614 rector of school at
Friedland; completed studies in theol-
ogy at Koenigsberg; pastor at Koenigs-
berg till his death; one of the most
important of the earlier hymn-writers
of Prussia; wrote: “Macht hoch die
Tuer” ; “Nun, liebe Seel’, nun ist es
Zeit”; “Such’, wer da will, ein ander
Ziel.”
Weiszes Kreuz. A society organized
in 1882 for the purpose of caring for
wounded or sick soldiers of the army of
Austria-Hungary and for the purpose of
placing, and caring for, officers or their
widows or orphans in proper institutions.
Different from White Cross League ( q . «.).
Weller, Geo.; b. January 8, 1860,
at New Orleans, La. ; graduated at
St. Louis, 1882; pastor of Lutheran Mis-
souri Synod at Marysville, Nebr. ; direc-
tor and professor at Teachers’ Seminary,
Seward, Nebr., 1894 — 1924; d. Decem-
ber 17, 1924, at Seward.
Weller, Hieronymus; b. 1499,
d. 1572; studied at Wittenberg; con-
verted by one of Luther’s sermons; be-
came inmate of the Reformer’s house
for eight years; 1536 rector of schools
in Freiberg; staunch Lutheran in the
Adiaphoristic and Majoristic controver-
sies; wrote commentaries, a postil, on
propaedeutics, ethics, homiletics.
Weller, Jakob; b. 1602; studied at
Wittenberg and was made professor esc-
traordinariu8 1634; superintendent in
Brunswick and in 1646 court preacher
in Dresden, successor of Hoe von Hoe-
negg; wrote against Calixt and a fear-
less witness against sins in high places;
d. 1664 at Dresden.
Wellhausen, Julius; b. 1844, d. 1918;
professor at Greifswald, Halle, Marburg,
Goettingen; leader of the higher critics;
wrote Kom position des Hexateuchs, Ge-
sohichte Israels, etc.; developed the
theory of E. Reuss and Graf that the
Pentateuch is basically of postexilic
origin along the lines of evolutionistic
science.
Weltz, Justinian Ernst, Freiherr
(Baron) von; b. 1621 at Chemnitz,
Saxony, of Austrian extraction; Lu-
theran by profession ; published five
mission- treatises (1663, 1664), not alto-
gether sound; ordained “Apostle to the
Heathen” in Holland; went to Dutch
Guiana (Surinam), where he soon died.
Werner, Georg, 1589 — 1643; b. near
Koenigsberg; at time of his death dia-
conus in Koenigsberg; wrote: “Nun tre-
ten wir ins neue Jahr”; “Der Tod hat
zwar verschlungen” ; “Freuet euch, ihr
Christen alle.”
Wertheim Bible. A German version
of the Pentateuch, published in 1735. It
was a product of vulgar rationalism by
J. L. Schmidt (d. 1750); printed in se-
cret and published anonymously. An im-
perial mandate in 1737 ordered its con-
fiscation and the apprehension of its
author.
Wesel, John of. See John of Wesel.
Wesel oh, Henry; b. November 1, 1851,
in Hanover, Germany; graduated at St.
Louis, 1876; editor of Kalender fuer
deutsche Lutheraner 1909 — 22; wrote:
Das Buch des Herrn und seine Feindej
Gottes Wort eine Gotteskraft ; Die Herr-
lichkeit Gottes in der Natur ; d. August
30, 1925, at Cleveland, O.
Wesley, Charles, the youngest, eight-
eenth, child of Samuel and Susanna Wes-
Wesley, John
811
Westminster Catechisms
ley; b. 1707 at Ep worth, England;
d. 1788 in London; studied at West-
minster School, then at Oxford; college
tutor, one of first band of “Oxford
Methodists”; ordained 1735; secretary
to General Oglethorpe in Georgia ; re-
turned to England 1736; under influence
of Zinzendorf and Moravians ; shortly
afterward itinerant and field preacher to
the end of his life; coworker of his
brother John; rank as English hymn-
writer very high; of 6,500 hymns cred-
ited to him, many of high excellence;
published most of liis hymn collections
together with his brother John, the first
collection appearing in 1739, the last in
1786; a great many of his hymns ap-
pear in most English collections, e. g.,
"0 for a Thousand Tongues to Sing,”
“Jesus, Lover of My Soul,” as many of
them are preeminently evangelical,
though of a very subjective character.
Wesley, John, 1703 — 91; founder of
Methodism; b. at Epworth, England;
graduated at Oxford; priest 1728; fel-
low at Oxford; director there of Holy
Club, whose members, because of their
methodical habits and exercises, came to
be called Methodists; missionary in
Georgia 1733; fell in with some Mora-
vian brethren; received assurance of his
salvation May 24, 1738, ca. 8.45 p. M.,
at Moravian meeting in London while
listening to the reading of Luther’s
Preface to Romans; repaired to Herrn-
hut to visit the Moravian leaders ; found
most parish churches closed to him on
his return; commenced field-preaching,
sent out lay preachers, and began to
provide chapels in 1739; formed first
society of followers 1740; held first
Methodist conference in London 1744;
never withdrew from the Church of En-
gland, yet suffered unending vexations;
d. in London. Though Wesley sneered
at Luther’s doctrine of justification as
expounded in Commentary on Galatians,
he repeatedly said when dying: “How
necessary it is for every one to be on the
right foundation!” “I the chief of sin-
ners am, But Jesus died for me.” Wesley
is supposed to have traveled over 200,000
miles, to have preached over 40,000 times
(two to four times daily), and to have
written over 200 works (Notes, Ser-
mons, etc.). He also published hymns,
almost wholly translations from German,
such as “Jesus, Thy Blood and Right-
eousness,” “Commit Thou All Thy
Griefs,” “Jesus, Thy Boundless Love to
Me,” etc.
Wesley, Samuel, 1662 — 1735; father
of Samuel, John, and Charles Wesley;
originally Non-conformist, but afterwards
a pronounced churchman; educated at
Oxford; wrote: “Behold the Savior of
Mankind,” and other hymns.
Wesley, Samuel, 1766 — 1837; organ-
ist at Bath and in London; foremost
English organist of his time ; introduced
works of J. S. Bach in England; much
sacred music, including a church service,
many anthems, motets, and hymns.
Wessel, Johann (Weasel Harmenss
Qansfort) ; a pre-Lutheran Reformer be-
longing to the Brethren of the Common
Life; b. ca. 1419, d. 1489; studied at
Zwolle and Cologne; taught at Paris,
lived at Rome, then at Basel, finally at
and near Groningen ; a strong Humanist,
but deepened and enriched by a theology
which was remarkably pure, although he
was nearer to Augustine and Bernard
than to Luther.
Wessel, L. See Roster at end of book.
Westen, Thomas von; apostle of the
Norwegian Lapps; b. 1682 at i)ront-
heim; d. April 9, 1727; instructor at
Mission Institute, Drontlieim, 1716; vis-
ited the Lapps for mission-purposes in
company with Kjeld Stab and Jens
Bloch, whom he ordained as missionaries ;
founded Finnish Seminary 1717; second
visit to Lapps 1718; third missionary
journey 1722; educator of missionaries
to Lapps.
West Indies. See Cuba, Jamaica,
Haiti, Porto Rico.
West Indies, Catholic Church in.
See Central America and the West Indies,
Catholic Church in.
Westminster Catechisms. There are
two of them, the Larger Catechism being
designed for ministers and for use in pub-
lic worship and the Shorter Catechism
for instruction of the young. Both were
approved by Parliament in 1647. The
Scotch Kirk adopted them in July, 1648,
and again, after they had temporarily
been repealed under Charles II, in 1690.
Next to the Heidelberg Catechism the
Westminster Catechisms are the most
widely circulated of Reformed cate-
chisms. However, they differ from the
Heidelberg Catechism in being more de-
cidedly Calvinistic. Back of these two
catechisms were John Craig’s Scotch
Catechism and especially Calvin’s Cate-
chism. The Shorter Catechism, which is
simply an abridgment of the Larger, is
noted for its terse brevity and precision
of questions and answers. It differs from
most catechisms in having the following
peculiarities: 1) The substance of the
questions is repeated in the answers, and
the use of the third person is main-
tained throughout. 2) It follows a new
Westminster Confession of Faith 6lS Westminster Confession of Faith
order of topics for the old order of the
Apostles’ Creed. 3) Dealing with dog-
mas, it addresses itself to the intellect
rather than to the heart. The Westmin-
ster Shorter Catechism has never been
revised, although in 1908 the General
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in
the United States of America (North)
appointed a committee to prepare a cat-
echism “to be simpler in nature than the
Shorter Catechism.” However, this new
catechism was not to become “one of the
standards of the Church.”
Westminster Confession of Faith,
together with the Westminster Cate-
chisms, was prepared by the Westminster
assembly of divines 1643 — 9, revised,
amended, and ratified by Parliament
(1648), and adopted by the churches in
England, Scotland, Ireland, and America
that follow the Presbyterian system,
though many of the churches disregarded
the omissions and changes proposed by
Parliament. The Westminster Confes-
sion is a symbolical statement of the Cal-
vinistic scheme of Christian doctrine and,
though not as rigid as the canons of the
Synod of Dort, in austerity and rigor
of logical deduction surpasses the Heidel-
berg Catechism and Bullinger’s Second
Helvetic Confession. Proceeding from
the idea of God’s sovereignty and His
eternal decrees, it emphasizes His fore-
knowledge and election and denies the
universality of grace and of Christ’s re-
demption and the readiness of God to
offer salvation to sinners willing to re-
pent. In England the Westminster Con-
fession was modified under the Protec-
torate and completely set aside when the
episcopacy, with the Thirty-nine Articles
and the Book of Common Prayer, was re-
stored under Charles II in 1660. In
Scotland the Parliament of 1690 ratified
and established the Westminster Confes-
sion of Faith as the public and avowed
confession of the Church, and in the Act
of Union of the two kingdoms in 1706—7
the confession was declared forever con-
firmed in the Church of Scotland. The
assemblies of 1690, 1699, 1700, 1704, etc.,
required of ministers and probationers
of the Gospel, as well as of ruling elders,
to subscribe to the confession without
amendment, and this remained the law
till 1879, when the United Presbyterian
Church of Scotland adopted an explana-
tory statement, or Declaratory Act, in
which some of the extreme Calvinistie
statements were modified. The Free
Presbyterian Church in 1892, in its De-
claratory Act, practically substantiated
these modifications. In 1894, by a Sup-
plementary Act, it was left open to office-
bearers to take the confession either with
the Declaratory Act or in its original
and unmodified form. When, in 1900,
the Free and the United Presbyterian
churches were merged in the United Free
Church, the Declaratory Acts of both
uniting bodies were approved. In 1890
the English Presbyterian Church had
adopted Twenty-four Articles of Faith
and in 1892 the synod declared that ac-
ceptance of the Westminster Confessions
was to be understood in the light of the
Twenty-four Articles of Faith. The
American Presbyterian churches early
adopted the confession and the West-
minster catechisms, the Synod of Phila-
delphia approving them in its Adopting
Act, September 19, 1729. Later on modi-
fications of those chapters (XXII and
XXIII ) , which bear on the authority of
the civil magistrate, were adopted, and
the General Assembly, in its first session,
in 1789, approved the revision of Ar-
ticles XX, XXIII, and XXXT, prefixing
to the form of government a preamble,
in which the rights of conscience in re-
ligious matters were pronounced uni-
versal and inalienable, and in which it
was declared that all religious consti-
tutions should be equally protected by
law. The reunion of the two branches
of the Presbyterian Church, the Old
School and the New School, in 1869, was
accomplished upon the basis of the West-
minster Confession and other standards
of the Church as interpreted in their
historic sense. The Cumberland Presby-
terian Church modified the Westminster
Confession and catechisms as early as
1814 and again in 1883, modifying espe-
cially the statement of the decree of pre-
destination. However, when the Cumber-
land church-body was incorporated in
the Presbyterian Church of the United
States of America in 1906, it was done
on the basis of the acceptance of the con-
fession as then authoritatively held by
the mother church; for the revision of
1903 had resulted in the addition of
chapters 34 and 35 on the Holy Spirit,
the love of God, and missions, as well as
of a Declaratory Statement of 250 words
designed to modify chapter III, concern-
ing the decrees of God, and declaring that
“Christ’s propitiation was for the sins of
the whole world” and that God is ready
to bestow saving grace upon all who
seek it. As regards chapter X, it was
declared that all children dying in in-
fancy are included in the election of
grace. Similarly, a small number of
changes had been introduced also by
the Presbyterian Church of the United
States, commonly called the Southern
Presbyterian Church. Thus, while the
Westminster Confession has been remodi-
West, Missionary Synod of the 813
Wichern, Johann Hinrich
fled with regard to its extreme Calvin-
ism, it is asserted that in its essential
features it has remained to this day “the
confession containing the system of doe-
trine taught in the Scriptures.”
West, Missionary Synod of the.
See Synods, Extinct.
West, Synod of the, was organized
October 11, 1834, by emissaries of the
General Synod, in opposition to Ten-
nessee influence, at Jeffersontown, Ky.
It was originally called the Kentucky
Synod. Rev. Jacob Crigler was its first
president. The name Synod of the West
was adopted at the second convention,
in Louisville, 1835, by five pastors and
four laymen. The Synod of the West
was admitted to the General Synod in
1841. In 1846 it was divided into three
parts — the Illinois Synod, the Synod of
the Southwest, and the Synod of the
West, this latter part consisting of the
members in Indiana. The congregation
at Port Wayne, which Wyneken had
served until 1845 and of which Dr. Sih-
ler was then the pastor, suspecting that
this division was a move to attach the
Synod of the West more closely to the
General Synod, withdrew and helped in
the organization of the Missouri Synod,
while a number of German pastors or-
ganized the Indianapolis Synod (q.v.).
The remaining members of the Synod of
the West were absorbed by the Olive
Branch and the Miami Synod in the
early fifties.
West Virginia, Synod of. See United
Lutheran Church.
Wette De, Wilhelm Martin Lebe-
recht; b. 1780, d. 1849 at Basel;
founder of historico-critical Rationalism ;
professor at Berlin 1810, at Basel 1822;
saw in sentiment and feeling the true
essence of religion and made sharp dis-
tinction between knowledge and faith;
gave expression to more orthodox views
later in life.
Weyermueller, Friedrich, 1810 — -77 ;
layman; educated in his native town,
Niederbronn, in Alsace ; excellent knowl-
edge of German poetry, which stimulated
him to write verses at an early age,
mainly of a sacred character; in 1852
associate of the consistory at Nieder-
bronn; aided cause of Lutheranism by
his poetry; his poems not hymns, in the
strict sense, but many have been adapted
for use in worship.
Whately, Richard, 1787 — 1863;
educated at Oxford; fellow; then pro-
fessor of political economy at Oxford;
later archbishop of Dublin (d. there) ;
wrote r Historic Doubts about Napoleon
Buonaparte; Elements of Logic; etc.;
also the hymn “Guard Us Waking,
Guard Us Sleeping.”
White Cross League. A society or-
ganized 1883 by Bishop Lightfoot against
immorality. In 1885 a branch was also
organized in North America and later
in Switzerland, France, and Germany.
White, Ellen G., Seventh-day Ad-
ventist; b. 1827 at Gorham, Me.; at
early age converted to Adventism; mar-
ried to James White 1840, with whom,
in the same year, through the influence
of Joseph Bates, she began to observe
the seventh day; claimed to have re-
ceived many divine revelations and is
regarded as leader by Seventh-day Ad-
ventists, which sect she founded with
her husband; traveled extensively in
America, Europe, Australia; d. 1915 in
California ; buried in Battle Creek, Mich.
White, Henry Kirke, 1785 — 1806;
early development of genius; followed
literary pursuits in his early teens, but
died while at the University of Cam-
bridge, England; among his most popu-
lar hymns: “Oft in Sorrow, Oft in Woe.”
Whitefleld, George, 1714 — 70;
founder of Calvinistic Methodism; b. at
Gloucester; alternated in youth between
deplorable escapades and spells of re-
ligious enthusiasm; joined Holy Club
of Oxford; deacon 1736; in Georgia
1738; back to raise funds for orphanage
and to be ordained priest; began open-
air preaching February 17, 1739; never
surpassed as field preacher, holding spell-
bound audiences of every kind and size,
occasionally of from 25,000 to 30,000
people and often preaching forty to sixty
hours a week ; clashed with Wesley ( Ar-
minian) on predestination question
1741; presided at first conference of
Calvinistic Methodists 1743; visited
Wales, Scotland, Ireland; seven times
in America; died, and lies buried, at
Newburyport, Mass.
Wichern, Johann Hinrich; b. 1808,
d. 1881; “Father of Inner Missions”;
studied theology in Goettingen and
Berlin. His work in Pastor Rauten-
berg’s Sunday-school in Hamburg called
forth the idea which led to the estab-
lishment of his Ra/uhe Haus (originally,
Ruges Haus, after the owner’s name,
Huge), 1833, at Horn, a suburb of Ham-
burg, the Rauhe Haus being a home for
juvenile offenders. In connection with
it Wichern established the Bruederan-
stalt (institution for brethren), in which
he trained workers for the home and the
work of Inner Mission (q.v.). A group
of from twelve to fifteen children was
under the supervision of a “brother” and
VVU-llf, John
814
WUlkomm, O. H. T.
an assistant. In 1848, at the Kirchentag
in Wittenberg, Wiehern gave the first
impulse to Inner Mission, followed by
his notable Denksehrift an die deutschc
Nation. In 1851 King Friedrich Wil-
helm IV commissioned him to visit, for
the purpose of reforming, correctional
institutions, appointed him as a member
of the High Church Council (1857), and
made him counsel for corrective and
eleemosynary institutions. Wiehern pub-
lished Die Innere Mission, Die liehand-
lung der V erbrecher, Der Dienst der
Frauen in der Kirche.
Wiclif, John. See Wyclif, John.
Widor, Charles-Marie, 1845 — ; pre-
cocious in music; studied at Brussels
under Lemmens and Fetis; organist in
Lyons, later at Paris; also professor at
Paris Conservatory; some sacred music,
including masses and symphonies.
Wiesenmeyer, Burkhard; b. at
Helmstedt; ca. 1640 teacher at the Gray
Monastery in Berlin; assisted in issuing
first Lutheran hymnal in Berlin; wrote
“Wie schoen leucht’t uns der Morgen-
stern.”
Wigand, John; b. 1523; staunch
Lutheran in the Adiaphoriatic, Major-
istic, Osiandrian, Synergistic, and Fla-
cian controversies; wrote ten volumes
of the great Magdeburg Centuries (see
Centuries, Magdeburg) ; professor at
Jena in 1560; twice banished; professor
at Koenigsberg; bishop of Pomesania
and Samland; d. 1587.
Wilberforce, William, English phi-
lanthropist; b. August 24, 1769, at Hull,
Yorkshire; d. July 29, 1833, in London;
one of the most powerful antislavery
agitators in England; instrumental in
having bill against importation of
Negroes into British territory passed in
1807. His influence also helped to curb
the powerful East India Company, which
opposed all mission-work in India, and
finally was instrumental in having its
charter revoked (1813, 1833, 1859). He
also was the leader in the organization
of the Clapham Missionary Society.
Wilburites. See Friends, Society of.
Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner, 1797
to 1875; English traveler, Egyptologist;
b. at Hardendale; four times in Egypt;
d. in Wales; wrote: Manners and Cus-
toms of the Ancient Egyptians, etc.
Willard, Frances Elizabeth; b. at
Churchville, N. Y., September 28, 1839;
d. in New York City February 18, 1898;
graduated 1859 from the Northwestern
Female College, Evanston, 111.; presi-
dent and professor of esthetics of the
Woman’s College at Evanston 1871 — 4;
became corresponding secretary in 1874
and in 1879 president of the National
Woman’s Christian Temperance Union
and in 1887 also president of the World’s
Woman’s Christian Temperance Union;
was in favor of woman’s suffrage as
early as 1877; a member, in 1884, of the
executive committee of the Prohibition
Party.
William the Silent, Count of Nas-
sau, Prince of Orange, 1533 — 84; founder
of the Dutch Republic; educated in
Lutheran faith at home of his parents
until fifteenth year, then in Catholic
faith at the Spanish court; penetrated
designs of Spanish and French rulers
against Protestantism and ever after-
wards curbed his tongue, though he spoke
seven languages and was naturally elo-
quent; became leader of revolt of Nether-
lands against Spain; fought with vary-
ing success against the Spaniards under
Alva, John of Austria, and the Duke of
Parma; openly professed himself a Cal-
vinist 1573; received hereditary stadt-
lioldership of United Provinces 1581 ;
Philip II could vanquish him only by
assassination.
Williams, John, missionary to Poly-
nesia; b. June 29, 1796, in London;
d. at Erromango, New Hebrides Islands,
November 20, 1839. Sent to the Society
Islands 1816 by the L. M. S.; finally
settled on Raiatea ; discovered the
island of Rarotonga 1823, where he later
translated parts of the Bible into the
native language; after spending 1838
to 1844 in England, he returned to the
islands in the company of sixteen new
missionaries. Williams was among the
very foremost of South Sea missionaries.
He found a violent death at the hands
of natives.
Williams, Roger, ca. 1604 — 83;
founder of Rhode Island; b. probably in
London; pastor at Salem, Mass., 1635;
advocated liberty of conscience; ban-
ished; founded Providence 1636 (obe-
dience required “only in civil things”) ;
for a few months a Baptist, then a Come-
outer, holding that no church had all
marks of the true Church; d. at Provi-
dence; wrote Bloody Tenet, etc.
Williams, William, the “sweet singer
of Wales,” 1717 — 91 ; noted preacher of
both North and South Wales; published
several books of hymns; his hymn
“Guide Me, O Thou Great Jehovah” in
general use.
Willkomm, Otto Heinrich Theodor;
b. November 30, 1847, at Ebersbach,
Lausitz; studied theology at Leipzig
and served in the Leipzig Mission in
India 1873 — 6. Severing his connection
Wilson, Robert Dlclt
815
Wisconsin, Joint Synod of
with the Saxon state church for confes-
sional reasons, he was called to Crim-
mitschau, Saxony, 1876 and to Nieder-
planitz 1879, congregations belonging to
the Saxon Free Church, and served as
president of this body 1879 — 1907 ; pas-
tor emeritus since 1917. Concordia Sem-
inary, St. Louis, conferred the title of
Doctor of Divinity on him in 1921. He
wrote a number of valuable treatises,
edited the Ev.-Luth. Freikirehe 1879 to
1919, and published the Hausfreund-
Kalender 1885 — 1924.
Wilson, Robert Dick, 1856 — ; Pres-
byterian, Orientalist; b. in Indiana, Pa.;
professor in Old Testament department
of Western Theological Seminary, of
Semitic Philology and Old Testament
Introduction at Princeton 1900. Syriac
and Hebrew text-books, etc. Studies in
the Book of Daniel.
Winchester Profession. See Uni-
vcrsalists .
Winckler, Hugo, German Orien-
talist; b. 1863 at Graefenhainichen, near
Wittenberg; since 1904 professor at
Borlin; d. 1913 at Wilmersdorf. Wrote
numerous works on Assyriology and re-
lated subjects.
Winebrennerians. A Baptist de-
nomination founded by John Weinbren-
ner (1797 — 1860) in 1830; its character
is strongly Arminian and premillenarian ;
it insists on immersion in baptism, ob-
serves the Lord’s Supper in the evening,
and has the washing of feet; its polity
is presbyterial.
Winer, Johann Georg Benedikt;
b. at Leipzig 1789; d. there 1858; Ra-
tionalist, but later approached orthodox
position; professor at Leipzig, Erlan-
gen, Leipzig; noted for his Grammatik
des neutestamentlichen Sprachidioms, a
standard work for nearly three quarters
of a century and repeatedly translated
into English.
Winkworth, Catherine, 1829 — 78;
lived most of her life at Manchester,
subsequently at Clifton, in England;
interested in higher education for
women ; distinguished in hymnological
work principally for her excellent trans-
lations of numerous gems of German
hymnody, her work being published
chiefly in Lyra Germanica, the Church-
book of England, and Christian Singers
of Germany.
Winterfeld, Karl von, 1784 — 1852;
studied law at Halle; held positions as
assessor and judge; collected valuable
library of music; learned and original
writer on musical history; published
Der evangelisahe Kirchengesang .
Wischan, F. ; b. 1845 in Germany,
Lutheran pastor in Philadelphia 1870
till his death, 1905; “the soul of the
Board of German Missions” of the Gen-
eral Council; editor of Luth. Kirchen-
blatt.
Wisconsin, Ev. Luth. Joint Synod
of. The Joint Synod of Wisconsin and
Other States was organized October 11,
1892, in Milwaukee. It united into one
body the Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
Michigan synods without destroying
their identity, but provided for joint
use of their several educational institu-
tions. The new Wisconsin Theological
Seminary became common property;
Minnesota’s Dr. Martin Luther College,
New Ulm, Minn., was converted into a
teachers' seminary, 1894; the Saginaw
Seminary was supposed to be discon-
tinued and reorganized as a junior col-
lege; Northwestern College, Watertown,
was opened to all, and its normal train-
ing department was dropped. Home
missions were coordinated, and as a new
venture the Joint Synod undertook the
evangelization of the heathen American
Indians of Arizona, first planned by Wis-
consin alone. This mission is now (1927)
thirty-four years old and has 37 stations,
3 day-schools, a boarding-school, and an
orphans’ home. — The Nebraska Confer-
ence of Wisconsin joined as a district
synod in 1904. The principal consti-
tuents had helped to establish the Synod-
ical Conference 1872; their doctrinal
position and confessional declarations
are those of the Synodical Conference.
The Joint Synod has had no violent, dis-
turbances, but its first constitution has
been revised and modified to suit its
needs, and these changes were crystal-
lized in the constitution adopted 1915.
This provided for a dissolution and re-
distribution of the constituent synods, so
that now (1927) there are eight dis-
tricts, the Northern, Western, and South-
eastern Wisconsin districts covering, in
the main, the territory of the former
Wisconsin Synod; the Minnesota and
the Dakota-Montana, the former Minne-
sota Synod; the Michigan District, a
union of the Michigan Synod and the
Michigan District; the Nebraska Dis-
trict ; and the Pacific-Northwest District.
(See articles s. vv.) Official publications
are the Gemeindeblatt (Wisconsin, 1865)
and the Northwestern Lutheran, estab-
lished by the Joint Synod 1913. The
Northwestern Publishing House, Milwau-
kee, begun by Wisconsin 1876, an active
and growing concern, is the Joint Synod’s
property, also the Old People’s Home at
Belleplaine, Minn., and schools and or-
phanages conducted by the Arizona In-
Wisconsin Synod
816
Wisconsin Synod
dian Missions. At the 1921 session of
synod it was voted to build a new theo-
logical seminary “in or near Milwaukee.”
Each district has its own organization
and elects officials for its home mission
fields; otherwise the functions of their
officials are of an advisory nature. — The
Joint Synod meets every two years (the
districts in the odd years) and is con-
stituted of the duly appointed delegates
of the districts, chosen according to their
conference affiliations (pastors, teachers,
laymen ) . Advisory members are the
officials and trustees of the Joint Synod,
district presidents, directors of educa-
tional institutions, representatives of in-
stitutional boards, and heads of other
synodical commissions. All appropria-
tions are voted by the synod, which ad-
ministers all moneys and passes on the
budget. Nearly all congregations arc
working in both German and English.
The English work is gaining rapidly and
has almost entirely displaced German
religious instruction in parish- and espe-
cially in Sunday-schools. There are a
few purely English and a few purely
German parishes. Presidents since or-
ganization : Dr. A. F. Ernst, 1892 — 1901 ;
C. Gausewitz, 1901 — 7 and 1913 — 17;
F. Soil, 1907 — —1913 ; G. E. Bergemann,
since the dissolution and reorganization
of the old synods 1917. Present officers
of the General Body : Rev. G. E. Berge-
mann, president; Rev. W. Bodamer, first
vice-president; Rev. Im. Albrecht, second
vice-president; Rev. Wm. Nommensen,
recording secretary; Mr. Theo. Buuck,
treasurer. Statistics, 1924 : Pastors and
professors, 570; congregations, 645;
communicants, 140,000; full parish-
schools, 210; teachers, 262, 112 of whom
are women; pupils, 12,000. The Joint
Synod holds endowment funds of ap-
proximately $220,000.
Wisconsin Synod. The Ev. Lutli.
Ministerium of Wisconsin was founded
by Pastors John Muehlhaeuser ( q. v. ) ,
J. Weinmann (perished at sea 1858), and
W. Wrede (soon returned to Germany)
at Milwaukee, December 8, 1849. It was
formally organized in May, 1850, at
Granville, a village near Milwaukee,
where two other pastors were present,
the five serving 18 congregations. The
three founders were graduates of the
Barmen Training-school for Missionaries
and were sent to America by the Langen-
berg Society, for some years the chief
source from which pastors were drawn.
Muehlhaeuser and his associates were
Lutherans and upheld the Lutheran Con-
fessions, as their first constitution
shows; but there was too much de-
pendence on the uncertain Lutheran
East, where the founder had spent his
first ten years in America, and on the
indeterminate Lutheranism of Germany.
Congregational delegates constituted the
“synod” together with the pastors, but
the “ministerium” reserved for itself cer-
tain privileges, for example, in the licens-
ing and ordaining of ministers. The
great problem was to secure suitable
pastors. Muehlhaeuser established con-
nections with the Pennsylvania Synod
and with individual pastors of the East
and also kept in close touch with the
Langenberg Society, which was soon re-
enforced in its American undertakings
by the Berlin Society. The Barmen
school furnished many of the early min-
isters. Among the pioneers were C. F.
Goldammer, J. Bading, Ph. Koehler, W.
Streissguth, E. Mayerholf, G. Reim, Ph.
Sprengling, G. Fachtmann, Dr. E. Mol-
dehnke, Dr. Th. Meuiuann. — Following
the trend of immigration to the larger
centers, congregations, during the first
ten years, were established as far north
as Green Bay and west as far as La
Crosse. Growth was retarded, and many
congregations were lost for lack of men.
The great need was men, training-schools,
and money. The three organizations
named, two of them in Germany, did
something to help, but it was not enough.
A seminary and college was decided upon
1862; Bading was sent to Germany and
Lutheran Russia to collect funds and
a library. His mission was successful,
but the synod did not reap the results;
for the money was retained by the Ger-
man authorities because the Wisconsin
Synod had clarified its confessional posi-
tion to positive and uncompromising Lu-
theranism, which was distasteful to its
former patrons, who, though Lutheran
in intent, belonged to the Prussian state
church. The college and seminary was
opened in a dwelling at Watertown, with
Dr. E. Moldehnke as professor, and in the
first year, 1863, 14 students were en-
rolled. Ground was broken 1864 for the
new building of Northwestern University,
and the next year the institution was
opened. Prof. Adam Martin was its first
president. A. Hoenecke was made pro-
fessor of theology in 1866. After Wis-
consin had definitely broken with its
German friends by its declaration of
1867, it readily ironed out the existing
differences with Missouri in a meeting of
representatives of both synods 1868.
This also brought to a head the matter
of joining the General Council. At this
time a plan was worked out to develop
Northwestern College (see Ernst, Augus-
tus Friedrich). Missouri was to furnish
a professor and send some of its stu-
Wisconsin Synod
817
Witchcraft
dents; Wisconsin was to discontinue its
seminary and send its students and a
professor to St. Louis. The first half Of
the plan was carried out and remained
in effect until 1874; the other was par-
tially adhered to; Wisconsin students
went to St. Louis until 1878, but a pro-
fessor for St. Louis was never found.
Wisconsin organized its own seminary,
1878, under Hoenecke, in Milwaukee,
which was further developed at Wau-
watosa after the formation of the Joint
Synod. At the end of 1800 21 pastors
were members of synod; ten years later
there were 52, for the Watertown sem-
inary was operating, and the Louis
Harms institution- at Hermannsburg was
sending over many earnest men. Having
now settled its doctrinal position and
found its place in the Lutheran Church
of America, Wisconsin cooperated in
forming the Synodical Conference 1872.
Since the early sixties, relations with
the Minnesota Synod had been friendly.
Delegations at synodical meetings were
exchanged. Twice the annual meetings
were held concurrently in the same con-
gregation. For a few years, in the
middle seventies, there was a working
arrangement according to which Minne-
sota paid part of the salary of one of
the Northwestern professors and sent its
students to that school. At the same
time the Gemeindebla-tt (founded 1805)
was made the official publication of Min-
nesota. If some of these agreements
lapsed after a while, it did not otherwise
disrupt fraternal relations. The election
controversy of the eighties did not mate-
rially weaken Wisconsin; it lost a few
congregations and pastors, but gained
internal strength and also added some
few pastors to its ranks who shared its
position.
Missions: I’aehtmann and Moldehnke
were active in home missions in the six-
ties; after that there were always two
or three assigned to the work by the
synod. There were ten in 1890; not
enough, but as many as the membership
could support, which was 150 pastors
and professors with 235 congregations.
Foreign missions were not undertaken
officially until a committee, appointed
1883, proposed to train young men for
the cause and then found a field for
them. This plan was adopted, the Ari-
zona Indian Missions were organized,
and Plocher and Adascheck, the first
missionaries, were ordained 1893. This
work was carried on by the Joint Synod
since 1892.
Within the Joint Synod the old synod
remained an undivided unit until the
amalgamation of 1917, since when the
Concordia Cyclopedia
three districts Northern, Western, and
Southeastern Wisconsin meet in the odd
years. The Nebraska and the Pacific
Northwest districts originated in Wis-
consin. The three Wisconsin districts
constitute about one half of the pastors
and about two-thirds of the communi-
cants of the Joint Synod. Its presidents
until 1917 were: Muehlhaeuser, 1850 to
1800; Bading, 1800 — 04; Streissguth,
1804 — 67; Bading, to 1889; Ph. von
Rohr, to 1908; G. E. Bergemann, to 1917.
Statistics: Pastors, 290; congregations,
400; communicants, 100,000.
Witchcraft. The practise of occult
arts by witclieB, or wizards, who perform
their work with the aid of the devil.
That witchcraft lias been practised in the
past and therefore is possible is a fact, as
appears from a numlier of Scripture-
passages. “There shall not be found
among you ... an enchanter, or a witch,
or a charmer, ... or a wizard.” Deut.
18, 10 f. “A man also or woman that
hath a familiar spirit or that is a wizard
shall surely be put to death.” Lev. 20, 27.
The story of Saul’s visit at the home of
the witch on the evening before his death
is told in detail 1 Sam. 28. The New
Testament also speaks of the practise of
witchcraft, Acts 8, 9; and St. Paul places
the sin in the list of the works of the
flesh, Gal. 5, 20, sorcery of every kind
being included in the word which he
uses; for ho refers to the secret tamper-
ing with the powers of evil, with the
might of Satan, including especially the
use of the remedies of witchcraft, sins
which were prevalent ih the Greek cities
of Asia Minor in those days. Acts 13, 8;
19,19. — In the early Christian Church
witchcraft of every kind was forbidden,
either on the ground of the emptiness of
the practise or that of its positive god-
lcssness and commerce with the devil.
In the Church of the early Middle Ages
special rules of penance were made for
women convicted of witchcraft. But at
the beginning of the 13th century, when
the abomination of the Inquisition (q. v.)
was introduced, the use of magic and
witchcraft was everywhere suspected and
immediately branded as a desertion of
God for the service of evil spirits. In
1231 a bull of Pope Gregory IX invoked
the use of civil punishment against every
form of heresy connected with sorcery.
Toward the end of the 15th century the
provisions which brought witches under
the power of the Inquisition were en-
larged, so that trials for witchcraft be-
came very common. “While the ordinary
tribunals were regarded as competent,
the union of heresy and witchcraft made
the duty of the inquisitors plain, and
52
Witchcraft
818
Wolf, E. J.
there was no need to wait for an ac-
cuser; the witnesses did not even need
to be named; a counsel for defense was
not necessary, indeed, if such a one. were
too zealous, he might be suspected of
complicity in the offense; instruments
of torture were suggested.” (Standard
Encyclopedia. ) — After the Reformation
the crime of witchcraft was again the
subject of legal enactments, also under
the influence of the Church. Thus the
Elector August of Saxony supported a
decree against sorcery, making it a cap-
ital offense with the words: “that any
one should forget his Christian faith and
make an agreement with the devil.”
A perfect epidemic of witch-prosecution
broke out in Germany at the end of the
15tli century, spreading into France,
Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, and En-
gland and continuing through the 10th,
17th, and 18th centuries. The number of
its unfortunate victims, members of both
the Catholic and the Protestant churches,
is estimated at many thousands. Some of
the tortures and ordeals resorted to in the
examination of persons suspected of
witchcraft were almost of a diabolical
nature. — In America the first witchcraft
persecution broke out in 1692, in Salem,
Mass., the occasion being some meetings
in the family of a minister by the name
of Parrish. A company of girls had been
in the habit of meeting a West Indian
slave in order to study the “Black Art.”
Suddenly they began to act mysteriously,
bark like dogs, and scream at things
unseen. An old Indian servant was ac-
cused of bewitching them. The excite-
ment spread, and impeachments multi-
plied. A special court was formed to
try the accused, as a result of which the
jails rapidly filled, many persons being
found guilty and condemned to death.
It was unsafe to express any doubt as
to a prisoner’s guilt. Fifty-five persons
suffered torture, and twenty were exe-
cuted. In spite of all efforts to the
contrary, witchcraft trials on the basis
of church law in Catholic countries have
survived almost to the present day, in-
dividual cases having been recorded as
late as toward the end of the past cen-
tury. - — The attitude of Christians over
against sorcery and witchcraft is clearly
indicated in Scriptures. They are to
avoid the unfruitful works of darkness
and therefore to shun every form of an
act which so much as savors of using the
powers of Satan to uncover the future or
to perform any deeds of malice or wicked-
ness. This includes the expulsion from
the Christian congregation of such as
traffic in such deeds. But the Church
has no power over the bodies of men, and
the punishment of evil-doers in body and
life must be left to the State.
Wittenberg Articles of 1536. Dr.
Robert Barnes, Bishop Edward Fox of
Hereford, and Archdeacon Richard Heath
came to Wittenberg on January 1, 1536,
and till April discussed the Augsburg
Confession and agreed to its teachings.
July 11 there was laid before the Con-
vocation The Rook of Articles of Faith
and Ceremonies, which was greatly in-
fluenced by the Wittenberg Articles. In
part it went over into The Institution
of a Christian Man, or The Bishops’
Rook, of 1537. This, in turn, influenced
The Thirty-nine Articles of the Episcopal
Church, and these are also, substantially,
the articles of the Methodists.
Wittenberg Concord. When Philip
of Hessen could not get the Swiss at
Marburg, in 1529, nor the German high-
land cities at Augsburg, in 1630, to ac-
cept the Biblical doctrine of the Lord’s
Supper, Bucer persisted till he got some
of the highlanders to accept the Lu-
theran teaching and to sign the Witten-
berg Concord on May 26, 1536. Though
they sent friendly greetings, the Swiss
would not accept this offer of peace and
charged Bucer with trying to smuggle
Lutheranism into their country. From
first to last it was the Swiss who split
Protestantism.
Wittenberg Synod. Organized June 8,
1847, by 8 pastors (“bishops”) formerly
belonging to the English Synod of Ohio
(East Ohio). Territory: Northwestern
Ohio. Among the prominent men of the
synod were Ezra Keller and Sam.
Sprecher. It joined the General Synod
in 1848. It was one of the synods ap-
proving of the “Definite Platform” ( q . v.).
In 1918 it entered the United Lutheran
Church and. on November 3, 1920,
merged with the East Ohio, the Miami
Synod, and the District Synod of Ohio
into the Ohio Synod of the U. L. C. At
the time of this merger it numbered
56 pastors, 74 congregations, and 12,590
communicants.
Wohlgemuth, Michel, 1434 — 1619;
German painter, under influence of the
art of the Netherlands, but with an
awkward style and flat modeling; his
shop produced many altars, but few of
intrinsic value.
Wolf, E. J., historian; 1840 — 1905;
b. in Pennsylvania; educated at Gettys-
burg; Lutheran pastor in Baltimore;
from 1873 professor of Church History
and New Testament Exegesis at Gettys-
burg Lutheran Seminary; perhaps the
most conservative of the influential mem-
bers of the General Synod after the Fort
Wolfenbuettle* Fragments
819
Women in Church
Wayne disruption of 1866; author of
The Lutherans in America (1891).
Wolfenbuettler Fragments. See
Lessing.
Wolff, Christian, Freiherr von,
German philosopher; b. 1679 at Bres-
lau; 1707 professor of mathematics and
natural philosophy at Halle; deposed
1723 and banished from Prussia through
influence of Halle Pietists; went to Mar-
burg; later recalled to Halle; d. there
1754. Though he accepted revelation,
reason was his final authority. Logical
consequence of his method was rational-
ism, which through his system gained
increasingly strong foothold in Germany.
Wolfgang von Anhalt; b. 1492;
met Luther at Worms 1521 and favored
the Reformation; signed the Augsburg
Confession 1530; joined the Smalcald
League; exiled by the Kaiser; present
at Luther’s death; opposed the Interim
(q. v . ) ; d. 1566.
Wolsey, Thomas, 1475 ( ? ) — 1530;
“I and my King”; received cardinal’s
hat 1515; became real ruler of England;
instigated Henry VIII’s controversy with
Luther; burned Luther’s books and
“Tyndale’s Lutheran translation”; was
overthrown on failing to obtain the di-
vorce Henry VIII was seeking; remarked
on deathbed: “If I had served God as
diligently as I have done the king, He
would not have given me over in my
gray hairs.”
Woltersdorf, Ernst Gottlieb; b. at
Friedrichsfelde, near Berlin, May 31,
1725; d. at Bunziau, not far from Bres-
lau, December 17, 1761; poet, educator,
preacher, and author; studied at Halle
1742, but in 1744 was compelled by ill-
ness to discontinue and to travel; called
as second pastor to Bunziau 1748; be-
came identified with an orphan asylum
in 1754.
Woman’s Christian Temperance
Union. Organized in Cleveland, O.,
during the great temperance crusade of
1874. Those who would become mem-
bers must sign the total abstinence
pledge. The badge of the society is a
bow of white ribbon. The motto reads:
“For God and Home and Native Land.”
Mrs. Annie Wittenmeyer was the first
president. Miss Frances E. Willard suc-
ceeded her in 1879 and remained presi-
dent until her death, in 1898. The
W. C. T. U. is the largest organization in
the world managed and controlled by
women. The organization carries on its
work by means of the following depart-
ments: organization, preventive, educa-
tional, evangelistic, legal, and social. In
addition, there are two branches : the
Young Woman’s Branch and the Loyal
Temperance Legion Branch. The W. C.
T. U. also stands for an equal standard
of purity for men and women, or, using
the words of Miss Willard, for “a white
life for two,” as also for woman’s equal-
ity in the home, the Church, and the
State. It is largely due to the W. C. T. U.
that in the text-books of our public
schools special reference is made to the
effects of alcoholics and narcotics, and
its Sunday-school department secured
the teaching of quarterly temperance
lessons in the International Sunday-
school Series. See Prohibition.
Women, in Church. In 1 Cor. 14,
34. 35 and 1 Tim. 2, 12 Paul gives very
explicit directions with regard to public
teaching by women in the Church. Ac-
cording to these passages, women are to
keep silence in the churches and are not
permitted to speak. Nevertheless, women
formed an integral part of the earliest
Christian community, engaged in tasks
of unofficial ministry, and held the office
of deaconess. Rom. 16, 1 f. This was not
a violation of the command of Paul laid
down in 1 Cor. 14, 34. 35 and 1 Tim. 2, 12,
since only those functions of the public
ministry were forbidden to woman by
which she would usurp authority over
man. That there were deaconesses in
the early Christian churches at Bithynia
is clearly attested by Pliny, who wrote
early in the second century (Ep. 96).
In the early stage of the Christian
Church, the need must have been felt
for a class of women who could perform
at least some of the duties of the dia-
conate, in particular for their own sex.
It is certain that there were woman
teachers till the end of the second cen-
tury, and woman missionaries much
later. The daughters of Philip (Acts
21,8.9) were not the only prophetesses,
since women shared the charismatic
gifts. In the subapostolic age, especially
in the East, women continued to teach
those of their own sex as a matter of
necessity, since men were excluded
from women’s apartments. In general,
woman’s service was along womanly
lines — hospitality, care of the poor,
sick, prisoners, and orphans, oversight
and instruction of women and children,
and the last offices to the dead. At a
very early time special offices came into
existence. Official widows serving the
Church appeared at the close of the
apostolic age. 1 Tim. 5, 3 — 10. They
were to continue in prayer and fasting;
but it was incumbent upon them also
to care for other widows and for the
poor in general, especially for orphans
and for those who were in prison for
Women'* Education and College* 820 Women** Education and College*
conscience’ sake, to have oversight of the
female part of the community, being vir-
tually the presbyters of the women and
"keepers of the door in service time.”
While the heretical sects, especially the
Montanists, had also female bishops and
prophetesses, the functions of Christian
women were manifestly limited. In the
fourth century, which marks the zenith
of female activity in the early Church,
the development of hospitals and hos-
pices displaced the early activities of
Christian women. Helena, the mother of
Emperor Constantine, built the first hos-
pice for strangers and pilgrims, while
a group of noble matrons did much to
promote Christianity by founding hospi-
tals and forwarding education. The in-
fluence of Christian women upon hus-
bands, sons, and grandsons was very
marked. Nonna, the mother of Gregory
Nazianzen, converted her heathen hus-
band and brought her distinguished son
under Christian influence. Arethusa,
mother of Chrysostom, devoted her life
to the education of her children and kept
her son from becoming a hermit. The
influence of Monica upon Augustine is
too well known to require further men-
tion. Ambrose was brought up and edu-
cated by his sister Marcellina. The rise
of monasticism in the fifth century to
a large degree changed the activities of
women in the Church, though for a long
time it did not diminish them. Nursing
the sick and ministering to the poor
were their special duties, as also teach-
ing, especially among the Benedictines.
The monastery, as originally conceived,
was not a place of limited opportunity,
but rather a religious settlement extend-
ing its influence over a wide area. Not
until the 12th century did nuns become
entirely cloistered; yet even then their
beneficial influence was felt in the
Church. Under Protestantism, with its
development of the sense of individuality,
woman has ever asserted herself in the
Christian service. In home and school
(Sunday-school), in the vast field of
charity and of missionary work, the
Church at this day everywhere feels the
benefits and ministrations of pious, con-
secrated women.
Women’s Education and Women’s
Colleges. During the entire time of the
Old Testament the education of girls and
women was confined to the training
given in the home. In ancient Egypt,
in Greece, and in Rome the same course
was followed, there being no schools, in
the full sense of the term, for girls and
women. During the entire period of the
Medieval Ages the same discrimination
was observed, the only women with any
degree of learning at all being some of
those trained in certain nunneries and
the daughters of nobles and of wealthy
burghers, most of whom had private
tutors. It is only during the last cen-
tury that this attitude has been changed
in the more enlightened nations. In
most European countries, notably those
of the North, the change in favor of the
education of women has been rapid, so
that to the full benefits of primary edu-
cation, which girls had been enjoying for
several centuries, were added those of
secondary and higher education, most of
the universities of France, Germany,
Finland, the Scandinavian countries, and
other countries now admitting women,
with but few restrictions, to the same
classes with men. Even Turkey has
thrown off the customs of centuries, and
the girls seem about to be given the same
opportunities as those enjoyed by men.
— In America the change of front came
about a century ago. Whereas, in the
early days, girls had been excluded from
secondary schools and colleges, as “im-
proper and inconsistent with such a
grammar school as the law enjoins and
is the design of this settlement,” in New
York State alone 32 academies were in-
corporated between 1819 and 1853 with
“Female” prefixed to their title. Five
noteworthy institutions in America
claim a certain priority in the field of
education for women. Troy (N. Y. )
Seminary, founded by Emma Willard in
1821, and Mount Holyoke (Mass.) Sem-
inary, founded by Mary Lyon in 1836,
though not the first institutions for
girls, were nevertheless important pio-
neers in the higher education of women.
The Moravian Seminary and College for
Women in Bethlehem, Pa,, has been en-
gaged in educational work since 1742;
but the institution was not incorporated
until 1863. Oberlin (0.) College, a co-
educational institution, was chartered in
1834; its first woman graduates received
their A. B. degrees in August, 1841. — -
Wesleyan College (Macon, Ga,), char-
tered in 1836, maintains that it is the
“oldest chartered college in the world”
exclusively for women. Its first degree
was conferred in July, 1840. In South
Hadley, Mass., Mount Holyoke received
its charter as a college in 1888. — Among
the largest and most influential colleges
for women in the United States are the
following: Barnard College at New
York (affiliated with Columbia; founded
1889) ; Bryn Mawr College at Bryn
Mawr, Pa. (1880); Mount Holyoke Col-
lege, South Hadley, Mass. (1836) ; New-
comb College, New Orleans, La. (1887);
Radcliffe College (affiliated with Har-
Women** Societies!
821
Woodmen of the World
vard), Cambridge, Mass. (1879); Sim-
mons College; Boston, Mass. (1899);
Smith College, Northampton, Mass.
(1875); Vassar College, Poughkeepsie,
N.Y. (1861) ; Wellesley College, Welles-
ley, Mass. ( 1875) .
Women’s Societies, See Ladies’ Aid
Nineties.
Wood, Basil, 1700 — 1831; educated
at Oxford; held a number of positions
as clergyman, the last as rector of Dray-
ton; only a few of his hymns in use,
among which : “Hail, Thou Source of
Ev’ry Blessing.”
Woodmen Circle. The Woman’s
Auxiliary of the “Sovereign Jurisdic-
tion”; 134,657 male and female mem-
bers. See Woodmen of the World.
Woodmen, Modern, of America.
This secret beneficiary society was or-
ganized by Jos. C. Root, a Mason and
Knight of Pythias of Lyons, Iowa, in
1883. On May 6, 1884, it was chartered
under the laws of the State of Illinois.
By its charter the order is confined to
the States of Illinois, Minnesota, Ohio,
Iowa, Nebraska, Wisconsin, Michigan,
Kansas, North Dakota, South Dakota,
Missouri, and Indiana. The cities of
Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis,
and Cincinnati are excluded, because the
organization wishes to confine itself to
the “healthiest part” of the country. —
Purpose. The purpose of the order is to
“bind in one association the Jew and the
Gentile, the Catholic and the Protestant,
the agnostic and the atheist.” Candi-
dates, in order to be eligible, must be
male whites, over eighteen and under
forty-five years of age, of sound health,
exemplary habits, and good moral char-
acter. • — Character. The order has a
secret ritual, funeral ceremonies, odes
and hymns, etc. These, with the “un-
written” or secret work, were published
by the National Christian Association
of Chicago (1897; new ed., 1904). The
“Funeral Chant” is composed of three or
four verses of the psalm “De Profundis,”
ending with the prayer: “Give unto him
eternal rest, 0 Lord! And unto him let
shine perpetual light!” (Rit., p. 94.)
When taking the Fraternal Degree, the
member petitions God : “May I be dashed
to pieces, as I now dash this fragile
vessel into fragments, if I promise not
the truth!” (Strangers cast vessel into
receptacle provided.) After this is done,
he continues: “To all this I sincerely
and in honor promise.” There are 14,103
“local camps” in the United States, with
a benefit membership of 1,074,118 and a
social membership of 14,779. Headquar-
ters: “Head Camp,” Rock Island, 111.
(formerly at Fulton, 111., which now is
headquarters of the Mystic Workers of
the World). See also Woodmen of the
World.
Woodmen of the World. History.
Like the Modern Woodmen of America,
so also the Woodmen of the World lodge
was organized by J. C. Root of Lyons,
Iowa (a 32d-degree Mason, Odd-Fellow,
and Knight of Pythias; cf. Christian
Cynosure, Vol. XLV1I, No. 10, p. 299),
and he is responsible for the system
which prevails in both orders. Both
have their sovereign camps, head camps,
and subordinate camps (lodges) ; the
same emblems: the ax, the beetle, and
the wedge. Neither society admits Ne-
groes or women, but each has an auxil-
iary which admits women to member-
ship, The Royal Neighbors (Modern
Woodmen of America) and The Wood-
men Circle (Woodmen of the World).
The Woodmen are organized in “Groves”
under the jurisdiction of the “Supreme
Forest.” Both orders, however, are in-
dependent, the Modern Woodmen of
America having jurisdiction in the Cen-
tral and the Woodmen of the World in
the Western States. The order of the
Woodmen of the World was organized in
1890, at Omaha, Nebr. — Character. The
Woodmen of the World have special pass-
words, signs, obligations, and grips. (See
Christian Cynosure, Vol. XL VII, No. 10,
Feb. 1915, pp. 298 sqq.); also a ritual,
which is similar to that of Freemasonry;
symbols, and mystical language. Three
oaths are demanded : the “Solemn pledge,”
or “pledge of honor,” and two “solemn
and binding obligations,” “promised be-
fore God and these witnesses.” At a cer-
tain stage in the initiation a human skull
is placed in the hands of the hoodwinked
candidate in order to add force to the
obligations. The first oath is taken by
the candidate with the skull in his
hands; the second, at the altar, and
after the hoodwink has been removed
and further ceremonies have taken place,
the third oath is administered, in which
the candidate calls upon God and grasps
one end of a pair of bones from the leg
of a dead man, the other end being held
by the “Past Consul Commander.” Next
comes a test, which is a ridiculous mock-
ery of the 37tli chapter of Genesis, after
which the “final charge” is given at the
lodge-room grave, the ceremony being
concluded with the conferring of the “se-
cret work.” An ode is now sung, where-
upon the members go to the altar and
grasp the helve of an imbedded ax, w’hieh
is a penal sign to keep silent concerning
the transactions of the camp. — Organi-
sation .' The order is composed of the
Wonlswo^th, Christopher
822
'Workmen, A. O. t‘.
Sovereign Camp (Omaha), the Pacific
Jurisdiction (Denver), the Canadian
Jurisdiction, the Woodmen Circle (the
woman’s auxiliary of the “Sovereign
Jurisdiction,” with 134,657 male and
female members), the Women of Wood-
craft (the woman’s auxiliary of the
“Pacific Jurisdiction”), and the Boys of
Woodcraft (composed of boys from ten
to eighteen years of age, which is a pro-
lific feeder of the order). — Membership.
The total membership of the Woodmen
of the World, according to the World
Almanac of 1923, was 542,000.
Wordsworth, Christopher, 1807- — 85;
educated at Cambridge ; brilliant scholar ;
held positions as master and lecturer,
then parish priest, finally bishop of Lin-
coln; very voluminous writer, among
his works The Holy Year, containing
“Songs of Thankfulness and Praise” and
others.
Workingmen’s Societies. Working-
men’s societies, or clubs, were organized
in Great Britain many years ago. The
first workingmen’s club in this country
was that of St. Mark’s in Philadelphia,
organized 1870. In a circular adopted
by the Congress of Workingmen’s Clubs,
held in Boston in 1885, it was said:
“Workingmen's Clubs and Institutes are
societies composed of workingmen, asso-
ciated without regard to trade, occupa-
tion, or religious distinction, for pur-
poses of social intercourse, mental and
moral improvement, rational recreation,
and mutual helpfulness. The accomplish-
ment of these purposes is sought: 1) by
the establishment of club-rooms or club-
houses, where workingmen can enjoy
social intercourse and pleasant com-
panionship, free from the influences of
the drinking-saloons, to which working-
men often resort for the mere want of
better places; 2) by providing oppor-
tunities for instruction, through reading-
rooms, circulating libraries, evening
classes, readings, debates, and lectures;
3) by providing means of rational rec-
reation and amusement, such as games
of chess, checkers, billiards, bagatelle,
bowling, and excursions, amateur theat-
ricals, concerts, and other forms of enter-
tainment; 4) by relieving the hardships
of life through: a) benefit societies,
which furnish medicine and medical at-
tendance and pecuniary assistance in
sickness and death; b) legal aid so-
cieties, which afford counsel and advice
and protection against extortion and op-
pression; c) trade discounts and coal
funds, which provide the staples of life
of good quality and at reduced rates for
cash; 5) by encouraging habits of sav-
ing and thrift through the organization
of cooperative savings-banks, building
and loan associations, etc., which assist
workingmen to save systematically and
buy their own homes.” Such organiza-
tions are not without danger to the spir-
itual interests of the men; where it is
deemed advisable or necessary, congrega-
tions or a group of congregations had
better organize their own men’s clubs.
Workmen, Ancient Order of United.
History. This order was founded by John
Jordan Upchurch, in 1868, at Meadville,
Pa. It is said to be the oldest of the more
than 200 fraternal benefit societies exist-
ing in the United States to-day.- — Pur-
pose. The purposes in founding the new
order were to provide workingmen with
“a union conceived on a broader scale
than the trade-unions of the time”; to
discountenance strikes, except where ef-
forts of adjustment failed; and evi-
dently to bring the laboring classes closer
together with Freemasonry. For years
the order suffered with internal dissen-
sions, there being at first two rival grand
lodges. — Character. The ritual and em-
blems of the order betray the Masonic
influence which presided at its birth.
“Charity, hope, and protection” are illus-
trated in its ceremonies of initiation.
The order has three degrees : the Junior
Workman, the Workman, and the Master
Workman (modeled after the three de-
grees of Freemasonry). From Freema-
sonry the order has taken over the All-
seeing Eye, the Holy Bible, the anchor,
the compass, and the square. The pledge
of the Workman Degree is taken with
the left hand on the Bible and reads:
“I, in the presence of Almighty God and
the members of this fraternity, here as-
sembled, do of my own free will solemnly
promise that I will preserve the secrets
of this degree and all the private trans-
actions of this order. I will render true
and faithful allegiance to the Supreme
Lodge in which I may hold my member-
ship. I promise that I will assist a
brother when in distress, defend him
when assailed by envy or slander, advise
him when he is in error, and warn him
when he is in danger. I promise that I
will not violate the chastity of any mem-
ber of his family and will not permit it.
I promise that I will not injure a brother
in person, property, or reputation, but
will help him whenever I can, without
injury to myself or family ; and I will
give him aid and comfort in sickness
and distress. To all this I pledge my
sacred honor.” — Organization. The state
lodges of the A. O. U. W. of Arkansas,
Connecticut, Iowa, Kansas, Massachu-
setts, Minnesota, Nebraska, North Da-
kota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island,
Works,. -Merit of
823
Works, Merit of
South Dakota, Texas, Washington, and
Virginia are now separately incorpo-
rated under the laws of their respec-
tive States, the division occurring over
troubles that arose from the insurance
matters, “the Supreme Lodge acting only
in an advisory capacity concerning the
government of grand lodges,” it being no
longer an “insurance institution.” Of
late there has been a movement for the
reunion of the grand lodges of the A. O.
U. W. (Cf. Fraternal Monitor, Aug.,
1922, Vol. XXXIII, No. 1, p. 10.) The
A. 0. U. W. had to readjust its insurance
business several times.- — There is an
auxiliary, branch for women, called the
Degree of Honor, which admits also men
who are members of the A. O. U. W.
Works, Merit of. Since the central
purpose of the Christian religion is to
restore men to the blissful and intimate
fellowship with God which Adam’s sin
forfeited for our race, the central doc-
trine of the whole Christian system must
he the doctrine which teaches by what
means men may obtain forgiveness of
sins, reconciliation with God, and eternal
life. All other doctrines will be in vari-
ous states of dependence on this one;
and if serious error creeps in at this
point, many other doctrines will he
affected; in fact, the whole system of
doctrine will be vitiated. This very con-
dition is found in the teaching of the
Roman Catholic Church; for almost all
the doctrines and practises which in that
Church obscure the light of the Gospel
grow from its unscriptural teaching re-
garding the merit of works as a cause
of man’s salvation. The Roman Church
flatly denies that men are justified be-
fore God only through faith in the merit
of Christ. “If any one says that men
are justified, either by the sole imputa-
tion of the justice of Christ or by the
sole remission of sins, to the exclusion of
the grace and the charity which is
poured forth in their hearts by the Holy
Ghost and is inherent in them; or even
that the grace whereby we are justified
is only the favor of God: let him be
accursed.” “If any one saith that justi-
fying faith is nothing else but confidence
in the divine mercy, which remits sins
for Christ’s sake, or that this confidence
alone is that whereby we are justified :
let him be accursed.” (Council of Trent,
sess. VI, can. 11. 12.) Rome denies that
the justification of the sinner before God
is a judicial act, in which God declares
the sinner just by imputing to him the
righteousness of Christ, which he has
apprehended by faith. Instead, it
teaches that justification consists of the
following process: The unmerited grace
of God touches the sinner’s heart and
calls him to repentance and faith. The
sinner may, of his own power, accept or
reject this grace. If he accepts it and
turns to God, he receives, through Bap-
tism. full forgiveness of his past sins.
That forgiveness is the one part of justi-
fication. The other part consists in this,
that the sinner, by the renewal of his
inner nature, is himself transformed into
an intrinsically just man. As a just
man he is able to do good and perfect
works, which fulfil the demands of God’s
Law, render satisfaction for sin, and
merit rewards of God, including eternal
life. The Council of Trent teaches: “If
any one saith that the justified, by the
good works which he performs through
the grace of God and the merit of Jesus
Christ, whose living member he is, does
not truly merit increase of grace, eternal
life, and the attainment of that eternal
life — if so be, however, that he depart
in grace — and also an increase of glory:
let him be accursed.” (Sess. VI, can. 32.)
“Life eternal is to be proposed to those
working well unto the end and hoping in
God, both as a grace promised to the
sons of God through Jesus Christ and
as a reward which is, according to the
promise of God Himself, to he faithfully
rendered to their good works and
merits.” {Ibid., chap. XVI.) This teach-
ing means, in the last analysis, that
Jesus does not really save men, but en-
ables them to save themselves. Grace
and works cannot divide the field.
St. Paul, as though he referred to the
last quotation, argues: “If by grace,
then is it no more of works; otherwise
grace is no more grace. But if it be of
works, then is it no more grace; other-
wise work is no more work.” Rom. 11, 6.
The Scripture, with one voice, testifies
that alone through faith in Christ’s
merit can sinners be reconciled to God,
while their own imperfect works can
claim no merit before Him. Luke 17, 10.
This is the argument of the entire Epistle
to the Romans ( see especially chap. 4 )
and to the Galatians (see chap. 3) . This
doctrine was restored to the Church by
Luther, and it became the corner-stone
of the Reformation. Rome, however, can
make no concessions to it, no matter how
clearly it is revealed in the Bible, with-
out yielding its whole position. It has
arranged its entire household on the
basis of the merit of works. Nor are
the works to which it ascribes merit
only those commanded by God; in large
part they are self-elected, man-made
works (see Concilia Evangelica ) , such
as fasting, vigils, celibacy, praying by
rote, and similar ascetic and devotional
World Alliance, etc.
824
Worm*, Diet of
contrivances. And while Rome refuses
to let its adherents trust in the all-
sufficient merits of Christ alone, it
teaches them, not only that they them-
selves can merit eternal life of God, but
that they can have recourse to the merits
of the saints (see Saints. Worship of)
and even can themselves earn greater
merit of works than they need, which
superfluous merit may be applied to the
needs of others. See also Opera Stiper-
erogationis ; Merit.
World Alliance for Promoting In-
ternational Friendship through the
Churches. Its purpose is to unite all
Christians and churches by means of
international friendship, to prevent war
by means of a League of Nations, to
increase our friendship with such foreign
countries as Japan, China, Mexico, and
Latin America, and, by the enactment
of good laws, to protect aliens. Inter-
national world conferences are held and
magazines published. Headquarters :
70 Fifth Ave., New York City.
World Conference on Faith and
Order. From an official document we
quote the following as to the origin,
purpose, and progress of the movement:
“The General Convention of the Amer-
ican Episcopal Church in 1910 appointed
a dommission to bring about a conference
for the consideration of questions touch-
ing faith and order and to ask all Chris-
tian communions throughout the world
whicli confess our Lord Jesus Christ as
God and Savior to unite in arranging
for, and conducting, such a conference.
By correspondence and by deputations
the cooperation of nearly every Trini-
tarian Communion throughout the world
has been secured. Representatives of
seventy-eight churches in forty nations
met August 12 — 20, 1920, in Geneva,
Switzerland, where fundamental ques-
tions were discussed and world-wide com-
mittees appointed to prepare for further
conferences. The following topics were
discussed at the preliminary meeting in
Geneva and proposed by that meeting
for further study arid discussion through-
out the world: The Church and the
Nature of the Reunited Church. What
is the place of the Bible and a creed in
relation to reunion? The first series
proposed by the Subjects Committee
was: ‘1. What degree of unity in faith
will be necessary in a reunited Church?
2. Is a statement of this one faith in the
form of a creed necessary or desirable?
3. If so, what creed should be used, or
what other formulary would be desir-
able? 4. What are the proper uses of
a creed and of a confession of faith ?’
The second series proposed by the Sub-
jects Committee is: ‘1. What degree of
unity in the matter of order will be nec-
essary in a reunited Church? 2. Is it
necessary that there should be a common
ministry, universally recognized? 3. If
so, of what orders or kinds of ministers
will this ministry consist? 4. Will the
reunited Church require as necessary
any conditions precedent to ordination
or any particular manner of ordination?
5. If so, what conditions precedent to or-
dination and what manner of ordination
ought to be required?’
“The invitation to participate in the
World Conference on Faith and Order iB
addressed to all 'churches throughout the
world which accept the fact and doctrine
of the Incarnation. Participation in the
movement involves no surrender or com-
promise of any doctrine or position held
by any Church. The disagreements be-
tween the churches are to be studied
and discussed in conference, not contro-
versially, but in an effort for mutual
understanding and appreciation, in the
hope that a way may thus be found to
overcome them. The eight days ending
with Pontecost (Whitsunday) of each
year have been appointed by the Con-
tinuation Committee as a special period
of prayer for the guidance of the efforts
toward Christian reconciliation. Money
is needed for publications, for postage,
for the promotion of local conferences,
for the traveling expenses of delegates,
and for the services of assistant secre-
taries and translators. The requirement
for these purposes is $50,000 a year.
While expressing cordial interest in the
undertaking, as his predecessor, Pope
Pius X, had done, Pope Benedict XV
declared to the deputation which visited
Rome in 1919 that, as the teaching and
practise of the Roman Catholic Church
with regard to the visible unity of the
Church of Christ were well known to
everybody, it would not be possible for
the Roman Church to take part in such
a conference as the one proposed.”
Worms, Diet of, 1521, the first one
of young Kaiser Carl V, where on the
18th of April Luther made his world-
changing speech, making the Reforma-
tion a purely religious affair. He stood
upon Scripture, in which his conscience
was bound, and stood alone against Pope,
Councils, and Kaiser. His private inter-
pretation of Scripture was put above the
interpretation of the world; Councils
had erred and contradicted one another.
At the same time the Reichstag presented
the famous Centum Gravamina, the
“Hundred Grievances,” which the Ger-
man nation had against the scandalous
abuses of the papacy. The Reichstag
Worship, Divine
825
Worship, Order of
only did what it had done in 1461, 1479,
1510, and 1518.
Worship, Divine. A public or pri-
vate service expressing a person’s or
congregation’s reverence to the revealed,
Triune God; according to the Lutheran
view not merely an approach to God in
prayer, praise, and thanksgiving (com-
monly known as the sacrificial elements
of worship), hut chiefly an acceptance of
God’s gift of grace to men, through the
means of grace (the sacramental ele-
ment) . Worship is spiritual, but the
spirit of devotion is strengthened by
outward forms and ceremonies.
Worship, Order of. There are a few
of the church orders of Canono-Catholic
times which have either remained prac-
tically unchanged to the present time
or have influenced present orders to a
great extent. The liturgy of the Roman
Church was established in the basic fea-
tures of its present form by Gregory the
Great (090 — 004). Not only did the
Roman rite, as fixed by him, tend to
emphasize the difference between Rome
and Constantinople, but it also brought
out the sacerdotal idea as it gained
ground in the West under the influence
of Gregory. In spite of Gregory’s con-
servative position, the Roman rite began
to supersede other rites which had been
in use in the West. In the German Em-
pire, which at that time included Gaul,
l’epin and Charlemagne virtually suc-
ceeded in abolishing the Galliean Lit-
urgy, the Roman Ordinary of the Mass
being introduced by main force. In En-
gland the Council of Cloveslio prescribed
the Roman rite for the entire country
(747), although it never fully succeeded
in replacing the ancient forms. In Ire-
land, the synods of Tara (692), of Kells
(.1152), and of Cashel (1172) passed
resolutions favoring the Roman rite
alone. In Spain, the Synod of Burgos
(1085) declared the Roman Liturgy
valid for the entire country, Thus, by
the 12th century, the Roman forms had
superseded, or supplanted, the rites pre-
viously in use in Spain, France, Ger-
many, England, Scotland, Ireland, and
Italy, with the exception of the arch-
bishopric of Milan and individual dio-
ceses at Seville, Toledo, Salamanca, and
Valladolid, in Spain. There was a re-
vision of the Roman Liturgy in the 16th
century, the Breviary of Quignon appear-
ing in 1539 and the Breviary of Pius V
in 1568. Since these efforts, however,
did not meet with general satisfaction,
Clement VIII, in 1604, issued a new Ro-
man service-book, which was finally re-
vised under Urban VIII and appeared in
1634. It may be said to be a recast of
the Gregorian Liturgy, the framework
and much of the liturgical material hav-
ing been retained. The order of services
in the celebration of Mass in the Roman
Church at present contains the following
parts: the solemn beginning of Mass,
with the Introibo Psalm (43) and the
Gloria Patri; the confession of sins by
the priest; the introit of the day with
the Gloria Patri; the Kyrie, followed
by the Gloria in Excelsis; the collect,
introduced with the salutation and re-
sponse; the reading of the Epistle-
lesson; the gradual, or Hallelujah; the
Gospel-lesson, preceded by the benedic-
tion and salutation, with response by the
priest’s assistants; the Nicene Creed;
the offertory, or the oblation, with the
invocation and the Lavabo; the secret
prayers, murmured by the priest; the
preface, including everything, from the
salutation to the Sanctus; the canon of
the Mass, including the offering of the
unbloody sacrifice, the consecration, the
elevation and adoration, and the com-
memoration for the living and the dead;
the preparation for Communion ; the
prayers preceding the distribution (Ag-
nus Dei and several collects); the dis-
tribution, the priest first taking bread
and wine himself and then administer-
ing the bread, if there are communicants;
the Communion psalm, the postcom-
munion; the end of Mass; the benedic-
tion, the reading of John 1, 1 — 14. — The
Liturgy of the Church of England and
also of the Protestant Episcopal Church
in America was derived from Epliesine
or Galliean sources, reaching England in
the last part of the second century or
in the third century by way of Lyons.
It was afterward modified by Augustine
of Canterbury and by Theodore of
Tarsus. A revision by Osmund of Salis-
bury (1087) resulted in a compromise
between the Roman and the Galliean rite.
In 1516 the ancient Use of Salisbury
was amended and revised, a second re-
vision being undertaken in 1541. Eight
years later, under the influence of the
Reformation, the First Prayer-book of
Edward VI, with the order for the chief
service, appeared. It showed strong Lu-
theran influence. The Second Book of
Common Prayer, of 1552, was compiled
after Calvinistic influences were becom-
ing apparent in England. It was sup-
pressed in 1553, at the accession of Mary.
The present Book of Common Prayer,
containing slight concessions to the non-
conformist element, was authorized in
1662. The order of the chief service in
the Anglican Church is the following:
Lord’s Prayer; collect for purity; Ten
Worship, Parts of
826
Worship, Parts of
Commandments, with the response Kyrie,
collect of the day; Epistle, the congre-
gation seated; Gospel, the congregation
standing; Nicene Creed; announcements,
psalm; sermon; sentences relating to
offering; general prayer, exhortation
and invitation; confession and absolu-
tion; comfortable words; the Commu-
nion service. — The order of worship in
the Lutheran Church of America is based
largely upon the work of Luther, whose
Formula Missae of 1523 and Deutsche
Messe of 1526 exerted a wide influence.
An abbreviated form of the Saxon and
Prussian orders has been in use in many
German congregations, while English
congregations use the Common Service,
as compiled from the best orders of the
16th century. — So far as the Liturgy
of the Reformed Churches in America is
concerned, the sacrificial idea prepon-
derates. In most denominations a num-
ber of hymns, alternating with prayers
and readings, precede the sermon, and
the services close with prayer and bene-
diction. Great emphasis is placed upon
the prayers in public worship, and the
hymns and music are usually made an
outstanding feature of the services.
There is a certain tendency, also, to
make the services more beautiful by in-
troducing liturgical material, though the
execution of liturgical parts is commonly
left to a paid choir. See also Worship,
Parts of.
Worship, Parts of. In following the
sequence of parts in the order of wor-
ship, their significance ought to be noted.
Versicles are short passages of Scripture
intended to incite the worshipers to de-
votion and to suggest the central thought
of the part following. The Confession
of Sins is properly made as a prepara-
tory step, to obtain the first assurance
of the forgiveness of God, at the very
beginning of worship. It has taken the
place of the ancient Confiteor, in use
after the poison of false doctrine had
entered the Church. In the Confiteor the
priest knelt and made confession of his
sins to “Almighty God, to the blessed
Virgin Mary, the blessed archangel
Michael, the blessed John the Baptist,
the holy apostles Peter and Paul,” etc.
The meaning of this confession was that
the priest, having doffed his usual cloth-
ing and having donned his priestly vest-
ments, was worthy of offering the sacri-
fice for the living and for the dead. In
this sense the Confiteor was utterly to
be condemned, also because the congre-
gation did not share in it, except to fall
down in the attitude of prayer when the
bell was struck at the words “My guilt,”
repeated three times. The Confession of
Lutheran worship is made for the entire
congregation. The Introit (entrance) is
the opening of the psalm of the day,
spoken or chanted after the preparation,
to indicate the character of the day and
the nature of the spiritual food offered
to the congregation. It is a remnant of
the primitive psalmody, which was prob-
ably taken over .into the early Church
from the services of the synagog. Orig-
inally the entire psalm was chanted or
sung antiphonally between the officiating
clergy and the choir at the great en-
trance of the officiating priest and his
assistants. Luther favored the use of
the entire introductory psalm, but the
abbreviated form remained, chiefly on
account of lack of time. The Introit is
followed by the Gloria Patri or the small
doxology to the Holy Trinity, by which
the use of the psalter as used in New
Testament times is distinguished from
its use in the synagog worship. The
Kyrie is a plea for the removal of
misery and suffering, a confession of the
wretchedness to be borne as a conse-
quence of sins now forgiven. It is ad-
dressed to the Lord of mercy, in whom
we not only have forgiveness of sins,
but also help and assistance in every
need. The Gloria in Excelsis fittingly
follows as a hymn of adoration, celebrat-
ing God’B glory as manifested in the
merciful gift of His Son, who bore all
our sins and infirmities. The Collects
are prayers in which the wants and
perils, or the wishes and desires, of the
people or the entire Church are together
presented to God. The reading of the
Epistle-lesson is followed by the Halle-
lujah on the part of the congregation,
which praises the Lord for the unspeak-
able gift of His Word. At this point,
in ancient services and also in the Ro-
man Church to this day, is sung the
Graduate (sequence, prose, tract, trope),
originally merely an extension of the
last syllable of the Hallelujah, in order
to permit the lector to proceed from the
Epistle to the Gospel ambo, but later
developed into a special hymn or a series
of responses and versicles, from which
the liturgical plays were developed. The
announcement of the Gospel-lesson is
hailed with the sentence “Glory be to
Thee, O Lord,” and the “Praise be to
Thee, O Christ” at the close signifies the
grateful acceptance of the Word by the
congregation. In the Offertory following
the sermon the congregation confesses its
grateful and humble acceptance of the
Word which has just been proclaimed,
all the faithful offering themselves, their
substance, and the sacrifices of prayer,
praise, and thanksgiving to the Lord,
Worship, Private
827
Wreford, John ReyneJI
This act has nothing in common with the
oblation of the Mass which is practised
by the Roman Church at this point. The
Salutation, with its Response, is sung at
the opening of the Communion service
to indicate the beginning of a new part
of the service. The Preface is preceded
by the prefatory sentences (Sursum and
Gratias) and is distinguished for im-
pressiveness and beauty, setting forth
the reason for the hymn of praise which
follows the chanting of the Preface
( whether common, for ordinary Sundays,
or proper, for festival seasons). This
hymn of praise is known as the Sanctus,
in which the combination of heaven’s
and earth’s chorus results in an exalted
strain of glorification and thanksgiving.
After the consecration of the elements
the pastor chants the Pax, to which the
congregation responds with the Agnus
Dei (“0 Christ, Thou Lamb of God”),
during which the communicants move
forward to the altar. The Nunc Dimittis
opens the Postcommunion. The believer,
having received the fulness of God’s
grace and mercy, feels that he may now
depart in peace to his home. In the
Renedicamus the congregation is called
upon to give all honor to God alone, in
order to receive from Him the final bless-
ing. The Canticles, among which the
Benedictus (the song of Zachariah) and
the Magnificat (the hymn of Mary) are
best known, are, as a rule, used only in
the minor services.
Worship, Private. That the wor-
ship of God in the midst of the congre-
gation, in the assembly of those who
confess the true God together, is required
of all believers, appears from various
parts of the Bible. As the Old Testa-
ment speaks of blessing the Lord in the
congregations, Ps. 26, 12, and of desiring
to go to the house of the Lord with the
multitude that kept the holy-day, Ps.
42, 4, so the New Testament admonishes
us not to forsake the assembling of our-
selves together, Heb. 10, 25. Just as im-
portant, however, for the nurture of the
Christian’s spiritual life is the daily
communication with the Lord by way
of private worship, by prayer, by reading
the Word of God and meditating upon
it, and by discussing its truths with
others. David writes that he prayed and
cried aloud evening and morning and at
noon. Ps. 55, 17. It is said of the godly
man that he meditates in the Word of
God day and night. Ps. 1, 2. Again and
again the value of direct communication
with the Lord by means of prayer is
emphasized in the Bible. Ps. 109, 4;
141, 5; Matt. 6, 6. And we have the
examples of consecrated men and women
who remained in such communication
with the Lord always, as Cornelius, Acts
10, 2. 30; Daniel, chap. 6, 10; 9, 3. 4;
David, 2 Sam. 7, 27; 1 Chron. 18, 25;
Elisha, 2 Kings 4, 33; 6, 17 ; Ezra, chap.
10, 1; Hanna, 1 Sam. 1, 10; Anna the
prophetess, Luke 2, 37 ; Paul, Acts
20, 36; Peter, Acts 10, 9, and others.
Examples of such as studied the Word
of God and meditated upon it in private
worship are Mary, the mother of Jesus,
Luke 2, 19. 51; the Ethiopian eunuch,
Acts 8, 28 ff.; the Bereans, Acts 17, 11 ;
the prophets of old, 1 Pet. 1, 10. 11.- —
Home devotions may easily be arranged,
either in the morning or in the evening,
preferably right after meals, when all
the members of the family are together.
A few stanzas of a hymn may be sung,
or the head of the house may at once
read a chapter or a passage from the
Bible or from some good book of expo-
sition or devotion based on a Bible-
passage. This will be followed by one
or more prayers suitable to the time or
occasion and, possibly, by a recital of
a part of the Small Catechism. The
home service closes with the Lord’s
Prayer and the Benediction. In addi-
tion to this family devotion every mem-
bor of the family will make it a point
to read his own Bible daily, preferably
at a fixed time, allowing from ten to
fifteen minutes a day. Begin with a
short prayer for enlightenment and un-
derstanding. Read a fixed amount every
day, such as a chapter a day, or three
chapters every week-day and five chap-
ters every Sunday (thereby finishing the
Bible just once every year). Mark out-
standing and powerful passages in some
manner, either by underscoring lines or
by placing a line at the margin. Repeat
such verses a number of times to impress
them upon your memory. Try to sum-
marize the content of the principal parts
in just one or two sentences. Meditate
upon that which you have read and let
it guide you throughout the day. In
this way will private worship prove of
great blessing to you.
Wortman, Denis, 1835 — ; educated
at Amherst and New Brunswick; held
various pastorates in Dutch Reformed
Church of America, since 1901 secretary
of ministerial relief fund; wrote: “God
of the Prophets! Bless the Prophets’
Sons.”
Wreford, John Reynell, 1800 — 81;
educated at Manchester College, York;
non-conformist minister; later withdrew
from ministry and opened a school;
among his hymns : “Lord, While for
All Mankind We Pray,”
Wriglit, George Frederick
828
Wyneken, F. K. D.
Wright, George Frederick, 1838 to
1921; Congregationalist; b. at White-
hall, N. Y. ; graduate of Oberlin ; pastor ;
professor at Oberlin, first of New Testa-
ment Language and Literature, then of
Harmony of Science and Religion, 1881
to 1907 ; served on United States Geo-
logical Survey; editor of Bibliotheca
Sacra 1884 — 1921 ; Scientific Confirma-
tions of Old Testament History; etc.;
d. at Oberlin.
Wuerttemberger Summarien. Eber-
hard III, Duke of Wurttemberg, ordered
these Summarien printed in order to
take the place of the Summarien by Veit
Dietrich, which through the plundering
of the churches in time of war had be-
come scarce. They were written by
Johann Jakob Heinlin (d. 1000), Jere-
mias Rebstock, and Johann Konrad
Zeller (d. 1683) and were published in
1669. To the second edition explanatory
remarks Were added by members of the
Tuebingen Faculty : Johann Wolfgang
Jaeger, Johann Christian Pfaff, and An-
dreas Adam Hochstetter. An edition
was published as late as 1878 and later.
The books contain no translation of the
Bible, but only summaries of the con-
tents of the various books of the Old and
New Testaments and, at the end of each
chapter, useful applications.
Wunder, Heinrich; b. March 12,
1830, at Mueggendorf, Bavaria; studied
at the Missionshaus in Neuendettelsau
at the age of fourteen ; later at Fort
Wayne and Altenburg; ordained at
Millstadt, 111., 1849; came to Chicago
1851, serving St. Paul’s for sixty years
and contributing a great deal to the firm
founding and rapid growth of the Mis-
souri Lutheran Synod in Chicago and
vicinity; first president of the Illinois
District, 1874 — 91 (the financial assis-
tance his congregation received after the
Chicago fire was applied to the rebuild-
ing, not of the homes of members, but of
the church and school); St. Louis con-
ferred on him the title of D. D.; d. De-
cember 22, 1913.
W upperthaler Traktatgesellscliaft.
A society, for the spread of evangelical
truth by means of tracts; founded 1814
in Barmen, Germany; has distributed
over 700 tracts in more than seven mil-
lion copies.
Wurttemberg Bible Society. An
organization which sprang up in South-
ern Europe in 1813 for the purpose of
circulating the Scriptures.
Wyclif, John, “the Morning Star of
the Reformation”; b. of noble parentage
ca. 1324 near Richmond, in Yorkshire,
England- He was connected with Oxford
University as student or teacher the
greater part of his life. He was also a
parish priest, lastly at Lutterworth, a
spiall market-town in Leicestershire,
near Birmingham. Here he died Decem-
ber 31, 1384, — Wyclif’s repeated oppo-
sition to the Pope’s meddling in English
affairs of State and Church and his
other anti-Romish activities caused his
citation before ecclesiastical tribunals,
which, however, failed to silence him.
Besides preaching himself, Wyclif trained
and sent out itinerant preachers. He
also issued numerous Latin treatises and
many English tracts against Romish
errors. With the aid of Nicholas of
Hereford, one of his pupils, he translated
the Bible from the Latin Vulgate and in
1382 issued this first complete English
Bible. His attack upon the dogma of
transubstantiation aroused a bitter con-
troversy between him and the mendicant
friars. At times he seems to teach the
Lutheran doctrine of the Lord’s Supper,
and then again he speaks of the bread
and wine as being “Christ’s body and
blood figuratively and spiritually.” The
two Sacraments he considered real means
of grace; but he seemed to believe that
an unbelieving priest could not admin-
ister them effectively. Confirmation and
extreme unction are to him mere human
institutions. Enforced auricular confes-
sion he termed “a sacrament of the
devil” and denounced purgatory as a
blasphemous swindle. Although he
taught that Christ is the only Mediator
between God and man, and though he
delighted to dwell on the love of Christ,
he ascribed a certain degree of merito-
riousness to the good works of a Chris-
tian. He upheld the separation of
Church and State and taught that the
Church is the congregation of the elect.
Enforced celibacy he considered immoral
and apparently also thought it unscrip-
tural “that ecclesiastical men should
have temporal possessions.” He main-
tained that the only Head of the Church
is Christ and that the Pope is Anti-
christ; and yet he never left the Romish
Church. But after his death, the Coun-
cil of Constance, in 1415, excommuni-
cated him, and thirteen years later his
bones were burned and their ashes
thrown into the Swift.
Wyneken, Friedrich Konrad Die-
trich, one of the three master builders
of the Missouri Synod (Walther, Wyne-
ken, Sihler), was born May 13, 1810, at
Verden, Hanover, finished college in his
home town, studied theology at Goet-
tingen and Halle, and traveled in France
and Italy as private tutor of a young
nobleman; rector of a Latin school at
Wyneken, F. K. D.
829
Xavier, Francis
Bremervoerde. He had learned to know
his Savior through Tholuck in Halle and,
through private study of the Bible, had
acquired a knowledge of English, and
when he heard of the great spiritual
destitution of the Lutherans in America,
his love of Christ impelled him to go to
their aid. He landed in Baltimore 1838,
a total stranger, finally met Rev. J.
Haesbaert, supplied for him for a short
time, and was sent west by the Mission-
ary Committee of the Pennsylvania
Synod. Pastor of a small congregation
in Fort Wayne, he performed the duties
of a traveling missionary throughout the
region of Northern Indiana and adjoin-
ing portions of Michigan and Indiana
with apostolic zeal and heroism, — the
Father of the Home Missions of the Mis-
souri Synod, — blazing the way for this
important part of its work. Failing
health and the burning desire to gain
help in the great task lying upon him
and the Lutheran Church took him to
Germany in 1841, where his A’otruf , a
stirring appeal for help, and his lectures
won many friends, Pastor Loehe and
others, for the American cause, a great
number of missionaries and pastors, such
as Craemer, Lochner, Sillier, even small
congregations (colonies) being sent over,
the Missouri Synod thus owing to Wyne-
ken’s energy and enthusiasm a consider-
able portion of its original stock. Wyne-
ken continued his strenuous labors in
Indiana till 1845, when he became Haes-
baert’s successor in Baltimore. Taking
a firm stand against unionism, laxity,
and lodgery ( perhaps “the first pastor
in America who publicly withstood secret
orders and condemned their works of
darkness” ) , he built up the congregation
along the lines of confessional Lutheran-
ism. He soon severed his connection
with the General Synod for confessional
reasons, and, having already in Fort
Wayne made the acquaintance of the
Saxons through the Lutheraner and be-
come fully grounded in sound Lutheran-
ism, he was interested in the movement
which resulted in the organization of the
Missouri Synod. He joined it at its
second convention and was elected presi-
dent in 1850, having been called to Trin-
ity Church, St. Louis, in the same year.
In 1851 he, with Walther, was sent to
Germany for the purpose of bringing
about the adjustment of doctrinal differ-
ences between Loehe and the Missouri
Synod. Since 1859 he resided near Fort
Wayne, his duties as president taking up
his entire time (Pastor Selialler was in
charge of his congregation ) . He dis-
charged his duties with wonted energy
and enthusiasm, visiting as many as
sixty congregations in one year, stress-
ing at conventions and visitations the
necessity of purity of doctrine, the im-
portance of leading a Christian life, and
the need for ceaseless warfare against
sectarians, lodges, and worldliness, his
wise leadership in this direction, supple-
menting that of Walther and Sillier, re-
sulted in grounding the congregations
more and more firmly in God’s Word
and thus knitting them the more closely
together. “The evangelical character of
our Synod, distinguishing it so favorably
from many other church-bodies, is owing,
to a high degree, to his influence.” In
18(14, owing to increasing age and bodily
infirmities, lie was relieved of the presi-
dency, took charge of Trinity Church in
Cleveland, latterly as assistant to his
son, retired 1875, and died in San Fran-
cisco, May 4, 1870.
Wyneken, Henry C., son of the
above; b. in Fort Wayne, Ind., Decem-
ber 13, 1844, educated at Concordia
College and Seminary; instructor in the
institute of Pastor Brunn in Steeden,
Germany; assistant to his father (later,
first pastor) and principal of Zion Lu-
theran School, Cleveland, 0.; 1876 pro-
fessor of Exegesis, Homiletics, Catechet-
ics, and other branches in Concordia
Seminary, Springfield, 111.; retired 1890
on account of ill health, serving two
small churches in the vicinity of Spring-
field; founder of the colored mission
in Springfield; revised the Altenburger
Bibelwerk ; d. January 21, 1899.
X
Xaverian Brothers. A religious
teaching institute of laymen, founded
in Belgium in 1839, primarily for Amer-
ican work. It entered the United States
in 1854.
Xavier, Francis, 1500 — 52; famous
Jesuit missionary and a man of extra-
ordinary earnestness, energy, and devo-
tion; one of the original number who.
with Loyola, formed the Society of
Jesus; ordained to the priesthood in
1537 ; began his missionary labors in
India (later in Japan) in 1542 and
achieved astonishing results, at least
numerically. W 7 hen a missionary makes
ten thousand converts within a month,
we have some suspicion as to his
methods,
Ximenes, Francisco
830
Y. M. C. A.
Ximenes (Jimenea), Francisco, 1436
to 1517 ; Spanish provincial of the Fran-
ciscan order, confessor to Queen Isabella,
archbishop of Toledo and primate of
Spain, cardinal, inquisitor -general of
Spain, soldier, and statesman; founded
the University of Alcala de Henares
(Complutum) and planned the Complu-
tensian Polyglot Bible, the first Bible with
various languages in parallel columns.
Y
Ylvisaker, Johannes Thorbjoern-
sen; b. in Norway April 24, 1845; emi-
grated 1871, graduate of Luther College,
Decorah, Iowa, and Concordia Seminary,
St. Louis; studied at Christiania and
Leipzig; pastor at Zumbrota, Minn.,
1877; professor at Luther Seminary
1879; coeditor of Kirlcetidende ; author
of many books and articles; 1904 created
D. D. by Concordia Seminary and Wau-
watosa Lutheran Seminary; knighted
by King Haakon VII; member of the
Norwegian Synod 1871 — 1917; member
of the Norwegian Lutheran Church of
America 1917; d. October, 1917.
Yoga. One of the six systems of In-
dian philosophy, which teaches how,
by ascetic discipline, concentration of
thought, suppression of breath, and sit-
ting immovably, to unite the soul with
the Supreme Spirit and thereby to ob-
tain complete control over the body
(culminating sometimes in ecstasy and
catalepsy ) , miraculous powers, and fin-
ally release from rebirth, i. e., salvation.
Young, Brigham; b. 1801 at Whit-
ingham, Vt.; converted to Mormonism
1832; at death of Joseph Smith, 1844,
became president; when, under pressure
of hostile public sentiment, Mormons
determined to leave Illinois, he led his
followers successfully to Utah and
founded Salt Lake City, 1847 ; was ap-
pointed governor of Utah 1850; he ruled
despotically, violently opposing the
United States Government at times, and
promulgated doctrine of polygamy; but
through his organizing talent contributed
much to the industrial and material de-
velopment of the community; d. 1877 at
Salt Lake City.
Young Men’s Christian Associa-
tion. The beginning of its history was
in London, June 6, 1844. The original
purpose was “to seek to win over young
men to the faith and love of Jesus
Christ.” George Williams was the par-
ent of this movement. Soon the associa-
tion widened its scope of work by defin-
ing its object as being “improvement of
the spiritual and mental condition of
young men.” As a result of the London
association two associations were estab-
lished in 1851, in Montreal and in Bos-
ton. When the New York association
wag founded in 1852, it extended its ob-
ject to include “the spiritual, mental,
and social welfare of young men” and
but a few years later amended its funda-
mental article to read: “The object of
this association shall be the improvement
of the spiritual, mental, social, and phys-
ical condition of young men.” “This last
broad definition of the aim of the Y. M.
C. A. became characteristic of the North
American association as a whole, . . . and
it is from that definition that the entire
variety of departments into which the
work of the brotherhood is divided has
taken its rise.” The Y. M. C. A., from
its beginning, has been, and still claims
to be, “an essentially religious, pro-
nouncedly religious, an aggressively
evangelistic and missionary movement,”
“The spiritual is the fundamental fea-
ture of itB fourfold work.” While it is
a fact that the religious meaning and
work of the association have in some
cases been crowded out by other activ-
ities, this fact has not only been criti-
cized by ministers, but also deplored by
the leaders of the Y. M. C. A. The asso-
ciation does not claim to be a church,
but only an organization which assists
the Church. The whole movement, how-
ever, has been unionistic from the very
outset and to-day fully shares the liber-
alistic tendency of modern sectarianism.
No doctrinal test is applied to those who
desire to enter the membership of the
Y. M. C. A., the only requirement being
membership in an evangelical Church.
But even this requirement is not strictly
observed, for finally the local association
may determine its own condition of
membership, doing so, however, at the
cost of losing its representation at the
international conventions. We, there-
fore, find that membership is solicited
on the basis of such statements as, “Men
of all creeds and no creed mingle freely
here,” “Religious belief or church-mem-
bership is not an essential.” In the
large cities especially the Y. M. C. A. has
its own large and expensive buildings,
which are well equipped, in accordance
with modern ideas, for the purpose of
doing the fourfold work of the organiza-
tion : “improving the spiritual, mental,
social, and physical condition of young
men.” There are three Y. M. C. A. col-
leges: at Chicago, Springfield, Mass.,
and Louisville, Ky,
Young People’s Societies jJ3i Y. W. C. A.
Young People’s Societies. The young
people’s society is an old institution in
the Church. It is organized not only to
make provision for Christian fellowship
on the part of the confirmed youth of
the Church, but also to arouse in the
young people a greater interest in the
Church and its work and thus to help in
keeping them with the Church. In his
Methods of Church-work Stall says :
‘•The hope of the Church and the hope
of the world is with the young. . . . The
great trouble is that the children come
under the influence of the Church and
of Christianity during their very earliest
years, and then so many pass beyond
the reach of its suasion and power to
find in the world the influences which
form their characters for irreligion and
oftentimes for infidelity and sin. Many
others who remain within the realm of
the Church’s influence fail to find any-
thing in which actively to employ their
talents. What little is done, is done
by the older members, who assume all
the burdens and all the responsibilities.
They erect the churches, they pay the
minister, the sexton, conduct the prayer-
meetings, and discharge the offices of the
official boards. No work is blocked out,
and nothing is done to engage the effort,
and thus to secure the more abiding in-
terest, of the young in the Church. The
young of all nationalities can only be de-
veloped into efficient Christian workers if
they are set early to work.” The young
people’s society of a congregation should
not be merely a social organization, pro-
viding entertainment, perhaps even of a
dubious character. The young people’s
society affords the pastor an additional
opportunity to make the young ac-
quainted with the great doctrines of the
Christian religion and the Lutheran
Church (warning them also against
those dangers which particularly threaten
to undermine their spiritual life), to
teach them the history of the Christian
Church, and to inform them as to the
work of their particular congregation
and synod (organizations, missions, edu-
cational institutions, finances, etc.).
A society in a congregation should re-
main a dependent organization of it and
do its work under the supervision of the
congregation and the pastor, to whom it
is responsible. The great difficulty in
maintaining young people’s societies
usually consists in the difficulty to keep
the interest alive by providing good pro-
grams for the society meetings. In the
Handbook of the Ev. Luth. Synod of
Missouri, Ohio, and Other States, pp. 130
and 131, the following is said with refer-
ence to work among the young people :
“It is to be feared that in our circles too
little attention has been given to the
work among the confirmed youth and
that, even where this has been done, such
work has not. been done systematically
and energetically, with a definite object
in view. As a result, young people’s so-
cieties have often been short-lived, or,
instead of promoting systematic Bible-
study among young Christian people and
awakening an active interest in the work
of the church, these societies have merely
served the purpose of furnishing enter-
tainment and other pastime. For the
purpose of raising the standard of the
work among the young people it is
recommended that such helps as may be
needed, especially for Bible- study, be fur-
nished. We desire to call attention to
the following dangers, to wit: that in
young people’s societies too much prom-
inence will be given to mere entertain-
ment features, while too little attention
is paid to the study of the specific his-
tory and the work of the church; that
a worldly spirit will manifest itself when
entertainments are given; and that at
times there will be a lack of cooperation
between the pastor and his young people.
Young people’s societies and young
people’s leagues shall not arbitrarily do
such work as properly ought to be done
by the congregation or the Synod. If
our young people are properly encour-
aged and guided, they will not only
gladly serve, but they may also become
a great working force in the church. It
should, however, be kept in mind that
young people must not assume to exer-
cise control in the church, but rather
only assist the church in its work.”
The Manual for Young People’s So-
cieties, by E. H. Engelbrecht (Concordia
Publishing House), will prove helpful.
In sectarian churches the young people
are organized into such larger groups as
the Young People’s Society of Christian
Endeavor and the Epworth League. In
the Ev. Luth. Synodical Conference of
North America the larger organization
of young people’s societies is known as
the Walther League (g.v.). See Boys’
and Girls’ Clubs.
Young Women’s Christian Asso-
ciation of the United States of
America. This society originated as
a Union Prayer Circle, formed in New
York by Mrs. Marshall O. Roberts. The
name was changed in the same year to
Ladies’ Christian Association. Its pur-
pose was “to labor for the temporal,
moral, and religious welfare of young
self-supporting women.” In 1866 the
name was changed to Ladies’ Christian
Union, and in the same year the Young
Yukon
832 Ziegentiali!, Snrtholamitttflll
Women’s Christian Association of Bos-
ton was organized. In the course of
years similar organizations were founded,
which then developed into the present
Young Women’s Christian Association.
Its purpose is to look after the mental,
physical, social, and spiritual interests
of young women. Any young woman of
good moral character may become a
member. In character, work, and
methods the organization closely re-
sembles the Young Men’s Christian Asso-
ciation (q.v.). A Young Women’s Chris-
tian Association of Great Britain and
Ireland was organized in 181)5. The
unionistic character of these organiza-
tions is their most unfortunate trait.
Yukon. See Canada.
Zahn, Franz; b. June 4, 1833, at
Moerss, Germany; d. March 5, 1900;
inspector of North German Missionary
Society 1862; founder of Continental
Missions Conference 1866; voluminous
author.
Zahn, Gottfried; b. 1705, d. 1768;
founder of the orphanage at Bunzlau,
which, however, was closed by his ene-
mies in 1763, while he and the teacher
were imprisoned. He, however, won
Woltersdorf for his cause, and the king
granted him a permit to open another
orphanage in 1754.
Zahn, Johannes, 1817 — 95; studied
theology at Erlangen and Berlin; teacher
at Lehrerseminar in Altdorf, lived in
Neuendettelsau after retirement; prom-
inent hymnologist and church musician;
edited Bavarian Choralbuch, also Die
Melodien der deutsch-evangelischen Kir-
chenlieder.
Zahn, Theodor; h. 1838; professor
at Goettingen, Kiel, Erlangen, Leipzig;
1892 at Erlangen as professor of New
Testament Exegesis as successor to von
Hofmann. He is considered the leader
of conservatives in New Testament criti-
cism, in opposition to the radicalism of
Adolf Harnack. Zahn’s crowning work
of New Testament studies is the monu-
mental Einleitung in das Neue Testa-
ment (Engl, trans.). His valuable Com'-
mentary on the New Testament, on
which noted theologians are collaborat-
ing with him, is nearing completion.
Zarathustra. See Zoroaster.
Zehner, Samuel, 1594 — 1635; b. at
Suhl, south of the Thuringian Forest;
at time of his death superintendent in
Schleusingen ; wrote: ‘‘Ach Gott, gib
du uns deine Gnad’ ” while a suburb was
being sacked.
Zeisberger, David, Moravian mis-
sionary among the Indians; b. April 11,
1721, at Zanchtenthal, Moravia; d. No-
vember 17, 1808, at Goshen, 0. Having
emigrated from Saxony to Georgia 1738,
he removed to Pennsylvania 1740, found-
ing the towns of Bethlehem and Naza-
reth. 1743 he entered upon missionary
work among the Indians, laboring among
the Delawares, Iroquois, and others. But
his work suffered grievously through the
wars. Zeisberger, at various times,
founded towns for his Indian flocks, such
as Friedenstadt, Schoenbrunn, Gnaden-
huetten (in Ohio), New Salem, 0., Go-
shen, O.; but almost all were destroyed.
He labored among the Indians from 1743
to 1808, loved and honored as a father.
Zeller, Christian Henry ; born
March 29, 1779, in Castle Hohen-Entrin-
gen, near Tuebingen; died May 18, 1860,
in Beuggen; studied law at Tuebingen
1797 — 1801; later made instructor and
school superintendent at Zofingen ; helped
establish a seminary and a home for
poor children at Beuggen 1820, which he
conducted according to the ideas of Pes-
talozzi and in a somewhat Pietistic man-
ner ; wrote : Lehren der Krfahrung, flee-
ter lehre.
Zenana Mission. See Missions.
Zend-Avesta, i. e., Avesta with com-
mentaries (Zend), sacred scriptures of
Zoroastrianism (q.v.) and the Parsees
(q.v.), consisting of three parts, Yasna
(liturgical texts), Vendidad (ritual
laws), and Yaslits (poems, containing
mythology and legends of ancient Iran).
The most important and oldest part of
the Yasna are the Gathas, hymns, most
of which are attributed to Zoroaster
(q.V.).
Zesen, Philipp von, 1619 — 89; b. at
Priorau; studied at Wittenberg with
Paul Gerhardt; lived as literary man
in several cities, last in Hamburg;
wrote : “O Fuerstenkind aus Davids
Stamm.”
Zezschwitz, Gerhard von; b. 1825,
d. at Erlangen 1886; modern conser-
vative Lutheran theologian ; professor
of theology at Leipzig, Giessen, Erlan-
gen; a prolific writer, chiefly on prac-
tical theology and catechetics; exerted
great personal influence as teacher and
preacher.
Ziegenbalg, Bartholomaeus, the
first German Lutheran missionary to
India; b. at Pulsnitz, Saxony, June 14,
Ziegler, Kaspar
833
Zionism
1683; d. at Tranquebar, India, Febru-
ary 23, 1719. Educated by August Her-
mann Francke at Halle, Ziegenbalg and
Heinrich Pluetschau were sent by Fred-
erick IV of Denmark as missionaries to
India, arriving at Tranquebar, India,
July, 1706, Surmounting much opposi-
tion on the part both of the Danish
governor in India and the Hindus, he
learned the vernacular in a year, did
great missionary work, founded a school
for native helpers, built a church, still
in use to-day, engaged in much literary
work, and translated the New Testament
and % large part of the Old Testament
into Tamil. With the assistance of
B. Schultze (Madras) and J. E. Gruend-
ler the translation of the whole Bible
was completed and published in 1728,
being the first translation of the Bible
into one of the languages of India. In
1715 Ziegenbalg returned to Germany
because of ill health, calling forth much
enthusiasm by his addresses and reports.
King George I of England, to whom
Ziegenbalg had been presented, wrote
him, expressing satisfaction, “not only
because the work undertaken by you of
converting the heathen to the Christian
faith doth, by the grace of God, prosper,
lmt also because that in this our king-
dom such a laudable zeal for promotion
of the Gospel prevails.” In 1719 Ziegen-
balg again set out for Tranquebar, but
passed away soon after his arrival, at
the age of "thirty-six years. The influ-
ence of Ziegenbalg and Pluetschau was
long felt in India, and their methods of
missionary work are considered norma-
tive to the present day.
Ziegler, Kaspar, 1621 — 90; studied
law, also theology; practised with great
success; friend of Abraham Calov; at
time of his death professor of law at
Wittenberg; wrote: “Ich freue mich
in dir.”
Ziethe, Wilhelm; b. 1824, d. 1901;
noted preacher of the positive type of
the Prussian Union; from 1861 to 1895
pastor in Berlin; very popular.
Zihn, Johann Friedrich, 1650 — 1719;
studied at Leipzig and Wittenberg; rec-
tor of school at Suhl, his home; then
diaconus, finally archidiaconus; wrote:
“Gott lebet noch; Seele, was verzagst
du doch.”
Ziller, Tuiskon; b, 1817 at Wasun-
gen. d. 1882; educated at Meiningen and
Leipzig; lectured at Leipzig; opened
his pedagogical seminary in 1864;
founded the Association for Scientific
Pedagogy in 1869. Ziller developed and
applied to public schools Herbart’s ideas,
emphasized the moral end of education,
Concordia Cj’clopedia
demanded that the different parts of
study be graded, associated, and unified,
history and religion forming the core
around which all other subjects are
grouped; theory of “concentration.” All
instruction to contribute to the training
of a strong moral character. Works:
Foundation of the Doctrine of Educative
Instruction; General Pedagogy.
Zillerthaler Emigration, an emigra-
tion of about four hundred persons, who,
to escape the persecution following their
secession from the Roman Catholic
Church, left their native valley (Ziller-
thal) in Tyrol and found a domicile in
Silesia. The emigration took place in
1837, and the exiles united with the
Protestant Church of Prussia.
Zimmerman, John L. ; prominent
layman in Lutheran General Synod;
b. 1856 in Ohio; graduated from Wit-
tenberg College 1878; author of the
“Merger” resolution in 1918; home in
Springfield, O.; d. — .
Zinzendorf, Nicholas Lewis, Count,
1700 — 60; founder of reorganized Mora-
vian Church, or Unity of Brethren; b. at
Dresden; grew up in Pietistic surround-
ings; made friends with Catholic and
Reformed notables on his travels; pur-
chased Berthelsdorf, where he wished to
build up a community of heart-and-soul
Christians; settled body of Moravians
on part of his estate, colony being called
Herrnhut (1722); expelled from Sax-
ony; made Moravian bishop in Berlin
1737 ; traveled extensively in Europe
and America, establishing Moravian col-
onies (Bethlehem, Pa.) ; passed his lat-
ter days in somewhat depressing circum-
stances at Herrnhut; wrote many
hymns strongly subjective in character,
e' g., Jesus, Thy Blood and Righteousness
(see J. Wesley), and many not in keep-
ing with the dignity of the Church.
Zion City. See Dowieites.
Zionism. A modern Jewish move-
ment. whose objects are to create an
asylum for oppressed and persecuted
Jews and to preserve Judaism from be-
coming submerged in the culture of other
peoples. Throughout the centuries Jews
have yearned for a Jewish homeland, and
this yearning always became intense dur-
ing persecutions. The anti-Semitism in
Europe in the second half of the 19th
century resulted in attempts to settle
Jews in Palestine; but no organization
was effected, until Theodor Herzl, a
Viennese physician (1860 — 1904), wrote
Der Judenstaat, 1896, which resulted in
the first Zionist Congress at Basel, 1897,
where the Zionist organization was
formed and the program formulated “to
53
Zoar Separatists
834
Zoroastrianism
establish for the Jewish people a pub-
licly recognized, legally secured, home in
Palestine.” Numerous congresses have
been held since, the organization num-
bering 800,000 in 1020. However, noth-
ing was achieved until the World War,
when Zionism entered a new phase. En-
gland and the United States became the
centers of Zionist propaganda. In 1917
Balfour expressed the British govern-
ment’s approval of the movement and
proposals intended to “ultimately render
possible the creation of an autonomous
commonwealth” for the Jews, were
adopted at the San Remo peace confer-
ence, 1920, but nothing has come of it
since. The movement is purely national-
istic and not religious (Messianic). It
lias falsely been considered by many as
a fulfilment of prophecy (Ezek. 37, Is.
66, 20, et al.) and as one of the world
events that usher in the “Millennium.”
Zoar Separatists. See Communistic
Societies.
Zoeckler, Otto; b. 1833, d. 1900;
prominent Lutheran theologian of the
Prussian Union influenced by the Er-
langen School; Privatdozent at Giessen;
professor at Greifswald to the end of his
life. Zoeckler was a prolific writer,
chiefly on apologetic subjects regarding
the inner harmony of revealed religion
and true science. The best book on these
is perhaps his C totteszeugen im Reich der
Natur. He wrote commentaries in
Lange’s Commentary, with H. L. Straek
edited a commentary on the Bible;
editor of Ilandbuch der theologischen
Wissenschaften and of the Evcmgelische
Kirchenzeitung (founded by Hengsten-
berg) .
Zorn, C. M., D. D. See Roster at end
of book. •
Zoroaster, Grecized name of Zara-
thustra, founder of Zoroastrianism ( g . r.)
and alleged author of Zend-Avesta (g. v.).
Exact time and place of birth and place
of activity unknown; but it seems as-
sured that he lived a considerable time
before the 0th century B. C. in Iran.
Details of his life also shrouded in ob-
scurity, but tradition tells the following:
B. 660 B. C. At age of thirty he received
revelations from Ahura Mazdah regard-
ing new monotheism which he was to
preach in opposition to contemporary
polytheism. For eleven years he went
from court to court in Iran without
success, until he converted King Vish-
taspa, 618 B. C., through whose influence
the new religion spread widely. Was
slain at the age of seventy -seven in a re-
ligious war.
Zoroastrianism. The religion of Per-
sia prior to the Mohammedan conquest.
Its traditional founder is Zoroaster
(q.v.), its sacred book the Avesta (q.v.).
Other sources are texts written in Pali-
lavi, the medieval Persian, collected dur-
ing the third to the ninth century, of
which the most important is the Bu n-
dahishn, a work containing cosmogony,
mythology, and legend. Before Zoroaster
the religion of the Persians was a poly-
theistic nature-worship, closely related
to that of Vedic India (see Brahmanism).
Among their deities were Mithra, the
sun god, Ahura Mazdah, or “Wise ^ord,”
the sky god, a fire spirit, numerous evil
spirits, called daevas. This nature-wor-
ship was reformed by Zoroaster in the
direction of a practical monotheism. Of
the old gods he chose Ahura Mazdah
(later Persian, Ormuzd) and ascribed to
him absolute supremacy, rejecting all
other gods. The name Mazdeism, there-
fore, is also applied to the Avestan re-
ligion. Zoroaster also taught an ethical
dualism, which, as Zoroastrianism devel-
oped during the following centuries,
became more and more pronounced and
the most characteristic doctrine of the
system. Beside Ahura Mazdah, who is
the creator of the universe, the guardian
of mankind, the source of all that is
good, and who demands righteousness
of his people, there existed from eternity
a powerful evil spirit, Angra Mainyu, or
Ahriman, who is the source of all evil
and the implacable opponent of Ahura
Mazdah and who endeavors to lead men
from the path of virtue. Between these
two spirits is man, who has a free will
to choose between good and evil and will
be rewarded or punished accordingly.
Characteristic of the system also is a
well-developed angelology and eschatol-
ogy. Associated with Ahura Mazdah are
a large number of good spirits, presided
over by six archangels, the Ameslia
Spentas, or “Immortal Holy Ones,” who
are personified attributes of the supreme
deity and regarded as his main agencies.
They are: Good Thought, Best Right-
eousness, Wished-for Kingdom, Harmony
on Earth, Salvation, Immortality. Op-
posed to the good spirits and associated
with Ahriman is a hierarchy of evil
spirits. The conflict between these two
forces will continue until the end of the
world cycle, which consists of 12,000
years, when Ahura Mazdah will finally
triumph and Ahriman be overthrown.
The last period of 3,000 years of this
cycle begins with Zoroaster’s prophetic
career. Zoroaster’s ethical code lays
great stress on “good thoughts, good
words, good deeds.” To be good, how-
Zoroastrianism
835
Zwingli, Ulrich
ever, means chiefly to abstain from
demon-worship and to worship Ahura
Mazdah and follow his precepts. Body
and soul must be kept pure. It is also
man’s religious duty to foster agricul-
ture, cattle-raising, and irrigation, to
protect especially the cow and the dog,
to abstain from lying and robbery. The
elements of earth, fire, and water must
l>e kept from defilement. Because of the
last injunction Zoroastrians neither bury
nor cremate their dead, as thereby earth
and fire would be defiled, but expose
them to vultures on “towers of silence.”
Forgiveness of sins has no place in the
system; sins must be counterbalanced
by good works. Three days after death
the souls cross the Cinvat bridge to be
judged, the righteous passing on to
heaven, the wicked to the tortures of
hell. If good and evil deeds balance
exactly, the soul passes to an inter-
mediate place, called Hamestakan, where
it experiences neither bliss nor torture.
At the Last Day all men will be raised
from the dead and subjected to another
ordeal. They must pass through molten
metal, which causes joy to the good, but
extreme pain to the wicked. After that
all souls, even of the wicked, being puri-
fied, will be taken to heaven and a new
world established, which shall endure to
eternity. Zoroaster’s teachings did not
involve a ritual. Later, however, a com-
plete ceremonial worship and a priest-
hood developed (see Magi). Important
rites were the preparation of the liaoma,
a sacred drink, and in later centuries
fire ceremonies (see Fire-worshipers).
Marriage was a religious duty and inter-
marriage of those closely related, even
of brother and sister, was permitted.
Zoroastrianism made considerable prog-
ress under the Achaemenian kings (558
to 331 B. C.) ; but whether it was uni-
versally accepted during that period is
not known. It received a setback through
the conquest of Persia by Alexander the
Great, and under Greek and Parthian
rule had difficulty in maintaining itself.
In the Neo-Persian empire (225 to 637
A. D.), under the Sassanid dynasty, it
again became the dominant religion; but
after the Moslem conquest it began to
decline rapidly, yielding to Shiite (q.v.)
Mohammedanism. Less than 10,000
Zoroastrians are found in Persia to-day,
mainly in Yezd. Due to Moslem perse-
cution many Zoroastrians emigrated to
India, where they settled chiefly in the
Bombay presidency. These are the Par-
sees (q.v.). They number 101,778 (cen-
sus of 1921 ) .
Zucker, F., D. D. See Roster at end
of book.
Zuetphen. See Heinrich Moeller vo n
Zuetphen.
Zwick, Johannes, ca. 1496 — 1542;
studied at various universities; priest
in 1518, at Riedlingen in 1522; evan-
gelical preacher at Constance, finally at
Bischofszell, where he died of the pesti-
lence; wrote: “Auf diesen Tag gedenken
wir.”
Zwingli, Ulrich, 1484 — 1531; founder
of Swiss Reformed Church; b. at Wild-
haus; received humanistic education;
became parish priest, exhibiting lively
papal, patriotic, and political interests,
at Glarus 1506 — 16 (began to study
Greek 1513 and was field chaplain of
Swiss forces at battles of Novara and
Marignano), at Einsiedeln (ridiculed in-
dulgences as a comedy, but sought and
received appointment as papal acolyte ) ,
and at Zurich 1519. Only in 1520, under
the influence of Luther’s writings, which
he had read and spread, did Zwingli
begin real reformatory work, preaching
against fasting and monasticism, main-
taining that the Gospel alone should be
the rule of faith and practise, and giving
up the papal pension. He contracted
a secret marriage 1522; adopted Hoen’s
doctrine of the Eucharist 1524; abol-
ished the Mass 1525; declared (1526)
that the truth of his opinion on the
Eucharist had been revealed to him in
a dream, and called Luther’s interpre-
tation of the words of institution “not
only uncultivated, but wicked and friv-
olous” ; attended Marburg Colloquy 1529
(the only meeting with Luther) ; pub-
lished (1530) his Ratio Fidei, an exposi-
tion of the Christian faith, which shows
that he had indeed a spirit very different
from that of Luther; set on foot far-
reaching politico-religious schemes; hu-
miliated the Catholic cantons 1529, but
fell at Cappel 1531. Like Luther he was
a born musician and fond of company;
unlike Luther, he defended the death
penalty for unbelievers. Both recognized
Scripture as the only authority in re-
ligion, but Zwingli interpreted it to
satisfy his reason.
Roster of Officers and Professors
of the Missouri Synod
as of December 31, 1926.
Albrecht, Max John Frederick.
B. March 10, 1861, at Gross-Polzin, Ger-
many; graduated at St. Louis 1883;
pastor at Lebanon, Dodge Co., Wis.,
1883 — 8; at Janesville, Wis., 1888 — 91;
at Fort Wayne, Ind. (Emmanuel) 1891
to 1893; President of Concordia College,
Milwaukee, Wis., 1893 — 1921; professor
there since 1921.
Arndt, Edward L. B. December 19.
1864, at Bukowni, Pomerania; graduated
at St. Louis, 1885; pastor at Saginaw,
Mich., 1885 — 97; professor at Concordia
College, St. Paul, Minn., 1897 — 1910;
missionary in China since 1913; wrote
Our Task in China.
Arndt, Wm. F. B. December 1, 1880.
at Mayville, Wis., graduated at St. Louis
1903; pastor at Bluff City, Tenn., 1903
to 1905; St. Joseph, Mo., 1905 — 10;
Brooklyn, N. Y., 1910 — 2; professor at
St. Paul’s College, Concordia, Mo., 1912
to 1921; Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo., since 1921 ; M. A. (Chicago); man-
aging editor of Theological Monthly;
wrote Does the Bible Contradict Itself f
Baepler, Andrew. B. July 28, 1850,
at Baltimore, Md. ; graduated at St. Louis
1874; pastor at Dallas, Tex., 1874 — 5;
near Cole Camp, Mo., 1875 — 9; at Mo-
bile, Ala., 1879 — 82; English missionary
for the Western District 1882 — 4; pro-
fessor at St. Paul’s College, Concordia,
Mo., 1884 — 7 and 1899 — 1925; pastor at
Little Rock, Ark., 1894 — 9; D. D. ; pres-
ident of Concordia College, Fort Wavne,
Ind., 1888 — 94; retired 1925.
Baepler, Walter August. B. Sep-
tember 21, 1893, at Fort Wayne, Ind.;
graduated at St. Louis 1914; pastor at
Haultain, Sask., 1915 — 6; at McEachern,
Sask., 1916 — 7; field missionary of Sas-
katchewan and Manitoba 1917 — 20; pas-
tor at Winnipeg, Man., 1920 — 3; vice-
president and Superintendent of Missions
of Manitoba and Saskatchewan District
1922 — 3; professor at Concordia College,
Edmonton, Alta., since 1923.
Barth, Gotthelf Christian. Born
May 12, 1883, at Sandusky, Wis.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1905; pastor at Ber-
trand, Nebr., 1905- — 10; at St. Louis, Mo.
(St. Luke’s), 1910 — 21; secretary of
Foreign Mission Board; president of
Concordia College, Milwaukee, Wis.,
since 1921.
Bartling, Victor. B. December 22,
1896, at Waterford, Wis., graduated at
St. Louis 1919; pastor at BismaTek,
N. Dak., 1919 — 24; at Fargo, N. Dak.,
1925 — 6; professor at Concordia Col-
lege, Milwaukee, Wis., since 1926.
Beck, Albert. B. April 1, 1894, at
Baltimore, Md. ; graduated at River
Forest, 111., 1914; professor at Concor-
dia Teachers’ College, River Forest, 111.,
since 1923.
Behnken, John William. Born
March 19, 1884, at Cypress, Tex.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1906; pastor at Hous-
ton, Tex., since 1906; First Vice-Presi-
dent of the Texas District; President of
the District since 1926.
Behrens, Wm. Henry. B. Decem-
ber 6, 1870, at St. Louis, Mo.; graduated
at St. Louis 1893; pastor at Salt Lake
City, Utah, 1893 — 4; at Tacoma, Wash,
(doing mission-work in practically the
entire State) 1894 — 8; at Portland,
Oreg., 1898 — 1909; at Chester, 111., 1909
to 1924; professor at Concordia Semi-
nary, Springfield, 111., since 1924; Vice-
President of the Oregon and Washington
District 1899—1906; President 1906—9.
Bente, G. Fr. B. January 22, 1858,
at Wimmer, Hanover; graduated at
St. Louis 1881 ; pastor at Ilumberstone,
Stonebridge, and Jordan, Ontario, Can-
ada, 1882 — 93 ; Vice-President of Canada
District 1885; President, 1887 — 93; pro-
fessor at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo., 1893 — 1926; D. D. (Adelaide);
former editor of Lehre und Wehre;
wrote: TF<ts steht der Vereinigung der
lutherischen Synoden Amerikas im
Weget ( lesetz und Evangelium; Ame-
rikanisches Luthertum ; American Lu-
theranism; Concordia Triglottu ( English
text conjointly: with Dr. Dau).
Bente, Paul Fred. B. November 12,
1886, at Humberstone, Canada; gradu-
ated at St. Louis 1911; professor at the
Lutheran College, Clifton, Tex., 1911 — 4;
pastor at Baltimore, Md. (Emmanuel)
1914 — 20; M. A. (Columbia); professor
at Concordia College, Fort Wayne, Ind.,
since 1920.
Bertram, Martin H. B. Septem-
ber 21, 1887, at Upper Moutere, New
Zealand; graduated at St. Louis 1911;
pastor at Didsbury and Bismarck, Alta.,
Canada, 1911 — 4; assistant at Concordia
Roster of Officers anil Professors 838
of the Missouri Synod
College, St. Paul, Minn., 1914 — 6; prin-
cipal of Luther Institute, Fort Wayne,
Ind., 1916 — 21; M. A. (Minnesota);
professor at Concordia College, Fort
Wayne, Ind., since 1921.
Birkner, Henry Philip Ludwig.
B. February 26, 1857, at Brooklyn, N. Y. ;
graduated at St. Louis 1878; New York
University, 1878 — 9; pastor at Gordon-
ville, Mo., 1879 — 86; at St. Louis, Mo.,
1880 — 90; at Boston, Mass., since 1890;
Vice-President of Atlantic District 1915
to 1918; President since 1918.
Blankenbuehler, Lorenz F. B.
B. February 7, 1886, at Webster City,
Iowa; graduated at St. Louis 1911; pro-
fessor at Concordia College, Portland,
Oreg., 1911 — 21; at Concordia College,
St. Paul, Minn., since 1921.
Boeder, Otto Carl August. B. No-
vember 3, 1875, at Memphis, Tenn.;
graduated at St. Louis 1898; pastor at
Ludington, Mich., 1898 — 1906; Grand
Rapids, Mich., 1906 — 9; Chicago, 111.,
1917 — 25; professor at Concordia Semi-
nary, Springfield, 111., 1909 — 17; pro-
fessor at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo., since 1925; managing editor of
Homiletic Magazine.
Brand, Frederick. B. September 9,
1863, at Eden, N. Y. ; graduated at
St. Louis, 1886; pastor at Braddock, Pa.,
1886—93; at Pittsburgh, Pa., 1893 to
1903; at Springfield, 111., 1903 — 20;
President of Central Illinois District,
Missouri Synod, 1907 — 17 ; Vice-Presi-
dent of Missouri Synod since 1917 ;
Director of Foreign Missions since 1920;
visited Foreign Mission fields in China
and in India 1921 — 2; China, 1926.
Brandt, Edmund. B. November 16,
1886, at Sebewaing, Mich.; graduated
at St. Louis 1911; pastor at Vancouver,
B. C., 1911 — 18; at Everett, Wash.,
1918 — 21 ; professor at Portland, Oreg.,
since 1921.
Bretscher, Paul. B. November 11,
1893, at Wausau, Wis.; graduated at
St. Louis 1915; assistant instructor at
River Forest 1915 — 8; pastor at Mil-
waukee, Wis., 1918 — 23; professor at
River Forest, 111., since 1923.
Broecker, Wm. B. September 1,
1859, at Chicago, 111.; graduated at
St. Louis 1882; pastor at Farnham,
N. Y., later at Silver Creek, N. Y. ; at
Kendallville, Ind.; at Pittsburgh, Pa.,
since 1896; Vice-President of Eastern
District, 1906 — 16, 1919 — 21; President
since 1921.
Brohm, Arthur. B. April 8, 1882,
at Addison, 111.; graduated at St. Louis
1905; pastor at Napa, Cal., 1905 — 12;
at San Francisco, Cal., since 1912; Pres-
ident of California and Nevada District
since 1924.
Brohm, Theodore Charles. B. No-
vember 23, 1879, at Addison, 111.; grad-
uated at St, Louis 1903; pastor in
Detroit, Mich,, 1903 — 9; President? of
California Concordia College, Oakland,
Cal., since 1909.
Brommer, Carl Fred. B. March 30,
1870, in Wuerttemberg, Germany; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1891 ; pastor at
Tampa, Fla., 1891 — 6; at Houston, Tex.,
1896 — 1901; at Cheyenne, Wyo., 1902 to
1904; at Beatrice, Nebr., 1904 — 11; at
Hampton, Nebr., 1911—24; President of
Concordia Teachers’ Seminary, Seward,
Nebr., since 1924; President of Nebraska
District 1915 — 22; President of South-
ern Nebraska District 1922 — 4.
Brunn, Fred, Sr. B. December 23,
1855, at Steeden, Germany; graduated
at St. Louis 1876; pastor at Jefferson
(Mayfair, Chicago), 111,, 1876—81; at
Strasburg, 111., 1881 — 95; at Oak Glen
and Lansing, 111., since 1895; Vice-Pres-
ident of Northern Illinois District 1907;
President since 1913.
Buchheimer, Louis B. B. March 23,
1872, at Detroit, Mich., graduated at
St. Louis 1893; professor at Concordia
College, Conover, N. C., 1893 — 6; pastor
at Memphis, Tenn., 1896 — 1902; at
St, Louis (Redeemer) since 1902; Vice-
President of English District 1918 — 21 ;
secretary of Synod’s Literature Board;
secretary of Electoral College, Concordia
Seminary; wrote: Faith and Duty;
From Advent to Advent; First Things
First; Sermons on Romanism; The
Christian Warfare; The First Gospel
and Other Sermons; edited Great Leaders
and Great Events.
Buenger, Theodore Henry Carl.
B. April 29, 1860, at Chicago, 111.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1882; home mission-
ary (29 places) in N. W. Wisconsin 1882
to 1884; pastor at Tinley Park and Or-
land, 111., 1884 — 91; at St. Paul, Minn.,
1891 — 3; professor at Concordia Col-
lege, St. Paul, Minn., 1893 — 6; D. D.
(St. Louis); President of Concordia
College, St. Paul, Minn., 1893 — 1927;
professor there since 1927.
Burhop, Wm. Carl. B. October 21,
1884, at Fraser, Mich.; graduated at
St, Louis 1908; pastor at Kansas City,
Mo. (St. Paul) 1908 — 12; at Baltimore,
Md. (Redeemer) 1912 — 7; professor at
Concordia College, Fort Wayne, Ind.,
1917 — 26; President of college since
1926.
Router of Officers and Professors 839
of the Missouri Synod
Choleher, William Henry Ferdi-
nand. B. April 3, 1864, at Lanz, Pom-
erania; graduated at Springfield 1889;
pastor at Deshler, Nebr. ; Vice-President
of Nebraska District 1903 — 22; Vice-
President of Southern Nebraska District
1922 — 4; President since 1924.
Coyner, Martin Henry. B. Janu-
ary 15, 1890, at Waynesboro, Va.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1913; professor at
Concordia College, Conover, N. C., since
1913.
Daib, Samuel William Herman.
B. August 26, 1862, in Bern Tp., Fair-
field County, O.; graduated at St. Louis
1884; pastor at Wittenberg, Wis., 1884
to 1887; at Antigo, Wis., 1887 — 8; at
Merrill, Wis., where he still resides,
1888 — 1924; President of Wisconsin Dis-
trict 1906 — 16 ; of North Wisconsin Dis-
trict since 1918; since 1924 also Direc-
tor of Missions of his District.
Dallmann, William. B. Decem-
ber 22, 1862, at Neu Damerow, Pom-
erania; graduated at St. Louis 1886;
pastor at Marshfield, Mo.; Baltimore,
Md.; New York, N. Y.; Milwaukee,
Wis.; President of English Synod 1899
to 1901; Vice-President, 1901 — 9; Vice-
President of Missouri Synod since 1926;
D. D. (St. Louis); editor of Lutheran
Witness 1891 — 5; coeditor: Sunday-
school Book; Ev. Luth. Hymn-book;
wrote: Follow Jesus; Great Religious
Americans; Jesus; John Hus; John
Wiclif; Luther’s Small Catechism unth
Short Explmiations for Busy People;
Luther the Liberator ; Martin Luther;
Patrick Hamilton; Paul Gerhardt ; Por-
traits of Jesus; Robert Barnes; Wil-
liam Tyndale ; The Christian; The Ten
Commandments Explained in Sermonic
Lectures; The Lord’s Prayer; The
Titles of the Christians in the New Tes-
tament ; The Battle of the Bible with
the “Bibles"; Miles Coverdale.
Dau, William Herman Theodore.
B. February 8, 1864, at Lauenburg, Pom-
erania; graduated at St. Louis, 1886;
pastor at Memphis, Tenn.; professor at
Concordia College, Conover, N. C., 1892
to 1899; professor at Concordia Sem-
inary, St. Louis, Mo., 1905 — 26; Vice-
President of Central District 1903 — 5;
President of Valparaiso University (Lu-
theran) since 1926; D. D. (Adelaide);
editor of Lutheran Witness; English
Department of Homiletic Magazine;
managing editor of Theological Quar-
terly and Theological Monthly; consult-
ing editor of Alma Mater; edited: Four
Hundred Years; Ebenezer; wrote: At
the Tribunal of Caesar; The Great Re-
nunciation; He Loved Me and Gave
Himself for Me; The Leipzig Debate in
1519; Luther Examined, and Reexam-
ined; joint author, with Dr. A. L. Graeb-
ner and Dr. L. Wessel, of Proof-texts of
the Catechism, with a Practical Com-
mentary.
Diesing, Arthur E. B. August 14,
1893, at Detroit, Mich.; graduated at-
Addison 1912; Ph. B. (Chicago); teacher
at Carlinville, 111., 1912 — 5; Quincy, 111.,
1915—21; Elgin, HI., 1921—3; profes-
sor at Concordia Teachers’ College, River
Forest', 111., since 1923.
Dobberfuhl, William August. Born
November 9, 1889, at Freistadt, Wis.;
graduated at St. Louis 1913; pastor at
Detroit, Mich., 1913 — -23; professor at
Concordia College, St. Paul, Minn., since
1923.
Drewes, Christopher Fred John.
B. January 12, 1870, at Wolcottsville,
N. Y.; graduated at St. Louis 1892;
pastor at Memphis, Tenn., 1892 — 5; at
Hannibal, Mo., 1895 — 1905; at St. Louis,
Mo. (Bethany), 1905 — 17; Director of
Negro Missions since 1917 ; editor of
Missionstaube since 1911; of Concordia
Sunday-school Lessons; wrote: Dr. M.
Luther’s Small Catechism, Explained by
Way of Questions and Answers; Weis-
sagung und Erfuellung; Half a Century
of Lutheranism (Colored Missions).
Eifert, Rudolph. B. July 11, 1884,
at Pembroke, Ont., Can.; graduated at
St. Louis 1907 ; pastor at Tavistock,
Ont., 1907 — 13; at Elmira, Ont., 1914 to
1917; professor at California Concordia
College since 1918; M. A. (U. of Cali-
fornia) .
Eifrig, Charles William Gustav.
B. September 23, 1871, at Doebeln, Sax-
ony; graduated at St. Louis 1895; pas-
tor at McKees Rocks, Pa., 1895 — 9; at
Cumberland, Md., 1899 — 1903; at Ot-
tawa, Can., 1903 — 9; professor at Con-
cordia Teachers’ College, River Forest,
111., since 1909; President of the Canada
District 1906 — 9.
Engelbrecht, Ernest Henry. B. De-
cember 23, 1870, at Farmers Retreat,
Ind.; graduated at Addison 1891;
teacher at Kendallville, Ind., 1891 — 1901 ;
at New York City: Immanuel, 1901 to
1911; at St. Matthew’s, 1911 — 15; pro-
fessor at Concordia Teachers’ College,
River Forest, 111., since 1915.
Engelder, Theodore. B. January 21,
1865, at Olean, N. Y. ; graduated at
St. Louis 1886; pastor at Sugar Grove
and Logan, 0., 1886 — 90; at Mount
Clemens, Mich., 1890 — 1914; professor
at Concordia Seminary, Springfield, 111.,
1914 — 26; professor at Concordia Semi-
Roster of Officers and Professors 840
of the Missouri Synod
nary, St. Louis since 1926 ; Vice-Presi-
dent of Michigan District, 1963 — 12;
President, 1912 — 4; D. D. (St. Louis).
Ergang, Berthold Hugo. B. May 22,
1894, at Lutzk, Russia; graduated at
Porto Alegre 1915; first professor at
preparatory school, Crespo, Argentine
Republic.
Fehner, H. Bernard. B. Decem-
ber 26, 1863, at Hanover, Germany;
graduated from Normal Department,
Central Wesleyan College, Warrenton,
Mo., 1886; Addison, 1888; teacher at
Louisville, Ky., 1888 — 96; at Cleve-
land, 0. (Trinity), 1896 — 1906; pro-
fessor at Concordia Teachers’ Seminary,
Seward, Nebr., since 1906; A. M. (Ne-
braska) ; wrote: Summary of United
States History and Civil Government ;
Outlines for Catecheses and The Tech-
nique of Questioning.
Feth, John Henry Frederick. Born
February 10, 1861, at Cleveland, 0.;
graduated at St. Louis 1883; assistant
pastor at New York, N. Y. ( St. Mat-
thew’s), 1883 — 5; pastor at New Haven,
Conn., 1885 — 8; professor of Concordia
Institute, Bronxville, N. Y., 1888 — 96;
President of Concordia Institute, Bronx-
ville, N. Y., 1896 — 1918; professor there
since 1918.
Fredericks, Charles Francis. Born
April 29, 1890, at Brooklyn, N. Y.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1919; professor at
Conover, N. C., since 1919.
Fritz, John H. C. B. July 30, 1874,
at Martins Ferry, O.; graduated at
St. Louis 1897 ; pastor at Bismarck, Mo.,
1897 — 1901; Brooklyn, N. Y., 1901—14;
St. Louis, Mo. (Bethlehem), 1914 — 20;
dean at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo., since 1920; Vice-President of Wes-
tern District 1915 — 9; President, 1919
to 1920; wrote: Church Finances; The
Practical Missionary ; Principles of
Teaching ; Gideon; Immanuel.
Fuerbringer, Ludwig Ernest. Born
March 29, 1804, at Frankenmuth, Mich.;
graduated at St. Louis 1885; pastor at
Frankenmuth, Mich., 1885 — 93; profes-
sor at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo., since 1893; D. D. (Adelaide);
Vice-President of Synodical Conference
since 1920; Corresponding Secretary for
Foreign Connections; editor of Luthe-
raner; former editor of Statistical Year-
Book; editor of: Synodical Handbook
of the Ev. Luth. Synod of Missouri, Ohio,
and Other States; Dr. Walthers Brief e;
Men and Missions Series; revised
edition of Guenther’s Populaere Sym-
bolik; printed as manuscript: Theolo-
gische Hermeneutik ; Theological Her-
meneutics; Liturgik; Einleitung in das
Alte Testament ; Einleitung in das Neue
Testament ; Introduction to the Old Tes-
tament; wrote Book of Job.
Gaertner, H. C. B. June 19, 1869, at
Ida, Monroe Co., Mich. ; graduated at
Addison 1891; teacher at Detroit, Mich.
(St. Peter’s), 1891 — 1902; at Buffalo,
N. Y. (First Trinity), 1902—5; at
Detroit, Mich.: Trinity, 1905 — 7;
St. Peter’s, 1907 — 20; professor at River
Forest, 111., since 1920.
Gieseler, Carl Albert. B. June 7,
1888, at Racine, Wis. ; graduated at
St. Louis 1913; pastor in Detroit, Mich.,
1913 — 24; professor at St.John’s Col-
lege in Winfield, Kans., since 1924.
Graebner, Frederick C. B. Octo-
ber 8, 1862, at St. Charles, Mo.; gradu-
ated at St. Louis 1885; pastor at Se-
dalia, Mo., 1885 — 9; at Topeka, Kans.,
1889 — 97 ; at Bay City, Mich., 1897 to
1903; President of College and Seminary
at Adelaide, Australia, since 1903; D. D.
( St. Louis ) .
Graebner, Martin. B. September 22,
1879, at Milwaukee, Wis.; graduated at
St. Louis 1901 ; pastor at Cushing, Okla.,
1901 — 2; at Oklahoma City, Okla., 1902
to 1910; professor at Winfield, Kans.,
1910 — 22; professor at Concordia Col-
lege, Milwaukee, Wis., since 1922.
Graebner, Theodore. B. Novem-
ber 23, 1876, at Watertown, Wis.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1897 ; professor at
Walther College, St. Louis, 1897 — 1900;
at Ladies’ Seminary, Red Wing, Minn.,
1900 — 6; pastor at Chicago, 111., 1907 to
1913; professor at Concordia Seminary,
St. Louis, Mo., since 1913; editor of Lu-
theran Witness; member of Board for
Young People’s Work and of St. Louis
Seminary Building Committee ; wrote :
Evolution; Dark Ages; From Darkness
to Light; Paul the Apostle ; Paulus, der
Apostel; Lutheran Pioneers; Lutheri-
sche Pioniere ; Life of Christ; Das Licht
aus Wittenberg ; The Light from Witten-
berg; Story of Our Church in America;
Gottes Wort und Luthers Lehr’; Jesu
Gleichnisreden ; Die Apostel Jesu; Das
Reich der Liebe ; Durch Kampf zum
Sieg ; Holy Mountains ; Heilige Berge;
Spiritism; Prophecy and the War;
Love’s Kingdom; Peace on Earth; Silent •
Night, Holy Night; Memorial Stones;
Letters to a Masonic Friend; Treatise on
Freemasonry ; The Christmas Star; When
the Christ-child Comes; Weihnachtsglanz
im Heidenlande ; Pastor as Student, etc.
Grueber, Henry. B. November 21,
1877, at Frankenmuth, Mich.; graduated
at St. Louis 1901 ; pastor at Mount
Roster of Officers and Professors
841
of the Missouri Synod
Pleasant, Mich., 1901 — 5; Saginaw,
Mich., 1905 — 19; Milwaukee, Wis., since
1919; President of South Wisconsin Dis-
trict since 1921.
Haase, K. B. September 28, 1871, at
Chicago, 111.; graduated at Addison
1891; teacher at Portage, Wis., 1891 — 8;
at Milwaukee, Wis., 1898 — 1906; profes-
sor at Concordia Teachers’ College,
Seward, Nebr., since 1906; wrote: Rudi-
ments of Music; Anthems and Hymns;
Fellow, American Guild of Organists.
Hagen, Carl Frederick William.
B. September 30, 1859, at Sterley, Ger-
many; graduated at St. Louis 1885;
pastor at Ludington (and Riverton),
Mich., 1885 — 98; at Detroit, Mich. (Im-
manuel), since 1898; chairman of Board
of Directors of the Society of the
Ev. Luth. Deaf-mute Institute, Detroit,
Mich., 1899 — 1914; chairman of General
Board of Control 1914 — 20; member of
Board of Directors' of Synod since 1920.
Hansen, Walter A. B. May 21,
1894; graduated at St. Louis 1916; as-
sistant at Springfield, 111., 1916 — 7 ;
pastor at Strasburg, 111., 1917 — 8; pro-
fessor at Fort Wayne, Ind., since 1918.
Hardt, Henry Louis. B. October 26,
1878, at Steeden, Germany; graduated
at Addison 1898; teacher at Cedarburg,
Wis., 1898 — 1906; at Milwaukee, Wis.
(St. Peter’s Lutheran School, Wisconsin
Synod), 1906 — 9; at Lincoln, Nebr,,
1909 — 16; at Milwaukee, Wis. (Zion
Lutheran School), 1916 — 21; professor
at Concordia Teachers’ College, Seward,
Nebr., since 1921.
Harms, John Frederick William.
B. November 1, 1855, at Gruenhagen,
Hanover; graduated at St. Louis 1880;
pastor at Bancroft, Cuming County,
Nebr., since 1880; Vice-President of
Nebraska District 1900 — 22; President
of Northern Nebraska District since
1922.
Harstad, Oliver. B. June 18, 1889;
graduated at Luther College, Decorali,
Iowa, 1914; teacher at Luther Academy,
Albert Lea, Minn., 1914 — 8; professor
at Concordia College, St. Paul, Minn.,
since 1923.
Hattstaedt, Otto Frederick. B. De-
cember 31, 1862, Monroe, Mich.; gradu-
ated at St. Louis 1884; professor at
Concordia College, Milwaukee, Wis.,
since 1884; wrote: Handbuch der deut-
schen Nationalliteratur and Deutsche
Grammatik fuer amerikwnische hoehere
Schulen; edited Liederschatz.
Hausmann, Theodore William.
B. July 22, 1894, at New Britain, Conn.;
graduated at St. Louis 1917 ; assistant
professor at Concordia College, Milwau-
kee, Wis., 1917 — 9; professor at Concor-
dia Institute, Bronxville, N. Y., since
1919; M. A. (Columbia).
Heinrichsmeyer, Louis Frederick.
B. November 1. 1881, at St. Louis, Mo.;
graduated at St. Louis 1905; pastor in
Bates County, Mo.. 1905 — 7 ; professor
at Concordia Institute. Bronxville, N. Y.,
since 1907.
Heintze, Richard Wilhelm. B. No-
vember 11, 1868, at Berlin, Germany;
graduated at St. Louis 1890; pastor at
West Hoboken, N. J., 1890 — 4; professor
at Concordia Institute, Bronxville, N. Y.,
1894 — -1926; M. A. (Columbia); libra-
rian at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo., since 1926.
Hemmeter, Henry Bernard. B. De-
cember 24, 1869, at Baltimore, Md. ;
graduated at St. Louis 1892; pastor at
Baltimore, Md. (Jackson Square), 1892
to 1895; at Pittsburgh, Pa. (St. An-
drew’s), 1895 — 1902; professor at Con-
cordia College, Conover, N. C., 1902 — 5 ;
also editor of Lutheran Witness; pastor
at Pittsburgh, Pa. (Trinity), 1905 — 8;
at St, Louis, Mo., 1908 — 14; President
of Concordia College, Conover, N. C.,
1914 — 8; pastor at Rochester, N. Y.,
since 1918; Vice-President of Eastern
District since 1921; M. A., D. D., (Le-
noir) ; chairman of Mission Board of
English Synod, Publication Board of
English Synod, and Church Extension
Board of Eastern District.
Henrichs, Karl H. B. March 29,
1897, at Cleveland, 0.; graduated at
St. Louis 1920; assistant pastor at
Cleveland, 0. ( St. Paul’s ) , 1920 — 2 ; as-
sistant professor at Concordia College,
Fort Wayne, Ind., 1922 — 6; professor
there since 1926.
Herreilers, J. H. B. February 26,
1897, at Hooper, Nebr.; graduated at
St. Paul’s College, Concordia, Mo., 1918;
studied at St. Louis and did supply work
1918 — 22; assistant at Concordia Col-
lege, Edmonton, Alberta, Can., 1922 to
1924; professor there since 1924.
Herzer, John Henry. B. Novem-
ber 3, 1840, at Louisville, Ky.; gradu-
ated at St. Louis 1865; pastor in Steele
Co., Minn., 1865 — 8; at Minneapolis,
Minn., 1868 — 79; Plymouth, Wis., 1879
to 1892; Athens, 111., 1899 — 1922; pro-
fessor at Concordia Seminary, Spring-
field, 111., 1892 — 1914; retired from pro-
fessorship 1914; secretary of Synodical
Conference 1875 — 6; Vice-President of
Wisconsin District 1875 — 91; President,
1891 — 2; wrote Ev.-Luth, Katechetik.
Roster of Officers and Professors 842
of the Missouri Synod
Heyne, August Frederick William.
B. .June 5, 1860, at Apolda, Germany;
graduated at St. Louis 1882; pastor at
Lake Creek, Mo., 1882 — 90; at New Or-
leans, La., 1890 — 6; in Decatur, 111.,
since 1896; Vice-President of Central
Illinois District, 1912 — 8; President
since 1918.
Hope, Richard John William.
B. August 12, 1895, at Pueblo, Colo.;
graduated at St. Louis 1916; pastor at
Clayton, Mo.; at Los Angeles, Cal.; pro-
fessor at Concordia Institute, Bronxville,
N. Y., since 1926; A. M„ B. D. (U. of
Southern California).
Huth, Carl Frederick Emil. B. No-
vember 30, 1857, at Nieden, Germany;
graduated at St. Louis 1881; professor
at Concordia College, Milwaukee, Wis.,
1881—1926; D. D. (St. Louis); d. 1926.
Jahn, John Nicholas Henry. Born
July 4, 1880, at Mishawaka, Ind.; grad-
uated at St. Louis • 1905 ; pastor at
Copenhagen, Denmark; assistant profes-
sor at Concordia Institute, Bronxville,
N. Y., 1914 — 7; pastor at Bloomfield,
N. J. ; president of Seminario Concordia,
Porto Alegre, Brazil, since 1925; Ph. D.
(New York University).
Janssen, Weert John. B. March 3,
1880, at Golden, 111.; graduated at
Springfield 1905; pastor at Denver,
Idaho, 1905 — 8; Yakima, Wash., 1908 to
1924; Missionary at Large of Oregon
and Washington District 1924 — 5; in
Seattle, Wash., since 1925; Vice-Presi-
dent of Oregon and Washington District
1918 — 21; President since 1921.
Jonas, Herman Henry. B. June 18,
1880, at Riverdale, 111.; graduated at
St. Louis 1905; missionary in Nevada
and Northeastern California 1905 — 6;
professor at California Concordia Col-
lege, Oakland, Cal., since 1906.
Kaeppel, George Christopher Al-
bert. B. April 19, 1862, at Indianapolis,
Ind.; graduated at Addison 1881;
teacher at Wittenberg 1881 — 3; at
St. Louis (Trinity), 1883 — 97; professor
at Teachers’ Seminary, Addison (and
River Forest), 111., since 1897; former
editor of School Journal; wrote: Die
Orgel im Gottesdienst ; Orgelkompositio-
nen; Lieder fuer gemisohte Choere;
Lieder fuer M aennerchoere ; Songs for
Male Choir; Songs for Mixed Choir;
composer of several cantatas.
Keinath, Herman Ottomar Alfred.
B. December 27, 1894, at Riehville,
Mich.; graduated at St. Louis 1918;
pastor at Grand Rapids, Mich., 1918 — 26;
professor at Concordia Teachers’ College,
Seward, Nebr., since 1926.
Klausler, Joseph Paul. B. Octo-
ber 13, 1882, in Lyon County, Minn.;
graduated at St. Louis 1905; pastor in
Kulm, N. Dak., 1905 — 8; in Hankinson,
N. Dak., since 1908; President of North
Dakota and Montana District since 1924.
Klein, Henry Adam. B. Febru-
ary 17, 1869, at Spring, Tex.; graduated
at St. Louis 1892; pastor at Chatta-
nooga, Tenn., 1892 — 1902; missionary
in Brazil, S. A., 1902 — 7 ; pastor at Wit-
tenberg, Mo., 1907 — 10; St. Joseph, Mo.,
1910—5; Collinsville, 111., 1915—22;
president of Concordia Seminary, Spring-
field, 111., since 1922; Vice-President of
Southern Illinois District 1915 — 22.
Kleinhans, John Gottlieb Fred-
erick. B. January 15, 1871, at Sheboy-
gan, Wis.; graduated at St. Louis 1892;
pastor at Offerle, Kans.; then at Mil-
berger, Russell Co., Kans.; Haven,
Kans., 1901; Staunton, 111., since 1909;
Vice-President of Kansas District 1906
to 1909; President of Southern Illinois
District since 1912.
Koehler, Edward W. A. B. Octo-
ber 31, 1875, at Wolfenbuettel, Germany;
graduated at St. Louis 1899; pastor in
Billings, Mo., 1902; missionary in East
Tennessee 1903; pastor at Knoxville,
Tenn., 1909; professor at Concordia
Teachers’ College, River Forest, 111.,
since 1909; wrote Luther’s Small Cat-
echism — Annotated.
Koehneke, Paul Fred Martin. Born
November 24, 1888, at Chicago, 111.;
graduated at St. Louis 1910; pastor at
Hand Hills, Alta., 1910 — 5; Dodge Cen-
ter, Minn., 1915 — 8; Rushford, Minn.,
1918 — 23; professor at Concordia Col-
lege, Milwaukee, Wis., since 1923.
Koenig, Henry Andrew. B. Novem-
ber 12, 1877, in Germany; graduated at
Springfield 1906; pastor at Williams-
burg, Iowa, 1906 — 13; Webster City,
Iowa, 1913 — 23; professor at Concordia
Teachers’ College, Seward, Nebr., 1923.
Kohn, William C. B. June 2, 1865,
at Chicago, 111., graduated at St. Louis
1887 ; pastor at Chicago, 111. : St. James’s,
1887—9; St. Andrew’s, 1889—1912;
chairman of Mission Board of Illinois
District 1906 — 9; chairman of Church
Extension Board of Northern Illinois
District 1906 — 9; President of North-
ern Illinois District 1909 — 13; President
of Concordia Teachers’ College since
1913; editor of Lutheran School Journal
since 1913; President of Army and Navy
Board 1917 — 9.
Kreinheder, Oscar C. B. Novem-
ber 10, 1877, at Buffalo, N. Y.; grad-
Roster of Officers and Professors 843
of the Missouri Synod
uated at St. Louis 1901; pastor at East
St. Louis, 111., 1901 — 3; St. Paul, Minn.,
1903 — 20; Detroit, Mich., since 1920;
Vice-President of English District 1915
to 1918; President since 1918.
Kreinheder, Oswald W. B. Decem-
lier 15, 1880, at Buffalo, N. Y. ; gradu-
ated at St. Louis 1904; pastor at West
Henrietta, N. Y. (St. Mark’s) 1904 — 10;
Lancaster, Pa., 1910 — 6; Conover, N. C.
(Concordia) 1916 — 8; President of Con-
cordia College, Conover, N. C., since 1918.
Kretzmann, Martin F. B. Decem-
ber 30, 1878, at Dudleytown, Ind.;
graduated at St. Louis 1901 ; pastor at
Vincennes, Ind., 1901 — 4 ; East St, Louis,
111., 1904 — 9; Kendallville, Ind., since
1909; Secretary of Missouri Synod since
1920.
Kretzmann, Otto P. B. May 7, 1901,
at Stamford. Conn.; graduated at
St. Louis 1923; instructor at Concordia
Seminary, Springfield, 111., 1923 — 6;
professor there since 1920.
Kretzmann, Paul Edward. B. Au-
gust 24, 1883, in Dearborn County, Ind.;
at St. Louis Seminary 1902 — 3; pastor
at Shady Bend, Kans., 1905—7 ; Denver,
Colo., 1907- — 12; professor at Concordia
College, St. Paul, Minn., 1912 — 9; pro-
fessor at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis,
Mo., since 1923; M. A., Ph. D. (Minne-
sota); D. D.; wrote: Popular Commen-
tary of the Bible; Christian Art; Psy-
chology and the Christian Day-school;
A Brief History of Education; Die
Pastoralbriefe ; Keuschheit und Zucht;
Knowing and Doing; The Teaching of
Arithmetic; The Teaching of English;
Education Among the Jews; Handbook
for Deaconesses ; Unto Vs; In Dulci
Jubilo ; Soli Deo Gloria; Agnus Dei;
Der Ji6. Psalm; While It Is Day; The
Teaching of Religion; a number of story-
books, etc.; editor of Junior Bible Stu-
dent.
Kretzschmar, Richard Th. B. May 7,
1868, at Mittweida, Saxony; graduated
at St. Louis 1891; pastor at St. Louis,
Mo., since 1891; President of Western
District since 1921 ; editor of Missions-
taube for a number of years; member of
Board of Control of the St. Louis Semi-
nary and of other boards and committees
(Colored Missions, Foreign Missions, etc.).
Krueger, Ottomar George William.
B. March 3, 1892, at Seymour, Ind.;
graduated at St. Louis 1914; pastor at
Rolla, Mo., 1914 — 7 ; Orchard, Nebr.,
1917 — 21; professor at St. Paul’s Col-
lege, Concordia, Mo., 1921 — 5; president
of the institution since 1925.
Kruse, W. H. B. December 1, 1871,
at Beecher, 111.; graduated at Chicago
University (A. B.) 1894; graduate stu-
dent at Chicago 1894 — 6; professor at
Hastings College, Hastings, Nebr., 1896
to 1902; professor at Concordia College,
Fort Wayne, Ind., since 1902.
Kunstmann, J. G. B. October 25,
1894, at Murtoa, Australia; graduated
at St. Louis 1916; professor at Concor-
dia College, Fort Wayne, Ind., since 1918.
Kunzmann, Arthur E. B. June 19,
1888, at Stillwater, Minn.; graduated
at St. Louis 1912; pastor at Dunksburg
and Knobnoster, Mo., 1912 — 5; professor
at Immanuel Lutheran College, Greens-
boro, N. C., 1919 — 20; professor at
St. John’s College, Winfield, Kans., since
1920; B. S. in Ed. (Cape Girardeau).
Lange, Bernard William John.
B. July 5, 1878, at Valparaiso, Ind.;
graduated at St. Louis 1900; pastor at
Berkeley, Cal., 1900—23; professor at
California Concordia College, Oakland,
Cal., since 1923; secretary of California
and Nevada District since 1909.
Lehenbauer, C. F. G. B. March 17,
1886, at Hannibal, Mo.; graduated at
Springfield 1913; in Brazil since 1913;
President of the Brazil District since
1924.
Lehenbauer, Carl Fred. B. Febru-
ary 24, 1877, at West Ely, Mo.; gradu-
ated at St. Louis 1900; pastor at Nor-
man, Okla., 1900 — 1; Union City, Okla.,
1901 — 9; Linn, Kans., 1909 — 23; at
Alma, Kans., since 1923; President of
Kansas District since 1919.
Lewerenz, Ernest Carl Herman.
B. March 26, 1884, at Effingham, 111.;
graduated at St. Louis 1907; pastor at
Jamestown-Pleasant Grove, Mo., 1907 to
13; Utica, Mich., 1913 — 23; professor
at Fort Wayne since 1923.
Leyhe, Fred W. B. March 20, 1872,
at Grand Rapids, Wis.; graduated at
St. Louis 1895 ; pastor at Wolsey, S. Dak.,
since 1895; Vice-President of South Da-
kota District 1912 — 21; President since
1921.
Link, John T. B. November 23,
1873; graduated at Addison 1895; pro-
fessor at Concordia Teachers’ College,
Seward, Nebr., since 1908; wrote: Out-
lines in Geography ; Short Course in
Physiology ; Hints and Experiments in
Teaching Physiology ; A. M. (Nebraska).
Lobeck, Henry. B. October 18, 1867,
at Brooklyn, N. Y.; graduated at
St. Louis 1889; pastor at Sedalia, Mo.,
1889 — 97 ; at Cape Girardeau, Mo., 1897
to 1905 ; professor at St. Paul’s College,
Concordia, Mo., since 1905.
Roster of Officers aurl Professors 844
of the Missouri Synod
Lochner, Martin Gustave Carl.
B. February 7, 1883, at Springfield, 111.;
graduated at St. Louis 1905 professor
at Immanuel College, Greensboro, N. C.,
1905 — 12; professor at Concordia Teach-
ers’ College, River Forest, 111., since 1912.
Lorenz, K. B. April 14, 1878; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1901 ; pastor at Ren-
frew Co., Ont., Can., 1901 — 8; Cove, Md.,
1908 — 11; Pittsburgh, Pa., 1911 — 4;
Farmington, Mich., 1914 — 24; professor
at Portland, Oreg., since 1924.
Luessenhop, Henry Frederick Otto.
B. October 5, 1875, at Lutter, Hanover,
Germany; graduated at St. Louis 1899;
pastor at Waverly, Mo., 1899 — 1901;
Colorado Springs, Colo., since 1901;
President of Colorado District since 1921.
Lussky, Ernest A. B. Octolxu 3,
1883, at Sterling, 111.; graduated at
St. Louis 1906; professor at Concordia
College, St. Paul, Minn., since 1906;
A. M. (Minnesota).
Maier, Walter A. B. October 4,
1893, at Boston, Mass.; graduated at
St. Louis 1916; Executive Secretary of
the Walther League 1918 — 22; professor
at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo.,
since 1922; editor of Walther League
Messenger ; M. A. (Harvard).
Malinsky, Frank Paul. B. Janu-
ary 13, 1890, at Iola, 111.; graduated at
St. Louis, 1912; pastor at Stratford,
Ont., Can., 1912 — 8; Ayton, Ont., since
1918; President of Ontario District
since 1921; editor of Ontario District
Bulletin since 1922.
Matthius, John Dietrich. B. Febru-
ary 24, 1866, at West New Brighton,
Staten Island, N. Y. ; graduated at
St. Louis 1888; assistant pastor of Beth-
lehem Congregation, Chicago, 111., 1888
to 1890; pastor at Evanston, 111., 1890
to 1910; Indianapolis, Ind. (Trinity),
since 1910; Vice-President of Central
District 1918 — 20; President, since 1920.
Mayer, F. E. B. November 5, 1892,
at New Wells, Mo.; graduated at
St, Louis 1915; pastor at Sherrard, 111.,
1915—8; Kewanee, 111., 1918—26; pro-
fessor at Concordia Seminary, Spring-
field, 111., since 1926.
Mensing, Henry Dietrich. Born
April 1, 1880, at Landesbergen, Ger-
many; graduated at St. Louis 1903;
pastor in Australia 1903 — 15; at Wentz-
ville. Mo., 1915 — 20; Fort Smith, Ark.,
1920 — 3; professor at Concordia College,
Fort Wayne, Ind., since 1923.
Meyer, Adolphus William. Bora
July 20, 1860, in New Zealand; gradu-
ated at St. Louis 1885; pastor at Rader,
Mo., and Pittsburgh, Pa.; President of
English Missouri Synod (two terms) ;
President of St. John’s College, Winfield,
Kans., 1895 — 1927; pastor at Long
Island City, N. Y., since 1927; editor of
Lutheran Guide for some years.
Meyer, J. Herman W. B. May 25,
1866, at Baltimore, Md.; graduated at
Springfield 1889; missionary at Fresno,
Cal., 1889 — 90; pastor at Canistota,
S. Dak., 1890—3; Waltham, Minn., 1893
to 1900; St. Paul, Minn., 1900—6;
St. Louis, Mo., 1906 — 11; at Rost, Minn.,
since 1912; member of Board for Col-
ored Missions 1906 — 11; President of
Minnesota District since 1918; editor of
Missionstaube 1908—11; Dein Reich
homme! (2 vols.), 1909 and 1910.
Mezger, George Leonard Peter.
B. December 28, 1857, at Braunschweig,
Germany; graduated at St. Louis 1881;
pastor at Waterloo, Iowa, 1881 — 5; near
Okawville, 111., 1885 — 95; at Decatur,
111., 1895 — 6; professor at Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., 1896 — 1926;
professor of 'Theological Seminary, Zeli-
Iendorf, Berlin, Germany, since 1923;
D. D. (Northwestern College, Watertown,
Wis. ) ; editor of Eomiletisches Magaziu;
wrote: Entwuerfe zu Katechesen; Les-
sons in the Small Catech ism ; Bibcl-
klasse, Vols. 1 and 2; editor of Denk-
stein zum 15jaehrigen Jubilaeurn der
Missourisynode.
Miller, Albert H. B. January 23.
1864, at Terryville, Conn.; graduated
at Addison 1889; professor at Teachers’
College, Addison and River Forest, 111.,
since 1906; wrote: Teachers’ Manual of
Suggestions ; Modem Grammar ; Scienoe
for the Grades; The Modern Speller;
Seventy-five Composition Outlines; Com-
mencement Addresses; Learn to Pro-
nounce; How to Keep First Graders
Busy ; Spelling Dictations.
Moenkemoeller, William. B. No-
vember 9, 1867, in Westphalia, Germany;
graduated at St. Louis 1889; pastor at
Cairo, 111., 1889 — 92; Springfield, Mass.,
1892 — 9; New Britain, Conn., 1899 to
1905; professor at Concordia College,
St. Paul, Minn., since 1905; wrote Word
Pictures of Bible Events (a series).
Mueller, August John. B. June 27,
1887, at Lewiston, Minn.; graduated at
St. Louis 1914; missionary at Calgary,
Alta., 1914 — 6; pastor at Calgary, Alta.
(Immanuel), since 1916; President of
Alberta and British Columbia District
since 1921.
Mueller, George William. B. Febru-
ary 14, 1858, at Philadelphia, Pa.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1879; pastor at
Roster of Officers anil Professors 845
of the Missouri Synod
Salters, Wis., 1879 — 83; professor at
Concordia College, Milwaukee, Wis., since
1883.
Mueller, John Henry? B. August 6,
1877, at Cole Camp, Mo.; graduated at
St. Louis 1899; pastor at Blackwell,
Okla. ; Yates Center, Kans.; at Hepler,
Kans. ; now at Fairmont, Okla.; Presi-
dent of Oklahoma District since 1924.
Mueller, John Theodore. B. April 5,
1885, in Town Freedom, Waseca County,
Minn.; graduated at St. Louis 1907;
professor at New Orleans, La., 1907—11;
at Wittenberg, Wis., 1911 — 3; pastor at
Hubbell, Mich., 1913 — 7; Ottawa, 111.,
1917 — 20; professor at Concordia Semi-
nary, St. Louis, Mo., since 1920 ; wrote :
Christian Fundamentals ; My Church
and Others; Five Minutes with Luther ;
Faith Unshaken; a number of story-
books.
Neitzel, Bichard. B. September 8,
1875, in Pomerania; graduated at
St. Louis, 1899; pastor in Oklahoma
1899—1901 ; at Kansas City, Kans., 1901
to 1913; Summit, 111., 1913 — 8; profes-
sor at Concordia Seminary, Springfield,
111., since 1918.
Overn, Oswald Benjamin. B. Janu-
ary 26, 1891, at Mankato, Minn.; gradu-
ated at University of Minnesota 1912;
professor at Luther College, Decorah,
Iowa, 1912 — 9; M. S. (Iowa); at Lu-
ther Institute, Chicago, 1919 — 20; pro-
fessor at Concordia College, St. Paul,
Minn., since 1920.
Pfotenhauer, Frederick. B. April 22,
1859, at Altencelle, Hanover; graduated
at St. Louis 1880; traveling missionary
in Minnesota and the territories of Da-
kota and Montana (stationed at Odessa,
Minn.) 1880 — 7; pastor at Lewiston,
Minn., 1887 — 94; at Hamburg, Minn.,
1894 — 1911; now residing at Chicago,
111.; D. D. (St. Louis) ; President of
Minnesota and Dakota District 1891 to
1908; Vice-President of Missouri Synod
1908—11; President, since 1911.
Pieper, Franz August Otto. Born
June 27, 1852, at Carwitz, Pomerania;
graduated at St. Louis 1875; pastor at
Centerville, Wis., 1875 — 6; Manitowoc,
Wis., 1876 — 8; professor at Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis, Mo., 1878 — 87 ;
D. D. (Northwestern College, Water-
town, Wis.; Luther College, Decorah,
Iowa) ; President of Concordia Semi-
nary, St. Louis, Mo., since 1887 ; Presi-
dent of Missouri Synod 1899 — 1911;
editor of Lehre und Wehre; wrote :
Chrigtliche Dogmatik; Conversion and
Election; Zur Einiguny ; Das Wesen des
Christentums ; Die Grunddifferenss in der
Lehre von der Bekehrung und Gnaden-
wahl; A Brief Statement of the Missouri
Synod’s Doctrinal Position; Ich glaube,
darurn rede ich; Unsere Stellung in
Lehre und Praxis ; Das Fundament des
christlichen Olaubens; Die rechte Welt-
anschauung.
Polack, W. G. B. December 7, 1890,
at Wausau, Wis. ; graduated at St. Louis
1914; assistant pastor, later chief pastor
at Evansville, Ind., 1914—25; professor
at Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo.,
since 1925; wrote: Choice Morsels;
Favorite Christian Hymns, Vols. I, II,
and III; Shegonaba; John Eliot (Vol. I
of Men and Missions ) ; The Building of
a Great Church; Tom’s Christmas
Letter.
Beese, Albert W. B. May 22, 1893,
at Luce. Nebr. ; graduated at St. Louis
1917; pastor at Burns, Wyo., 1918 — 23;
Chehalis, Wash., 1923 — 6; professor at
St. Paul’s College, Concordia, Mo., since
1926.
Behfeldt, Louis Carl John. Born
July 20, 1884, at Garnerville, Iowa;
graduated at Springfield 1907 ; in Brazil
since 1907 ; professor at Concordia Sem-
inary, Porto Alegre, Brazil, since 1918;
editor of Mensageiro Lutherano.
Behwaldt, August C., Jr. B. Sep-
tember 7, 1896, at Valparaiso, Ind.; at-
tended Concordia Seminary St. Louis,
Mo., 1916 — 7, 1918 — 9; graduated at
Wyoming University 1921; professor at
Concordia College, Milwaukee, Wis.,
since 1926.
Behwinkel, Alfred. B. June 25,
1887, at Merrill, Wis.; graduated at
St. Louis 1910; pastor at Pincher Creek,
Alta., Can., 1910 — 4; Edmonton, Alta.,
Can., 1914 — 22; M. A., B. D. (Edmon-
ton) ; professor at Concordia College,
Edmonton, Can., since 1922.
Beuter, Paul. B. January 24, 1879,
at Buenos Aires, Argentina; graduated
at St. Louis 1900; pastor at Utica,
Nebr.; Gresham, Nebr. (Wisconsin
Synod); Port Washington, Wis.; pro-
fessor at Concordia Teachers’ College,
Seward, Nebr., since 1908.
Bippe, Herman John. B. August 25,
1896, at New York, N. Y.; graduated at
St. Louis 1918; assistant at Concordia
Institute, Bronxville, N. Y., 1918 — 20;
A. M. ( Columbia ) ; professor there since
1920.
Bohlfing, Bichard Theodore. Born
November 2, 1896, at Alma, Mo.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1921; assistant in-
structor at Concordia Teachers’ College,
River Forest, 111., 1921 — 3; pastor at
Townsend, Suring, Breed, and Pine
Roster of Officers and Professors 846
of the Missouri Synod
Stump, Wis., 1923 — 5; professor at Con-
cordia Teachers’ College, River Forest,
111., since 1925.
Bomoser, George August. B. Sep-
tember 14, 1870, at Baltimore, Md. ;
graduated at St. Louis 1892; professor
at Concordia College, Conover, N. C.,
1892 — 9; president, 1900 — 11; pastor
at Detroit, Mich., 1899 — 1900; at Cleve-
land, 0. (Grace), 1912—4; professor at
Concordia Institute, Bronxville, N. Y.,
1915 — 8; president since 1918; Vice-
President of the English Missouri Synod
1912 — 5; editor of Lutheran Witness
1900—14.
Ross, C. B. September 30, 1857, at Do-
beran, Germany ; graduated at St. Louis
1878; pastor in Town Arlington, Minn.,
1878 — -86 ; at Willow Creek, Minn., 1886
to 1890; professor at Concordia College,
Milwaukee, W T is., since 1890; D. D.
( St. Louis ) .
Rupprecht, Philip Martin Ferdi-
nand. B. November 10, 1861, at North
Dover, 0.; graduated at St. Louis' 1884;.
pastor near Cole Camp, Mo., 1884 — 9;
at Detroit, Mich., 1889—96; assistant
editor and proof-reader at Louis Lange
Publishing Co., 1890 — 1900; chief proof-
reader and house editor at Concordia
Publishing House since 1900; editor of
Concordia Lesson Helps 1916 — 20; wrote
Bible . History References ( 2d ed., two
volumes ) .
Rusch, O. F. B. January 25, 1871;
graduated at Addison, 111., 1889; teacher
at Ottawa, Can., 1889 — 91 ; Chicago, 111.,
1891—1916; Ph.B. ( 1914, Chicago Uni-
versity) ; professor at Concordia Teach-
ers’ College, River Forest, 111., since
1916.
Scaer, Charles. B. Octoiter 11, 1857,
at Van Wert, 0.; professor at St.John’s
College, Winfield, Kans., since 1894;
A. M. (Northwestern University, Ada, 0.).
Wrote A Treatise on Conscience.
Scaer, Ernest F. B. April 15, 1900;
graduated at St. Louis 1922; Columbia
University 1922 — 4; A. M.; assistant at
California Concordia College 1924 — 6;
professor there since 1926.
Schaller, Frederick Fuerchtegott
William. B. March 23, 1868, at
St. Louis, Mo. ; graduated at St. Louis
1889; pastor at Baltimore, Md.
(St. Thomas’s), 1889 — 1901; Quincy,
111., 1901 — 6; professor at St. Paul’s
College, Concordia, Mo., since 1906.
Schelp, Paul W. B. September 20,
1895, at Emma, Mo.; graduated at
St. Louis 1919; in Brazil since 1920;
professor at Concordia Seminary, Porto
Alegre, Brazil, since 1920.
Schick, George Victor. B. Febru-
ary 3, 1886, at Chicago, 111.; graduated
at St. Louis 1907; Ph.D. (Johns Hop-
kins) ; instructor at Johns Hopkins
1913 — 4; professor at Concordia College,
Fort Wayne, Ind., since 1914.
Schinnerer, John Jacob Frederick.
B. January 28, 1865, at Willshire, 0.;
graduated at Springfield 1887; pastor
at Ocheyedan, Iowa, 1887 — 92; Arcadia,
Mich., 1892 — 9; Amelitli, Mich., 1899 to
1925; at Detroit, W. S., Mich., since
1925; Vice-President of Michigan Dis-
trict 1915 — 24; President since 1924.
Schmidt, George P. B. February 26,
1894, at St. Louis, Mo.; graduated at
St. Louis 1917; assistant at Concordia
College, Fort Wayne, Ind., 1919 — 21 ;
professor there since 1921.
Schmidt, Martin Joseph. Born
March 25, 1846, at Altenburg, Mo.;
graduated at St. Louis 1868; pastor at
Weston, Platte Co., Mo., 1868—9; Dal-
las, Clinton Co., Mich., 1869 — 72; Sagi-
naw, W. S., Mich., 1872 — 94; D. D.
(St. Louis) ; President of Michigan Dis-
trict 1882 — 91 ; President of Concordia
College, Fort Wayne, Ind., 1894 — 1903;
professor there 1903 — 19)7 ; now retired.
Schmieding, Alfred. B. April 3,
1888; graduated at Seward, Nebr., 1907;
teacher at Newton, Kans., 1907 — 11;
Mount Olive, 111., 1911 — 6; Saginaw,
Mich. (Bethlehem), 1916 — 22; professor
at Teachers’ College, River Forest, 111.,
since 1922.
Schmitt, F. H. B. February 1, 1880;
graduated at Teachers’ Seminary, Ad-
dison, 111., 1901; at Michigan State
Normal College 1906; teacher at Sebe-
waing, Mich., 1901 — 4; assistant in-
structor at Addison 1905 — 6; professor
at Addison and River Forest since 1906.
Schnedler, Erwin Herman. Born
April 24, 1892, at St. Charles, Mo.;
graduated at St. Louis 1914; assistant
professor at Concordia College, Fort
Wayne, Ind., 1914 — 20; professor there
since 1920.
Schoede, August Herman. Born
April 1, 1863, at Random Lake, Wis.;
graduated at St. Louis 1887; professor
at St. Paul’s College, Concordia, Mo;,
since 1887.
Schroedel, George Carl. B. Au-
gust 21, 1878, in Wood County, Wis. ;
graduated at St. Louis 1902; pastor at
Hurley, Wis.. 1902 — 5; Manawa, Wis.,
1905—11; Wausau, Wis., 1911—23;
professor at St, John’s College, Winfield,
Kans,, since 1924.
Roster of Officers anil Professors 847
of the Missouri Synod
Schuelke, August. B. May 7, 1866,
at Berlin (now Kitchener), Ont., Can.;
graduated at St. Louis 1888; assistant
professor and inspector at Concordia
College, Fort Wayne, Ind., 1888 — 90;
pastor at Crown Point, Ind., 1890 — 1906;
professor at Concordia Teachers’ College,
Seward, Nebr., since 1906; Treasurer of
Nebraska District 1912 — 23; of Southern
Nebraska District since 1923.
Schwermann, Albert Henry Carl.
B. June 13, 1891, at Jefferson City, Mo.;
graduated at St. Louis 1913; pastor at
Mellowdale, Alta., 1913 — 6; Wetaskiwin,
Alta., 1916 — 21; President of Concordia
College, Edmonton, Alta., Can., since
1921.
Smith, Carroll O. B. July 24, 1874,
at Conover, N. C. ; graduated at St. Louis
1899; pastor at Pascagoula, Miss., 1900
to 1905; in Catawba and Alexander
Counties, N. C., 1905 — 11; professor at
Concordia College, Conover, N. C., since
1911.
Sommer, Martin S. B. March 31,
1869, at Baltimore, Md.; graduated at
St. Louis 1892; pastor at St. Louis, Mo.,
1892 — 1920; professor at Concordia
Seminary, St. Louis, Mo,, since 1920;
Vice-President of English Synod of Mis-
souri 1 893 — 5 ; President of English
District 1912 — 6; wrote: Physical
Training of Public Speakers; Prayers;
Bow Often Should a Christian Receive
Holy Communion? Luther Album; vari-
ous tracts; edited: Confessional Ad-
dresses by Lutheran Pastors and Voice
of History; associate editor of Lutheran
Witness.
Spitz, Lewis William. B. July 31,
1895, at Minden, Nebr.; graduated at
St. Louis 1918; pastor at Lovell, Wyo.,
1918—21; Bertrand, Nebr., 1921—4;
Blue Hill, Nebr., 1924 — 5; professor at
St. Paul’s College, Concordia, Mo., since
1925.
Stein, Henry Fred Andrew. B. Au-
gust 29, 1867, at Baltimore, Md. ; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1889; pastor at
Springfield, Mass., 1889 — 92; professor
at Concordia Institute, now at Bronx-
ville, N. Y., since 1892; M. A., Ph. D.
(New York U.).
Steiner, L. B. March 2, 1865; grad-
uated 1890; professor at St.John’s Col-
lege, Winfield, Kans., since 1895.
Stoeppelwerth, Henry John. Born
October 11, 1869, at Washington, Mo.;
graduated at St. Louis, 1 893 ; professor
at St. John’s College, Winfield, Kans.,
since 1893.
Stoeppelwerth, Martin Luther.
B. September 16, 1895, at Winfield,
Kans.; graduated at St. Louis 1919;
assistant professor at Concordia College,
Fort Wayne, Ind., 1921 — 3; professor
there since 1923; A. M. (Chicago).
Strieter, John August Fred. B. De-
cember 26, 1854, at Cleveland, O.; grad-
uated at Fort Wayne, Ind., 1878; teacher
at Dubuque, Iowa, 1878 — 80; Akron, 0.,
1880 — 4; Frankenmuth, Mich., 1884 to
1897; Cleveland, O., 1897—1903; pro-
fessor at Concordia Teachers’ College,
Seward, Nebr., since 1903.
Studtmann, Henry Peter Louis.
B. December 23, 1875, at Chicago, 111.;
graduated at St. Louis 1897 ; pastor at
Beloit, Wis„ 1897 — 1900; Crowley, La.,
1900 — 4; at Itiesel, Tex., 1904 — 26;
member of Board of Missions and editor
of Texas-Distriktsbote 1915 — 20; Vice-
President of Texas District 1918 — 20;
President, 1920 — 6; President of Lu-
theran Concordia College, Austin, Tex.,
since 1926.
Sylwester, Franz. B. March 3, 1881,
at Gaylord, Minn. ; graduated at St. Louis
1905; President of Concordia College,
Portland, Oreg., since 1905.
Theiss, J. W. B. September 20, 1863;
graduated at St, Louis 1886; pastor at
Madisonville, O., 1886 — 9; Portland,
Oreg., 1889—93; Santa Rosa, Cal., 1894
to 1904; Los Angeles, Cal., since 1904;
wrote: Gepflucckt am Wege, etc.
Wahlers, Fred. B. January 1, 1881,
at Deepen, Hanover; graduated at
St. Louis 1904; professor at Immanuel
Lutheran College, Concord, N. C., 1904
to 1905; at Greensboro, N. C., 1905 — 19;
pastor at Remsen, Iowa, 1919 — 22; pro-
fessor at St. Paul, Minn., since 1922.
Walker, Herman Henry. B. Sep-
tember 28, 1842, at Brockhausen, Ger-
many; graduated at St. Louis 1865;
pastor at Paterson, N. J., 1866 — 74;
York, Pa., 1874 — ; Vice-President of
Eastern District 1885 — 99; President of
Eastern District 1899 — 1915; D. D.
( St. Louis ) ; at present writing is living
at Silver Creek, N. Y.
Wegener, Gottfried John. Born
April 10, 1861, Bremen, Germany; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1882; pastor at Die-
terich, 111., 1882 — 5; Altamont, 111.,
1885 — 7; New Orleans, La, (St. Paul’s),
since 1887 ; President of Southern Dis-
trict 1891—1927.
Weiss, E. C. B. November 14, 1892;
graduated at St. Louis 1918; B. S. (Cape
Girardeau Normal) ; assistant pastor at
St. Louis, Mo, (Zion), 1918 — 20; pastor
at Tilsit, Mo., 1920 — 5; professor at
St. Paul’s College. Concordia, Mo., since
1925.
Roster of Officers and Professors 848
of the Missouri Syno<I
Wenger, Frederick Samuel. B. Feb-
ruary 8, 1878, at Bern, Switzerland;
graduated at St. Louis 1900; assistant
pastor at Hamburg, Minn., 1900 — 2;
pastor at Fair Haven, Minn., 1902 — 6;
professor at Luther College. New Or-
leans, La., 1906 — 10; pastor at Frohna,
Mo., 1910 — 23; professor at Concordia
Seminary, Springfield, 111., since 1923.
Wente, Walter Herman. B. Au-
gust 1, 1894, at Germanicus, Ont., Can.;
graduated at St. Louis 1914; M. A.
( Chicago ) ; assistant St. John’s College,
Winfield, Kans., 1914 — 7 ; professor at
Michigan Lutheran Seminary, Saginaw,
Mich., 1917 — 22; at St.John’s College,
Winfield, Kans., since 1922.
Werling, John William. B. Octo-
ber 12, 1878, at New Haven, Ind.; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1902; pastor at Hum-
boldt, Kans., 1902 — 10; Winfield. Kans.,
1910—8; assistant professor at St. John's
College, Winfield, Kans., 1910 — 2; pro-
fessor there since 1918.
Wessel, Louis. B. July 14, 1864, at
St. Louis, Mo. ; graduated at St. Louis
1886; pastor at Nokomis, 111., 1886 — 92;
professor at Concordia Seminary, Spring-
field, 111., since 1892; D. D. (St. Louis);
wrote: Sermons and Addresses on Fun-
damentals ; Proof-Texts of the Cat-
echism . ., with a Practical Commentary ;
Festival and Occasional Sermons.
Wiegner, Paul Edward. B. Octo-
ber 28, 1881, at St. Ansgar, Iowa; grad-
uated at St. Louis 1909; pastor of two
congregations at McNutt, Sask., Can.,
1909 — 12; at Langenburg, 1909 — 27;
also at Springside and Marchwell 1914
to 1923; Winnipeg, Can., since 1927;
President of Manitoba and Saskatchewan
District since 1922.
Wolfram, Theodore John Martin.
B. April 3, 1863, at Washington, D. C.;
graduated at Springfield 1887 ; pastor
at Giddings, Tex., 1887 — 9; Waterloo,
Iowa, 1889 — 1914; Charter Oak, Iowa,
1914 — 22; Germantown, Iowa, 1922 — 5;
associate pastor at Cedar Rapids, Iowa,
since 1925; Vice-President of Iowa Dis-
trict 1909 — 14; President, since 1914.
Wollaeger, Herman William Franz.
B. December 7, 1872, at Milwaukee,
Wis. ; graduated at St. Louis 1895;
pastor at Hartford, Conn., 1900 — 4;
Ph. D. (Heidelberg); professor at Con-
cordia College, St. Paul, Minn., since
1904.
Zanow, Paul. B. August 23, 1896, at
Milwaukee, Wis.; graduated at St. Louis
1923; assistant at Concordia College,
Milwaukee, Wis., 1923; professor there
since 1924.
Zorn, Carl Manthey. B. March 18,
1846, at Sterup, Schleswig; graduated
at Leipzig 1870; missionary of the Leip-
zig Mission Society in India 1871 — 6;
pastor at Sheboygan, Wis., 1876 — 81;
Cleveland, 0., 1881 — 1911; retired; D. D.
(St. Louis) ; wrote : Der Heiland; Apostel-
geschichte; Uer Brief des Jakobus; Die
Epistel an die Hebraeer; Die Psalmen ;
Die zwei Episteln St. Pauli .an die Ko-
rinther ; Die zweite Epistel St. Petri und
die Epistel St. Judae ; Der Kolosser-
brief ; Die Offenbarung St. Johannis;
Der Brief an die Roemer ; Christen-
fragen, aus Gottes Wort beleuchtet;
Brosamlein ; Crumbs; Die drei Episteln
St. Johannis; AufdenWeg; Bekehrung
und Gnadenwahl; Dae Gesetz; Die
ganze christliche Lehre in IMos.l — 5;
Dies und das aus dem Leben eines ost-
indischen Missionars ; Dies und das aus
fruehem Amtsleben; Bin letztes aposto-
lisches Wort; Errettet und under e Ge-
schichten aus Jem Reich; Eunike ;
Eunice; Food on the Way ; Geistliche
und selige Freiheit eines Christenmen-
schen; Gottestrost ; Grossvaters Erinne-
rungen; Handbuch fuer den ersten
Selbstunterricht in Gottes Wort ; Hand-
book for Home Study; Jesusminne;
Kleine Hauspostille ; Lasse t die Kindlein
zu mir kommen; Questions on Christian
Topics; Vergebung der Suenden; Vom
Hirtenamt; Weide meine Laemmer ;
W eisungen und Warnungen; Wachet; etc.
Zucker, John Frederick. B. Sep-
tember 2, 1842, at Breitenau, Bavaria;
graduated at Erlangen 1865; missionary
of the Leipzig Mission Society in India
1870-H3; pastor at Brooklyn, N. Y.,
1876 — 9; professor, at Concordia College,
Fort Wayne, Ind., 1881 — 1921; now re-
tired, acting librarian ; D. D. (St. Louis) ;
President of Concordia College, Fort
Wayne, Ind., 1879—81.
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